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Water Quality Management Review

WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS AND MANAGEMENT FOR MARINE SHRIMP CULTURE

Yew-Hu Chien Department of Aquaculture National Taiwan Ocean University Keelung, Taiwan

INTRODUCTION

A sufficient supply of good quality water is essential to any aq uaculture operation. Water quality affects reproduction, growth, and survival of aquatic organisms. The criteria for good quality water vary with the kind of organisms and are established by safe levels, i.e., physical and chemical properties of water which have insignificant ad verse effects on shrimp growth and survi val. This paper first aims (0 review the water quality requirements for penaeid shrimp.

A Chinese proverb in aquaculture states, "Cultivating water is a must for aquaculture," and emphasizes the importance of water quality management in aquaculture. The factors controlling the composition of pond water are extremely varied and include physical, chemical and biological processes. To keep water properties within safe levels, one must understand those processes so that the elements inhibiting prawn growth and survival can be detected and their impact minimized. The practice of semi-intensive and intensive culture systems usually results in pollution of the culture water from uneaten food and waste products of cultured organisms. Avnirnelech and Lacher (1979) found that 35 % of the organic carbon, 89% of the nitrogen, and 68% of the phosphorus from the feed are accumulated in the fish pond bottom. In catfish ponds, Boyd (1985) indicated that only 26% of nitrogen and 30% of phosphorus from the feed are utilized by the fish. In an intensive culture system of Penaeus monodon, 80% of the nitrogen from feed remained in the ponds (Chen and Liu 1988). As organic materials and their derivatives accumulate and exceed safe levels, they become a liability to water quality maintenance. Therefore, water quality management is one of the most important cui ture practices, especially in semi-intensive and intensive culture systems. Production intensification is the trend in shrimp culture in Taiwan (Chien et al. 1989) as well as elsewhere in southeast Asia. Thus water quality management has been gaining increasing attention. It is the second aim of this paper to describe recent developments in water quality management in shrimp ponds and make recommendations about methods (0 improve water quality.

WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Water quality requirements are based on the results of aquatic toxicity tests. These tests measure the. responses of

aquatic organisms to defined quantities of specific compounds (APHA 1989). Three parameters are usually used: 0) LC50, which is the median (50%) lethal concentration, or concentration killing 50% of exposed organisms at a specific time of observation; (2) TLM, medial tolerance limit which is the test material concentration at which 50% of test organisms survive for a specified exposure time; TLm has been superseded by LC50; and (3) EC50, which is the toxicant concentration affecting a specific response, such as growth rate in a given time. A safe level is calculated based on the incipient LC50 value and an application factor of 0.1 (Sprague 1971). For example, if the incipient LC50 of a certain substance to a juvenile is 30.5 mg/L, then the safe level is 3.05 mg/L.

Salinity

Most cultured marine shrimp are euryhaline and adapt easily to salinity fluctuations due to climatological and hydrological factors in a coastal environment P. monodon may be one of the most efficient osmotic and ionic regulators among Penaeid species (Cheng and Liao 1986). P. monodon postlarvae can withstand salinity ranges of 0-60 ppt (Motoh 1981). The juveniles are more euryhaline and stronger osmoregulators than the adults. Osmoregulation was performed efficiently at 3-50 ppt for juvenile and 15-50 ppt for the adult (Cheng and Liao 1986). Ferraris et al. (1985) reported that young P. monodon showed efficient osmoregulation over salinity ranges of 5-55 ppt,

Although P. monodon can tolerate a wide range of salinity, the minimal salinity requirement and optimal salinity for its culture arc still inconclusive. It can tolerate freshwater for about one month (Boyd 1989). However, in other studies, the lowest salinity that the postlarvae could tolerate was about 2 ppt (Cawthorne et at. 1983; Chakraborti et al. 1986). No P. monodon postJarvae(pL30-50) survived in freshwater within 5 hours (Law 1988) and all P. monodon died in freshwater within 4 hours (Cawthorne et aI. 1983). No P. monodon postlarvae died at salinities between 5 ppt and 30 ppt up to 22 hours (Law 1988). High mortality and poor growth rates of P. monodon juveniles were observed at salinities lower than 10 ppt (Cawthorne et al. 1983). Others report that P. monodon larvae survived and grew well at lower salinities (Musig and Ruttanagosrigit 1982). The range of salinity with which the normal growth of P. monodon can

Wyban, J., editor. 1992 Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Fanning. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA USA.

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be maintained is between 15-30 ppt (Chen 1976; Chen 1985). In P. monodon, the optimum salinity range for growth may change during their life history, with 10 ppt for earl y postlarvae (Valencia 1976), 15-20 ppt for late postlarvae (Chen 1976). and 15-25 ppt for juvenile (Chen 1984). Salinities of 15 to 25 ppt are considered ideal for P. manodon growout (Boyd 1989).

Molting in extremely high or low salinities may require more time and energy in normalizing hemolymph osmolality. This increased time interval increases the shrimp vulnerability to predation and cannibalism, and prolongs their inability to forage for food. It is therefore advantageous to allow P. monodon in molt near isosmotic and isoionic conditions (Ferraris et al, 1986). Rapid changes of salinity normally cause high mortality of P. monodon (Tseng 1987). However, it isacommon practice among shrimp farmers in Taiwan to routinely vary the salinity between 15 and 20 ppt in prawn ponds to stimulate prawn molting and consequently increase growth (Chien et aI. 1989).

