The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine by Sir Harry Ricardo

THE HIGH-SPEED
INTERNAL - COMBUSTION
ENGINE
BY
HARRY R. RICARDO, F.R.S.

Gold Medallist of the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders
Silver Medallist of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Institution Medallist, I n s t . of Automobile Engineers
Crompton Medallist, Inst. of Automobile Engineers
BLACKIE & SON LIMITED

LONDON AND GLASGOW
1931
First issued 1923
Reprinted 1927
New Edition 1931
PREFACE TO NEW EDITION
The present volume is a revised and somewhat extended edition

of Vol. II of The Internal-Combustion Engine published in 1923.
During the seven years which have elapsed since the above
volume was published progress has been considerable; it has,
however, for the most part taken the form of improving and con-
solidating existing orthodox design, and the only important new
development which has arisen during this period is the achieve-
ment of the high-speed Diesel.
Since progress has, to a large extent, followed along the lines
foreshadowed in the original volume, and since also this volume-
dealt mainly with general principles rather than specific designs,
there has been little need for actual revision. The present volume
therefore contains additions rather than alterations, and a new
chapter has been added dealing with the high-speed Diesel engine.
BLACKIE & SON LIMITED

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CONTENTS
CHAP. Page
INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - - - 1
I. VOLATILE LIQUID FUEL FOR INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 5
II. DETONATION - - - - - - - - - 39
III. DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT IN A HIGH-SPEED FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 73
IV. INFLUENCE OF FORM OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER - - - 95
V. LUBRICATION AND BEARING WEAR - - - - - 129
VI. MECHANICAL DESIGN - - - - - - - 153
VII. MECHANICAL DETAILS - - - - - - - 181
VIII. VALVES AND VALVE GEAR - - - - - - - 200
IX. PISTON DESIGN - - - - - - - - 234
X. ENGINES FOR ROAD VEHICLES - - - - - - 259
XI . AERO-ENGINES - - - - - - - - - 309
XII. HIGH-SPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS - - - 363
XIII. HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES - - - - - - 397
INDEX - - - - - - - - - - 431
THE HIGH-SPEED
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION
ENGINE
INTRODUCTION
Until the advent of the Great War, most of the scientific talent
in this country which had interested itself in the development of
the internal-combustion engine was devoted to research upon, and
development of, the relatively heavy slow-speed stationary type,
a type which, it now appears, has but a limited scope, for in the
really large powers it can hardly compete with the modern steam
turbine, while in the smaller powers, its field is being narrowed daily
by the gradual spread of electricity.
Very soon after hostilities began, it became apparent that the
light mobile high-speed type of internal-combustion engine applied
to transport, aircraft, and later to tanks, was destined to play a
very important, if not decisive, part in the conduct of the War.
Every effort was then made to concentrate all the available
scientific talent on the development of the high-speed engine.
Independent scientists and investigators, and such national institu-
tions as the Royal Aircraft Establishment and the National
Physical Laboratory were requested to turn their attention to
this subject, and every facility was lavished on them. They were
invited to co-operate with the manufacturers and were asked to
make a careful theoretical study of both the mechanical and thermo-
dynamic problems involved, and to recommend how and in what
direction the general efficiency of these light engines might be main-
tained and improved. The campaign of intensive research which
resulted from this sudden influx of scientific talent, accompanied by
almost inexhaustible funds for research, has resulted in the produc-
tion of light high-speed engines which, besides giving what a few
years ago would have been considered an almost incredible power
(E 246) 1 2
2 THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE
output in relation to their size and weight, can show as high an
efficiency as that of the largest slow-speed type. What is perhaps
more important still, the basic principles, both mechanical and
thermo-dynamic, upon which the performance of such an engine
depends, have been investigated in so complete and comprehensive
a manner that the performance of any engine can now be gauged
with accuracy from a study of the design alone; or conversely,
an engine can be designed to fulfil any specific requirement as to
power output or efficiency, with the same precision as in the case
of a steam-engine.
That the internal-combustion engine has found its ultimate
sphere in the light mobile high-speed type is now evidenced by the
fact that, whereas in the years immediately before the War the
annual output in horse-power of both the light and heavy type in
this country was about equal, to-day the aggregate annual power
output of the light high-speed type is at least ten times that of all
other types, and in numbers probably nearer twenty times.
To-day far more is known about both the possibilities and the
limitations of the high-speed internal-combustion engine than was
the case before the War, and it seems fairly evident that its role lies
in the propulsion of all forms of transport where its light weight
and low fuel consumption render it supremely valuable. It is in the
author's opinion extremely doubtful whether it will ever attain to
more than its present very uncertain footing for stationary purposes,
where neither its own light weight nor that of the fuel it consumes
can be of much assistance to it in the struggle for existence.
Already, and in an incredibly short space of time, the internal-
combustion engine has gained practically undisputed sway over all
forms of road transport, and in doing so has developed and even
almost revolutionized this previously decaying system. In a few short
years it has both opened up the possibility of aerial transport and
made it a powerful factor, in war at all events; it will almost certainly
extend to rail transport also, beginning, no doubt, in countries where
long distances have to be traversed and where fuel and water are
scarce. It is already ousting the steam-engine from the smaller
classes of shipping and is extending very gradually to the larger
vessels, but here its progress will probably be slow, for the steam-
turbine shows to particular advantage as a marine engine, because
in this field alone it can always get that upon which its efficiency so
largely depends, namely, an unlimited supply of cold water. Also
the large steamship, alone of all forms of transport, requires a very
INTRODUCTION 3
high-powered installation, and it is in units of high power output

that steam retains its supremacy.
With but few exceptions, all light mobile engines consume volatile
liquid fuels.
Up to the present the only two fuels available in bulk are petrol
—a generic term covering any low-boiling distillate from crude
petroleum—and benzol, a distillate from coal-tar, consisting of
benzene with a small percentage of toluene.
The supply of both these fuels, and more particularly the latter,
will soon become unequal to the demand, with the result that a critical
situation is bound to arise in the not very distant future. Civilization
is now so deeply committed to the use of internal-combustion engines
for all road transport and for many other purposes, that it is a
matter of absolute necessity to find an alternative fuel. Fortunately
such a fuel is in sight in the form of alcohol; this is a vegetable
product whose consumption involves no drain on the world's storage
and which, in tropical countries at all events, can ultimately be
produced in quantities, sufficient to meet the world's demand, at all
events at the present rate of consumption.
By the use of a fuel derived from vegetation, mankind is adapt-
ing the sun's heat to the development of motive power, as it
becomes available from day to d a y ; by using mineral fuels, he is
consuming a legacy—and a limited legacy at that—of heat stored
away many thousands of years ago. In the one case he is, as it
were, living within his income, in the other he is squandering his
capital
The mobile internal - combustion engine is now no longer a
luxury ; it has become one of the prime necessities of peaceful
civilization and the prime necessity in time of war ; therefore, the
assurance of its fuel supply should be considered a matter of national
importance. It is perfectly well known that alcohol is an excellent
fuel, and there is little doubt but that sufficient supplies could be
produced within the tropical regions of the British Empire, yet
little or nothing is being done to encourage its development. Judging
from past experience, no active steps will be taken until a serious
crisis has arisen, and since it must take at least ten years to create
the necessary organization and machinery for the production of
alcohol on the scale which will be required, the crisis may be a
serious and prolonged one.
In the author's opinion it is unlikely that any crisis in the fuel
situation will have an adverse effect on the development of the
internal-combustion engine, for the simple reason that it has become
a necessity, but it will probably have the effect of increasing the
cost of transport and with it the cost of living generally. It will
also, of course, have the effect of forcing designers of engines to
concentrate more attention on the attainment of high efficiency and
fuel economy, which is all to the good.
CHAPTER I
VOLATILE LIQUID FUEL FOR INTERNAL-
COMBUSTION ENGINES
The volatile liquid fuels available in bulk at the present day, or
likely to be available in the near future, consist of petrol, benzol,
kerosene, and alcohol.
Petrol, as is well known, is a distillate from crude petroleum;
it consists of a heterogeneous mixture of all those hydrocarbon
fractions which boil between the limits of 140° F. and about 400° F.
These fractions belong to three different series :
General Formula.
The Paraffins … … … … … C n H 2n+2
The Naphthenes … … … … CnH2n
and the Aromatics … … … … CnH2n-6
In addition to these three leading groups there are also present

a small proportion of members of the olefine series, though the
proportion found in " natural " as opposed to " cracked " petrols is
usually so small as to be almost insignificant.
The individual members of the paraffin series present in petrol
are:
Fuel. Formula. Boiling Point Specific Gravity

0° F. at 60° F.
Hexane … … … … C 6 H 14 156 0·663

Heptane … … … … C 7 H 16 209 0·691
Octane … … … … C8H18 258 0·709
Nonane … … … … C9H20 302 0·723
Decane … … … … C l0 H 22 343 0·735
Undecane … … … … C11 H24 383 0·746
Those of the naphthene series are :

5

0° F. at 60° F.
Cyclohexane … … … C 6 H 12 178 0·780

Hexahydrotoluene … … C7H14 212 0·770
Hexahydroxylene … … C8H16 246·2 0·756
and those of the aromatic series :

0° F. at 60° F.
Benzene … … … … C6H6 176 0·884

Toluene … … … … C7H8 230 0·870
Xylene … … … … C8H10 284 0·862
Although, in most examples of commercial petrol, the members

of the paraffin series predominate, yet this is by no means always
the case, and it is the exception rather than the rule, for the
paraffin content of a petrol to exceed 60 per cent of the whole.
Generally speaking, paraffins are commonest in the Western oilfields,
naphthenes in the near Eastern, and aromatics in the far Eastern oil-
fields. This, however, is only a rough generalization, for there are
many exceptions.
The following table gives the analysis of seven typical samples
of petrol drawn from widely different parts of the world and illus-
trates how greatly the composition may vary. In this table the
presence of small traces of other complex substances such as thiophine,
&c, which play no perceptible part in the behaviour of the fuel, has
been ignored.
Approximate Composition by Weight per cent.
Sample. Specific Gravity.
Paraffins. Naphthenes. Aromatics.
A 26·0 35·0 39·0 0·782

B 62·0 23·0 15·0 0·723
C 61·0 30·5 8·5 0·727
D 38·0 47·0 15·0 0·760
E 68·0 20·0 12·0 0·719
F 80·0 15·2 4·8 0·704
H 10·0 85·0 5·0 0·767
Average 49·3 36·5 14·2 0·740
VOLATILE LIQUID FUEL 7
It is evident from the above that the specific gravity as a

measure either of the composition or of the volatility of a fuel is
quite meaningless. If, as is sometimes erroneously supposed, petrol
consisted entirely of members of the paraffin series, then, since the
gravity, the molecular weight, and the boiling point of the members
of this series rise together, the gravity would be a measure of the
volatility. The presence, however, of even a very small proportion
of aromatics whose specific gravity ranges from 0·860 to about
0·885 will, of course, entirely upset any deductions which could be
drawn from considerations of specific gravity alone. As a specific
illustration it may be mentioned that of the fuels tabulated above,
sample B sp. gr. 0·723, a special very low-boiling aircraft spirit
prepared for the Cross-Atlantic flight, is by far the most volatile,
yet its gravity is not the lowest by any means. The best fuels,
i.e. those from which the highest power and efficiency could be
obtained, were samples A, D, and H, which have the highest specific
gravity of all, but which are rich in aromatics or naphthenes or both,
while the worst without question is sample E sp. gr. 0·719.
It will be shown later that, of the three leading groups, the
presence of the aromatics is the most of all to be desired from every
point of view, that of the naphthenes next, while the paraffins are
highly objectionable and the smaller the proportion present the
better,
Though the phenomenon of detonation will be discussed later it
may be stated at this stage that it is by far the most important
factor in determining the quality of a fuel, and it is one which
depends primarily upon its chemical composition. The paraffin
series are the worst of all from this point of view, and they become
progressively worse as their molecular weight and gravity increase;
thus, for example, hexane is much better than heptane, and so on.
The naphthenes are very much better, while the aromatics are the
best of all as regards detonation.
Commercial benzol is a coal-tar distillate consisting primarily
of pure benzene C6H6, with a little toluene and a trace of xylene.
These are all aromatics. Its specific gravity ranges from 0·875 to
0·882, depending on the proportion of toluene present.
This fuel has many advantages over petrol, but fully to realize
these, it is necessary to work with a much higher compression
ratio.
The available members of the alcohol group consist of methyl,
ethyl, and butyl alcohol. These are not true hydrocarbons, since
each contains oxygen in the molecule. In consequence of this and
of their higher latent heat of evaporation, the behaviour of these
fuels is somewhat different to that of the true hydrocarbons. So
far as their tendency to detonate is concerned they are even better
than the aromatics, though when used under a very high compres-
sion methyl alcohol in particular is liable to pre-ignite without
warning. Owing to their high latent heat and low flame tempera-
ture the whole temperature of the cycle is lower, while owing again
to their high latent heat of evaporation and therefore to the reduced
suction temperature, the volumetric efficiency of an engine using
alcohol is considerably higher than when using petrol or benzol.
The result of the lower flame temperature is that the engine operates
at a higher thermal efficiency, while the increase in volumetric
efficiency much more than balances their lower internal energy, so
that the maximum power output on alcohol is considerably greater,
while the heat flow to the engine cylinder is lower than on petrol or
benzol.
The properties of a fuel which determine its value for use in an
internal-combustion engine are :
(i.) Tendency to detonate.
(ii.) Latent heat.
(iii.) Volatility.
(iv.) Calorific value of the fuel.
(v.) Heat value of the mixture.
All volatile liquid fuels when vaporized and mixed with air in the
proportion required to give complete combustion have, within very
close limits, the same heat value per standard cubic inch of mixture,
hence they all give the same power and the same thermal efficiency
when used under the same conditions. It is only by varying the
compression ratio or by altering the degree of vaporization in the
carburettor or induction pipe that any variation in power output or
efficiency can be obtained.
T e n d e n c y of F u e l s to detonate.—The phenomena of detona-
tion as apart from its relation to the nature of the fuel will be dealt
with later, but for the present it is sufficient to state that the limit
to which the compression ratio can be raised, and therefore the limit
of power output and efficiency, is governed by the conditions which
control detonation and pre-ignition.
With all known petroleum spirits, detonation precedes and sub-
sequently produces pre-ignition, but in the case of certain fuels such
as ether, carbon disulphide (at a low compression ratio), also the

