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Gym Coach, Vol.

1 (2007) 18- 24 Methodological


Article

Ideological approach to coaching the front


handspring vault
Valentin Uzunov
Hataitai Gymnastics, Wellington, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

The handspring vault is the first proper vault a gymnast will probably learn. It’s considered a fundamental prerequisite for
the training of all front entry vaults (handsprings, Tsukahara, Kasamatsu). The training and development of this vault
starts from an early age with the gymnast performing basic progressions and lead-ups for their first 3-4 years of
gymnastics training before competing the actual vault. However, even after all time devoted to training this one skill,
many gymnasts still struggle to perform this vault correctly in their first year of competing it. The method presented in
this article identifies and corrects common coaching errors and misconceptions about the technical execution of this vault.
The method focuses on the first 4 vault phases, and aims to develop run-up consistency and speed, hurdle/springboard
mechanics, and quick turnover of preflight. The repulsion or block phase is not the predominant focus, as it success is
predominantly the result of the preceding 3 phases, which are identified in literature and research as the most critical
areas of focus, for the gymnast to perform exceptional front handspring vaults.

Key Words: vaulting, hurdle mechanics, block/prop/repulsion, run-up.

INTRODUCTION
boxtops, and even handspring flat backs, however this
The front handspring vault is as the easiest and most approach does not develop to any great extent the
fundamental front entry vault (recognized in the MAG and preceding vaulting phases. A study by Takei and Blucker
WAG Code of Points) a gymnast can learn. Not (2003) examined high and low scoring Roche vaults
surprisingly it is usually also the first. National compulsory performed by male gymnasts at the 2000 Olympics, and
streams for most western countries breakdown vaulting they found that the repulsion phase was predominantly
over the first 3-4 years into front handspring vault determined by the successful and correct execution of the
progressions, which highlight its importance in mastering pre-flight mechanics. This hints that at a young age the
prior to moving onto learning more difficult vaults. Even focus should be on developing the technical mastery of the
though the vault is considered relatively easy it is usually first 3 phases (run-up, hurdle, pre-flight) which are less
the cause of much frustration for coaches, because vaulting limited by physical strengths and abilities of young
is physically very demanding from early on, and there are athletes. This is reflected in the vaulting progressions used
no quick solutions, or tips that can make up for inadequate in compulsory streams.
physical ability. Even after 3-4 years of preparation and
training towards a front handspring vault many gymnasts This article examines the mechanical properties needed for
still struggle to perform the vault to a high technical the performance of handspring vault and provides a
standard in their first year (unpublished observations). ideological approach to preparing young athletes during
This hints that current coaching methods are possibly their first 3-4 years in gymnastics.
inadequate to cater for the less physically gifted gymnasts,
or the methods are not as effective as its believed.
METHODOLOGY
Currently coaching methods emphasize the block action,
and a great deal of time is spend practicing it, using
simulation drills like handstand blocks on the floor, over Even thought it is not stated specifically, body tension in
the performance of vaulting is critical. The following drills,
©2008 The Gym Press. All rights reserved Gym Coach Vol.1, July, 2007 - 18-
V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

progressions, exercises all assume a tight rigid body


position, with the only exception being in the run-up.
Run-up should start their run with their non- take-off leg forward,
The first and most critical phase of any front entry vault is so that their first stride starts on their take-off leg which is
run up as speed, and consistency in approach. Running when the gymnast counts the first step (figure 1 – red feet)
technique is vital to optimize speed. Unfortunately most 5. Measure the distance from a constant point at the end of
children are not extremely competent at this motor task the run way, and mark it so that they gymnasts can start
from an early age, and it most definitely requires proper their vaulting from the same spot/distance every time.
coaching. The development of running technique is a vast
topic that cannot be covered in this article, thus Hurdle/Springboard contact
gymnastics coaches are recommended to speak with track There are very few specific drills for teaching the correct
and field coaches on methods and techniques to hurdle technique. The common approach is to stop the
developing speed in young athletes. Perfecting running gymnast on impact with the board, so the coach can shape
technique is a long term process that should constantly be and educate the gymnast on the correct body shape on
refined, and trained specifically, it is a mistake to allow impact. Simple hurdle stretch jump drills and other
gymnasts to develop a running style purely on merit that variation of this drill are also common drills in use;
they feel comfortable with it. Consistency in run-up is also however these drills are hardly perfect as they are based on
a vital aspect that is much more easily trained. The a trial and error principle, with a strong dependency on
following method is recommended for the development of feedback from the coach. This makes the learning process
consistency in the run-up: much harder.