In contrast, P. chinensis can tolerate a wide range of salinities. It grows well in salinities from 2 ppt to 40 ppt, If acclimated, it can grow in water with even lower salinities (Yang 1990). Yu and ZOngyao (1985) reported that P. chinensis adapted better to lower than higher salinities during sudden salinity changes. They reported that after 24 hours adaptation to sudden salinity changes. the growth rate of 0.7 cm juveniles was better in salinities between 11-31 ppt than in 37 ppt.

pH

Extremely low pH can stress shrimp and cause soft shell and poor survi val. Moderate low pH has no effect on survival but may have adverse effect on growth. After 26 days exposure to pH 6.4 5 in the presence of inorganic carbon of more than 26 mg/L, P. monodon postlarvae survival was 100%, but their growth was reduced by about 40%, probably as a result of carbon dioxide poisoning (Wickins 1976). Law (1988) reported that P. mono don postlarvae could tolerate pH down to 6.0 to 6.5. High mortality was observed at pH below 6.0. At pH 3.5, 100% mortality was recorded within 20 hours of exposure. At pH between 7.6 and 8.2, no mortality was observed after more than one week exposure. He thus recommended pH 7.5 to 8.5 for the cui ture of P. monodon,

The pH of brackishwater is usually not a direct threat to the health of the shrimp. since brackishwater is well buffered against pH changes, and pH will mostly remain within the range of 6.5 to 9.0. Under normal culture practice even in highly intensive prawn ponds. the pH decreases only by 0.7·1.3 unit to about 7.3 at the end of crop (Chen et al, 1988; Chen et aI. 1989; Chen and Wang 1990). Therefore, adverse effects of pH on prawn culture are uncommon, except in instances where prawns are cultured in acidic soil of very low pH. However certain levels of pH favor the formation of toxic substances or enhance the toxic effects, Although pH higher than 7 is not lethal to P. monodon (Wickins 1976), it increases the percentage of unionized ammonia (NH3)

in a given ammonia concentration which is considered the more toxic form of ammonia (Colt and Armstrong 1981). Low pH increases nitrite toxicity to fish (Wedemeyer _and Yasutake 1978) and may have similar effects on shrimp. Low pH also increases the fraction of unionized hydrogen sulfide (H2S), the toxic form of sulfide.

Dissolved Oxygen

Liao and Murai (1986) reported that the ox ygen respiration rate of P. monodon remained constant at dissol ved oxygen (DO) concentrations above 3.0 to 4.0 mg/L at salinities 4-45 ppt and temperatures of 20- 30°C. Surfacing response was first observed when DO reached 1.5-2.1 mg/L. Below this level, the frequency of intermittent surfacing increased as the oxygen concentration decreased. Respiration rate gradually decreased until shrimp became moribund at DO level of 0.4-0.7 mgIL. The incipient limiting DO level was between 4.0-4.3 mg/L at 25 ppt salinity. Similar values have been found for the postlarvae (Liao and Huang 1975). It is therefore recommended that the DO concentration for the culture of this shrimp should be more than 4.0 mg! L. P. monodon can stand 00 as low as 0.35 mg/L, with no mortality at 1.2 mg/L (Ting 1971). However, Law (1988) reported that all postlarvae perished at DO levels below 0.5 mg! L. About 35% mortality was found when the DO level dropped to 1 mg/L and raised back to 6.3 mg/L. He suggested that the DO level should be kept above 2 mg/L at all times.

P. japonic us may tolerate lower DO than P. monodon. From a combination of the resting and active rates of oxygen uptake, it seems that the incipient lethal level for kuruma prawn P. japonic us lies between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/L (Egusa 1961). During the day, P. japonicus bury themselves in the sediment where DO is lower than in the water. P. japonicus are also the easiest shrimp to be transported ali ve without water which may be due to their lower DO tolerance.

The lower DO limit for the survival of P. chinensis was 1.0- 104 mgIL (Yang 1990). When DO was at 1.0 mgIL, shrimp stopped feeding. There was no difference in food consumption once the DO was greater than 1.5 mgIL. S hri mp did not grow at DO 1.0-1.4 mg/L. At DO over 5 mg/L. growth was still limited, but increased when DO increased from 1 to 5 mg/L. When DO was greater than 6 mg/L, shrimp growth was no longer limited. Therefore. Yang (1990) concluded that P. chinensis cultivated at low DO would have poorer food conversion than at higher DO. It appears that the suitable DO concentration for the culture of P. chinensis would be greater than 5 mg/L.

Ammonia

Ammonia is the main end-product of protein catabolism in crustaceans and can account for 40% to 90% of nitrogen excretion (parry, 1960). As ammonia concentrations in water increase,

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ammonia excretion by aquatic organisms diminishes, and levels of ammonia in blood and other tissue increases. The result is an elevation in blood pH and adverse effects on enzyme-catalyzed reactions and membrane stability. Ammonia increases oxygen consum ption by tissues, damages gills, and reduces the abili ty of blood to transport oxygen. In water, am monia can also be derived from microbial metabolism of the nitrogenous compounds under low oxygen condition. Ammonia exists in water in both ionized (l\'H/) and unionized (NHJ forms. Unionized ammonia is considered the more toxic form of ammonia due to it'> ability to diffuse readil y across cell membrane (Fromm and Gillette 1968; Emerson et aI. 1975). The fraction of NH3 depends on pH, temperature, and to a lesser extent on salinity (Bower and Bidwell 1978). As pH or temperature rises, NH, increases relati ve to NH4 +, and the toxicity of ammonia to animals increases. Chen and Sheu (1990) reported that as pH level gets higher than 8.2, increasing pH level in a given ammonia sol ution could increase the ammonia toxicity to P. japonicus postiarvae.

