Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Basic Chemistry
Biochemistry: Essentials for Life
• Organic compounds
• Contain carbon
• Most are covalently bonded
• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Inorganic compounds
• Lack carbon
• Tend to be simpler compounds
• Example: H2O (water)
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Important Inorganic Compounds

• Water
• Most abundant inorganic compounds
• Vital properties
• High heat capacity
• Polarity/solvent properties
• Chemical reactivity
• Cushioning
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Important Inorganic Compounds

• Salts
• Easily dissociate into ions in the
presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
• Include electrolytes which conduct
electrical currents

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Important Inorganic Compounds

• Acids
• Can release detectable hydrogen ions
• Bases
• Proton acceptors
• Neutralization reaction
• Acids and bases react to form water and a
salt

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pH
• Measures relative
concentration of
hydrogen ions
• pH 7 = neutral
• pH below 7 = acidic
• pH above 7 = basic
• Buffers
• Chemicals that can
regulate pH change
Figure 2.11
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Important Organic Compounds
• Carbohydrates
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Include sugars and starches
• Classified according to size
• Monosaccharides – simple sugars
• Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined
by dehydration synthesis
• Polysaccharides – long branching chains
of linked simple sugars
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Carbohydrates

Figure 2.12a, b

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 Carbohydrates

Figure 2.12c

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Important Organic Compounds

• Lipids
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Insoluble in water

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Important Organic Compounds

• Common lipids in the human body

• Neutral fats (triglycerides)
• Found in fat deposits
• Composed of fatty acids and glycerol
• Source of stored energy

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Important Organic Compounds

• Common lipids in the human body

(continued)
• Phospholipids
• Form cell membranes
• Steroids
• Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D,
and some hormones
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Lipids

Figure 2.14a, b

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Cholesterol

Figure 2.14c

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Important Organic Compounds

• Proteins
• Made of amino acids
• Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur

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Important Organic Compounds

• Account for over half of the body’s organic

matter
• Provides for construction materials for
body tissues
• Plays a vital role in cell function
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies

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Enzymes
• Act as biological catalysts
• Increase the rate of chemical reactions

Figure 2.16

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Important Organic Compounds
• Nucleic Acids
• Provide blueprint of life
• Nucleotide bases
• A = Adenine
• G = Guanine
• C = Cytosine
• T = Thymine
• U = Uracil
• Make DNA and RNA
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Important Organic Compounds

• Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
• Organized by
complimentary bases
to form double helix
• Replicates before
cell division
• Provides instruction
for every protein in
the body Figure 2.17c

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Important Organic Compounds

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy
phosphate bond
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food
fuels

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Figure 2.18a

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Cells and Tissues

Cells and Tissues

• Carry out all chemical activities needed

to sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
things
• Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function

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Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main
regions
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Plasma membrane

Figure 3.1a
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The Nucleus
• Control center
of the cell
• Contains genetic
material (DNA)
• Three regions
• Nuclear
membrane
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin Figure 3.1b

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Figure 3.4

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Cellular Physiology:
Membrane Transport

• Membrane Transport – movement of

substance into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
• Passive transport
• No energy is required
• Active transport
• The cell must provide metabolic energy
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Solutions and Transport
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two
or more components
• Solvent – dissolving medium
• Solutes – components in smaller quantities
within a solution
• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and
cytosol
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of
the cell
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Selective Permeability

• The plasma membrane allows some

materials to pass while excluding others
• This permeability includes movement
into and out of the cell

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Passive Transport Processes
• Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
• Movement is
from high
concentration
to low
concentration,
or down a
concentration
gradient
Figure 3.8

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Passive Transport Processes

• Types of diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or
small enough to pass through membrane
pores

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Passive Transport Processes

• Types of diffusion
• Osmosis – simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water easily crosses the
plasma membrane
• Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein carrier for
passive transport

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Diffusion through the Plasma
Membrane

Figure 3.9

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Passive Transport Processes

• Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a
high pressure area to a lower pressure
area

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Active Transport Processes
• Transport substances that are unable to pass
by diffusion
• They may be too large
• They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core
of the membrane
• They may have to move against a concentration
gradient
• Two common forms of active transport
• Solute pumping
• Bulk transport
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Active Transport Processes

• Solute pumping
• Amino acids, some sugars and ions are
transported by solute pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most
cases, moves substances against
concentration gradients

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Active Transport Processes

• Bulk transport
• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell
• Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
• Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
• Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
• Material is emptied to the outside

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Active Transport Processes

• Bulk transport
• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by
being enclosed in a membranous
vescicle
• Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis – cell eating
• Pinocytosis – cell drinking
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Cell Life Cycle
• Cells have two major periods
• Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
• Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for
growth and repair processes
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DNA Replication
• Genetic material
duplicated and
readies a cell for
division into two cells
• Occurs toward the
end of interphase
• DNA uncoils and
each side serves
as a template
Figure 3.13
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Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis
• Division of the nucleus
• Results in the formation of two daughter
nuclei
• Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
• Begins when mitosis is near completion
• Results in the formation of two daughter
cells
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Stages of Mitosis

• Interphase
• No cell division occurs
• The cell carries out normal metabolic
activity and growth
• Prophase
• First part of cell division
• Centromeres migrate to the poles
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Stages of Mitosis

• Metaphase
• Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center
of the cell

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Stages of Mitosis

• Anaphase
• Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward
the poles
• The cell begins to elongate
• Telophase
• Daughter nuclei begin forming
• A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins
to form
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 Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 1

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 Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 2

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Protein Synthesis

• Gene – DNA segment that carries a

blueprint for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
• Building materials for cells
• Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis

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