CHAPTER 5 METEOROLOGY GENERAL MARITIME METEOROLOGY Pressure and wind Atmospheric pressure 54 Because of is weight the atmosphere exert a pressure fom the surface of the Earth; this pressure varics ftom place to place depending on the domsty of th: air of which it is comprised Pressure is measured by means of the barometer, and is tually expresed in beetopasals (hPa). The millibar (mb) was an carlicr unit of measurement numerically equal to the hectopascal. Mean vahic at sea level is about 1013 hPa with exttomes. of around 950 and 1030 hPa. Pressure Goereases with eight, in the near surface layers of the aimosphor, ata rat of about URPa every 30 ft. In ond to fompure the pressures at a network of bserving stuions hich may bo at different hcights, it ix necessary to se standard” level. It is therefore usual to apply a cowcetion™ 10 the obscrved barometer reading $0 as 10 calculate what the coresponding pressure would be a sca level ‘Air naturally flows from high to Tow pressure; but the ‘wind thus created docs not Blow ditsetly across the isobar, Coriolis Fores causes the flow to be deflected. The result is that in the N hemisphere, air flows out of an anticyelone in ‘4 clockwise circulation ‘with the winds Blowing slightly foutwards across the isobars at an angle of about 182-20", Polar Easterlies Westerlies Variables NE Trades Equalonal Trou alee” SE Trades Variables Westenies (Si) Polar Easterlios [As the air approaches an area of Tow pressure it forms an anticlockwise citculation with winds blowing slightly inwards across the isobars, ygain at an angle of about 102-20", Inthe S hemisphere the circulations are reversed with air diverging in an anticlockwise flow around an fanticyclone and converging in a clockwise circulation around a depression ‘Tho angie of flow across the isahars is the result of fiction between the air und the Earth's surface due to roughness of the seu or terrain, turbulence or similar fect, which also causes weakening of the wind strength Buys Ballot’s Law simplifies the mater as follows: face the wind; the contre of low pressure will be from 90° to 135° on your right hand in the N- hemisphere and on your left hand. in the S. hemisphere, ‘The sind spcod is governed hy the pressure gradient (or rate of change of pressure with distance) in locality: this is shown by the spicing between the isobars: the closer the Spacing the greater the pressure gradient and the stonger the wind. ‘The Beaufort Wind Seale (Table 5.2) gives criteria for describing the force of the wind. General global circulation 53 ‘The diauram (53 below) shows the pressure belts and associated surface wind systems which would exist over a uniform Earth, These idealised global systems. are particularly evident over the Tage expanses of ocean; substantial modifications ace introduecd by large land Pressure and Wind belts (5.3)Effects of variation in the sun’s declination SA The anual movement o the sun in declination is rat of the pressure belts ‘and associated winds. Movement varies in different localities but the pressure systems 5°-8° in latitude, lagging some 6 followed by corresponding mioven Effects of land and sea distribution 88 ‘Over large land masses the tomperature becomes very high in summer and low in winter, over the oceans the variation is comparatively much Less. This. leads. felatively high pressure over land in winter and low pressure in. sum variations are a dominatin and produce large scale modi neighbouring eceans, A notable example isthe monsoors wind eyele over the Indian Ovean and W Pacific Ocean which is caused by the large seasonal. pressu 7 the resulting large seasonal pressure feature over continental areas cations to winds over oscillation over Asi, General climate Equatorial Trough 56 ‘A broad belt of shallow low pressure and weak pressure gradients towatds which the Trade Wind aie streams of the NX and S hemispheres flow is termed the “Equatorial Trough" or “Doldrums". The ough moves Nand § seasonally and in some regions, particulary in the vicinity ff large land masses, its seasonal migration takes. it well ‘outside equatorial latitudes, Within the Equatorial Trough the localities: whese the winds from the twa hemispheres converge are marked by lines or zones of massive cumulonimbus clowd and associated heavy downpours. thunderstorms and squalls, and are often loosely known as. the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Although a convergence zone may have son middle latitude cold from, there is normally lie oF no sir ass eras, the boundary nor is theve any consistent fromtal movement. ‘A convergence zone is liable to disperse in one Locality: and he replaced by a new development some distance away ‘Thus the weather (© be expected in the Doldrums is variable light or calm winds altern nd thundery showers, hut on occasion a ship may experience only fine weather. Conditions are generally worst when the Traxle Winds are strongest 11 is noteworthy that the Equatorial Trough is often the birthplace of disturbances which, as they move 10 higher Jatiules, ean develop and intensily tw became. violent characteristics of topical storms ‘Trade Winds a7 ‘Air streams originate in the sub-tropical oceanic anticyclones of the N and S hemispheres and low on the E and equatorial flanks of the antieyclones towards the Equatorial Trough. General diseetion is NE in the N hemisphere: SE in the S hemisphere. They and blow with remarkable persistence over all major oceans fof the world, except the N Indian Ocean and the China Seas where the monsoon winds predominate. The Trade Wind