Table I. Safe concentrations of ammonia-N, NH3-N, and
nitrite-N for Penaeus monodon,P.japonicus, P. penicillatus, P.
chinensis, and Metapenaeus ensis at various stages.
Arnmonia-N
Species or NH3-N Nitrite-N Test condition
and stage (mg/l) (mg/l) pH, Temp.,Sal.
p. monodon
PL6 0.13" 8.2,29.5,34
om
PL30-50 1.8b 1.3b 8.3,25.0,25
(0.031-92 g) 0.15
Juvenile 3.70 3.8e 7.7,27.0,20
(35.5 mm) 0.1
Adolescents 4.3d 10.6 7.6,24.5,20
(91.0 mm) 0.08
P. japonicus
PLl2 2.83e 8.1,30.0,33
0.18 2,lf 8.2,30.0,33
Juvenile 4.031 8.2,27.0,25
(13.4 mm) 0.30
P. penicillatus
Juvenile 3.2Qb 8.2,26.0,25
(41.6 mm) 0.24
P. chinensis
Juvenile 3.51' 7.9,26.0,33
(39.6 mm) 0.14
M. ensis
Juvenile 0.88l 7.7,25.0,25
(10.7) 0.02
Juvenile 1.9· 7.6,28.0,25
(l4.0mm) aChin and Chen, 1987; bLaw, 1988; cChen and Lei, 1990; dChen et al., 1990b; eChen et aI., 1989; fChen and Tu, 1990; gKuo and Chen, 1991; hChen and Lin, 1991; iChen et aI., 1990e; jNan and Chen, 1991; kChen et al., 1990c

The safe levels of ammoniaN and NH1-N for various stages of penacids are listed in Table 1. Except for M etape,naeus ensis which had low tolerance to ammonia, the safe levels tor Penaeus sp. are aboutO. 1 mg/LNH)-N, which agreed with therecommendation of Wickins (1976) of an upper limit of 0.1 mg/L for NH]N.

Information about the effects of ammonia on the growth of penaeids are limited. Wickens (1976) reported that EC50 (concentration that reduced growth in weight by 50% of that of the control) of NH]"N for postlarvae of five penaeids, after 3 weeks of exposure 10 test solution, were 0.22-0.69 mg/L and averaged 0.45 mg/L. The EC50 of Nl-LN for Pimonodon postlarvae, after 6 weeks of exposure, was 60 Jlg/L (Chen et al. 1990d). The EC50 of NH]N for P. monodon juveniles, after about one week of exposure, was 1.01 mg/L (Chen et aI. 1990a). Yang (1990) reported the results of cultivating 4 cm long P. chinensis for 10 days in different concentrations of total amrnoniumN (TAN) at pH 8.3-8.4 and 20°C. The growth increments were U5 cm for control, 0.69-0.70 em for TAN 0.6-2.0 mg/L, 0.54-0.53 em for TAN 5.0-7.0 mg/L, and 0.26 cm for TAN 14.0 mg/L. He concluded that the critical value of N~"N for the growth of P. chinensis was 0.1 mg/L; growth was affected by the concentration of NH3-N exceeding 0.1 mg/L.

Ponds seldom contain more than 2 or 3 mg/L of total ammonia nitrogen (Boyd 1982). However, in superintensive ponds and at later stages of rearing, ammonia concentration can reach as high as 6.5 mg/L (0.15 mgIL NH]'N) (Chen et al. 1989) andeven46.1 mgIL (0.87 mg/L~-N) (Chenclal.1988). In the latter instance, N~-N concentrations higher than 0.1 mgIL were recorded in three samplings in one month, 12.3 ton per ha of P. penicillatus was harvested at a survival rate of 44.3%. It is difficult to evaluate ammonia toxicity on prawns in a pond environment since the daily cycle in pH and unionized ammonia concentrations change continuously.

Nitrite

Inorganic nitrogen in the water is present chiefly as ammonia and nitrate. Nitrite may also be present as an intermediate product of nitrification and nitrate reduction (Tusneem and Patrick 1968). Nitrite is highly toxic to fish and less toxic to shrimp. This is because in fish nitrite oxidizes hemoglobin to form methemoglobin which is incapable of transporting oxygen (Smith and Russo 1975). However, in shrimp, the respiratory pigment is hemocynanin which can still bind oxygen in the presence of oxidizing agents such as nitrite (Needham 1961).

The safe concentration of NO;N for three penaeids are listed in Table 1. Jtappears that tolerance to nitrite toxicity increases as P. monodon grows. The 48-hour LC50 for seven penaeid species, including P. monodon, was 170 mg/L N02-N (Wickins 1976). The effect of nitrite on the growth of shrimp is largely unknown. A concentration of 6.4 mgIL NO;N was found to cause 50%

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reduction in survival of P. indicus larvae after 34 days of exposure. An upper limit of 0.18 mgILN02' was recommended as the safe level for P. indicus growth (Jayasankar and Muthu 1983). The safe level of nitrite recommended for P. monodon growth is 1.28 mg/L N02'N (Law 1988). An extensive environmental survey of shrimp growout ponds in Taiwan was conducted bya group of researchers in 1989 and 1990. In the monthly samplings of water qual ity in more than 20 ponds, only in a very few cases « 0.5%) were ni trite concentrations higher than the safe level. In a study of a highly-intensive P. monodon culture system (Chen et al. 1989), even though nitrite concentrations reached 1.6 mg/L two and half months after stocking and 4.6 mg/L four and half months after stocking, successful yield of 13.7 mt/ha was still obtained. It appeared that nitrite was less toxic than in the bioassay experiments. This instance of high nitrite concentrations happened concurrently with high ammonia concentrations. Being an intermediate product and unstable, nitrite usually has little accumulation and is low in concentration. High nitrite concentrations only occur when either ammonia or nitrate concentrations are high, which are seldom the case in pond systems.