1- The gymnast starts by standing on the springboard (on Probably the most common error that effects the hurdle
the ‘sweat spot’) aside from running speed is that the gymnast will hurdle
2- He/she then performs a power-start hurdle that is long from to close to the springboard. Olympic male vaulters
and low to land on the take-off leg (the leg that the hurdle from 3-3.1m from the springboard (from an average
gymnast will take-off from during the hurdle. This is run up speed of 7.5-10m/s). If we scale that down to the
usually the dominant leg or the leg they step into for a running speeds expected for good preadolescent vaulters,
cartwheel or round-off). we would expect to see hurdling distances of between 1.9-
3- As the gymnast lands on the take-off leg and starts 2.2m at running speeds of 6-7m/s. Often coaches will mark
running down the run way. Not counting the hurdle and out a distance for the gymnast to hurdle in front of. This is
the landing, the gymnasts counts their take-off leg steps usually done using carpet squares or using a chalk line on
(Figure 1). Take note of their final step, as this will be their the runway. Both methods work but its advised to change
starting point. A beginner gymnast whose focus is to work the texture of the surface of the too close area (such as by
on the spring board entry should measure 3 steps of the using a mat instead of a chalk line) so that the gymnast can
take-off leg, an intermediate gymnast who is working on feel when they have hurdled from too close. This method
basic vault preps (front somersaults, dive rolls, handspring had show to be effective with kids at all levels to encourage
flat backs) should measure 5-7 steps. Focus should be on the proper long hurdle. However it is strongly dependent
technique not speed. For actual vault’s of any kind, the of running consistency to carry over to competition.

It is essential that there is minimal loss of horizontal


velocity during the springboard contact to take-off phase.
There will always be some due to opposing forces on
impact, sounds, heat, friction ect, but it is vital that the
gymnast minimize these by having minimal springboard
contact time. As a rule if the gymnast contacts the
springboard first with the heals/flat foot, time spend on
the spring board will be longer, compared to if he/she
contacts the spring board with the front ½ of the foot (5).
Figure 1 - Illustration of how to measure a 3 step run up is It is thus important to encourage the gymnasts to run and
measured.
impact the springboard with the front ½ of the feet (figure
gymnasts should measure between 9 (for younger 3) to improve reaction times off the board.
gymnasts) and 15 (for adult gymnast) steps. Most top level
male gymnasts take between 13-14 steps, and most female The underarm action is also very important during this
gymnast take between 14 and 15 steps (5). phase. At first contact of the board the arms should be
4- Once they have marked their starting position, the behind the trunk and are then swung down and forward as
gymnast should repeat this process 10 times (each attempt the gymnast is taking off. This arm action is to help
being clocked using a stopwatch) working on sprinting compress and load the springboard additionally, which will
faster and faster each attempt. Use their fastest attempt, as result in greater recoil of the springs and thus propel the
their standard. From the marked position the gymnasts gymnast with a greater force on take-off (5). At the
©2008 The Gym Press. All rights reserved - 24 -
V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