zones migrate seasonally, and in each hemisphere extend 10 about 30°N of 30°S in the sespective summers, 28°N or 25°S in winter Average wind Strength is force 3-4, and in each hemisphere maximum strength is reached in spring: of the two Trade Wind air steams the SE Trade Winds are considerably the stroager and the highest average wind speeds (force $) are found in the § Indian Ocean, In each hemisphere the winds tend 10 weaken on approaching the Equatorial Trough: on the W flanks of the antieyelones the winds turn polewaeds becoming SE in the N hemisphere and NE inthe $_ hemisphere ‘Weather in the Trade Wind zones is gen cilly fair and invigorating with the sky often cloudless or with well-broken small cumulus cloaks, On the E sides of the ‘oceans visibility is sometimes impaired due to fog and mist wind, Cloud amounts and ineidenee of rain increase towatds the Equatorial Trough and also on the W sides of the oceans especially in summer, Variables 88 ‘Over the areas covered by the oceanic amieyelones between the Trade Winds and the West the poles, there exist zones of light and variable winds which are known as the Variables: the N area is sometimes known as the Horse Latitudes (30°N-40PN), The weather in the zones is generally fair with small amounts of cloud and ‘ver cold ocean currents or by dust cartied ailshore by ics farther towards Westerlies 59 ‘On the polar sides of the oceanic aniieyclones lie zones where the wind dicection becomes predominantly W, Unlike the Trade Winds, these winds known as the Westeries.are far from permanent, The continual passage of depressions fiom W to E across these zones causes the wind to vary reatly in both dirvetion and strength, Gales are Frequen fspecially in sinter, The weather changes rapidly and fine weather is seldom prolonged, Gales are so frequent in the § hemisphere that the zone, S of 40°S, fas heen named the Rosring Forties, In the N hemisphere fog is common in the W parts of fhe oceans. in this zone in summer Polar regions 510 Lying on the polar side of the Westerles, the polar able on account of ice, The regions are mainly unnavig prevailing wind is generally from an E direction and gales ‘ae common in winter, though less so than in the zones of the Westerlies, The weather is ust frequent in summer: Seasonal winds and monsoons General information 1 There is a aaeas, as explained above, which resulis from seasonal ular eyele of winds over certain ovean pressure changes over neighbouring land masses due to heating and cooling. Most important and best knows examples are the monsoon winds of the N Indian Ocean, China Seas and Eastern Archipelago, 512 In the N winter an intense amtieyelone develops over the cold Asian continent and from around October or November co March a persistent NE Monsoon wind blows, ‘over the N Tadian Ocean and South China Sea; over the W Pacific Occan the wind is NNE. The winds are generally moderate 10 fresh but can reach gale force locally as surgesof cold air move $ and paricularly where funnelling eccars (Taiwan Steait, Palk Strait, for example). Weather is generally cool, fair and with well-broken cloud though the oasis of $ China and Vietnam are frequently alfected by exiensive low cloud and drizzle, The NE Monsoon winds say exten across the equator changing direction 1 Nor NW to bocome the N Monsoon off E Africa und the NW Monsoon of N- Australian waters. S13 Tn the N. summer pressure over Asia alls with lowest pressure near the W Himalayas. The anticlockwise circulation gives persistent SW Monsoon winds (rom May to Sepiember or October over the N Indian Ocean and South China Sea, and SSW or § winds over the W Pacilic Ocean, Windy are generally fresh 1 strong and raise considerable seas, Warm humid air gives much cloud and rain on windwant cousts and islands, Similar regular and persistent winds, ako Known by the ume of “monsoon” occur in other parts of the world, aldvough the areas alfecied ane by comparison far more limited. An example is the Gulf of Guinea where a SW Monsoon wind blows from June 10 September, The seasons oF the principal stengihs are shown in Table nonsaons and their average 1B. Local winds Land and sea breezes Sd The regular daily cycle of land and sea breezes is a well-known feature of tropical and sub-opical cousis and large islands. These breezes also occur at times in temperate latitudes in fine weuller in summer though the clfects are rather weaker. The cause of these breezes is the unequal healing and cooling of the land and sea, By day ¢ sun rapidly raises the temperature of the land surlae whereas die sea temperature remmins virally constant. Air in contact with the land expands aud rises, and air frou the sea flows in 10 take its place producing an onshore wind Known as a "sea breeze", By night the land rapidly loses sat by radiation and becomes colder than the adjacent sea; air over the land is chilled and flows out to sea to displace and produces the offshore wind the wanmer aie over the Known as a “land bros ‘Sea breezes usually set in during the forenooa and reach about force + occasionally 5 of 6) in die away around sunset. Land breeze set in late in the evening and fade shorty alter: suntise: they are usually weaker and less well marked than sea breezes. The following factors tavour development of land and. sea. breezes: Clear or partly cloudy: skies: Calm conditions of light variable winds; Desert or dty biuren coast as opposed 10 forests or swamps: High ground near the coast In windy conditions the effect of a land or sea breeze may be to modily the prevailing wis opposing