Hydrogen Sulfide

Under anaerobic conditions, certain heterotrophic bacteria can use sulfate and other oxidized sulfur compounds as terminal electron acceptors in metabolism and excrete sulfide. In sediment, oxidation reduction (redox) potential is a controlling factor in the reduction of sulfate to sulfide (Connell and Patrick 1968). In water, hydrogen sulfide exists in unionized (H1S) and ionized forms (HS' and S2-). Only the unionized form is considered toxic to aq uatic organisms. U nionized ~S concentration is dependent on pH, temperature, and salinity and is mainly atfected by pH. The percentage of unionized H2S decreases as pH increases. ~S builds up mostly in sediment which is highly reduced (redox potential < 150 mY), within apHrangeof6.5-8.5,andlow in iron (Jakobsen et al, 1981). Accumulation of HzS is prevented in sediment containing reducible iron, because of the precipitation of sulfide as insoluble FeS. Ferric iron is reduced to ferrous iron in the sediment at a considerable higher redox potential than that at which sulfate is reduced; consequently ferrous iron is always present before sulfide is formed. Dissolved sulfide concentrations as high as 18.1 mg/L in the sediment was measured in catfish ponds in warm weather (Torrans 1980). Since sulfide is readily oxidized after evolution from bottom sediments, it is seldom observed in higher water strata and is frequently ignored in sampling. However, it is often present in lethal levels within 1 or 2 crncf the bottom (Bella et al. 1972). Since prawns are bottom-living animals, the possible effects of sulfide on prawns cannot be overlooked.

The primary biochemical toxicity of hydrogen sulfide, as with cyanide, is the reversible inhibition of cytochrome oxidase, the terminal cytochrome in the electron transport system (Smith et al. 1977). Although HzS is known to be highly toxic to fishes, studies on the acute and chronic effects of l\S on shrimp are limited. Chen (1985) recommended a safe level of 0.033 mg/L for

P. monodon culture while Boyd (1982) suggested a sate level of 0.002 mgIL l\S for freshwater fish.

A test of acute toxicity of unionized hydrogen sulfide on P. monodon postlarvae showed that no mortality resulted when the unionized hydrogen sulfide was below 0.009 mg/L, while 100% mortality was detected wi thin 30 h of exposure at the leveJ of 6.4 mgIL (Law 1988). The 96-h LC50 was estimated at 0.051 mgfL and the safe level of unionized hydrogen su lfide for P. monodon culture was recommended at 0.005 mg/L (total hydrogen sulfide 0.1 mg/L), under a condition of 25 ppt, 25°C, and pH 8.2.

Pollutants

Although heavy metals are tox ic to organisms, studies on the acute and chronic effects of heavy metals on penaeids are lim itcd, Chen (1985) recommended the following safe levels of some heavy metals for optimal growth of P. monodon: 0.025 mg/L Hg, 0.1 mg/L Cu, 0.15 mgIL Cd, and 0.25 mg/L Zn. Hsieh (1986) reported the 24 h LC50 were 0.22 mg/L Hg, 4.56 mg/L Cu, 2.61 mg/L Cd, and 7.19 mg/L Zn for P. monodon PL9. A study on the effects of three heavy metals on the growth and survival of P. japonicus larvae found that the safe concentrations were 0.182 mg/L for Cu, 0.132 mg/L for Cd, andO.794 mg/L forZn (Liao and Hsieh 1988). In the growth test, with Cu < 0.2 mgIL, Cd < 0.2 m g/ L, and Zn < 0.25 mg/L, no adverse effects were found. As shrimp grow, their tolerance to heavy metal toxicity also increases. The 24 h LC50 values of Cu for P. mono don were o.o:n mg/L for nauplius, 0.075 mg/L for zoea III, 0.150 mg/L for my sis Ill, 0.54 mg/L forPU, 1.08 mg/L forPL6, and 4.56 mg/L forPL9 (Hsieh 1986). The 24 h TLm values of Cd were 0.15 mg/L and 2.61 mg! L for P. monodon m ysis III larvae and PL4, respecti vel y (Liao and Hsieh 1982). No information on the toxicity of heavy metals on prawnju venile is available, it is not certain, therefore, if the above safe levels and related information are relevant to shrimp of larger size.

Detergents usually contain linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), an anionic surfactant. LAS can interfere with calcium transport efficiency in crustaceans and lower efficiency of shell formation (Misra er al. 1984). A study of LAS toxicity on P. monodon found that the 24 h LC50 values were 60 jlgIL for zoea II, 100 llg/L for m ysis II, and 3.11 mgIL for PL 12 (Hwang et al. 1991). The same study showed that some shrimp ponds were polluted with LAS at a concentration as high as 4.311 mg/L in sediment.