beginning of take-off (the instant the springs stop loading than off a springboard onto 60cm cash mat, than spotted
and begin to recoil) the arms should be beside the trunk by a coach over the table onto crash mats built up to the
pointing down at the floor, and at the end of the take-off same height as the table and than eventually the gymnast
the arms are in front of the trunk no higher then forehead does independently over the table to mats. This is a long
level inline with the head (figure 3 and 4) (5) term developmental process and the coach should begin
Unfortunately at this point, according to the author, there once a gymnast has developed a basic physical preparation
are no better or more specific drills/methods of coaching for gymnastics.
the hurdle. As a result the standard drills are still the best
recommendation available for shaping and educating the Learning how to quickly rotate over the table is the most
gymnast on how to hurdle effectively, along with the crucial purpose to this drill and phase. If the gymnast can
coaches feedback. take-off and rotate over the table onto a mats level with the
table, a block will be easy. It should be pointed out the
Pre-flight layout should be straight or in a tight arch (thought the
The success of this phase is the direct result of the gymnast chest) with an arm going to the sides as opposed to being
ability to take-off the springboard quickly, with as much brought down to the thighs.
angular rotation, and vertical velocity as possible. In
coaching terms this means lots and lots and lots of leg Regardless of the drills used to encourage heel drive during
drive (heel drive) on take-off with the arms extending pre-flight, emphasis should be on the legs leading and the
forward (figure 2 and 3). A critical body position on take- arms reaching quickly forward with the body in a tight
off is that the gymnast hips are above his feet, with the legs arch or straight position during the pre-flight. The added
completely extended, and the gymnast body in a piked advantage to being slightly arched in pre-flight as opposed
position (figure 2). This position allows for 2 things to being straight is that rotation (angular velocity) is
• Faster hand contact with the table, which means increased with the reduced inertia, as well as allowing the
an entry at a lower angle. gymnast to contact the table sooner. This technique is
• The potential to generate greater angular rotation. quite a bit more advanced to the regular straight body
Meaning the gymnast will turnover faster. position required in junior levels. This technique is worth
If the knees or hips go past the toes prior to take-off from noting, it is definitely the technique of choice used by male
the springboard the pre-flight will be compromised, and gymnasts performing handspring double front and
will usually result is far from ideal vault. Dragulescu vaults.

From a coaching perspective this position is seen as Support/Repulsion


leaning forward and is usually discourage. However this If the pre-flight phase is learned correctly than the ‘prop’
should not be so, the error is in the knees buckiling or block (the actual repulsion) as its known in coaching
forward over the toes, or not extending fast enough. terms can be easily accomplished without requiring a great
deal of strength. For strong and explosive gymnasts it is
The best way to drill this motion is to work on doing front ideal to impact the table in a tight straight body (from a
layouts over a table, or a soft object the same height as the technical point of view as judged at junior levels), for
table that the gymnast will vault over. The technique of weaker gymnasts it is beneficial to impact the table with a
doing a layout over the table is identical to doing a front little shoulder angle, as this will give them a little more
whip layout technique on the floor. Focus is on rotation time to apply force on the table during the block.
rather than height (Figure 2 and 4). Doing layouts over a Regardless of the shoulder angle at impact (open or
table may sound dangerous but it is only dangerous if it is slightly closed) it’s absolutely critical that the gymnasts
not progressively developed. The layout should be depart from the table prior too or at handstand position
developed during the years leading up to actual table work. with the shoulders completely elevated (so no sag through
First it should be learned on a trampoline like surface, the shoulders) and the shoulder joint at 180deg flexion
(completely open shoulder angle).

During the actual block action all that the gymnast has to
do is push the table down and backward (opening the
shoulder angle) as quickly as possible. This action is best
practiced doing handspring flatback drills, either as a
vault, or at lower boxed surfaces. Regular specific
conditioning exercises for the shoulders, back and
shoulder girdle musculature, such as shoulder shrugs,
push-ups, handstand press ups, and handstand blocks on
the floor are also recommended. Regardless of the
exercises chosen, they needs to be specific and done
explosively to be effective. The coach must keep in mind
Figure 2 - Illustration of the relationship between the front layout
and the front handsprings vault entry. Notice the similarity between
that the better the turnover and entry onto the table the
©2008 The
the layout Gym Press.
in picture ‘a’ andAll
the rights reserved
handspring vault ‘b’. - 24 -
V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