or causing a change in direction, by reinforcing, Katabatic winds Whew intense radiation, peraps on clear nights, causes cooling over sloping ground, the colder denser air will How downhill under the influence of gravity producing a breeze Known as a “katabatic” or “downslope” wind In mountainous regions cold air may accumulate over high ground: onset of a Fight wind ean displace the cold air nd nisace cascading down a slope to lower ground or into a valley 10 give a song wind which in exceptional cases fean reach gale or storm free Where mountains rise close inshore such a katabutic wind can he a serious hazard 10 small erator ships. at anchor; onset of the strong affshore wind is often without ‘warning and may arrive as a stuklen severe squall, The wind may extend several miles. offshore the areas where katabatic winds are common are lanl, Norway, N Adviatic Sea, E Black Sea and Amores, Depressions Deseripti 5.16 A depression for Low) (Diagram $.16) appears on a rercorological chart as a series of isobars roughly circular ce oval in shape around the contre where pressure is lowes. Depressions are frequent in middle latudes and sive unsetled weather conditions; they are often, vous not aways, accompanied by strong winds. They vary realy in size from very small circulations over 2000 miles in diameter: conta pressure in extreme eases may be as low as 950KP2, The extent and poiwer of a dcop snd lange depression can aot only produce gle force winds. ut raise very high, persistent and dangerous seas. In the N hemisphere the wind circulation around «depression is anticlockwise and slightly inwards across the ‘ohars towards the low pressure; in the hemi Depressions may move in any direction dhougi most middle laude systems move in a generally E direeton “There is no normal speod movemeni. small developing and. perhaps very attractive depression ean travel very quickly indeed, possibly 30-60kn:. but as a depression deepens into a large system it usually: moyes much more slowly and especially so when decaying and filling wures (0 very Tange jnere the cimvulation is clockwise, see 5.2. Fronts 8.17 Depressions often originate on a front which is the houndary zone beoween two cont middle Tatudes it is usual for air x in the opposite diteation. At the frontal boundary where the {wo meet there is a tendency for small disturbances to develop on the front where the warm air makes incursions into the cold ait mass and vice versa; the warm alr rises Cover the old ain The process is illustrated in Diagram 5.17, A disturbance appears as a wave om the frontal boundary and travels E along the front a i inereases in. magnitude. Pressure falls in the vieinly of the erest of the wave and & depression circulation éeveleps, In can be seen that as the leading edge of the fioctal wave, BC, moves E over an observer the air passing. him ‘will change from cool to warmer; this is. a warm front When the rear flank of the same’ wave, AB, reaches the observer the air passing him will change irom warm to cooler: a cold. front ing. air masses. In wing fiom the polar ‘w encounter warm air from the sub-iropies: movingTih doing rsp aes snd a moms in wih tropic sere ml ser Ccaenl T T T Seu Chinen we viiors Aw oy AN. sais ae me ae | As s# HE] sisi avanti aws | a t S| sit oes sk tue s. : Nun avin vies | SEE i Fw ndee yp vie nie Sexo Wind Te stn an Osean le soig pnp safc ad notin chop ors ray or T T T T T T T T onalectomn oe | | 4 4 1 a Als Wo ln els Nota Paste rca wf Nath Psi gph) aso | san Noman Os w | x Sou ain Occ : Wor BPE Cyclone) a ma | 8 Aunula W, NW. cas & afi ‘Qin ca ny Fife. Ny Zed 4 i an rice | Suave secon Pevod vigeussaciiy — Poinalicad won te ‘Cou 9: Approx eng gy fp orm ah ye ‘Coun 8: Appeotmat erage eau f wpa ess cah Ja which dlp Fe 2 winds one Tate)NORTHERN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE (WARM SECTOR) WARM PATH OF DEPRESSION con Y ain K (WARM SECTOR) DEPRESSION (a) Plan of a Depression (b) Plan of a Depression ar mon aA COLD Fron ©@ Precienson DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT, WARK ¥ FRONT <0 tes —————> (©) Section through Depression at XY Depressions (5.16)‘The configaration of fronts within the depression cireulaion aS shown in Diagram 3.17 is a normal and characteristic feaure of middle latitude depressions. 18, Warm front, When the air in the wam sector of the Uepression meets the denser cold air on the frontal boundary, precipitation covering a wide area result as the warm air ascends. The slope of the froma dissortinuty is about Lin 100 so that the ascending warm air eventually reaces the upper aumospliere some 500 miles ead of the surface frontal boundary and cirrus cloud at around 25 000 30000 Et is often the first sign of the approaching system, 59 Cold front. The cold aie behind the front overtakes the warm aie of the warm sector and undercuts it, causing the less dense warm air to rise: often quite suddenly so that a belt of large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud results Associated weather are squalls and heavy thunder showers but the frontal belt of bad weather is usually much narower than ata ann front; but as no frontal cloud precedes the cold front there may be lille warning af its approach. The of @ cold froat trailing behind a ‘depression is commonly the place wave depressions, 5.20 Occlusion. In frontal system the cold fet generally nthe warm front and eventually oxeriakes it, thereby closing or occluding the warm sector of th pression. Thereafier the old front may displace the warm front (see Diagram 5.20) effectively leaving a