Chemicals Used in Shrimp Culture

Some of the chemicals used in shrimp culture may become harmful to shrimp when they are overdosed or when they accum ulate in the culture systems. Copper sulfate is the mos t popular algicide in Taiwan to control phytoplankton bloom. Potassium pcrmanganate is used to treat fish disease and low DO, and to remove reduced substances. Malachite green is used to treat

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fungal, bacterial, and external protozoan infection. ForPLlS-20 of five penacids, the 24 h lLm values were 231-46S mg/L copper sulfate, 3.9-17.0 mg/L potassium permanganate, and 0.3-3.73 mgIL malachite green (Liao and Guo 1990a). Benzalkonium chloride (BKC). a cationic surfactant, is widely used in prawn ponds in Taiwan and southeast Asia as a disinfectant. planktoncide, or to eliminate suspended organic particles from the water. For PL IS- 20 of five penaeids, the 24 h lLm of BKe values were I.S0-3.1O mg/L (Liao and Guo 1990b). Formalin is widely used for the control of fungi and external parasite. Saponin is used to kill trash fish, stimulate shrimp moulting, or as a fertilizer to enhance phytoplankton development. For PLlS-30 of five penaeids, the 24 h TLm values were 136-633 mgIL formalin, and 41-162 mg/L saponin (Liao et al, 1989). P. japonicus and P. monodon are least tolerant to those two chemicals among the fi ve penaeids. The toxicities of these chemicals have not yet been tested on prawns larger than PLJO.

WATER MANAGEMENT

Maintaining water quality means keeping the concentration of harmful substances in water low enough so that they do not adversely affect behavior and physiology of the cultured organisms. Water management aims to provide water suitable for the cultured organisms and to minimize water quality fluctuations. Even when the fluctuations are within the suitable range, they still can be stresses to the cultured organisms. An intensive culture system is characterized by high organic loading and subsequently the risks of high levels of toxic substances which are derived from the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials. A study showed that survival rate of P. monodon postlarvae is directly influenced by organic content and dissolved oxygen concentration in the culture water (Millamena 1990). The detrimental effects of organic pollution are high BOD, low DO,

high NH;N and N02·N. At sub-Ictbal levels, a combination of these pollutants can induce stress and result in decreased survival (Millarnena 1990). Therefore, in an intensi ve cui ture system the main approaches to reduce risks of poor water quality are: (1) providing efficient feeding strategies to reduce unnecessary organic loading; (2) maintaining the system in a highly oxidized state. The decomposition of organic materials operates much more efficiently and completely in aerobic than in anaerobic environments; (3) conducting proper water exchange to eliminate or dilute organic materials and toxic substances; (4) maintaining a stable phytoplankton community to absorb toxic substances; and (S) maintaining a beneficial bacteria community to convert toxic substances into non-toxic ones.

Water Source

The charactcrisucs and culture considerations of fresh water, seawater, and brackishwater from various sources are listed in Table 2. Except from the underground, water sources which come from the coast or estuaries are subject to variation of water quality such as salinity fluctuation caused by rainfalJ, tide, or current; pollution; or contamination with diseases. Water from the sand layer or underground is sometimes found high in dissolved iron, manganese and sulfide since underground water is in a reduced state. Therefore. various aeration structures are used to oxygenate water and precipitate iron; yellowish brown iron oxide on canal walls after aeration is often observed. Since water from underground wells contains no plankton, it is diffic ult to cultivate and maintain a balanced and stable aquatic ecosystem, often indicated by frequent and drastic changes in water color.

It is highly recommended for shrimp farms to have a reservoir for supply water. A reservoir enables water exchange to be

Table 2. Characteristics and culture considerations of freshwater, seawater, and brackishwater from various Sources.
Freshwater Seawater Brackish water
Ground River Ground Coast River Bay Ground
Water supply quantity low high low high high high low
Water supply stability high low high high high high high
Salinity stability high high high high low low high
Dissolved oxygen low high low high high high low
Turbidity low high low high high high low
Needs for conditioning high low high low low low high
Plankton biomass low high low high high high low
Plankton cultivation hard easy hard easy easy easy hard
Predators none high none high high high none
Fouling organisms none low none high high high none
Soluble heavy metals high low high low low low high
Reduced substances high low high low low low high
Pollution risk low high low high high high low
Procurement cost high low high low low low high \

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per fanned at the rate and time as needed, particularly at neap tide when pumping of water is impossible. It also allows the pumped water to have a settlement period during which suspended material can settle, reducing pond sedimentation and pond bottom deterioration. A reservoir also functions as a buffer for the water quality between pond water and source water and reduces the differences of physicochemical parameters of water (e.g., temperature. salinity, and dissolved oxygen) and reduces environmental stress to the shrimp. A reservoir allows more time to examine, treat, and improve the water before it enters the ponds. A reservoir, when stocked with indicator (water quality sensitive) species, can provide some kind of an early warning system if the water quality becomes poor. Conditioning and desirable phytoplankton culture can also be carried out in the reservoir.

Phytoplankton Management

Phytoplanktons play a significant role in stabilizing the whole pond ecosystem and in minimizing me fluctuations of water quality. A stable phytoplankton population enriches the system with oxygen through photosynthesis during daylight hours and lowers the levels of CO2, NH." N02', and ~S. A healthy phytoplankton bloom can reduce toxic substances since phytoplankton can consume NH4• and tie up heavy metals. It can prevent the development of filamentous algae since phytoplankton can block light from reaching the bottom. A healthy bloom also provides proper turbidity and subsequently stabilizes shrimp and reduces cannibalism or predation by birds. It decreases temperature loss in winter and stabilizes water temperature. It competes for nutrients with other microbes and lowers pathogenic bacteria population while increasing the densities of food organisms and subsequently reducing costs of supplemental feed.