better and easier it is to block of the table. Doing block 1- Run-up technique needs to be learned, in order to take
specific conditioning should be to supplement and out run-up variables that could be slowing down the
encourage a greater block as opposed to being the sole gymnasts.
means of achieving a block. 2- Minimal springboard contact time and correct body
position on entry.
3- A quick turnover during the pre-flight. The flip from feet
DISCUSSION to hands (onto the table).
Vaulting is mechanically the hardest apparatus to teach to 4- Development of strength and power in the legs and
young athletes because of the necessary pre-requisite upper extremities.
strength and power, in the run-up, leg thrust of the
springboard, and in the upper body. The method detailed Run-up
in this article aims to prescribe a methodological approach Running at full speed towards an immovable object like
to developing the front handspring vault through the the ‘vault table’ can be a scary task for many. Even if the
correct physical preparation of the gymnasts during their gymnast seems to be running at full speed it is quite likely
first 3-4 years in gymnastics. The rationale to this method that they may be holding back just a little in order to be
is that most vaulting errors or short comings are not a able to stop if something goes wrong. This is a major
result of technical errors but rather lack of physical mistake which can be the result of fear. If fear is the cause
preparation, or alternatively stated, technical errors are the it will require the coach to work with that particular
result of lack of physical preparation and readiness. gymnast to develop fear coping strategies that in time will
help to eliminate the negative effects of fear, along with
There are 6 phases to any vault: lots of safe developmental progressions, such as running
1– The Run-up towards a pit, vaulting over soft vaults etc. Such strategies
2– Hurdle/Springboard contact are not the scope of this method and thus will not be
3– Pre-Flight discussed.
4– Support/Repulsion
5– Post-Flight Running speed is paramount; a 10% increase in velocity
6– Landing generates a 20% increase in total kinetic energy going into
Very often coaches place a great deal of emphasis on the vault (10). That is a substantial increase in the overall
working the ‘Prop’ or block off the table (phase 4), as this is amount of energy delivered to the performance of the
the most easily observable trait of good vaults. vault. This illustrates how important it is for gymnasts to
Unfortunately this is thought to be a mistake by the learn how to sprint well, so that they can maximize the
author. Out of 6 phases, technical and biomechanical potential kinetic energy they can use in performing their
literature identify the run, the hurdle/springboard contact, vault. Simply stated, the faster the gymnast sprints, the
and pre-flight as the most crucial phases for the execution greater their potential for a well executed vault.
of high scoring front handspring vaults, and contrary to
popular belief the support/repulsion phase is commonly Unfortunately sprinting is a learned and practiced skill
identified as having a much smaller role in the successful that takes time to develop, particularly for young kids
execution of the handspring vault, because gymnasts can (preadolescents) who generally have poor intermuscular
do very little to enhance their rotational and translational coordination for fast and dynamic activities, difficulty in
requirements for the successful execution of the vault (1,5). performing consistent maximal efforts, and inadequate
This tends to support the proposed ideological muscular conditioning.
methodology applied in this articles (the post-flight and
landing are not covered as they are the direct result of the For preadolescent children an average running speed of
correct execution of the preceding 4 phases, and are about 6-7m/s (s = x/t) (7) is the norm for successful
relatively easily trained). It has been suggested that the vaulting (based sprint test results of top female USAG
gymnast can actually use a different body configuration TOPS testing). In comparison Olympic male gymnasts run
and entry to increase their angular momentum during the at speeds between 8-10.5m/s (depending on difficulty of
support phase, which is the current technique used by high vault) and 7-8m/s for women (5). The optimal training for
level male gymnasts in performing Roche vaults, however the development of optimal running mechanics for
this technique is to hard for young athletes and thus not vaulting has not been studied previously and it’s thus an
practical at an early age. area that needs further research and analysis. It is however
recommended that gymnastics coaches talk to track
Based on current scientific literature on vaulting there are coaches for advice on developing speed in preadolescent
four key areas that coaches need spend developing in the athletes.
beginning, even if it is at the expense of competition
results. An alternative are for improvement in the run-up that can
be overlooked is the inconsistency in technique during
approach. The common signs and symptoms of this are

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V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