surf cold from with mixed characteristics of both wan and cold fromis: a “eokd occlusion”, Alternatively. when the air bochind che cold fromt is Tess dense than the air ahead of the warm front, tae cold front will rise up the warma frontal Aiscontinuity effectively leaving only a warm front at th surface but again with mixed characteristis of both warn and cold fomis: a “warm occlusion’, In both cases the air in the warm sector is lifted trom the surface and the depression subsequemly becomes less active und stars to All the warm air overrides i; extensive cloud and moves faster th Weather 521 The following typical sequence of weather is likely as a middle latitude depression approaches and passes. It must be emphasised however that individual depressions in diferent localities can differ considerably from each other according to the physical characteristics of the constituent air masses and the nature of the surface over which they ae tavell The approach of a depression is indicated by a falling barometer: 5.22 Ta depression is appronching from the W and passing fon the polewaed side of the olsseever high cierus clouds appear in the W and the ind sbifis to the SW or S in the N hemisphere, oF wo the NW of N in the S hemisphere, and freshons. The cloud layer increases to give overcast skies Which gnidually obscure the sun; as the cloud becomes progressively lower rain a first intermittent, becomes continuous aril heavier. As the warm front passes, the wind veers in the N hemisphere, or hacks in the hemisphere, the fall of the barometer eases and the Temperature rises as the rain stops or moderates In the warm sector cloudy skies are usual any precipication is usually drizele and. visiiliy is often moderate or poor Ifthe sea surface temperature is low. fog banks may: develop, ‘The arsival of the cold front is masked by ie approact from the W of a thick bank of cloud: itis often obscured by the extensive Tow cloud of the warm sector, AS the front passes, a further veer of the wind 10 W or NW in the N hemisphere, or backing to W or SW in the 8-heiisphere may be accompanied by a squall. A belt of heavy’ suin, all for snow precedes the aurival of cooler, clearer air as the barometer begins 10 sis As the depression recedes, showery conditions may develop: a second cold front similar in character t0 the first ‘one sometimes marks the attival of yet colder air When the depression is occluded the weather sequence ahead of the font is similar to the approach of a warm Front; but as the front passes. a short period of heavy in may occur as the cold air behind the front arrives, and the wind veers in the N- hemisphere. or backs in the S hemisphere. An old occlusion gradually assumes the character of a warm or cold front according 1 the respective temperatures of the air abead of and bebind the from 1 frequemly happens. that another depression follows 12-24 hours later in which event the barometer again begins 10 fall as the wind veers towards the SW or $ in the N hemisphere, or go the NW oF N in the S- hemisphere 5.23 Tf a depression travelling E or NE in the N hemisphere, or E or SE in the $ hemisphere, is passing am the opposite side of the observer to the pole the winds abead of the system will he E, then bucking through NE tw N or NW in the N hemisphere, or veering through SE 1 S or SW in the S hemisphere, as the depression passes by. Changes of wind dircetion and speed are gradual and unlikely to be $0 sudden as on the oppesite side of a low 10 the pole, But near the centre of a depression winks may temporarily [al light and variable befoee stwong or gale force winds set in rapidly as pressure begins wo rise and dhe low moves asia. There is often a long period of continuous rain and unpleasant weather with low cloud especially whee the cant of the depression passes close by. A secondary depression may sometimes develop in the circulation of a large low. usually on the equatorial. side and often on the old front. The secondary initially moves with the primary depression, embedded in the circulation, but the secondary may deepen rapidly 10 become a Vigorous sysiem and give sioag of gale force winds in lanespected localities. In some cases the primary low may Fill whilst the secondary intensifies to become the dominant feature ‘Tropical storms General information 524 Tropical storms are intense depressions which develop in tropical latitudes; they are often the cause of very high winds and heavy seas, Although the pressure at the centre ‘of a wopieal storm is comparable to that of an intense riddle lnsitude depression, the diameter of a topic is much smaller (typically some $00 wiles compared with 1500 miles) and thas the related pressure graietts und the wind speeds are correspondingly greater, The wind. blows fanound the centme of a tropical siorm in a spiral flow0 — COLD POLAR AIR eel STATIONARY Aap yy By BM ey CAC = SURFACE BOUNDARY OR FRONT —________» WARM TROPICAL AIR @ jis, COOLAIR EpTH OF WAVE SMALL WAVE A Cc DEVELOPING Sit ae = yan ® wen COOLAIR para OF B CIRCULATION ‘AROUND B AB = COLD FRONT = BC = WARM FRONT > Formation of fronts in the N Hemisphere (5.17)NORTHERN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE WARM. FRONT coup (b) Plan of a Depression FRONT a aa Am cccLusoN @e (2) Plan of a Depression PRECIPITATION x OCCLUSION {6) Section through Cold Occlusion at XY ‘Ocelusions (5.20)inwards, amiclockwise ia the N hemisphere and clockwise in the $ hemisphere: leaee the occasional alternative name ‘evolving tora Within the cigculstion of a topical storm the wind is and confused: considerable damage may be done even t0 Wwellsiound ships, The danger is especially enhanc: ships ight in restricted waters without adequate ream often very violent and the seas ace age and when ro manoouvze and early action may he essential to preclude sacha situation_arsing ale fosce (above 34 kn) ave likely up 10 100-200 miles from the ceniee of a storm at latitudes of less than 20": a8 a storm moves 10 bi her latitudes it tends to expand and by the time « system has reached 30°-38° (N or S) these distances may be doubled, Hurricane force winds (above 64 kn) are likely within 8) miles of a storm jeentre in the tropies and mean wind speeds oF well over HHO kw have been reeomded in major storms. Winds are extremely gusly and the wind speeds in gusts may’ be some 30-50% higher Unan beea reported, At the characteristic area, known as the “eye Which winds are light or moderate variable, the sky partly cloudy bat with a he: he mean; gusts exceeding 175 ku have entre of a welldeveloped storm is a cof the stom, within vy sometimes mountainous, and e can vary from less o 30-40 miles in the confused swell. The diameter of the than 10 miles in small intense storms very large storms, Surroundi eye is the dense dark wall cloud extending 10 a great altitude and with very ih; maximum wind speeds are attained at heavy rain ben the inet margin of the wall cloud in a bolt aver ihout $15 miles in widih, In this zone visibility is almost, nil due 0 the spray and tomrenial rain Occurrence 5.26 The localities, seasons, average frequencies and local names of these storms are shown in Table 5.26, ‘They are ‘most frequent during the late summer and cally autumn of each hemisphere: they are comparatively sare {rom mid-November to mid-June in the N hemisphere and from mid-May to November in the § ssressed that no month is enttely safe and that storms ean isphote, However it is Formation and movement 527 Tropical storms develop only over oceans, and crigination is expecially frequent ear the seasonal location of the Equatorial Trough. In the N hemisphere storms form mostly in the belt $°-15°N early and Tale inthe storm season, and between 10°N and 25°N at the height of the season; in the N Atlante Ocean storm formation betwek 25°N and HPN is fairly common, In the S hemisphere most storms develop between 5°S and 18°S, Those which affect the W Pacific, $ Indian and N Atlantic Oceans are cans; there usually first reported in the W past of these 0% as in the N Atlanic Ocean dati nber when an eecasional storm originates Aruipslago de Caho Verde. Trl followed are very vaviahle in all arcas and individual tracks may be quite errati, but ver the N hemisphere a stom will move off in a direction hetween 275° and 350° though most often within 30° of due W. When neat latitude 25°N storms usually: recurve away from the equator and by the time they reach 30°N movement is in a NE direction, Jn the $ hemisphere initial movement is between WSW and SSW (usually the former) io recurve between 15°S and 20°S and thence follow a SE. path, Many stomas, however, do dot recurve but gontinve in a WNW direction in the N hemisphere, or WSW in the § hemisphere. When a stom moves inland it weakens aad ‘eventually dissipates: but if it should re-emerge to follow fan ocean ack again it may re-intensily. The speed of storms. is usually about 10kn in their early. stages ily with Tatiwde but seldom exceeding 15 kn before reeurving. A speed of 20-25kn is usual afier recurving through speeds of over 40 kn have heen recanted, When siorms move erratically, sometimes making one oF more complete loops, their speed slows Hess than 10 kn 5.28) Detection and tracking of uopival sous is g assisted by weather satellites and miost storms a ‘of development: thereafter each storma is carefully tricked and in some areas storms are monitored connaissance aitcralt which fly imo the citculations 1 recond observations ally aa very cay s hy weather 19 9 Storm warnings of the position, imensity and expected movement of each storm ate broadcast at frequent a regular intervals. Details of stations which transmit warnings, the areas covered and transmission schedules are given in Admiraty List of Radio Signals Volume 3. ‘The following rms are in general use 10 describe tropical circulations at various. stages. of intensity Tropical Depression Winds of force 7 or less Tropical Storm, Winds of force 8 and 9 Severe Tropical Storm Winds of force 10 and 11 ‘Typhoon, Huericane, Cyclone Winds force 12 The Weather Centres issuing Storm Warnings and wes are generally manned by competent Forecasiers of long experience with an optimum supply of available information at their disposal, However it is sometimes difficult 10 identity the previse position of a storm centre, even with moder wacking facilities; aad in Jew of the uncertain movement of storms, prediction of the future path of a storm may he Hable 10 appreciable cevtor particularly when farzcasting for several days ahead. advisory messAppropriate allowances ate th considering what a Ships. should pay. particular fore prudent wh mt iS necessary t0 avoid a storm, aulention tc their own, he vicinity of a storm and act in cordance with advice given below. Hurricane “Hu 21989 2° approaches Charleston Preeursory si 0 The following sis may be evidence of a storm in the locality: the first of diese observations is avery reliable indication of the proximity of a storm within 20° or so of the equator. It should be borne in mind, however, that very Tile warning of the approach of an intense storm of small diameter may be especie If a conected