pure aromatics and alcohol (at a high compression ratio), pre-
ignition is liable to occur without preliminary detonation.
Of the constituents of petrol the paraffins are by far the worst
offenders as regards detonation, while the aromatics are the best. It
is found also that all mixtures of these bodies obey the ordinary
proportional laws and that there is practically a straight line relation
between the mixture proportion of two or more hydrocarbons and
the compression ratio at which detonation occurs.
In fig. 1 is shown as a full line the observed relation between
Fig. 1.—Curve showing Compression Ratio at which Detonation occurs
the compression ratio and the point at which detonation occurs when
to pure heptane varying proportions of benzene (benzol) are added.
Owing to the influence of combustion-chamber design, and to other
factors which will be considered later, it is not possible to lay down
a hard and fast relation between the fuel and the highest com-
pression ratio at which it may be used in any type of engine, but
it is possible in the light of present knowledge to give relative values,
though there is some difficulty in selecting substances to be taken
as standards. In the investigations which the author's firm carried
out on behalf of the Asiatic Petroleum Co., a sample of petrol, con-
sisting mainly of paraffins from which nearly all the aromatics had
been removed by sulphonation, was taken as zero, and at the other
end of the scale pure toluene was chosen; the relative tendency of
different fuels to detonate was then expressed in terms of their
“ toluene value,” i.e. the equivalent proportion of toluene which it
would be necessary to mix with the standard aromatic free petrol
in order to give it the same tendency to detonate as that of the
sample under examination. Later investigation showed that the
standard “ aromatic free ” petrol which contained about 35 per cent
of naphthenes and the lighter members of the paraffin series, was by
no means the worst offender as regards detonation, and that in fact
several samples of commercial petrol were actually considerably
worse. Also it was found that toluene was not so effective in resist-
ing detonation as ethyl alcohol. Since, however, the expression
“ toluene value ” has become rather widely used, it is probably
better to retain the term.
Table I gives the toluene values and the highest useful compres-
sion for various fuels. The highest useful compression ratio may be
defined as the highest ratio at which a particularly efficient engine
used for the purpose of investigating the behaviour of fuels could
be operated without detonation at any mixture strength or with
any ignition timing, with a standard amount of preheating to the
carburettor, and at a speed of 1500 R.P.M.
It is therefore purely a relative term; that is to say, its absolute
value applies only to one particular type of engine operated under
one given set of conditions, but its relative value is applicable to
any type of engine and under any conditions, as will be shown later.
In this connection reference may be made to the common belief
that the rate of burning of the fuel, though one of the factors con-
trolling detonation, forms a limit to the speed at which an engine
can run.
The normal rate of burning (as distinct from the detonation
rate) of any stagnant fuel/air mixture is so low as to be practically
useless so far as any internal-combustion engine is concerned. We
must look, therefore, entirely to turbulence or the mechanical dis-
tribution of the flame to spread combustion throughout the whole
mass of the working fluid, and, since this is the case, it follows that
the normal rate of burning of any fuel is practically without influence
on the speed at which an engine will run.
It has been found that a fuel with a low normal rate of burning,
TABLE I
Highest Useful
Compression Ratio Toluene Value.
in variable Com- Toluene = 100 %,
Fuel. pression Engine. Aromatic Free
Total Volume Petrol = 0 %.
Clearance Volume
Aromatic Free Petrol … … 4·85 0

“A” Petrol … … … … 6·0 38·0
“B” „ … … … … 5·7 28·0
“C” „ … … … … 5·25 13·5
“D” „ … … … … 5·35 16·5
“E” „ … … … … 4·7 - 5 ·0
“F” „ … … … … 5·05 6·5
“G” „ … … … … 4·55 - 1 0 ·0
“H” „ … … … … 5·9 35·0
“I” „ … … … … 4·3 - 2 0 ·0
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … … 6·5 55·0
Kerosene … … … … 4·2 - 2 2 ·0
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … … 5·85 33·0
Hexane (80 % pure) … … … 5·1 8·0
Heptane (97 % pure) … … 3·75 - 3 7 ·0
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … 6·9 † 67·0
Toluene (99 % pure) … … … > 7 ·0 100·0
Xylene (91 % pure) … … … > 7 ·0 85·0
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … … 5·9 † 35·0
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … … 5·8 31·5
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … … 4·9 1·5
Qlefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … 5·55 23·5
Alcohol Group, &c.

Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … > 7 ·5 >88·0
„ (95 vol. %) … … > 7 ·5 >88·0
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) … 5·2 †
Methylated Spirits … … … 6·5 †
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … 7·3 80·0
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … 3·9 (-32·0)
Carbon Disulph. (50 %) … … 5·15 † (9·0)
NOTE.—This sign (†) indicates that pre-ignition occurred before audible detonation.
such, for example, as ethyl alcohol, will operate just as efficiently in
a high-speed, low-compression, engine as will hexane or petrol, and
that the relative efficiency and power obtained is exactly the same
throughout the whole speed range. The normal rate of burning of
a fuel has, therefore, no connection with the speed at which an
engine may be run.
In fact, since a slow-burning fuel is generally less prone to detona-
tion, it is much more desirable than one which burns more rapidly.
It is only when using excessively weak and therefore slow-
burning mixtures, or when the normal turbulence within the
cylinder is unduly low, that the influence of a naturally slow-
burning fuel can be felt at all, and, even so, this can always be
counteracted by a small advance of the ignition timing. Under
all normal working conditions the difference in respect to engine
speed between a normally slow or rapid burning volatile liquid fuel
is quite imperceptible.
Latent Heat.—The influence of the latent heat of evaporation
of the fuel is a very important factor, but one which is usually
ignored. This factor, coupled with the mean volatility, determines
the density of the charge taken into the cylinder. It is, of course,
clear that the weight of charge taken into the cylinder will, in any
given case, be inversely proportional to its absolute temperature at
the moment when the inlet valve closes. There is definite evidence
from experimental results that, with the exception of alcohol and
the other members of its group, all fuels boiling below about 400° F.
are completely evaporated before the commencement of the com-
pression stroke by contact with the hot walls and by admixture
with the highly heated residual exhaust products in the cylinder;
excepting only a very small proportion which may enter the cylinder
in coarse drops, and so not only escape evaporation, but, even to a
large extent, combustion also. This proportion is, however, quite
insignificant, and has no influence, in so far as power output is
concerned.
The absolute temperature at the commencement of the com-
pression stroke is dependent upon (a) the amount of external heat-
ing applied, and (b) the latent heat of evaporation. It is largely
independent of the temperature of the mixture during its entry to
the cylinder. In fact, the final absolute temperature, and, there-
fore, the weight of the charge taken into the cylinder, are dependent
upon the quantity and latent heat of the fuel, and upon the amount
of heat added to it, external to the cylinder,
For example, a highly volatile fuel entering the cylinder at

40° F., and a fuel of low-vapour tension entering at 80° F., will both
have the same final absolute temperature at the commencement of
compression, if the latent heat of both is the same, and if both
receive the same amount of pre-heating. In the former case most
of the evaporation has taken place outside the cylinder, and the
added heat has been absorbed by the latent heat of evaporation; in
the latter case, little or no evaporation has taken place outside the
cylinder, and the added heat has therefore raised the temperature
of the air and of the, still liquid, fuel. In both cases contact and
admixture with the highly heated exhaust products in the cylinder
will complete evaporation, and in both cases the final temperature
will be the same, hence the weight of working fluid (which is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature at the end of the suction
stroke), and therefore the power output, will be the same in both
cases.
From the above considerations it will be seen that, with any
given amount of pre-heating (provided it is not excessive), the
volumetric efficiency, and therefore the power output, will increase
with the latent heat of the fuel.
TABLE II
Total Energy Relative Power,

Latent Heat of liberated by Output allowing for
Name of Fuel. Evaporation, Combustion. Increase in Density
B.Th.U.s per lb. Ft. lb, per due to Evaporation.
standard cub. in. Octane=100.
Paraffin Series
Hexane … … … 156 48·33 100·2
Heptane … … 133 48·64 100·1
Octane … … … 128 48·73 100·0
Nonane … … … .. 48·78 ..
Decane … … … 108 48·82 99·4
Aromatic Series
Benzene … … 172 47·51 100·1
Toluene … … … 151 47·98 100·0
Xylene … … … 145 48·26 100·6
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane … … 156 48·11 100·0
Hexahydrotoluene … 138 48·32 99·8
Hexahydroxylene … 133 48·49 99·8
Some calculations illustrating this point more fully will be found
in Chapter II.
The above conclusions may be summed up as follows:—
(1) The power output is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the working fluid at the end of the suction stroke—
since it is the temperature at this point which controls the weight
of charge, and therefore the volumetric efficiency.
(2) Other things being equal, the final suction temperature is
controlled by the amount of external heating, on the one hand, and
the latent heat of the fuel, on the other; it is nearly independent of
the temperature of the entering charge and of its volatility.
Apart from the alcohol group, the variation in latent heat is not
very large, and does not exercise any important influence. It is
interesting to note, however, that in cases where the total internal
energy is lower, the latent heat is generally slightly higher; con-
sequently a slightly greater weight of charge is taken into the
cylinder, sufficient in most cases to compensate for the lower internal
energy, and thus bring the actual power output to substantially the
same in all cases.
This point is well illustrated by the instance of benzene, as will
be seen later, or by reference to Table II. The energy liberated by
the combustion of a cubic inch (at standard temperature and pres-
sure) of benzene-air mixture is appreciably lower than that of the
hydrocarbons forming the greater proportion of petrols. On the other
hand, the latent heat of benzene is considerably greater, and as a
result the power output obtainable under similar conditions from
benzene is the same as that from petrol to within less than one half
of 1 per cent.
The following Table III gives the latent heat of evaporation of
a number of hydrocarbons and other substances enumerated in the
previous tables. The air-to-fuel ratio by weight, also the drop in
temperature of the mixture due to evaporation of the liquid, are
shown for each fuel. The calculations are made for mixtures giving
complete combustion, but without excess of air.
In the case of alcohol, owing to the very much higher latent
heat and to the fact that the proportion of fuel to air is also much
greater, the latent heat of evaporation plays a supremely important
part, and results in a really marked increase in power as compared
with other fuels, although the total internal energy of unit mass of
mixture is lower than that of either petrol or benzol. Moreover,
there is introduced a feature which is not observed to any marked
TABLE III
Latent Heat of Air-to-fuel Ratio Fall in Temperature

Name of Fuel. (by Weight) for of Mixture due to
Evaporation, just complete Latent Heat of
B.Th.U.s per lb. Combustion. Evaporation, ° F.
Paraffin Series
Hexane 156 15·2 37·8
Heptane 133 15·1 32·4
Octane 128 15·05 29·0
Nonane .. 15·0 ..
Decane 108 15·0 20·1
Aromatic Series
Benzene 172 13·2 46·8
Toluene 151 13·4 40·5
Xylene 115 13·6 38·7
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane 156 14·7 38·7
Hexahydrotoluene 138 14·7 34·2
Hexahydroxylene 133 14·7 32·4
Olefine Series
Heptylene 167(app.) 14·7 41·4
Decylene .. 14·7 ..
Alcoholic Group
Ethyl Alcohol 397 8·95 148·8
Methyl Alcohol 512 6·44 252·0
Miscellaneous
Ether 158 11·14 49·5
Carbon Disulph. 153 9·35 55·8
Acetylene Gas 13·2 ..
Carbon Monox. Gas 2·45 ..
Hydrogen Gas 34·3 ..
The last column is calculated on the assumption that the specific heat of the fuel vapour is
constant for all at 0·5.
extent with other fuels—namely, that the power output increases

very considerably when an over-rich mixture is used, because
more fuel is then evaporated, the temperature of the charge is
lowered, and the gain in weight of charge considerably more than
outweighs the loss due to the greater specific heat of the products of
combustion.
In fig. 2 are shown the actual measured volumetric efficiency as
found in the author's fuel research engine when using petrol and
ethyl alcohol under precisely similar conditions as to temperature, &c.,
and at a compression ratio of 5 : 1 . In both cases a careful series
of measurements was made at mixture strengths ranging from
20 per cent weak to 25 per cent over-rich.
In the case of fuels whose volatility is very low, such as kerosene,
butyl alcohol, &c., advantage cannot be taken of the latent heat of
evaporation, because it then becomes necessary to add an excessive
amount of heat before entry to the cylinder, in order to prevent
condensation in the induction system. For this reason alone the
power output obtainable from kerosene is actually some 15 per cent
Fig. 2.—Observed Volumetric Efficiency on Petrol and Alcohol at different