Maintaining a stable water color is the key in water management. The color of pond water usually indicates the predominant phytoplankton species. A change of water color or its intensity indicates changes of phytoplankton fauna and densities. Sometimes the water clears suddenly resulting from mass mortality of phytoplankton. It usually takes place when the phytoplankton population reaches the peak of its reproductive cycle, or the physicochem ica! en v ironment suddenly becomes unfavorable to phytoplankton such as a drastic salinity or tern perature change or a shortage of nutrients.or through massi ve grazing of zooplankton. Phytoplankton can approach their peak: rapidly during warm days in intensive culture ponds where nutrients are abundant. Caution should be taken when plankton is getting dense. Mass mortality of ph ytoplankton during warm days poses a threat to the prawn survival (Chien 1989). High temperature hastens the decay of me deposi ted dead plankton cells and concomitantly the consumption of oxygen. The resulting anaerobic sediment can release ammonia and sulfide which stress me benthic shrimp. Shigueno (1975) reported that a mass mortality of algae resulted in the reduction of both sediment and water and poor growth of

P. japonicus. It is also suspected that the dying plankton may release toxins.

Mass mortality of phytoplankton usually proceed in four stages. First, water color intensity increases progressively. The color intensity is homogeneous throughout the water column. This occurs when a few phytoplankton species have become dominant in the community and have started to propagate rapidly. Second, clusters of color appear on the water's surface. This occurs when some of the phytoplankton start to dies and float to surface. Cells of the dead phytoplankton are not yet ruptured. Third, milky clouds appear in the water col umn, water becomes sticky, and scum and foam form on the water surface when paddlewheels are running. This may occur when the cell walls of the phytoplankton have ruptured, the cell substance and pigment have leached out, and the phytoplankton has lost its color. Fourth, water clears up and the transparency readings dramatically increase. The dead phytoplankton arc no longer suspended in the water, and either float up or sink to the bottom.

The beginnings of drastic water color change can be observed when the filamentous algae hung on any floating subject, such as a paddlewhecl start turning yellow or when barnacles on the concrete wall close and stop feeding. They also arc predicted by unusual mass molting of shrimp or when feed consumption decreases too suddenly.

High organic loading can result in overabundance ofnutrients in an intensive culture system. Overdcvclopmeru of phytoplankton from such nutrients can result in excess photosynthetic oxygen generation in afternoon hours. When water becomes supersaturated with oxygen, shrimp may suffer from gus bubble disease, floating on the water surface wi th bubble-congested gills (Chen 1990). Meanwhile, on overcast days or during evening hours, when phytoplankton switches from oxygen producer to oxygen consumer, the system often becomes deficient in oxygen. Therefore. a pond with a heavy bloom of phytoplankton has wide fluctuations in diurnal pH val ue and dissol ved ox ygen concentration. It was found in intensive shrimp ponds that me saturation value of dissolved oxygen was 175% at 1400 h, but it was only 42% at 0500 h (Hwang et al. 1991). Conditions of high pH, DO, and ammonia can be found in ponds with dense phytoplankton concentration during the afternoon. When these conditions occur, increased unionized ammonia due to high pH can be a threat to a shrimp's health. Low levels of phytoplankton have more stable pH and dissolved oxygen values, but are unsuitable for shrimp culture. This is because phytoplankton are also needed to provide a food base and to provide turbidity 10 control the light penetration to the pond bottom where filamentous algae can grow. Low levels of ph ytoplankton usual I y cannot be maintained in intensive pond system where nutrients are consistently input through feeding, It is suggested that moderate plankton production is more desirable than heavy production. Phytoplankton density is usually monitored by sccchi disc reading. In Taiwan,

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the recommended reading is 30-40 ern in summer and 20-30 em in winter.

Phytoplankton species composition and densities can be manipulated by adjusting salinity. Lowering salinity can suppress bloom of toxic dinoflagellate Noc til uca miliaris sunray and red tide and help the development of green algae communities. Increasing salinity favors the growth of diatom communities. Species composition can also be changed by inoculating phytoplankton from a neighboring pond containing good quality phytoplankton. It can also be changed by altering pH by adding some substances. Lime and zeolite can raise pH. Teaseed cake, acetic acid, fishmeal, and ground trash fish can lower pH. Increasing water exchange rate can lower ph ytoplankton density while applying algicide can kill phytoplankton. Using aeration can improve water quality andcmploying shrimp-clam polyculture system reduce phytoplankton density. Clam can filter-feed on the phytoplankton and lower phytoplankton density. It was found that transparency was over 50 cm most of the time in shrimp-c lam polycuJture ponds, much higher than prawn monoculture ponds (Kuo and Ting 1991).

The detailed roles plankton communities play on the pond ecosystem and shrimp itself are largely unknown. Communities of green algae and phytoflagellates, presenting light green color, are normally more stable. Communities of diatoms and zooplankton give a brownish water color and are normally less stable.

Phytoplankton density in intensive ponds are always high.

In21 P. monodon ponds investigated in Taiwan, phytoplankton densities were usually higher than 105 cells per ml and sometimes up to 107 per m!, indicating a hypercutrophic state of water (Wu and Lu 1991). The ponds having high shrimp production were found to have phytoplankton to zooplankton density ratios about one million to one. Ponds contaminated with shrimp disease or having low shrimp production usually had ratios far from this value. BI uc- green algae and green algae were the most dominant phytoplankton in those ponds, especially Microcystis and Synechocystis. The marked dominance of these species gave rise to a low diversity index of species, indicating poor water quality in the pond. A lowering in diversity index was revealed before shrimp were contaminated with disease. The presence of some flagellates such as Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Pyramirnonas and Cryptomonas indicated that many ponds were overloaded with organic materials. The organic pollution was also confirmed by the results of physicochemical analyses of water quality.