variable stride lengths between turns, confusion about take upon by an outside and unbalanced force’ (6). This means
of leg, slowing down near the spring board, etc. This in is, that when the gymnast hurdles and leave the ground his
itself leads to inconsistency between turns, making horizontal velocity will stay the same until acted upon an
progress variable. By improving the gymnast run-up outside force, which can either slow down or speed up the
consistency they will be able to focus on other technical gymnast. In this case when the gymnasts leaves the ground
aspects, which should improve progress. the only forces acting on the gymnast are gravity which is
pulling him/her down toward the ground (and thus does
Hurdle/Springboard contact not effect his/her horizontal velocity) and air resistance
This aspect of vaulting is by far the hardest to coach to a which is acting in the opposite direction of the gymnast
beginner, because it’s the shortest and most dynamic and could slow him/her down, however air resistance is
phase. The whole point of the hurdle phase is to allow the virtually negligible at the velocities achieved during a vault
gymnast to impact the spring board in the correct body run-up and is thus can be ignored (7).
position, with maximum horizontal momentum, so that
the gymnasts can take-off from the springboard with the This action of hitting with extended legs forward is like
required linear and angular momentum to arrive at the hitting the breaks suddenly on a bicycle. The front stops
vaulting table under optimal conditions to perform the and the back end lifts up. If the gymnast were to hurdle
repulsion phase effectively (1). For this to be possible the from a to close distance at full run up speeds they wouldn’t
hurdle should be long and low (which is dependant on the have enough time to get their feet forward and thus
speed of the run up), to allow the gymnast to stretch out transfer the horizontal momentum to vertical lift. Of
their legs forward in preparation for impact with the course the length and height of the hurdle is going to be
board, whist also preserving maximal horizontal highly dependant on the gymnast’s horizontal velocity and
momentum during the flight phase of the hurdle, and to hurdling take-off angle. The faster the gymnast goes, the
allow the gymnast to have the necessary body position for further and at a steeper angle he/she can hurdle from.
board contact (figure 3)
The gymnast should impact the springboard reclined at
The about 30deg to allow for the body to pivot over the feet
technical during the amortization phase (or compression phase of
advantage the board) so that the gymnast can take-off with an about
of the long 20deg incline (figure figure 3) which is an ideal angle to
and low optimize elevation over the table, while encouraging
hurdles is rotation and translation.
partly
explained The underarm action is believed to be the most effective
by arm action because it helps increase the spring loading
Newtown’s during the compression phase of springboard contact.
first law of However a true underarm action is rarely seen performed,
motion which could be due to the extremely fast speeds, poor
which habits, or it is unrealistic to be performed in its true
states that nature.
Figure 3 - Diagram of the correct body positions on ‘a body in
first impact and take-off following the hurdle. Notice motion will The mechanics of this phase are rather complicated but
the position of the center of gravity relative to the
continue in basically the horizontal momentum generated during the
resultant force. This illustrates the approximate 30deg run has to conserved and thus converted into
recline backward on first impact and 20deg incline on this state
take-off. unless acted predominantly vertical lift and angular rotation.

Pre-Flight
The goal of this phase is to make
first contact with the table in the
shortest time following the
springboard take-off arriving
with the centre of mass as high as
possible (1). Boys and girls prior
to reaching adolescences are not
Figure 4 - Kinematic diagram of Marian Dragulescu performing a Dragulescu vault (Handspring double usually physically (muscularly,
front barani out) illustrating the long low hurdle with the shoulders behind the feet on first impact with the and neurotically) mature enough
springboard with a recline of about 30deg. On the take-off the center of mass is approximately on a 20 deg to generate the run-up speeds
incline, with hips above feet followed by an aggressive leg drive and long reach forward. Note that that
because the camera low frame rate there are in-between frames missing to show the exact moment
and explosive springboard take-
described. offs, and strong block actions

©2008 The Gym Press. All rights reserved - 24 -


V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

needed for performing high difficulty front entry vaults.


The training adaptations required are especially hard to
develop with minimal training hours. This considered, it is
makes sense to start training for the handspring vault from
an early age, by first teaching the front layout. A skill
achievable by majority of kids from a springboard.