Mixture Strengths
lower than from petrol or other volatile hydrocarbons at the same

compression ratio.
Volatility.—The mean volatility of a fuel is of importance since
this determines the amount of pre-heating required to give reason-
ably uniform distribution. The amount of pre-heating governs, in
its turn, the use which may be made of the latent heat of the liquid
fuel.
In single-cylinder engines volatility is, between wide limits, of
comparatively little consequence since the exposed surface of the
induction pipe is relatively small, but as the number of cylinders is
TABLE IV
Rise or Fall of Temp. Fall in Temperature

in Induction Pipe (calculated) of
(indicating app.
Fuel. Mean Volatility),
Heat 65 B.Th.U. due to Latent Heat
Min. of Evaporation.
Deg. F. Deg. F.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … + 18 32·4

“A” Petrol … … … … + 19·8 36·0
“B” „ … … … … + 5·4 34·2
“C” „ … … … … + 12·6 33·3
“D” „ … … … … + 19·8 33·0
“E” „ … … … … + 18·9 32·8
“F” „ … … … … + 9·5 32·8
“G” „ … … … … + 32·4 ...
“H” „ … … … … + 21·6 36·0
“I” „ … … … … + 25·2 ...
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … … + 50·5 35·7
Kerosene … … … … + 56 26·1
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … … ... 37·8
Hexane (80 % pure) … … … 0 37·8
Heptane (97 % pure) … … + 10 32·4
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … -13·1 46·8
Toluene (99 % pure)… … … + 14·4 40·5
Xylene (91 % pure) … … … + 32·4 38·7
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … … -5·4 38·7
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … … + 5·4 34·2
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … … + 24·3 32·4
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … + 19 37·5
Alcohol Group, &c.

Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … + 2·7 153·0
„ (95vol.%) … … -3·6 176·0
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) … -15·3 252·0
Methylated Spirits … … … -1·8 198·0
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … + 18
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … + 1·8 39·6
Carbon Disulph. (50 %) … … -12·6 48·6
(E246 ) 3
multiplied and the length and surface of the induction system
increased, so does the importance of volatility increase. A rough
approximation (it is no more) of the relative volatility of different
fuels can be obtained by measuring the rise or fall of temperature
in the induction pipe of an engine, when a known weight of fuel and
air are passing into it and when the amount of heat supplied to the
carburettor can be recorded accurately.
The figures in Table IV (p. 17) give some clue as to the
relative volatility of the different fuels—all were tested under exactly
the same conditions as regards speed, temperature, heat input, &c.
The temperatures measured in the induction pipe and recorded in
the table are, in each instance, those found when the mixture strength.
was that giving complete combustion,
The last column gives the calculated drop in temperature as-
suming no heat input and that the whole of the fuel be evaporated
before entry to the cylinder.
Final Boiling Point.—It is always desirable to keep the final
boiling point of any fuel as low as possible, because the higher boiling
fractions are liable to condense on the cylinder walls and so to pass
down into the crankcase, where they foul the lubricating oil.
As a general rule, so long as the final boiling point does not
exceed say 400° F. no serious trouble need be feared on this score,
for, if any fuel does condense on the walls, it will evaporate off in
the crankcase, but in the case of kerosene and other high boiling
fuels condensation on the cylinder walls and in the crankcase is one
of the most serious difficulties with which designers of engines using
these fuels have to contend.
Starting.—The readiness of a fuel to start from cold depends
upon the proportion of low boiling-point fractions present in the
fuel.
With nearly all commercial petrols the full vapour pressure at
normal atmospheric temperature is only reached when at least 3 per
cent of the volume of the vessel is occupied with liquid.
In an actual engine, starting is required with a minimum of
about one-thirtieth of this, and even then the mixture strength
would be about nine times richer than the normal running mixture.
It follows, therefore, that unless a fuel has an abnormally high vapour
tension it is necessary always to provide a very large excess for
starting, e.g. by flooding or by the use of a special pilot jet, &c.,
as in the Zenith carburettor or by other means.
Calorific Value.—The heat liberated by the combination of the
fuel and air is usually determined by burning the fuel in some form
of calorimeter. The heat value so found includes the latent heat
of the water formed, because in any form of calorimeter the tem-
perature necessarily falls below the boiling point of water. Since,
however, it is quite out of the question in any internal-combustion
engine to make use of the latent heat of the water, it is customary
to deduct from the total heat liberated that due to the condensation
of the water formed. The heat value found after this deduction
has been made, is termed the lower calorific value of the fuel and
is generally accepted as the basis upon which to calculate the
thermal efficiency of an engine. In the case of internal-combustion
engines using volatile liquid fuels, such a value for the available
heat is not quite correct because, when a fuel is burnt in a bomb
or other calorimeter, some of the heat of combustion is devoted to
evaporating the remainder of the liquid fuel and is therefore
absorbed. Now when used in an engine the whole of the liquid is
evaporated before combustion takes place, and the heat required for
its evaporation is supplied by the waste heat from the cycle or by
the available heat already present in the air. In either case it is
supplied by heat other than the useful heat of combustion of the
fuel If, therefore, it be accepted as correct that the latent heat of
evaporation of the water formed should be deducted from the total
heat of combustion as determined by calorimetric measurement,
because this heat cannot be utilized, then it is equally right and
proper that the latent heat of evaporation of the liquid fuel itself
should be added to the observed calorimetric determination because
its equivalent value in the heat of combustion can be and is used
in any internal-combustion engine in which the fuel is evaporated
before combustion starts, i.e. in any but Diesel engines ; strictly
speaking, there should be added the latent heat at constant volume,
which is less than that at constant pressure by an amount equal to
the work done on the atmosphere if the liquid is evaporated when
unenclosed. In the following Table V is given the heat of combustion
of various fuels in terms of B.Th.U.s per lb. and per gallon, the first
two columns being the usually accepted lower calorific value and
the second the revised value corrected to include the latent heat of
evaporation of the liquid fuel itself. This latter corrected value is
used throughout this volume for all determinations of thermal
efficiency.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the heat value of a
volatile liquid fuel bears no relation whatever to the power output
TABLE V
Calorific (lower) Calorific (lower) Latent Heat

Value (exclusive of Value (including of Evapora-
Latent Heat). Latent Heat at tion of Fuel
Constant Volume). (at Constant
Fuel. Pressure
atmospheric)
B.Th.U. B.Th.U. B.Th.U B.Th.U.
B.Th.U. per per
per lb. per lb. per lb.
gallon. gallon.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,080 137,000 19,200 136,200 133·0

“A” Petrol … … … 18,450 144,300 18,580 145,200 142·0
“B” „ … … … 18,890 136,600 19,020 137,500 140·0
“C” „ … … … 19,000 138,100 19,120 137,000 135·0
“D” „ … … … 18,770 142,600 18,890 143,500 132·0
“E” „ … … … 18,970 136,400 19,090 137,100 132·0
“F” „ … … … 19,130 134,700 19,250 135,500 134·0
“G” „ … … … … … … … …
“H” „ … … … 18,790 144,100 18,920 145,000 145·0
“I” „ … … … … … … … …
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … 17,900 158,500 18,030 159,600 136·0
(App.) (App.)
Kerosene … … … … 1.9,000 154,400 19,100 155,200 108·0
(App.) (App.)
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … 19,600 122,300 19,740 123,100 154·0
Hexane (80 % pure) … … 19,250 131,900 19,390 132,900 156·0
Heptane (97 % pure) … … 19,300 132,800 19,420 134,100 133·0
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … 17,302 152,950 17,460 154,200 172·0
Toluene (99 % pure) … … 17,522 152,500 17,660 153,600 151·0
Xylene (91 % pure) … … 17,800 153,500 17,930 154,500 145·0
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … 18,800 147,800 18,940 149,000 156·0
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … 18,760 146,200 18,890 147,200 138·0
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … 18,770 139,700 18,890 140,600 133·0
(App.) (App.)
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … 18,400 139,400 18,540 140,200 150·0
(App.) (App.) (App.)
Alcohol Group, &c.
Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … 11,480 91,600 11,840 94,500 406·0
„ (95 v o l %) … 10,790 88,000 11,130 92,000 442·0
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) 9,630 79,900 10,030 83,300 500·0
(App.)
Methylated Spirits … … 10,200 83,700 10,580 86,900 450·0
(App.)
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … … … … … …
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … 16,700 121,300 16,830 122,500 146·0
(App.) (App.) (App.)
Carbon Disulph. (50 %) … 10,600 105,400 10,730 106,600 146·0
obtainable from that fuel. In the case of gaseous fuels when the
calorific value is very low, the apparent relationship is due largely
to the presence in the gas of a considerable proportion of inert
diluents such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in which case, of course,
the power output is reduced because these diluents displace some
of the available oxygen. In the case of volatile liquid fuels,
however, the vapour contains no diluents at all, and the power
output available is, therefore, entirely independent of the calorific
value of the fuel.
The heat value of a fuel is, on the other hand, a direct measure
of the quantity of fuel required, the lower the heat value the greater
being the quantity needed to do the same work.
Heat Value of Mixture.—It is upon the heat value of the
mixture of fuel and air, in the proportion required to give complete
combustion, that the power output of an engine depends, and in this
connection we find that all hydrocarbon fuels give within very close
limits the same heat value per standard cubic inch of correct mixture.
"When allowance is made for the increase or decrease in specific
volume after combustion, the variation becomes even less.
The following Table VI gives :—
Col. (1) The corrected calorific value of various petrols and other fuels.
Col. (2) The ratio of air/fuel by weight for complete combustion.
Col. (3) The increase or decrease in specific volume after combustion.
Col. (4) The ft.-lb. of energy liberated by the combustion of one standard
cubic inch of mixture giving complete combustion, i.e. the total
available internal energy.
The heat value of the “ correct ” mixture is usually termed the

total “ internal energy ” of the working fluid, and this term will in
future be used in order to distinguish it from the calorific value of
the fuel, which latter has no influence on the power output.
Thermal Efficiency obtainable from Different Fuels.—
Provided that the fuel is reasonably volatile, the thermal efficiency
obtainable at any given compression ratio is substantially the same
for all hydrocarbon fuels, irrespective of their chemical composition
or of any other factor. In the case of the alcohol group, however, a
somewhat higher thermal efficiency is obtained because, owing in
part to their higher latent heat, and in part to their lower flame
temperature, both the mean and the maximum temperatures of the
cycle are lower, and the losses are therefore somewhat less. The
range of burning on the weak side, which, by controlling the flame
temperature, would control also the efficiency, happens to be almost
TABLE VI
(3) (4)
(2) Total Energy
Calorific (lower) Air-to- Spec. liberated by
Value (including Fuel Volume Combustion
Latent Heat at Ratio by after Com- per cub. in.
Fuel. Constant Volume). Weight bustion at n.t.p. of
÷ that be-
for fore Com- Mixture
Complete bustion or giving
B.Th.U. B.Th.U Com- " Volume complete
per lb. per gall. bustion. Ratio." Combustion
foot-lb.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,200 136,200 15·05 1·053 48·5