The large diatoms Odontclla regia and Rhizosolenia setigera were found harmful because they attach themselves to shrimp gills. Failure of shrimp culture was often encountered when the small flagellate Chroomonas salina appeared in high density (Su et al. 1991).

Dissolved Oxygen Management

The diffusion of oxygen from air into water is slow, except under conditions of strong turbulence and aeration. In most or perhaps all outdoor shrimp ponds, oxygen content of the water is governed by the activities of phytoplankton and bacteria (Moriarty 1986). The most important source of oxygen is produced by phytoplankton during photosynthesis. Factors which control the rate of photosynthesis and amount of oxygen produced include temperature, light, nutrient concentration, and species and abundance of phytoplankton.

Pond sediments and water column are the chief consumers of oxygen in apond. Shigueno (1975) estimated that bottom sand and water accounted for 14.8 a/a and 69%, respectivel y, of the total oxygen consumed in shrimp and fish polyculture ponds. In shrimp monoculture ponds, sediments and water consumed 51 % and 45%, respectively, of the total oxygen (Madenjian 1990). These ponds were autotrophic at the start of growout but heterotrophic at the end of the crop. When pond net production is negative, pond oxygen consumption exceeds production, and low DO conditions can berelativeiy frequent (Smith and Piedrahita 1988). One of the remedies recommended by Madenjian (1990) for heterotrophic and low DO conditions is aeration.

Aeration

The principal types of aerators are paddlewhcels, floating vertical-spray aerators, submerged aspirating jets, and 'pumpedair' systems including diffusers and air-lift pumps. The optimal choice is a low initial capital and low operational cost aerator wi th a high gas exchange efficiency which produces a strong water current and requires relatively little maintenance. The predominant aeration eq uipment used in growout ponds in Taiwan is sti 11 the paddlewheel aerator, Comparisons of various aerators will not be made here. The reasons for the choice of paddlewheel other than technical and economical aspects are: (1) odor emi ucd from the splashing, color of the splash, and length of the tailing bubbles are usually used as the references for water quality by experienced shrimp farmers: (2) noise of the splashing and reflection of the wide area of bubbles are the best alert in the dark night if the paddlewheel is running; and (3) it appears that paddlcwheel creates the most wide and homogeneous current which can most effectively transport the bottom waste material to one spot Farmers usually avoid relocating the paddlewheels during culturing. The disturbance and redistribution of the bottom sedimentation can stir up the reduced toxic substances in the subsurface of the sediment.

Use of paddle wheels is regarded as an essential part of shrimp culture in Taiwan. Many factors have been speculated as the production-promoting effects of paddlewheel, including: (1) increasing the dissolved oxygen concentration in ponds

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(Hallerman and Boyd 1980; Boyd and Tucker 1979), (2) concentrating waste organic materials to one spot of a pond bottom, thus reducing the contact of shrimp with waste debris (Wyban and Sweeney 1989), (3) decreasing CO2 concentration in the water column, (4) increasing pond mixing and destratification and removing dissolved organic compounds by foam fractionation (Wyban et al, 1989a), (5) narrowing diurnal dissolved oxygen fluctuation (Chen and Chen 1990), (6) regulating water temperature while it splashes the water to the atmosphere (Chien et al, 1989), (7) reducing sedimentation of suspended matter and light extinction coefficient value (Fong 1990), and (8) reducing water exchange rate, and thus the pumping cost (Wyban et a1. 1989a).

Most intensi ve shrimp ponds in Taiwan are equipped with 6 to 8 paddlewhcels per hectare. The number of paddlewheels used and the amount of time each unit is run is dependent upon the shrimp biomass in the pond and water quality conditions. In a three or four month growout, farmers seldom aerate during the first month except during a cloudy day or when shrimp seem to be distressed. During the second month, the aerators are run every night, and during Cloudy days or when otherwise needed during the day. From the third month and after, the aerators are run continuously. In a typical l-ha intensive pond, aeration is started with two units shortly after the fry are stocked. During the last culture period at least four aerators will be operated nearly continuously.

Water Exchange

When stocking density increases, it is of primary importance to have a dependable water supply and to maintain good water quality. So far, besides aeration, water exchange is still the most effective and widely employed method to maintain good water quality. Generally, water exchange is used to adjust salinity as desired, to remove excess metabolites, to keep algae healthy and producing ample ox ygen, and to regulate pond water tem perature (Chien et al, 1989). Among others.the exchange rate varies with the production period, stocking density and total biomass, levels of natural productivity, turbidity, and source and vol ume of water. In Taiwan, for low-stocking ponds, water exchange is usually conducted to compensate for evaporation and seepage replacement, The daily water exchange rate were 1-5% and greater wan 10% for semi -intensive and intensi ve ponds, respectively (Chien et al. 1989). The exchange rate is relatively hard [Q quantify and is usually determined by observing water color and foaming intensity on water surface (viscosity of water). Exchange rate can also be determined in advance by monitoring cell counts of dinoflagellates, wei dissolved oxygen fluctuation (Wyban et al, 1989b) and pH fluctuation, and secchi depth readings.

Chen and Liu (1988) indicated that in an intensive culture system of P. monodon, if water exchange was maintained at a rate of 10% per week, nitrogen would increase to 41.3 mg/L and if water exchange was maintained at a rate of 50% per week, nitrogen would increase to 10.7 mg/L.