barometer reading is 3 hPa or more below the mean for the time of year. as shown in the climatic atlas or appropriate volume. of Addmiralty Sailing. Direct aroused and action taken 1@ meet any developmen T 8, suspicion should be reading. must be correcied not only lave, wermperature and inilex emor (if mercurial) but also. for diurnal variation sshieh is given in climatic atlases or appropriate volumes of Admiralty Sailing Directions. If is $ hPa or more below normal it is time 1 consider avoiding action for there can be title doubt what a cropical stom isin Bi is wise to take hourly harometeic radi ie corrected use of in importance of peessuee 1 affected by tropieal storms An appreciable change in the direetion or sire the wind: xh of A long low swell is sometimes evident, proceeding rom the approximate bearing of the conte of the storm, This indication may Be apparent before the barometer begins 10 fal: Extensive cirrus cloud followed, as the storm approaches, by altostatus and thea broken cumulus or seud. Radar may 100 miles. By the time the enact position of the give waming of a storm within about be ale 10 enable storm is given by radar, the ship is like, already experiencing high seas and strong to foe winds. It may be in time, however, the ship to avoid the eye and its vicinity where the Path of the st 53 To decide the best course of action If a storm is keowle suspected in the vicinity, the following is of the centre of the sion: wind, the centre of the storm The beatin The path of the If an observer faces 1 will be from 100° to 125° on his right hand side in the N hemisphere when the slorm is about 20M miles. away, ie wien dhe barometer has fallen about 3 hPa and the wind to about force 6, As a rule, the nearer he is angle approach 90% 10 the centre the more nearly does the ‘The path of the storm may be taking two. such bearing 2-3 hours, ipproximately determined by separated by an interval of allowance being made for the movement of 1 Ship during the inverval, It can be storm is not travelling towards the equator and, if in a wver latitude than 20°, its pati is mast unlikely 10 E component, On the rare occasions when the stom is following 532 ‘an unusual path it is likely to Diagram $.32 shows iypical pats of tropical storms and vous and navigable semicitele sstraies the terms dang r The fomner lies on the side of the path towards the usual direction of recurvature, ie the right hand semicircle inthe N and te Teft hand semicircle in die S hemisphere, The advauce quadsant of the dangerous semicircle is Known as he dangerous quadrant as this quadra contre, The navigable semicircle is that other Side of the pa A ship sit will tend c be blown avay from the storm centre and ies ahead of the hich Ties on the aed within this semicircle ecurvarure of the storm will increase her distance from the Avoiding tropical storms 5.33 In wha ver situation a ship may find herself the matter of vital importance is avoid passing within 80 miles or fhe storm, always possible 10 keep ouside a distance of 2 so of the centre of Ie is. preferable but not 0 ails. I least 20kn at her disposal and shapes a 8 ship has a course that will take her most rapidly away from the storm before the wind has increased nbve the point at which her movement becomes restricted it is seldom that she will ew aay harm a Sometimes a wopical storm moves so slowly that a vessel, if ahead of it, can easily outpace it of can overtake it It a vessel is in if asiem of it in aren where the presenee or of a storm is. likely frequent barometer as at 530. If the barometer should fall $ hPa Below normal of i should inerease 10 foree 6 when the barometer bas fale least 3. Pa, vicinity, If and whea either of the he wind there is litle doubt that a stom is in the criteria is reached the vessal should act wnded in the following Paragraphs until the barometer has risen abowe the timit just given Should it be certain and the wind bas decreased below fore 6. however, that the vessel is behind the be sulicient 10 alier course away from the eens keeping in mind the tendency of tropical storms to recurve towards N and NE in the N hemisphere, and cowards $ and SE in he S hemisphere20"N 20°N Track of ship ~~~ Jelative to storm centre a Dangerous semicircle = Obey) Navigable TON i SENET” 7 Roproximae attuce '°N ' oforigin \ SSL Tack of ship relative to storm centre o o Track of ship > telatve to storm centre Approximate latitude ' ofarign --— 10'S ~ 10's 1 semicircle, : _< Ore Bangerous i semeicie . Se Track of ship ea ~~ telative to storm centre 20°S 20°S “a Characteristic path Typical paths of Tropical Storms (5,32), i n In the N_ hemisphere (GIF the wind is veering the ship must be in the dangerous semicircle. The ship should proceed wit all available speed with the wind 10°-45°, Aepending on speed, on the starboard has, AS the wind veers the ship should alter course 10 starboard thereby tracing a course relative 10 the storm as shown in Diagram 5.32, (HIF the wind remains steady in direction or nearly seady $0 that the vessel should be in the path of the storm or very nearly in its pai she should bring the wind well on vo the starhoanl quarter ‘aid proceed with all available speed. When. well within the navigable semicircle act as at (©) below. (6)IF the wind backs the ship is in the navigable semicircle. The stip should bring the wind on the starboard quarter and proceed with all available speed turning tw port as the wind hacks 10 follow tack as shown in the diagram, In the S hemisphere (a) IE tie wind is backing the ship must be in the dangerous