“A” Petrol … … … 18,580 145,200 14·3 1·038 48·15
“B” „ … … … 19,020 137,500 14·7 1·049 48·45
“C” „ … … … 19,120 137,000 14·8 1·052 48·53
“D” „ … … … 18,890 143,500 14·6 1·047 48·35
“E” „ … … … 19,090 137,100 14·9 1·051 48·51
“F” „ … … … 19,250 135,500 15·0 1·053 48·54
“G” „ … … … … … … … …
“H” „ … … … 18,920 145,000 14·7 1·048 48·31
“I” „ … … … ... ... ... ... ...
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … 18,030 159,600 13·8 1·04 48·52
Kerosene … … … 19,100 155,200 15·0 1·06 48·91
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … 19,740 123,100 15·25 1·051 48·7
Hexane (80 % pure) … … 19,390 132,900 15·2 1·051 48·35
Heptane (97 % pure) … … 19,420 134,100 15·1 1·056 48·64
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … 17,460 154,200 13·2 1·013 47·51
Toluene (99 % pure) … … 17,660 153,600 13·4 1·023 47·98
Xylene (91 % pure) … … 17,930 154,500 13·6 1·03 48·1
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … 18,940 149,000 14·7 1·044 48·11
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … 18,890 147,200 14·7 1·047 48·2
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … 18,890 146,600 14·8 1·054 48·59
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … 18,540 140,200 14·8 1·054 49·54
(App.)
Alcohol Group, &c.
Ethyl Alcohol (98·5 %) … 11,840 94,500 8·9 1·065 47·39
„ (95 vol. %) … 11,130 92,000 8·4 1·065 46·86
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) 10,030 83,300 6·5 1·06 48·2
(App.) (App.)
Methylated Spirit … … 10,580 86,900 8·0 1·064 48·82
(App.)
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … … … … … …
Ether (50 % in petrol)… … 16,830 122,500 13·0 1·06 49·2
Carbon Disulph. (50 %) … 10,730 106,600 10·8 0·98 39·4
exactly the same in the case of all volatile liquid fuels yet examined
with the exception of ether, and, in all cases, the maximum thermal
efficiency is obtained when the mixture is 15 per cent weak. If
any attempt be made to weaken the mixture beyond this point,
combustion becomes unduly slow and incomplete, and the efficiency
falls away in consequence. Theoretically, of course, the efficiency
should rise steadily as the mixture strength is reduced and should
follow an almost straight line law until at the point when the mixture
is infinitely weak the efficiency should be equal to the air standard.
In practice the extent to which the mixture can be weakened with
increase of efficiency depends to some small extent, in the case of a
single-cylinder engine, upon the position of the sparking plug and the
intensity of the spark, while in a multi-cylinder engine it depends
to a much larger extent upon the uniformity of distribution, but in
both cases it is very limited.
It is perhaps rather remarkable that the maximum thermal
efficiency obtainable with two fuels so widely different as hexane
C6H14 and benzene C6H6 should be the same, but the explanation lies
in the fact that while for CO2 the dissociation is great at high tem-
peratures, yet the increase in specific heat is small. On the other
hand, for H20 the dissociation is small but the increase in specific
heat is great. Curiously enough, these effects almost exactly balance
one another, so that the sum of the losses from each source is prac-
tically the same,
The following Table VII gives :—
Col. (1) The lower calorific value of the fuel corrected for the latent heat of
evaporation.
Col. (2) The lowest fuel consumption in terms of lbs. and pints per I.H.P. hour
at a compression ratio of 5 : 1.
Col. (3) The corresponding thermal efficiency.
The above figures relate to the thermal efficiency obtainable
when all fuels are used at the same compression ratio.
It has, however, been stated previously that the highest com-
pression ratio at which a fuel may be used depends upon its tendency
to detonate, and it has been shown that this varies widely.
The following Table VIII shows the fuel consumption in terms
both of pints and lbs. per I.H.P. hour when each fuel is used at its
highest useful compression ratio.
It will be noted that in the case of kerosene and one or two
other examples which are not very volatile, the observed thermal
efficiency is considerably lower, due to the fact that a substantial
TABLE VII
(1) (2) (3)

Calorific (lower) Value Minimum Con- Thermal
(including Latent Heat sumption at Com- Efficiency
Fuel. at Constant Volume). pression Ratio of at Com-
5:1 per I.H.P. pression
Hour. Ratio of
5:1
B.Th.U. B.Th.U. per per cent.
per lb. gallon. lb. Pints.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,200 136,200 0·415* 0·462* 31·9*

“A” Petrol … … … 18,580 145,200 0·432 0·442 31·7
“B” „ … … … 19,020 137,500 0·423 0·468 31·7
“C” „ … … … 19,120 137,000 0·421 0·463 31·6
“D” „ … … … 18,890 143,500 0·422 0·445 31·9
“E” „ … … … 19,090 137,100 0·421* 0·469* 31·7*
“F” „ … … … 19,250 135,500 0·414 0·471 31·9
“G” „ … … … … 0·426 0·454
“H” „ … … … 18,920 145,000 0·425 0·443 31·7
“I” „ … … … … 0·418 0·460
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … 18,030 159,600 0·510 0·461 27·6
Kerosene … … … 19,100 155,200 0·523* 0·515* 25·4*
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … 19,740 123,100
Hexane (80 % pure) … … 19,390 132,900 0·411 0·480 32·0
Heptane (97 % pure) … … 19,420 134,100 0·410* 0·475* 31·9*
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … 17,460 154,200 0·458 0·415 31·8
Toluene (99 % pure) … … 17,660 153,600 0·455 0·418 31·7
Xylene (91 % pure) … … 17,930 154,500 0·452 0·420 31·4
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … 18,940 149,000 0·420 0·427 31·9
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … 18,890 147,200 0·425 0·430 31·7
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … 18,890 140,600 0·424* 0·456* 31·8*
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … 18,540 140,200 0·429 0·453 32·0
Alcohol Group, &c.

Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … 11,840 94,500 0·663 0·665 32·4
„ (95 vol. %) … 11,130 92,000 0·705 0·692 32·5
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) 10,030 83,300 0·777 0·750 32·7
Methylated Spirits … … 10,580 86,900 0·740 0·721 32·5
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … … 0·566 0·550
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … 16,830 122,500
Carbon Disulph, (50 %) … 10,730 106,600
* This sign indicates that the values are only calculated, since these fuels could not be tested
at a compression ratio of 5 : 1 owing to detonation. The values have been inserted to show
the efficiency and power obtained relatively to the other fuels if used at the same compression.
TABLE VIII
Minimum Consumption at Highest Useful

Compression per I.H.P. Hour.
Fuel.
lb. Pints.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … … 0·422 0·471

“A ” Petrol … … … … 0·393 0·402
“B” „ … … … … … 0·393 0·435
“C” „ … … … … … 0·410 0·451
“D” „ … … … … … 0·407 0·428
“E” „ … … … … … 0·435 0·484
“F” „ … … … … … 0·412 0·469
“G” „ … … … … … 0·449 0·478
“H” „ … … … … … 0·389 0·405
“I” „ … … … … … 0·457 0·503
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … … … 0·447 0·404
Kerosene … … … … … 0·581 0·571
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … … …
Hexane (80 % pure) … … … 0·405 0·473
Heptane (97 % pure) … … … 0·491 0·568
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … … 0·392 0·355
Toluene (99 % pure) … … … 0·385 0·354
Xylene (91 % pure) … … … 0·381 0·354
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93% pure) … … … 0·385 0·392
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … … 0·394 0·404
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … … … 0·429 0·461
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … … 0·405 0·428
Alcohol Group, &c.

Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … … 0·532 0·533
„ „ (95 vol. %) … … 0·565 0·555
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) … 0·725 0·700
Methylated Spirits … … … 0·625 0·609
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … … 0·472 0·459
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … …
Carbon Disulph, (50 %) … … …
proportion of the liquid fuel is deposited on the walls of the induc-

tion piping and cylinder and escapes combustion. This proportion
could be reduced by further pre-heating, but all the tests were carried
out, for comparative purposes, at exactly the same heat input to
the carburettor.
By additional pre-heating a slightly higher thermal efficiency can
be obtained, but the power output is reduced and the tendency to
detonate increased thereby.
T h e Maximum Power Output.—The maximum power
output obtainable from any fuel depends upon the internal energy of
the working fluid and upon the latent heat of evaporation of the liquid.
The former varies very little, the latter considerably as between
different fuels—generally speaking as regards the true hydrocarbon
fuels the variations in internal energy and latent heat just about
balance, with the result that the maximum power output is the same
for all. For example, the total internal energy of benzene is about
1·5 per cent less than that of hexane, on the other hand the latent
heat of benzene is considerably greater, and a greater weight of
mixture is therefore retained in the cylinder, with the result that
under identical temperature and other conditions both give, at the
same compression ratio, the same power output to within less than
half of 1 per cent.
In the case of alcohol, although the total internal energy of the
mixture is appreciably lower, yet the latent heat is so much greater
that a much denser charge is retained in the cylinder and the power
output is some 5 per cent greater despite the lower internal energy.
Table IX shows :
Col. (1) The total internal energy.
Col. (2) The latent heat of evaporation.
Col. (3) The observed indicated mean pressure (power output) at a com-
pression ratio of 5 : 1 .
Col. (4) The observed indicated mean pressure at the highest useful com-
pression ratio.
Fuels for Aircraft.—For all commercial purposes other than

aircraft, fuel is supplied by bulk, not weight, and it is therefore the
heat value per gallon and not per lb. which need be considered. In
the particular case of aircraft, however, the weight and not the bulk
of the fuel becomes the primary consideration. Other things being
equal, therefore, the fuel with the highest calorific value per lb.
will be the most efficient. From this point of view alone, the paraffin
series would appear the most desirable. Unfortunately, however,
owing to their tendency to detonate, the members of this series cannot
be used in a high compression and therefore in an efficient engine.
TABLE IX
Max. Ind.
Total Latent Mean
Energy Heat of Effective Max. Ind. Mean
liberated by Evapora- Pressure at Effective Pressure
Combustion tion of Fuel Compres- at Highest Useful
per cub. in. (at Con- sion Ratio Compression.
Fuel. of Mixture stant Pres- Heat 65
of 5 : 1.
giving sure atmo- Heat 65 B.Th.U.
complete spheric) B.Th.U. Min.
Combustion B.Th.U. Min. lb. per sq. in.
foot-lb. per lb. lb. per sq. in.
Aromatic Free Petrol … … 48·5 133·0 131·3* 130·0

“A” Petrol … … … 48·15 142·0 131·2 140·1
“B” „ … … … 48·45 140·0 131·5 137·5
“C” „ … … … 48·53 135·0 131·0 133·9
“D” „ … … … 48·35 132·0 13]·2 134·9
“E” „ … … … 48·51 132·0 131·0* 128·6
“F” „ … … … 48·54 134·0 131·8 132·7
“G” „ … … … .. .. 131·5* 127·4
“H” „ … … … 48·31 145·0 131·0 139·5
“I” „ … … … .. .. 131·7* 125·1
Heavy Fuels
Heavy Aromatics … … 48·52 136·0 131·1 142·5
Kerosene … … … … 48·91 108·0 130·7 123·0
Paraffin Series
Pentane (Normal) … … 48·7 154·0 131·3 139·0
Hexane (80 % pure) … … 48·35 156·0 132·3 133·1
Heptane (97 % pure) … … 48·64 133·0 131·2* 119·5
Aromatic Series
Benzene (pure) … … … 47·51 172·0 131·6 146·5
Toluene (99 % pure) … … 47·98 151·0 131·5 147·0
Xylene (91 % pure) … … 48·1 145·0 131·5 146·8
Naphthene Series
Cyclohexane (93 % pure) … 48·11 156·0 131·3 139·0
Hexahydrotoluene (80 %) … 48·2 138·0 131·0 137·9
Hexahydroxylene (60 %) … 48·59 133·0 130·8* 130·0
Olefines
Cracked Spirit (53 % unsat.) … 49·54 150-0 131·6 136-0
(App.)
Alcohol Group, &c.
Ethyl Alcohol (98 %) … … 47·39 406·0 137·8 156·5
„ „ (95 vol. %) … 46·86 442·0 142·0 161·2
Methyl Alcohol (Wood Naphtha) 48·2 500·0 144·8 146·6
(App.) (App.)
Methylated Spirits … … 46·82 450·0 144·5 155·5
(App.)
Butyl Alcohol (Coml.) … … .. .. 138·0 156·0
Ether (50 % in petrol) … … 49·2 146·0 136·0* 125·0
(App.)
Carbon Disulph, (50 %) … 39·4 146·0 124·5 125·7
* This sign indicates that the values are only calculated, since these fuels could not be tested
at a compression ratio of 5 : 1 owing to detonation. The values have been inserted to show
the efficiency and power obtained relatively to the other fuels if used at the same compression.
If the compression were adjusted to suit the fuel, then the greatest
distance could be flown on that fuel which gives the highest value
for the product thermal efficiency X heat value per lb., and it is
interesting to note that of all the fuels examined the highest figures
are:
Heat Value.
Efficiency B.Th.U.
per cent. per lb. Product.
(1) Xylene … … … 0·373x17,930 = 6700
(2) Cyclohexane … … 0·349x18,940 = 6600
(3) Petrol (sample B) … 0·341x19,020 = 6500
Although xylene comes first on the list, it is not a practicable

fuel on account of its high boiling point and low volatility, also it
is only efficient when used at a compression ratio so high (namely,
above 6·75 : 1) as to render the engine unduly heavy owing to the
very high maximum pressures to be withstood. Cyclohexane, one
of the lighter members of the naphthene series, would actually give
the best possible results from every point of view, but is not
obtainable in bulk. The next on the list, viz. the petrol sample (B),
is a very light and highly volatile fuel which was prepared by the
Asiatic Petroleum Co. for, and used in, the cross-Atlantic flight.
In aircraft engines it is particularly desirable to use a very
volatile fuel on account of distribution, and in order to be able to
reduce to the minimum the amount of pre-heating required, and so
to make the maximum possible use of the latent heat of evaporation
to increase the power output.
For present-day (1928) aircraft engines which have an average
compression ratio of about 5·4:1 the fuel used should have a toluene
value of not less than +20, that is to say, it should contain not
less than about 25 per cent of aromatics or their equivalent in
naphthenes, in order to eliminate detonation and so enable the engine
to develop its full power at ground level, as is most necessary when
starting heavily laden. Since, however, detonation is largely a
function of pressure, once an aeroplane has attained a reasonable
altitude and is in air at a lower density, the tendency to detonate
will disappear and a fuel of lower toluene value may be used. From
an idealist point of view, therefore, it would seem desirable to
employ a fuel of high toluene value at or near ground level, and to
change over to a nearly pure paraffin petrol so soon as a sufficient
altitude has been obtained.
By the use of alcohol, or of a fuel with high latent heat, or of
one which has had its latent heat of evaporation augmented by the
introduction of water in solution with the fuel, a very substantial