The principle of water exchange is to change the water in a way such that the water quality changes gradually instead of abruptly. In intensive systems, frequent and sometimes even continuous water exchange at a small flowing rate is employed. The aquatic environment in intensive ponds is much more eutrophic than in extensive ponds, and abrupt addition of large quantities of water in small ponds may result in sudden environment change which subsequently can stress shrimp. Therefore, massive water replacement is not recommended unless there are sudden die-off of plankton, critical low oxygen, or after the application of chemicals. Continuous water exchange should be accompanied with running of paddlcwheels [Q have the pond water fully mixed. Otherwise. it will cause great differences of water quality within a pond and heterogeneous distribution of prawns on the pond bottom. Lowering the water level first and adding new water later is not recommended, especially during daytime in the summer. Increasing water temperature. while lowering water level, can reduce the capability of water to hold oxygen and hasten the degeneration of the pond bottom. leasing to oxygen depletion. It is better to add new water first according to the predetermined exchange rate, have the paddlewhcel running to homogenize water throughout the pond, and then discharge water.

Both bouorn and surface water discharge can be considered.

Water quality in the bottom layer is generally worse than ncar the surface. Surface water should be discharged when there are scum, shrimp feces, and floating dead plankton present. During and after showers, the lower density freshwater at the surface layer should be discharged [Q avoid salinity change.

Although no scientific field data have indicated that P. monodon grow faster in brackishwater, farmers in Taiwan usually lower salinity gradually as the shrimp grow. Lowering the salinity more than 5 ppt each time is not recommended, although further lowering of salinity per se is not regarded as a direct stress to P. monodon which can accommodate a wide range of salinity change. Drastic changes of salinity may alter the phytoplankton fauna and their population densities, and lead [Q instability of the ecosystem.

Minerals Application

Shrimp ponds are fertilized mainly to increase phytoplankton biomass. In Taiwan manuring with chicken droppings or chemical fertilization is mainly done before the initial stocking [0 'cui ti vate water color'. Once the desired water color is obtained. no more fertilization is conducted. Uneaten feed and shrimp catabolitcs are considered suffic ient for organic fertilizing. Sometimes when transparency is over 60 em, ammonium phosphate at a rate of 50 to 200 kg/ha accompanied with some fishmea1 or soy bean is applied. This is mostly done in clam-shrimp pol yculture ponds. Continuous organic loading by supplying feed have been shown to drive the pond system to heterotrophy (Madenjian 1990). Sufficient dai I y additions of inorganic nutrients to the

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pond can sustain an autotrophic system, despi te inputs of organic material to the pond (Wyban et al. 1987; Weisburd 1988). It is unknown if continuous build-up of phytoplankton increase the chances of sudden collapse of phytoplankton population once inorganic fertilization discontinues. Hypereutrophication may hasten the sedimentation on the pond bottom and deterioration of sediment Combinations of inorganic fertilization and regular water replacement may keep the pond ecosystem from reaching its climax and remain in a developmental state of autotrophic 'pulse stability' (Odum 1969).

Liming during crops is seldom done since brackishwater usually have total alkalinity values between 50 and 150 mg/L as CaCO (Boyd 1992). Only when dawn pH is below 7.5, is liming conducted at a rate of 50-100 kg/ha biweekly. This is to raise the pH of water and reduce the proportion of the total sulfide that is comprised of unionized ~S.

Zeolite, an alumino silicate mineral, is routinely used in shrimp ponds in Taiwan to treat water when the water is turbid and sticky. This mineral possesses unique properties due to its crystalline structure and resulting molecular-sized cavi ties. These cavities serve as a molecular sieve that absorbs particular gases, such as l\S, S02' and CO2, It also functions as an ion exchange material (Chamberlain 1988). Although it is ineffective in removing ammonia in brackishwater, it is still widely used by shrimp fanners. It appears that zeolite can adsorb suspended particles and clear the water. It is also said zeolite is favorable for the development of diatom population, probably because zeal ite contains silicate. The application rate is about 200 kg per ha monthly.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The optimal water quali ty for shrimp culture, based on toxicity studies are: salinity 10-25 ppt, pH 7.5-8.5, dissolved oxygen minimum 4 mg/L, N~'N maximum 0.1 mg/L, nitriteN maximum 1.0 mg/L, unionized hydrogen sulfide 0.005 mg/L.

2. The aims of water management are to provide high quality water and minimize water quality fluctuations. The latter principle is more important than the former in pond applications.

3. The main approaches to achieve optimal culture environment are to reduce organic load, maintain the system in a highly oxidized state, conduct proper water exchange, and maintain a stable phytoplankton community.

4. For semi-intensive and intensive culture systems, it is highly recommended to ha ve a source water reservoir with a capacity of one tenth of the total water used on the farm.

5. The recommended phytoplankton density is secchi transparency of 30-40 cm in summer and 20-30 cm in winter.

6. The principal method to avoid sudden mass mortality of phytoplankton is to keep the phytoplankton from reaching peak of its reproductive cycle.

7. It is worthwhile to understand phytoplankton ecology and find indicator species for the water quality.

8. Circulation-aeration is a must in semi-intensi ve and intensive culture systems. They promote production.

9. The aim of water exchange is to change the water so that water quality does not change abruptly.

10. A combination of inorganic fertilization, aeration, water exchange, and waste removal can be most efficient in managing water quality,

11. Using chemicals to treat pond water may unstabilize the pond ecosystem and is not recommended unless the above mentioned means are ineffective.

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