semicircle. The ship should. prooe with all available speed with ue wind 10°-45%, depending on speed, on the port bow. As the wind hacks the ship should alter course to post thereby ue storm as shown in tracing & course relative Diagram 5.32, (H)IE the wind remains steady in direction o neatly steady so that the vessel should be in the path of roearly in its path she sould bring the wind well on to the port quaster and proceed with all available speed, When well within the navigable semicircle act as at (©) below. (6) IF the wind Veer the ship is in the navigable The ship should bring the wind oa to the port quarter and proceed with all available speed tmning to starboard as the wind veers 1 follow a wack as shown in Uke diagram, If there is, insufficient room to run when in the navigable semicircle and it is ot practicable to seek shelter. the slip should heave:to with the wind on her starboard bow in the N hemisphere or on her port bow in the hemisphes 5.36 AF in harbour, When a topical storm approaches it is preferable to put to sea if this cam be done in time 19 avoid the worst of the storm, Riding ot a wopical stonn, the centre of which passes within 8D il ‘of anchorage is an unpleasant and hazardous experience especially if there ate other ships in company, Even if berthed alongside of if special moorings are used a ship may be tar from secure the storm or ve or so, in a harbour Obligatory reports 337 The Iniernationat Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea SOLAS, 1974 requires that winea a ship suspects the existence of or is in the vicinity of a tropical storm the Master must communicate the information by all means at his disposal 10 ships in the vieinity and to the nearest coast radio station or signal station with which he can 3.2.8 report is similarly required if a communicate. se Slip should encounter winds of foree 10 oF above of which ho warning fas heen received, ‘The report shoul state the following Position of the storm so far as it ean be ascertained together with the UT (GMT) and date wlhen it sas encountered: Position and true course and speed of the ship when the observation was. made Barometric pressure at mean sea level (not corrected for ciurnal_ variation) Change in barometric pressure during the previous ‘True direction and forve of the wind: State of the sea: Height of the swell and the dieetion from which it comes: and the period of length of the swell As long. asthe ship is under the influence of the storm simikir- messages. should be transmitted atleast every Shows if possible Anticyelones General information 538 Oser the E sides of the oceans the movement of niieyclones (or Highs) is generally slow and erraie and they may remain stationary for several days weather, The pressure gradient is usually slight, the winds light 10 moderate and the weather is often fine or partly cloudy; but in winter and in temperate latitudes skies may become overcast 10 give gloomy conditions. Precipicaiion, as drizzle, is got uncommon near the middle of ant lone, Over the W paris of the oceans amicyclones are likely 19 move quickly and consequently the ‘associated weather is more changeable, Movement is generally cowards the E, ing sewed Weather near the coast Climatic tables 59 Each volume of Adniralty Sailing Directions includes series of climatic tables for a number of coastal stations in the region t which the volume refers sand for which Wweatler observations are available for a number of years However. itis important to note that the average values, fheque given in the climatic tables refer specifically 10 the staions at which observations. were made: they may not necessarily be fully represe conditions on neighbouring localities or over the apen sea ‘and. the approaches 10 ports in the vicinity sies and exe alive of Local modifications 540 The tables for coastal stations consulted with disereion; the following notes indicate ways sent from those at aust therefore be in which conditions at sea may be dif the coastal stations Wind speeds tend t0 be higher at sea with a greater Frequency of gales than over the land: Cloud amounts ata coastal station may. differ considerably fiom those at sear Precipitation amounts recorded at coastal station are ‘generally faisly applica but become less applicable with incteas from the coast, Where there is high ground near an ‘observing station, onshore winds may induce considerably more precipitation than would be expected a few males offshore: 1o nearby coastal waters distanceat se may be wo indication that fog is present inland and vice versa: the conditions favourable for fog fommation in the two locations may be quite Aitferent (see S.43—5.46). Thus fog statisies tor coastal stations are generally inapplicable to seighbouring sea areas 4 Ifa climatological sation is at an appreciable altitude the recorded temperatures and humidities can differ significantly fom those at sea level. Temperanuces a sea are ess vaviable than over land, In sinter the temperature is usually higher over the sea then ‘over the land especially at night. In summer itis usually cooler over the sea especially during the Effeets of topography Sl 1 Important local modifications 10 the weather and especially the wind conditions. in coastal areas ean be caused by the topography. If the coast is formed by steep cliffs, oF if the ground rises rapidly inland, onshore winds are often deflected 10 blow nearly parallel 10 the coast and with incteased force Near headlands or islands with steep cliffs there may be large and sudden changes in wind speed and