advantage may be gained, because, as shown previously, the high
latent heat will increase the available power output very con-
siderably—a most important consideration, especially in the case of
aeroplanes when taking off with heavy loads.
SUMMARY
The results of a lengthy investigation of the various volatile
liquid fuels carried out on behalf of the Asiatic Petroleum Co. may
be summarized as follows :—
(1) It has been proved that the tendency of a fuel to detonate
is the one outstanding factor in determining its value for use in a
constant-volume internal-combustion engine. Compared with this,
most other considerations are of secondary importance.
(2) There appears to be little doubt as to the correctness of the
view, now generally accepted, that detonation is largely dependent
upon the normal rate of burning of the fuel and is less the lower the
rate of burning.
(3) In all cases it seems that a low rate of burning is advantageous.
No fuel has yet been found whose rate of burning was too low to
permit of maximum efficiency being obtained in the highest speed
engine yet tested.
(4) Fuels capable of standing a very high compression will
operate in a low compression engine, equally as efficiently as those
whose normal rate of burning is high—provided that there is a
reasonable degree of turbulence in the combustion chamber.
(5) Apart from the limitations introduced by detonation, the
power output obtainable from all volatile liquid fuels, with the
exception of the alcohol group, is the same at the same compression
to within less than 2 per cent. Such variations as occur, within
this range, are due rather to variations in the latent heat of evapora-
tion than to any other circumstance.
(6) Owing to the high latent heat and low boiling point of alcohol
and certain other bodies, the weight of charge per cycle is greater
and a higher power output is obtained in consequence.
(7) The efficiency with which all volatile fuels, other than alcohol,
&c., are burnt is practically the same, at the same compression ratio,
irrespective of rate of burning, provided the compression is low
enough to avoid detonation under any circumstances. In the case
of alcohol, the efficiency is slightly higher, on account of the lower
flame temperature.
(8) The useful range of burning is, to all intents and purposes,
the same for all volatile liquid fuels,
(9) The unavoidable losses due to the combined influence of
dissociation and change of specific heat at high temperatures are
substantially the same in all cases.
(10) All the experimental results indicate that the performance
of any combination of hydrocarbons as regards detonation, and
therefore the power output and efficiency obtainable, is the mean
performance of each of the components. The performance of any
complex fuel such as petrol can therefore be predicted, once the
nature and proportion of its constituents are determined, or con-
versely, a fuel can be prepared to give any required performance,
within the limits available.
(11) The highest useful compression ratio for, and therefore the
power output obtainable from, any petrol is governed by the relative
proportions of aromatics, naphthenes, and paraffins it contains—the
smaller the proportion of the latter the better from almost every
point of view.
(12) To judge of the quality of a fuel by its specific gravity is
entirely misleading. If naphthene and aromatic fractions are present
in any large proportion (as is frequently the case), then a high
specific gravity is a substantial advantage.
(13) Owing to the very rich mixture delivered normally by pilot
jets, and the still further enrichment effected by flooding, only a
relatively small proportion of highly volatile constituents appears to
be required for starting.
Table X (facing p. 30) and Table XI (facing p. 32) give a general
summary of the above investigations and test results which were
carried out on behalf of the Asiatic Petroleum Co, That the author
is permitted to publish them without reservation of any kind is due
to the generosity and public spirit of this most enterprising company.
The following particulars of the single-cylinder research engine and
its accessories which formed the principal piece of apparatus used
for the research, may be of some interest :—
In figs. 3-6 are shown drawings and photographs of the variable
compression engine referred to in connection with the preceding
tests,
In the design of this engine the following considerations were
taken into account:—
(1) In view of the prolonged and extensive nature of the tests,
not only were durability and reliability regarded as matters of
TABLE X.—FUEL CHARACTERISTICS.
A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J.
Boiling Range. Total Energy

Approximate (Composition of Fuel. Calorific (lower) Value (in- Heat of Com-
bustion per Spec. Volume
liberated by
Calorific (lower) Value (exclu- cluding Latent Heat at Combustion Air-
(Percentage by Weight.)
Vapour
Pressure (or Viscosity at sive of Latent Heat). Constant Volume). cubic inch at after Com-
bustion : per cub. in.a t ita
Specilic Engler Distillation. n.t.p. of Mix- that
Gravlt y at "Tension") 20° C. before n.t.p. of Mix- Wei
at 0 C. mm. C.G.8. units.
° ture giving Combustion ture giving
15° C. Final complete COT
complete
Temp.
Aromatics. Naphthenes.
of Mercury.
B.Th.U. B.Th.U. Combustion or Ratio."
" Volume
Combustion Com
60°. 80°. 100°. 120°. 140°. 160°. 180°. 0°C. Paraffins. B.TH.U. B.Th.U. foot-lb.
% % % % % % % % % per lb. per gallon. per lb. per gallon. foot-lb.
0·718 1·0 16·0 49·0 72·0 85·0 93·0 — — 63·0 1·7 35·0 — 0·004 19,080 137,000 19,200 136,200 46·08 1·053 48·5 15·
0·782 — — 15·0 54·0 83 ·0 98·0 — 164·0 26·0 39·0 35·0 28·0 0·005 18,450 144,300 18,580 145,200 46·39 1·038 48·15 14·
0·723 4·0 37·3 79·0 99·0 — — — 126·0 62·0 14·9 23·0 86·0 0·005 18,890 136,600 19,020 137,500 46·19 1·049 48·45 14·
0·727 — 11·5 47·0 79·0 92·0 98·5 — 160·0 61·0 8·5 30·5 54·0 0·005 19,000 138,100 19,120 137,000 46·13 1·052 48·53 14·
0·760 — 13·0 66·0 89·0 97·5 — 166·0 38·0 14·6 47·0 18·0 0·005 18,770 142,000 18,890 143,500 46·18 1·047 48·35 14·
0·719 2·0 14·5 43·0 71·0 86·0 96·0 — 170·0 68·0 11·3 20·0 70·0 0·005 18,970 136,400 19,090 137,100 46·16 1·051 48·51 14·
0·704 1·0 27·0 65·0 86·5 94·5 — — 153·0 80·0 4· 3 15·2 68·0 0·004 19,130 134,700 19,250 135,500 46·1 1·053 48·54 15·
0·750 — 7·0 24·0 47·0 67·0 81·5 91·0 210·0 — 7· 5 — 44·0 0·005 — — — — — — —
0·767 — — 7· 0 55·0 83·0 94·0 — 176·0 10·0 4· 8 85·0 17·0 0·006 18,790 144,100 18,920 145,000 46·1 1·048 48·31 14·
0·727 — 5·0 25·0 50·0 74·0 93·0 — 187·0 — 7· 8 — — 0·005 — — — — — — —
160° C. 180° C. 200° C. 220° C. 240° C. 260° C. 280° C.
% % % % % % %
0·885 8·0 30·0 50·0 65·0 77·0 90·0 — 275·0 — 71·5 — — 0·007 17,000 (App.) 158,500 (App.) 18,030 159,600 46·66 1·04 48·52 13·
0·813 — 22·0 36·0 50·0 63·0 78·0 86·0 300·0 — — — — 0·010 19,000 (App.) 154,400 (App.) 19,100 155,200 46·14 1·06 48·91 15·
Range of Boiling °C.

0·624 36·8 100·0 (App.) — — 183·0 0·0025 19,600 122,300 19,740 123,100 46·25 1·051 48-7 15·
0·685 40·0 to 88·0 (Bulk at 68·0) 77·0 2·7 20·0 (App.) 45·0 0·003 19,250 131,000 19,390 132,900 46·0 1·051 48-36 15·
0·691 98·0 — <0·5 — 11·5 0·004 19,300 132,800 19,420 134,100 46·06 1·056 48-64 15·
0·884 80·0 Negligible 98·0 Negligible 26·0 0·006 17,302 152,950 17,480 154,200 46·9 1·013 47·51 13·
0·870 110·0 (App.) Negligible 99·0 Negligible 9·0 0·006 17,522 152,500 17,660 153,600 46·9 1·023 47·98 13·
0·862 84·0 to 143 (Bulk at 140·0) 91·0 0·006 17,800 153,500 17,930 154,500 48·7 1·03 48·1 13·
0·786 80·8 to 81·0 — 4·6 93·0 27·5 0·006 18,800 147,800 18,940 149,000 46·08 1·044 48·11 14·
0·780 95 ·5 „ 101 ·2 — 10·0 78·0 — — 18,760 146,200 18,890 147,200 46·04 1·047 48·2 14·
0·744 103 ·0 „ 123 ·0 — — 60·0 — — 18,770 (App.) 139,700 (App.) 18,890 140,600 46·1 1·054 48·59 14·
Olefines.
0·757 55·0 to 175·0 53·0 10·0 — — 18,400 (App.) 139,400 (App.) 18,540 140,200 47·0 1·054 49·54 14·
Water.
0·798 78·0 to 100·0 1·5 — — 12·0 0·012 11,180 91,600 11,840 94,500 44·5 1·065 47·39 8·
0·815 78 ·0 „ 100 ·0 7·0 — — — — 10,790 88,000 11,130 92,000 44·0 1·065 46·86 8·
0·829 66·0 + — — — 26·0 0·006 9,630 79,900 10,030 83,300 45·5 (App.) 1·06 (App.) 48·2 (App.) 6·
0·821 — 7·0 (App.) — — — 0·010 10,200 83,700 10,580 86,900 44·0 1·064 46·82 8·
0·823 117·0 + — — — — 0·030 — — — — — — —
0·727 35·0 + 2·5 (App.) — 50·0 Petrol — — 16,700 (App.) 121,300 (App.) 16,830 122,500 46·4 1·06 49·2 13·
0·994 46·0 + — — 50·0 Petrol — — 10,600 105,400 10,730 106,600 40·2 0·98 39·4 10·
primary importance, but every effort was made to ensure mechanical
consistency.
(2) Every expedient known at the time, viz. 1919, was adopted
to attain the highest possible thermal efficiency and power output,
and to ensure that all losses, whether thermal or frictional, were
reduced to the absolute minimum, and maintained as nearly constant
as possible, under all conditions.
(3) The engine was designed to run when required at a piston
speed in excess of that of contemporary engines.
(4) Means are provided for varying the compression of the
engine over any range from 3·7 :1 up to 8 : 1 while running at full
power, and without disturbing any temperature, frictional, mechan-
ical, or other conditions.
(5) The combustion chamber is so designed that its general
form and ratio of surface to volume undergo the minimum of altera-
tion when the compression is varied, and to this end a very long
stroke is employed.
(6) Special means are adopted to render the engine as little
sensitive to changes in the temperature of the lubricant as possible,
Ball bearings are used wherever possible, in order to reduce variation
in friction with different oil temperatures, and the water jacketing
round the barrel of the cylinder is stagnant, and therefore quickly
attains a constant temperature, independent of the temperature of
the supply. This ensures that the piston friction, which is depend-
ent upon the temperature of the oil on the cylinder walls, reaches a
minimum in the course of a few minutes, and thereafter remains
constant. The importance of retaining as nearly as possible the
same general form of combustion chamber under all conditions of
compression cannot be overestimated. Very misleading results
have been obtained when the compression ratio has been varied by
fitting different pistons, some with concave, others with convex
crowns. In one series of experiments with different compression
ratios which the writer examined, and which were obviously carried
out with the most scrupulous care, the results were entirely vitiated
because the whole character and efficiency of the combustion
chamber were completely changed, as between the low compression
and the high, with the result that a certain optimum compression
ratio was claimed to have been found, after which any further
increase in compression resulted in loss of power and efficiency. A
careful scrutiny of the results showed that at or near the so-called
optimum compression ratio the efficiency of the combustion chamber
Fig. 3
TABLE XI.—EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR VARIABLE COMPRESSION ENGINE.
A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M.
Relative Thermal Efficiency