The leg drive on pre-flight and thus essentially the


turnover will be affected by several factors
1- Take-off angle. The optimal as discussed earlier is
approximately 20deg, given run-ups speeds of 6-7m/s over
a vault table that is 110-115cm.
2- The gymnast muscular strength and power in the knee
extensors (quadriceps muscles), and hip extensors
(hamstrings, gluteus muscles). Figure 5 – Illustration shows the compression and repulsion phases
3- Body position on take-off (Hips above feet with the arms during the support phase on the vault. Notice the path of the center of
reaching forward for the table). mass (dotted line).
4- Springboard recoil properties. For handspring vaults the hands should be parallel,
shoulder width apart, which is the optimal anatomical
During the actual flight of this phase prior to the hands position for shoulder flexion and shoulder girdle elevation
making contact with the table, there is nothing the (5). The primary goal of the support/repulsion phase is to
gymnast can really do to adjust for less then optimum generate an increase in vertical velocity of the centre of
springboard take-off and lack of leg drive. The only things mass, in gymnastics terms this mean a higher post flight.
the gymnast can do during the pre-flight is to tuck, or pike However it important to remember that during this phase
to increase speed of rotation; which is undesirable due to the gymnast has very limited ability to generate any
the technical and form errors and deductions. additional linear momentum or angular velocity (rotation,
especially if they resulted in tucking during the pre-flight),
and as a result any increased vertical lift comes at the
Support/Repulsion expense of linear horizontal momentum, and angular
The final critical stage of any vault is the repulsion. This velocity (10).
phase is very similar to springboard contact phase. Like
the springboard contact phase there 2 distinct phases. The In order to maximize vertical velocity during the repulsion
first is called compression which is followed by repulsion phase there are 2 main factors:
(5). The initial linear and angular velocities and the actions 1- The speed of rotation (angular momentum) during hand
of the gymnast during both the absorption and repulsion support. The greater the speed of rotation the greater the
phases will determine the conditions the gymnast departs centrifugal force pulling the gymnast off the table (like a
from the table, and whether they will have the required swinging on the bar) during actual support. This property
linear and angular momentum in order to complete the of reduces the force needed to overcome gravity and the
necessary vault (1). When the hands make contact with the gymnasts own weight to propel him/herself of the table
table the hands are stopped, but because of inertia, the 2- Upper extremity power – The stronger and the more
gymnast’s body will continue to pivot over the hands in a explosive the gymnast through the shoulder girdle the
forward and upward fashion (5) (figure 5). greater the force he/she will be able to apply to the table in
the shortest period of time and thus generating a greater
impulse off the table.

CONCLUSIONS
The success of any vault is predominantly determined by
the correct and ideal execution of the run-up,
hurdle/springboard contact, pre-flight and repulsion. To
coach vault the coach has to focus on developing the run-
up, hurdle/springboard mechanics, turnover during
preflight, supplementary upper body conditioning specific
to blocking, and leg plyometrics from an early age. A
common coaching error is to focus excessively on the
repulsion phase by doing blocking drills with the aim to
produce a bigger block. However, technical and scientific

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V.Uzunov, Gym Coach, Vol.1 (2007) 17-23 Methodological Article

literature shows that the repulsion phase is in fact deemed resolved through the use of current coaching methods, but
to play a minor role in the success of the vault in its advised that coaches seek better and more effective
comparison to the first 3 phases. Development of the methods to training the hurdle.
handspring vault should be a long term process, and the
coach should have a long term plan in order to ensure that Every care is taken to assure the accuracy of the information published
gymnast grasps the key fundamentals to effective vaulting within this article. The views and opinions expressed within this article,
are those of the author/s, and no responsibility can be accepted by The
described in this article. It’s acknowledged that there are
Gym Press, Gym Coach or the author for the consequences of actions
limitations to the method presented, due to the lack of based on the advice contained herein.
hurdle drills and progressions available. This is partially

Address for correspondence: Valentin Uzunov, Hataitai Gymnastics, Wellington, New Zealand.
valentin.uzunov@gmail.com.

REFERENCES and RECOMMENDED READINGS

1- Prassas, S. (2001).Vaulting Mechanics. [url] http://cis.myile.com/index.php?


option=com_content&view=article&id=180:gymnastics-valutingmechanics&catid=61:gymnastics-
general-articles&Itemid=105
2- Takei Y, Dunn J.H, Blucker E. (2003). Techniques used in high-scoring and low-scoring 'Roche' vaults performed by
elite male gymnasts. Sports Biomechanics, 2(2):141-162
3- Henry Picolo (1999). MAG: EUG Training camp in Tirrenia [DVD]. Tirrenia, Italy
4- GymSmarts (2005). How to Maximize the Handsrping Vault [DVD]. Norwell, Massachusetts
5- Cuk I., Karacsony I. (2004). Vault : Methods, Ideas, Curiosities, History. Ljubljana: Slovenia. STD Sangvincki
6- Kamen. G. (2001). Foundations of Exercise Science. PA Philadephia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
7- McGinnis P.M. (1999). Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics. Champaign, Illinois.
8- Gluck M. (1982). Mechanics for Gymnastics Coaching. Charles C. Thomas Publisher. Springfield Illinois.
9- Coventry E., Sands W.A., Smith S.L. (2006). Hitting the vault board: implications for vaulting take-off--a preliminary
investigation. Sport Biomechanics, 5(1):63-75.
10- Smith. T (1984).Gymnastics: A mechanical understanding. Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc. New York.

©2008 The Gym Press. All rights reserved - 24 -

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