discon, Wa strit, especially if it 9 narrow and the sides seep, the wind will tend to blow along the strait in the direction most acarly corresponding to the general wind direction in the area, even though these two ditections may ciffer considerably. Where the strait nares the wind force will Similarly ina eed or eiher nar. steep side inte there is a tendency for the wind to be funneled along: the inl. 4 Whon a strong wind blows diceetly towards @ very seep coast there is usually a narrow helt of contrary, gusty winds close the coast Where there is high ground near the cous, ofshore winds are Tiable to be squall especially when the air is appreciably colder than the sea and when the wind over the pen sea is foree $ or more Fog Cause 542 1 Fog is caused by the cooling of sir wo a temperature (Known as the “devpoint”) at which it becomes saturated by the water vapour which is present within it Condensation of this water vapour into minute water Uroplets peoduces fog: the type of fog depends on the means by which the air is cooled. Sea or adv a8 1 When warm moist sir flows over a relatively cold sea surface which cools it helow iis dewpoin, sea or advection fog is formed, This is the main type of fog experienced seas it-may form and persist with moderate or even sirong winds, Ic is often shallow so proimude above it: and at times its hase is a few feet above sea level with a clear layer Below the fog 2 Inv temperae and high lauales sea fog is most common in spring and carly summer when sea temperature i lowest. It is particularly frequent and prevalent where the prevailing ‘winds transport warm moist air over areas of cold water or over the major cold acean cumrents fog iat mastveads. of ships may 2 The principal parts of the world in which sea & prevalent ace Polat regions in summer Grand Banks of Newtout NW Pacif The cold ocean cur land (Labrador Curent) Ocean (Kamchatka Current: ‘off the W seaboards of Trade Wind belts continents lying within the notably California, Chile, Peru, SW Africa and Morocco: 4 British Isles, especially the SW approaches to tbe English Channel in spring and carly. summes Frontal fog sd 1 On a warm front oF occlusion fog may occur especially if the temperature of the air in advance of the front is very low, The fog is due to the mixing of the warm and cold it fon the tWo sides of the front; rain ahead of the front may help to raise humidities to near saturation point. The fog is usually confined to a relatively narrow belt near the frontal boundary, but sea foe may develop in dhe warm moist air bechind the: front Arctic sea smoke 545 1 Also Known as “irost smoke”, aretie sea smoke (lee Photograph 4) occurs chiefly in high latitudes and is produced when very cold air blows aver a relatively warm sea surface, Evaporation takes place from the water surface but the air at a much lower temperature is unable w the whole of the water vapour, some of which immediately conuenses 10 form a Tog: the sea appears 10 be steumiing, and the visibility may be very seriously reduced This type of fog is encountered where a cold wind is blowing off i may develop over tie oper. waler in gaps in an icefield contain ‘oF snow on t0 a relatively warm sea and Radiation fog 5.46 Jand on clear nights (conditions for fons, especially during winter months. This fog is thickest during the lauer part of the night and early part of the day. Occasionally it ditt ut 10 sea but is found no futher than 10-15 miles offshore as the sea surface temperature is relatively high which causes the water droplets to evaporate Forecasting sea fog 347 1 Warnings of the likely formation of sea fog may be obtained by frequent observations of air and sea surface temperatures; if the sea surface temperature falls below the dewpoint (see Table $47.1), fog is almost certain to form, 2 The following procedure is recommended whenever the temperature of the air is higher than, or almost equal to that of the sea, especially: at night when approaching tog cannot be seen until shorly before entering it, Sea and air (both dry and wet bulb) temperatures should be observed at Teast every 10/minutes anu tbe seu surface temperature and dewpoint temperature plotted Diagram 5.47.2 3 If the curves converge fog may be expected when they coincide. The example shows that by 2200 there is a prubabiliy oF running ino fog about 2300, assuming chat the sea Surface temperature continues wo fal at the same rateDEWPOINT TABLE, Table 3.47.1) (For use with marine sereen) PR Ps Wa Bal Bi ae reson of We Bale Ph co OF OF OF OF TIF IF Ie 1m 20] ae 50 I ae ae SO SS OO OF TH TF A Oe 90] 39 [ 9 39 39 ek ak 7 aT ar a7 fae Sas BOBO Mw we ar] a | 38 38 3837 37 aT fas OO OM HO 3 2 wR om m/ R w/e 6s ss FM MM MN Bf aN Ho wow Mw Mw Ha HM Bl aw asf Moo BoB oe ele Nw 9 ew 7 wo Hu D Blas zle en un no » wow ly wT ww BUBB RA ww wl R u|x 4 3 3% 3% % » » %» » xe YM de Os moun ww ow ofa ale » ee = eo uy av wls ww Ne Nw ww 7 ws ula eM NH 7% Hw wl uBR a DY WH wos a Ble nom 6% MH MAL RN MY Ko ws we Boule » Beene wax ule ve ww ou oe RW 9 8 Te » zou ny 2 2 9 wl we oe sw Bom 9 8 7 Shas 2» np 9 9 ik fi we i wo Bon wo 9 8 6 sa Lf oye ook eo oo es ee oo ts 3 tol w]e 6 sss wo wt yw 9 8 7 6 4 7-10] 16 s)s os uu wo Be eR ufos 4 7 6 4 3 ao “us 2 0 0 Ta Bai ch a apo 3 3/454 a5 a3 a4 ais [ris “| on a a2 fas a8 icteric, Oring the Fay i seperti els OPE wl he rats inn ma ot be mae ptwecfzarex viernes te nce ha when th depen of th yD eto a when he tmpertne af he wt ul pa ta of pag dev pis abd lve buniluos maw aloe by ie Metslogicl fs 0 hich thy sand soraon ees for leone blow UFC Is when