Highest Useful Compression Minimum Consumption at Minimum Consumption at Max. Ind. Mean Max. Ind. Mean Rise or Fall of (compared with that obtained
Compression Pressure at Compression Max. Ind. Mean with Toluene).
Temp. at Toluene Value, Compression Ratio of 5 :1 Highest Useful Compres- Thermal Thermal Effective Pressure Effective Pressure Effective Pressure Temp. in Induction
Ratio in Variable Highest Useful Highest per I.H.P. Hour. sion per I.H.P. Hour. Efficiency at Efficiency at at Compression Pipe (indicating
Compression Compression Useful Toluene = 100 %. at Highest Useful at Highest Useful
app. Mean Vola-
Compression Aromatic Free Compression Highest Useful Ratio of 5 : 1 . Compression. Compression.
Engine. (calculated). Ratio of 5 : 1 Compression Heat 65 Heat 65 tility). Heat 65 At the same At Highest Use
Total Vol. lb. per sq. in. (calculated). Petrol = 0 % No Heat. B.Th.U./Min. Compression ful Compression
Deg. F. per cent. per cent. B.Th.U./Min. B.Th.U./Min. lb. per sq. in.
Clearance Vol. (gauge). lb. Pints. lb. Pints. lb. per sq. in. lb. per sq. in. Deg. F. Ratio per cent. per cent.
4·85 105·5 738·0 0 0·415* 0·462* 0·422 0·471 31·9* 31·4 131·3* 130·0 138·1 + 18·0 100·0 (App.) 83·7
6·0 148·5 806·0 38·0 0·432 0·442 0·398 0·402 31·7 34·9 131·2 140·1 148·5 + 19·8 100·0 (App.) 93·0
5·7 133·5 792·0 28·0 0·423 0·468 0·393 0·435 31·7 34·1 131·5 137·5 146·0 + 5·4 100·0 (App.) 91·0
5·25 118·0 765·0 13·5 0·421 0·463 0·410 0·451 31·6 32·5 131·0 133·9 142·4 + 12·6 100·0 (App.) 86·7
5·35 121·5 770·0 16·5 0·422 0·445 0·407 0·428 31·9 33·1 131·2 134·9 142·9 + 19·8 100·0 (App.) 88·3
4·7 100·5 729·0 – 5·0 0·421* 0·469* 0·435 0·484 31·7* 30·7 131·0* 128·6 136·7 + 18·9 100·0 (App.) 81·8
5·05 111·5 752·0 6·5 0·414 0·471 0·412 0·469 31·9 32·1 131·8 132·7 140·5 + 9·5 100·0 (App.) 85·6
4·55 96·0 718·0 – 10·0 0·426* 0·454* 0·449 0·478 131·5* 127·4 135-4 + 32·4
5·9 140·5 804·0 35·0 0·425 0·443 0·389 0·405 131·0 139·5 147·8 + 21·6 100·0 (App.) 92·2
4·3 704·0 0·457 0·503 31·7 34·6 125·1 132·5 + 25·2
89·0 – 20·0 0·418* 0·460* 131·7*
6·5 163·5 820·0 55·0 0·510 0·461 0·447 0·404 27·6 31·5 131·1 142·5 + 50·5 86·0 84·0
4·2 86·0 696·0 – 22·0 0·523* 0·515* 0·581 0·571 25·4* 22·9 130·7* 123·0 + 56·0 80·0 61·2
5·85 138·5 800·0 33·0 131·3 139·0

5·1 113·5 754·0 8·0 0·411 0·480 0·405 0·473 32·0 32·4 132·3 133·1 141·2 0 100·0 (App.) 86·4
3·75 667·0 – 37·0 0·410* 0·475* 0·491 0·568 31·9* 26·7 131·2* 119·5 a t 3·8 : 1 125·5 – 10·0 100·0 (App.) 71·2
72·0
6·9† 179·0 842·0 67·0 0·458 0·415 0·392 0·355 31·8 37·2 131·6 146·5 156·0 – 13·1 100·0 (App.) 99·2
>7·0 >183·0 >846·0 100·0 0·455 0·418 0·385 0·354 31·7 37·5 131·5 147·0 at 7·0 : 1 156·3 + 14·4 100·0 (App.) 100·0
>7·0 >183·0 >846·0 85·0 0·452 0·420 0·381 0·354 31·4 37·3 131·5 146·8 at 7·0 : 1 156·1 + 32·4 100·0 (App.) 99·5
5·9† 140·5 802·0 35·0 0·420 0·427 0·385 0·392 31·9 34·9 131·3 139·0 148·0 – 5·4 100·0 (App.) 93·0
5·8 136·5 798·0 31·5 0·425 0·436 0·394 0·404 31·7 34·3 131·0 137·9 146·6 + 5·4 100·0 (App.) 91·5
107·0 741·0 1·5 0·424* 0·456* 0·429 0·461 31·8* 31·5 130·8* 130·0 138·1 + 24·3 100·0 (App.) 84·0
4·9
5·55 128·0 782·0 23·5 0·429 0·453 0·405 0·428 32·0 33·9 131·6 136·0 145·4 + 19·0 100·0 (App.) 84·0
>7·5 >204·0 >796·0 >88·0 0·663 0·665 0·532 0·533 32·4 40·4 137·8 156·5 at 7·5 : 1 165·5 + 2·7 102·0 107·9
>7·5 >204·0 >788·0 >88·0 0·705 0·692 0·565 0·555 32·5 40·5 142·0 l6l·2 at 7·5 : 1 170·0 + 3·6 102·5 108·1
5·2† 116·5 648·0* 0·777 0·750 0·725 0·700 32·7 35·1 144·8 146·6 153·9 – 15·3 103·0 93·5
6·5† >163·5 720·0* 0·740 0·721 0·625 0·609 32·5 38·5 144·5 155·5 165·0 – 1·8 102·5 . 102·7
7·3 195·0 0·566 0·550 0·472 0·459 138·0 156·0 164·5 +18·0
3·9 77·0 662·0 80·0 136·0* 125·0 132·5 + 1·8
5·15† 115·0 734·0 (– 32·0) 124·5 125·7 136·3 – 12·6
(9·0)
This sign (†) indicates that pre-ignition occurred before audible detonation.
This sign (*) indicates that the values are only calculated, since these fuels could not be tested at a compression ratio of 5 : 1 owing to detonation. The values have been inserted to show the efficiency and power obtained relatively to the other fuels if used at the same e
(E 246)
VOLATILE LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 4.—Variable Compression Engine, Sectional Side Elevation

33
was at a maximum, and that at the higher compressions it fell away
very rapidly, and, indeed, became quite exceptionally inefficient.
In the variable compression engine designed for the purpose of
these tests, the efficiency of the combustion chamber undergoes very
little change between the lowest compression ratio and the highest,
with the result that the efficiency increases with increase of com-
pression at a perfectly steady rate throughout the whole range.
As will be seen from the sectional drawings, figs. 3 and 4, the
compression ratio is varied by raising or lowering the whole cylinder,
together with the carburettor,
camshaft, and valve gear (fig. 5);
by this means the compression
ratio can be varied over any
range in the course of a few
seconds, and without disturb-
ing any of the temperature con-
ditions or any adjustments.
To measure and record the
compression ratio in use, a
micrometer is provided as shown
in fig. 6. This is arranged to
operate electrical contacts, and
controls a pilot lamp, which
lights up immediately the de-
sired compression is reached, so
that the operator can adjust
the micrometer screw at his
Fig. 5.—Section through Cylinder Head showing leisure to the compression ratio
Valve Gear
he requires before making any
alteration, and can then see at a glance by the lighting up of the
lamp that this compression has been reached.
For the ignition of the charge four sparking plugs are fitted
equidistant round the circumference of the combustion chamber,
each of which is connected to a Remy high-tension coil. The low-
tension circuit of all the coils is operated by a single Remy contact
breaker driven directly from one end of the camshaft. The object
of using this arrangement in preference to magnetos was twofold :
(1) To ensure that the passage of the spark across all four plugs
should be absolutely synchronous.
(2) To ensure that the intensity of the spark should be the same
at ail settings.
In practice, it was found that the use of two sparking plugs on

opposite sides of the combustion space gave equally good results,
and all tests were therefore run under these conditions. To measure
accurately both the power and friction losses the engine is direct
coupled to a balanced swinging field electric dynamometer, one arm
of which carries a dead weight of 40 lb., which is slightly in excess
Fig. 6.—Photo of upper Part of Engine showing Micrometer for measuring Compression Ratio
of the maximum torque of the engine—a light open-scale spring

balance is used to record the difference in torque between the dead
weight and that developed by the engine—this arrangement permits
of exceedingly accurate determinations, since a very small variation
in torque corresponds with a wide range on the spring balance. The
mean torque on the dynamometer arm is in the neighbourhood of
35 lb., and the difference can be read off at a glance to within less
than one-tenth of a pound. The steadiness of the dynamometer is
such that the needle of the spring balance does not vibrate or
oscillate through a range of more than ±0·1 lb. Generally speaking,
all readings of torque may be taken as being accurate to within one-
third of 1 per cent, while the standard of accuracy of the average of
Fig. 7.—Fuel-measuring Device
several readings is, of course, considerably higher. The load is con-

trolled by varying the field excitation of the dynamometer. For this
purpose, two rheostats are provided in the field circuit, one of which
gives coarse graduations, and the other, a continuous coil resistance,
affords continuous range, and is used for fine adjustments.
The fuel-measuring device consists of two vessels, each comprising
two conical-ended chambers connected together at either end by

a narrow throat, as shown in fig. 7. The upper chamber has a
capacity of exactly one pint, and the lower of ¼ pint. A gauge glass
is fitted to each vessel. The rate of fall of liquid in the glass is very
rapid when passing the narrow throats, so that its passage past the
marks on the gauge glass can be clocked with extreme accuracy.
Geared off one end of the camshaft is a revolution counter operated
by means of a magnetic clutch, and so arranged that the counter is
thrown into operation as the liquid in the gauge glass passes the
first mark, and is thrown out, and a brake applied to its spindle as
the liquid passes the second mark; thus the actual number of
revolutions during the consumption of either one pint or ¼ pint of
fuel is automatically recorded.
The carburettor is a standard Claudel-Hobson aircraft type, but
fitted with a fine adjustment needle valve controlling the jet, so that
the mixture can be varied between close limits. An electrical heater
is fitted in the carburettor air intake passage, and the exact amount
of heat supplied can be read off: from instruments on the switchboard.
A thermometer fitted in an insulated pocket, and projecting into the
inlet valve port, is provided to record, very approximately, the tem-
perature of the working fluid during its entry to the cylinder. From
the known amount of heat supplied, and from the measured differ-
ence in the temperature of the air before and after its entry to the
carburettor, it is possible to determine at least a relative measure of
the mean volatility of the fuel used. The readings of the thermo-
meter in the induction passage are, however, of relative value only.
Owing to the variations in the temperature of the thermometer
pocket due to the deposition of liquid fuel upon it, this thermometer
behaves as a wet bulb instrument, and even the relative values of its
readings cannot be relied upon as between fuels of widely different
latent heats of evaporation.
A general lay-out of the apparatus is shown in fig. 8.
A small calibrated gas-holder is also provided, from which the
engine can draw its supply of air when running on a liquid fuel.
The fall of the gas-holder controls an electrical contact mechanism
which in turn operates a magnetic counter on the observer's desk ;
this counter being inter-connected, electrically, with the revolution
counter on the engine. By this means the air consumption per
revolution can be measured with great accuracy.
38
THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE
Fig. 8.—General Lay-out of Testing Apparatus

CHAPTER II
DETONATION
The phenomenon of detonation appears to be the setting up in the
cylinder of an explosion wave. This occurs when the rapidity of
combustion of that portion of the working fluid first ignited is such
that, by its expansion, it compresses before it the unburnt portion
beyond a certain rate. When the rate of temperature rise due to
compression by the burning portion of the charge exceeds that at
which it can get rid of its heat by conduction, convection, &c., by a
certain margin, the remaining portion ignites spontaneously and
nearly simultaneously throughout its whole bulk, thus setting up an
explosion wave which strikes the walls of the cylinder with a hammer-
like blow and, reacting in its turn, compresses afresh the portion
first ignited. This further raises the temperature of that portion,
and with it the temperature of any isolated or partially insulated
objects in its vicinity, thus ultimately giving rise to pre-ignition. It
would appear, therefore, pretty certain that detonation depends
primarily upon the rate of burning of that portion of the charge first
ignited, and it remains to discover what actually controls this rate.
Influence of the Nature of the Fuel upon Detonation.—
This subject has already been touched on in Chapter I, Broadly
speaking, it would appear both from actual engine tests and from
Tizard's researches, that two factors determine whether or not a
fuel will detonate:
(1) The self-ignition temperature of the fuel/air mixture.
(2) The rate of acceleration of burning as the ignition temperature
is exceeded.
Both the true self-ignition temperature, if indeed such a term
can be used, and the rate of acceleration of burning appear to
depend primarily upon the chemical composition of the fuel.
Reference has been made to the self-ignition temperature of a
fuel/air mixture. Strictly speaking there is no such thing, for any
fuel/air mixture will actually combine in time at almost any tem-
perature. In the case of hydrocarbon fuels the rate of combination
39
is multiplied about three times for every 3 per cent increase in tem-
perature, so that, in practice, there is a comparatively narrow range
of temperature over which the rate of burning is reasonable. In this
connection the case of carbon disulphide is particularly interesting—
this fuel has an exceedingly low ignition temperature, so low that
when used neat in an engine it will pre-ignite at once even at a com-
pression ratio of 3·6 : 1, yet, when mixed with petrol, carbon disulphide
is quite effective in preventing detonation and will allow of the use
of a higher compression ratio than is normally possible with petrol.
On investigation it has been found that, in the particular case of
carbon disulphide, the rate of acceleration of burning is very much
slower and that it trebles its rate for every 7 per cent rise in tem-
perature as against about every 3 per cent for all hydrocarbon fuels.
Apart from the variations in the composition of the fuel, various
design factors enter also into the question and exert a powerful
influence. Of these the most important appears to be the absolute
distance from the point of ignition to the most remote corner of the
combustion chamber. This, however, is not the whole story, for the
tendency to detonation is influenced also by the degree of turbulence
of the gases in the remote corner and by the temperature of the
boundary surfaces, both of which factors determine the facility with
which the entrapped gases can dispose of the heat generated by
local compression in front of the advancing inflammation. Thus
the tendency to detonation will be greatest when the corner most
remote from the sparking plug contains relatively stagnant gas or is
bounded by some hot surface, such as the head of the exhaust valve.
Since the absolute length of flame path appears to be the main
determining factor, it follows that, given similarity of design, the
smaller the cylinder, the higher the ratio of compression which can
be employed with any given fuel. From this consideration it appears
that the efficiency of the petrol engine will increase as the size of the
cylinder is reduced. Against this, however, both the heat loss to the
cylinder walls and the loss due to the proportion of chilled and
incompletely burned gas increases as the cylinder size is reduced.
Effect on Engine Efficiency and Power.—The net result of
these various factors is that the thermal efficiency of a petrol engine
is, within wide limits, nearly independent of its size. The specific
power output of a small engine is greater than that of a large one,
since the cycle can be performed more frequently. The reason for
this difference is purely a mechanical one, the limits being due to
the inertia stresses in the moving parts.
exhaust) described in Chapter I. Ignition is by two synchronised
sparks occurring at diametrically opposite sides of the combustion
chamber, the distance between the two sparking plugs being 5 in.
exactly. With a certain fuel and with the mixture strength and
Fig. 10.—Cross Sectional Arrangement of Single-sleeve-valve

and Research-unit Type—E.5·1
ignition timing adjusted to give maximum power, the highest useful

compression ratio (i.e. the highest useful compression as limited by
the incidence of detonation) is found to be 5·3, The ratio corresponds
with an air standard efficiency of 48·5 per cent.
The second engine, “ E.5 ”, figs. 9, 10, and 11, has a cylinder
bore of 2·75 in. and a stroke of 3·25 in., with a single sleeve valve.
Ignition is by a single plug placed centrally in the combustion
DETONATION 43
chamber, which is of slightly conical form, the extreme distance
from the ignition point to the furthest point in the combustion
chamber being 1·7 in. With the same fuel and under the same con-
ditions as to mixture strength and ignition advance, the highest
useful compression, as limited by detonation, is found to be 6·8.
Fig. 11.—Single-sleeve-valve Research-unit Type—E.l·5
This ratio corresponds to an air standard efficiency of 53·5 per cent.

Thus, the difference between these two engines due to the combined
influence of design factors and scale effects is no less than 1·5 ratios
of compression, corresponding with an increase in thermal efficiency
of 10 per cent. Here the difference in favour of “ E.5 ” is attributable
primarily to:—
(a) The smaller cylinder and therefore reduced length of flame
travel.
(b) To the absence of hot exhaust valve heads.
Taking another extreme variation in design, a “ T-headed ”
poppet-valve engine of 4·375-in. bore and 6-in. stroke, in which the
sparking-plug was placed directly over the inlet valve and there-
fore at one side, detonated heavily on the same fuel at a compression
ratio of only 3·7.
As showing the effect of cylinder size, apart from differences of
general design, may be quoted the results of tests made with four
experimental single-cyl-
inder single-sleeve-valve
engines. The bores of
these engines are 2·75,
3·5, 5·5, and 8·5 in.
respectively. All have
very nearly the same
stroke/bore ratio and
t h e same form of
combustion chamber,
namely, a cone with the
sparking - plug at the
apex. They are, in every
respect, as nearly similar
as is possible over so
large a range of sizes.
Fig. 12.—Curve A “E.35” Engine
„ B “E.5 ” „ In each case also the
m a x i m u m length of
flame path was approximately 25 per cent greater than the cylinder
radius.
The highest useful compression ratio as determined by detona-
tion for each of these engines was very carefully observed and may
be expressed for the same fuel (20 per cent/80 per cent benzol-
petrol blend) as follows:—
Diameter of cylinder (in.) 2·75 3·5 5·5 8·5.
H.U.C. Ratio 7·9 7·5 6·2 5·4.
In each case the engine speed was adjusted to that giving maxi-
mum torque, and the temperature conditions, mixture strength,
and all other relevant factors were made as nearly as possible the
same for each engine.
The observations, when plotted against cylinder size, will be
DETONATION 45
found to lie on a reasonably smooth curve, except that the 5·5-in.

cylinder is relatively rather low in H.U.C.R. This is probably due
to some difference in the degree or nature of the turbulence of the
charge prior to ignition.
E x a m p l e of the Effect of Fuel.—Despite these wide differ-
ences between engines, due, in part, to design factors and, in part, to
scale effect, the relative tendency to detonation as between different
fuels is nearly the same for the different engines. Fig. 12 shows
the H.U.C.R., or highest useful compression ratio for the two
engines “ E.35 ” and “ E.5 ” with different fuels consisting of vary-
ing mixtures of pure n-heptane and
pure toluene. EXHAUST - PORT.
The two curves emphasize that
although the engine design factor
exercises a great effect on the tendency
to detonation, it has little or no in-
fluence on the relative H.U.C.R. of
different fuels.
E x a m p l e of the Effect of Posi-
tion of the Point of Ignition.—
As showing the influence of sparking-
plug position on detonation, the follow- INLET-PORT.
Fig. 13.—Sketch showing Valve and
ing very carefully conducted series of Sparking-plug Positions. Posi-
tests may be cited as generally repre- tions 1, 2, 3, and 4.
sentative. The engine used for the
purpose of the tests was the “ E.35 ” variable compression engine.
This engine is provided with four radial plug positions and special
means exist to ensure that any two plugs can be fired simultane-
ously with perfect synchronism. The position of the plugs and
their relation to that of the valves is indicated in diagram fig. 13.
Throughout the full range of observations the following conditions
were maintained constant:—
Speed 1500 R.P.M.
Mixture strength 15 per cent rich (maximum power setting).
Jacket Temperature 50° C.
Heat input to the induction system 1350 watts.
Fuel, “ Texas gasoline ”.
Upon analysis these results show clearly that the ignition ad-
vance required and the H.U.C.R. are both dependent very greatly
upon the length of flame path, from the sparking-plug to the
farthest point reached by the flame. The relative positions of the
TABLE I
Ignition Timing Brake Mean Effec-

Plug Position. giving Max. H.U.C.R tive Press. lb.
Torque. per sq. in.
1 and 3 … … … 30° early 5·3 138·0

2 and 4 … … … 30° ” 5·25 136·6
3 and 4 … … … 34° ” 4·98 134·5
1 and 2 … … … 32° 4·9 133·8
1 and 4 … … … 32° ”” 4·8 132·1
2 and 3 … … … 32° ” 4·84 132·8
1 only … … … 39° ” 4·95 133·5

2 ” … … … … 39°
”
4·9 133·1
3
” …
… … … … 40° ” 4·84 132·8
4 ” … … … 42° ” 4·85 132·8
active sparking-plugs and of the various valves are shown to exert

a secondary influence as well.
E x a m p l e s of the Effects of Mixture Strengt h and
Timing of Ignition.—The influence of mixture strength on
Fig. 14
H.U.C.R. and engine output in the case of the single-cylinder

engine in which the issue is not confused by errors in uniformity
of distribution is shown graphically in fig. 14. In fig. 15 is shown
the influence of mixture strength on the ignition advance required
DETONATION 47
to give maximum output. In this test, the compression ratio was
fixed at a point below that at which detonation could intrude.
Fig. 15.—“ E.35 ” Engine
In fig. 16 is shown the ignition advance required and the engine

output obtained as compression ratio was varied, all other conditions
being as nearly constant as possible.
Fig. 16.—“ E.35 ” Engine
The results plotted in these three groups were obtained with

“E.35”, the overhead-valve type variable compression engine.
Metallic “Anti-knocks”.—Only of recent years has it been
known that certain metals have the power, if introduced in a
proper state, of suppressing detonation in an engine in a most re-
markable manner. It was first shown by Midgley in 1922 that lead
tetraethyl possessed this power. The effectiveness of this “ anti-
knock ” is best illustrated by stating that one molecule of lead
tetraethyl in 50,000 molecules of mixture (of fuel and air) may
raise the H.U.C.R. by one ratio.
It is not proposed to discuss fully the many fantastic theories
that have been proposed to account for the action of metallic “ anti-
knocks ”. Callender's admirably reasoned explanation and the
theory proposed by Egerton must, however, be referred to.
Briefly, Callender's theory suggests that the active agents in
promoting detonation are the unstable peroxides which are formed
as intermediate products during the process of combustion of hydro-
carbons, The presence of certain readily oxidizable metals in a finely-
divided state provides an alternative and more attractive partner
for the oxygen and thus prevents the formation of peroxides as
products of partial combustion. According to Callender's theory,
the progress of events is briefly as follows:—The metal compound,
which is volatile and soluble in petrol, is carried into the cylinder
as a vapour along with the fuel and air. Under the conditions of
temperature and pressure existing within the cylinder during the
early stages of compression, the unstable metallic compound dis-
sociates, setting free the metal in a very finely divided and highly
active state. It is assumed, then, that at least a portion of the fuel
during compression is still in a liquid but finely-divided state, and
that each droplet forms a nucleus for oxidation. It is at this stage,
during the formation of organic oxides or peroxides that the metal
probably intervenes, to reduce these compounds. It is presumed
that, owing to the instability of such organic peroxides in very small
proportions, their presence increases greatly the speed of subse-
quent combustion and, therefore, the consequent detonation. The
theory would explain the fact that so little metal is needed to
suppress detonation. Moreover, this theory will serve to explain
other anomalies as between undoped fuels of different physical
characteristics.
Still more recently Egerton has proposed that the action of
“ anti-knocks ” is somewhat different. He was led to this con-
clusion by finding that potassium produced an effect similar to that
of lead in suppressing detonation in an engine. Since potassium is
so rapidly oxidized, it must be supposed that no uncombined metal
would have time to reach the fuel. When, in the author's variable
DETONATION 49
compression engine, lead vapour was produced by an electric arc
and was carried with the air and fuel into the cylinder, it was found
to reduce detonation. When thallium was used in the arc the effect
was very much greater. Whether in either metal the arc was struck
in an atmosphere of air or of nitrogen, the suppression of detona-
tion was equally marked. Since thallium and probably also lead
vapour under such conditions would be almost instantly oxidized
in air, it could not be doubted that these metals even in the form
of oxides could serve to suppress detonation if in a sufficiently
INCREASE IN H.U.C.R. (COMPRESSION-RATIO).
H.U.C.R.(COMPRESSION - RATIO) OF UNTREATED F U E L .
Fig. 17
divided state. It was observed, furthermore, that the metals which

are effective as “ anti-knocks ” are capable of forming two oxides,
and that the temperatures of transitions of these oxides were found
to be within the range of temperature which occurs during compres-
sion in an engine.
In Egerton's conception of the processes of combustion he
supposes the existence of a chain of intermediate products. By
its interference with this chain of reactions the active metallic
oxide is believed to work. To account for the effectiveness of so
small a concentration, it is suggested that the higher oxide of
the metal is reduced to the lower, thereby oxidizing the intermediate
organic product which would otherwise give rise to detonation. On
next meeting an oxygen molecule the now lower metallic oxide is
(E 246 ) 5
reconverted to the highest form. By such means the molecule is
rejuvenated with enormous frequency and is so enabled to work
over and over again.
Fig. 18.—“ E35 ” Engine
It has also been observed that the influence of a given concen-

tration of lead tetraethyl depends upon the chemical composition
of the hydrocarbon fuel. In general, the effectiveness in suppress-
Fig. 19
ing detonation is greater in a fuel of high initial H.U.C.R. than in a

fuel which, when untreated, detonates at a lower compression,
E x a m p l e of Influence of Fuel on the Effectiveness of
an “ Anti-knock ”.—In fig. 17 is summarized in curve form the
Fig. 20.—“E.35” Engine
hat the steepness of the curv

i is increased. Even up t
j i
Fluid ” in terms of the percentage of toluene giving the same increase
of H.U.C.R From this graph, since the two curves are on the same
scales, the effects of various concentrations are readily comparable
for the two very different types and sizes of engine. It is interest-
ing to observe that the curves are so nearly parallel and that the
difference in effectiveness at no point is very great, when it is
considered that the variations in design factors are almost the
widest possible,
Conclusions on Usefulness of “Anti-knocks”.—Unfor-
tunately, owing to the residues left behind in the form of lead
compounds and the adverse effect of these deposits upon the engine
Fig. 21.—Curve “A” “E.35” Engine

„ “B” “E.5” „
generally and particularly upon the insulation of the sparking plugs,

only very small concentrations of lead tetraethyl can generally be
employed.
For use in road vehicle engines it has been found that up to only
3·5 c. c. of “ Ethyl Fluid ” per gallon of fuel can be employed with-
out harm. From the graph, fig. 17, it will be seen that when applied
to a poor petrol, this concentration will raise the H.U.C.R. ap-
proximately 0·3 ratios, when applied to a “ good ” petrol the in-
crease will be greater, but, on the other hand, the need is corre-
spondingly less.
Summarizing the usefulness of metallic “ anti-knocks ” so far
as their development has proceeded up to the present time, it may
be said:—
(a) For road vehicles, owing to the limitations set by the de-
posits of residue, the advantages both in power and economy are
relatively small. Far more scope remains for improved efficiency
DETONATION 53
by further attention to engine design. Probably almost equal scope
is available from improvements in the methods of “ cracking ”.
(b) For engines where a very high duty is required for com-
paratively short periods such as racing cars or aeroplanes, the use
of metallic “ anti-knocks ” is of considerable value.
R a n g e of Burning.—So long as a fuel contains no free hydro-
gen, the available range of burning differs but little between the
different volatile liquid fuels and is, compared with illuminating or
other gaseous fuels, very narrow indeed. It is clear that so far as
efficiency is concerned, it is only the range of burning on the weak
side that need be taken into consideration; the range of burning on
the rich side, that is up to the point at which the mixture fails to
ignite owing to over-richness, is of comparatively little practical
interest. It has already been shown that any range on the weak
side is of the utmost importance, for so long as the fuel will burn
completely, the weaker the mixture, the lower the flame temperature,
and therefore the higher the efficiency. If combustion were com-
plete the flame temperature would diminish very nearly in pro-
portion to the mixture strength. Unfortunately, incomplete and
delayed combustion become apparent so soon as the mixture
strength is reduced by more than about 15 per cent below that
giving complete combustion; from 12 per cent to 18 per cent weak,
the loss by delayed and incomplete combustion and the gain due
to the lower flame temperature, just about balance each other,
while beyond about 18 per cent weak the net efficiency begins to
fall away rapidly, and the rate of burning becomes so slow that it
continues throughout the exhaust stroke and so ignites the fresh
charge on its entry to the cylinder, causing the familiar back-fire
into the induction system. This can, however, be obviated to a
limited extent by advancing the time of ignition, and the range on
the weak side can be extended slightly in consequence, but the
angle of ignition advance required, efficiently to burn a mixture
only 20 per cent weak, is so excessive as, in practice, to be almost
impracticable. In fig. 22 is shown a typical curve showing the
relation between thermal efficiency, mean pressure and mixture
strength with fixed ignition timing. The mixture strength is plotted
in terms of percentage excess of fuel or air. In fig. 23 is shown a
similar curve, but with the ignition advanced a further 30° between
10 per cent and 20 per cent weak; in both cases the mean pressure
and efficiency were obtained by direct measurement, and represent
the mean of a large number of tests on various fuels. The point at
which combustion is complete, that is, at which there is no excess
either of fuel or air, is shown by a vertical line, to the right of which
Fig. 22.—Indicated Mean Pressure and Thermal Efficiency at different Mixture Strengths
with fixed Ignition Timing. Fuel, Petrol
with Ignition Timing adjusted for each Change in Mixture Strength. Fuel, Petrol
the mixture is over rich and to the left it is weak. In fig. 24 is shown
a similar curve taken with alcohol. It will be observed that while,
DETONATION 55
in. each case, the M.E.P. increases as the mixture is enriched
beyond the point of complete combustion, it is only in the case of
alcohol that there is any increase beyond 20 per cent excess
of fuel. The increase in mean pressure with excess fuel depends
upon the inter-relation of a number of factors; on the one hand are
the increase in specific volume and the increase in volumetric
efficiency due to the latent heat of the fuel, both of which tend to
increase the power output with further increase of mixture strength,
Against these must be offset the higher specific heat of the pro-
ducts of combustion, when the fuel is only partially burnt. In the
with Ignition Timing adjusted for each Change in Mixture Strength, Fuel, Alcohol
case of petrol and benzol the increase is small, because the latent
heat is low and the several factors more or less balance one another.
The latent heat of benzol is higher than petrol, and moreover more
use can be made of it, because the fuel is homogeneous, but, on the
other hand, the change in specific volume is smaller. In the case
of alcohol, the latent heat is very much higher and the change in
specific volume also is greater, consequently with this fuel the
mean pressure increases as the mixture is enriched to a far greater
extent than with either of the other two.
The range of burning on the weak side is substantially the same
in all three cases and indeed in the case of all known volatile liquid
fuels.
It will be observed that the efficiency is at a maximum when
the excess of air is between 10 and 18 per cent; with an excess of
20 per cent the process of combustion becomes so slow that the
running of the engine is unstable, and both misfiring and back-firing
through the inlet valve are liable to occur. The tests on which
these results are based were all carried out on single-cylinder
engines. In the case of a multi-cylinder engine, however well
designed the distribution system may be, it is practically impossible
to maintain the mixture strength to all cylinders uniform to within
closer limits than about 10 to 20 per cent. If the mean strength
supplied by the carburettor is, say, 15 per cent weak, it follows that
one or more cylinders will receive mixture as much as 20 to 25 per
cent weak which will result in misfiring and back-firing, through
the carburettor. To allow therefore for inequalities in distribution,
it is necessary, in practice, even in the very best examples to supply a
mixture containing not more than about 10 per cent excess of air.
With such a mixture the supply to some cylinders will be about
that giving complete combustion to others about 20 per cent weak,
and the maximum efficiency obtainable will be about 1·5 per cent
lower than could be obtained from a single-cylinder engine. It
will be seen, therefore, that in order to legislate for the weakest
cylinder and prevent back-firing, one or more of the remainder
must receive a mixture which is too rich for maximum economy,
and the indicated thermal efficiency of a multi-cylinder engine
will, on this account, always be lower than that of a single cylinder.
Further, the greater the number of cylinders fed from any one
source of supply, the lower the efficiency.
To sum up, (1) the available range of mixture strength on the
weak side, with all volatile hydrocarbon fuels, is very narrow, far
narrower than with most of the gaseous fuels.
(2) Owing to the narrow range of available mixture strength
and to the inevitable inequalities in distribution, multi-cylinder
engines cannot run with the most economical mixture strength,
hence their fuel consumption per H.P. hour must always be slightly
higher than that of a single cylinder—how much higher, depends
upon the number of cylinders supplied by any one carburettor
and, of course, on the efficiency of the distribution system.
(3) With all fuels, slightly more power is developed with an
over-rich mixture as compared with the mixture giving complete
combustion; with alcohol the increase in power is very marked, and
amounts to nearly 10 per cent with very rich mixtures.
THE TEMPERATURES OF THE CYCLE 57
(4) In the case of single-cylinder engines running on petrol or
benzol, maximum economy is obtained at about 92 to 94 per cent of
full power; in the case of multi-cylinder engines, for the reasons
given above, the maximum economy on the same fuels is slightly
lower, but is obtained at about 96 to 97 per cent of full power.
T h e Temperatures of the Cycle.—From the data and
information now available, it is possible to deduce with a fair degree
of accuracy, the temperature changes throughout the cycle when
liquid hydrocarbon fuels are used.
The first temperature which has to be determined is that at the
end of the suction stroke, for from this all the other cycle tempera-
tures can be obtained. It is also of direct importance as determining
the volumetric efficiency of the engine,
The temperature at this point is influenced by the final exhaust
temperature, owing to the admixture of the fresh charge with the
residual exhaust products in the clearance space. It therefore should
strictly be evaluated by a “ hit-and-miss ” type of calculation, by
which a residual exhaust temperature is assumed, and the cycle
temperatures worked out on that assumption. The assumed exhaust
temperature is then modified till it agrees with that which is obtained
by calculating round the cycle.
Fortunately, however, it requires a large change in exhaust tem-
perature appreciably to alter the suction-temperature, so that the
assumed and calculated temperatures need not check very closely.
It is, in the author's opinion, always preferable to take a concrete
example ; we will therefore consider the case of a cylinder with a
swept volume of 80 cub. in. running at 2000 R.P.M. Let the com-
pression ratio be 5 : 1, making the total cylinder volume 100 cub. in.,
and let the following conditions be assumed :—
Mean jacket temperature 140° F.
Heat input to charge external to cylinder (by
carburettor heating, &c.) 0·05 B.Th.U. per cycle.
Absolute pressure in cylinder at end of suction
stroke 14·0 lb./in.
Absolute pressure in cylinder at end of exhaust
stroke 14·7
Mean temperature of outside air 60° F.
These are conditions which may be taken to represent average

practice.
The fuel is assumed to be an average high-class petrol of com-
position say 50 per cent paraffins, 35 per cent naphthenes, and 15
per cent aromatics, while the case of ethyl alcohol and benzene
(benzol) are also dealt with.
The relevant properties of these fuels are :
Effective Cal. Latent Heat of

Fuel- S.G. Val. for Evaporation, Boiling Point.
B.Th.U./lb. B.Th.U./lb.
Petrol 0·740 19,000 135 160° - 400° F.

Benzene 0·884 17,460 172 176° F.
Ethyl alcohol 0·798 11,840 397 172° F.
Energy liberated
Change in Sp. Vol. Complete Com- per Standard cub.
Fuel. after Combustion bustion Mixture in. of Mixture ft. lb.
(Correct Mixtures). (by Weight). exclusive of change
of Specific Volume.
per cent.
Petrol + 5·0 14·3/1 46·2
Benzene + 1·3 13·2/1 46·9
Alcohol + 6·5 8·95/1 44·5
Consider first the conditions when running on petrol, starting

with the commencement of the suction stroke. The cylinder then
contains 20 cub. in. of hot exhaust products at atmospheric pressure.
These will be at a temperature of about 2100° F. absolute, as will
be shown later. It is desirable in order to arrive at their heat
capacity relative to that of the entering charge to reduce them to
terms of normal temperature and pressure. The volume of the
residual exhaust products under these conditions will therefore be
20 x = 4·68 cub. in.
The incoming charge consists of air at a temperature of about
60° F. and a small proportion of fuel, entirely or partly vaporized.
The air/fuel ratio for complete combustion will, in the case of petrol,
be 14·3/1. The latent heat of evaporation of 1 lb. of petrol is 135
B.Th.U.s. This is supplied by 14·3 lb. of air of which the specific
heat at constant pressure is 0·237; the drop in temperature of this
air will be = 40° F.
For the mass of air in question 1° F. change in temperature is
produced by ·00067 B.Th.U., so that the latent heat of evaporation
will take up 40 x ·00067 = ·00268 B.Th.U. From the cylinder walls
at a temperature of about 140° F., and from the still hotter valve
and piston surfaces, &c., the charge picks up about 0·0005 B.Th.U.
per cub. in., or in this case 0·04 B.Th.U. per cycle. The net gain
of sensible heat to the charge is 0·04 + 0·05 - 0·0268 = 0·0632 B.Th.U.
per cycle, which will raise the temperature by about 95° F. to 155° F.,
assuming that all the fuel is completely evaporated. If the direct
heating does not complete evaporation, mixture with the hot residual
gases will certainly do so unless the mechanical pulverization of the
fuel in the carburettor is very inadequate. It follows therefore that
Fig. 25.—Observed Volumetric Efficiency with different Mixture Strengths at a Compression

Ratio of 5·0 : 1. Fuel, Petrol
the final suction temperature will be the same at whatever stage the
latent heat of evaporation is extracted, provided only that evapora-
tion is complete before compression starts.
We now have 80 cub. in. of fresh charge at 155° F. or 614° F. abs.
and 14·0 lb./in. absolute pressure. Reduced to N.T.P. this becomes
80 x = 60·9 cub. in. This gives a volumetric efficiency of
= 76·2 per cent, a figure which agrees very closely with that
found in, for example, the author's single-cylinder research engine
under similar temperature conditions, as shown in fig. 25, which
indicates the observed volumetric efficiency at different mixture
strengths when running with the heat input to the carburettor
specified above, and at a piston speed of 2000 ft. per minute,
The volume of the residual exhaust gases at N.T.P. was shown
to be 4·68 cub. in., so that the total standard volume of the combined
mixture = 60·9 + 4·68 = 65·58 cub. in. As this actually fills a volume
of 100 cub. in. at a pressure of 14·0 lb./in. its temperature must be
x 491 = 717° F. absolute or 258° F.
This figure may be taken as the final suction temperature to
within about ± 10° F. in the case considered. The chief possibilities
of error lie in
(1) The temperature of the exhaust products. Owing, however,
to the fact that as their temperature increases their mass correspond-
ingly decreases, a large error here has but little influence on the
suction temperature,
(2) The heat picked up from the cylinder walls, &c. This is
certainly rather a doubtful figure, but the author has arrived at it
by running an engine with varying jacket temperatures, and adding
known quantities of heat by means of an electrical resistance in the
induction pipe until the volumetric efficiency, and therefore the
suction temperature, was constant. By measuring the difference in
external heat necessary to do this with varying jacket temperatures,
it was possible to estimate the total amount of heat taken up from
this source.
(3) In most cases the amount of pre-heating of the charge before
its entry to the cylinder is very uncertain, since in practice the heat
is generally supplied either from the exhaust or from the circulating
water. For experimental work the author prefers to supply this
heat electrically so that it can readily and accurately be measured.
If benzene be used instead of petrol, we find that, owing both to
its higher latent heat and to the greater proportion of fuel needed to
combine with the air, the final suction temperature is lower, namely,
about 235° F., while the volumetric efficiency is correspondingly
higher, about 78·5 per cent. The residual exhaust temperature may
be taken, as with petrol, as 2100° F. absolute.
In the third case, that of ethyl alcohol, the extremely high latent
heat and the large proportion of fuel in the mixture produce much
greater cooling effect, with the result that, arguing on the above
premises, the final suction temperature, even after admixture with
the residual exhaust products, will only be 67° F . ; the corresponding
volumetric efficiency should therefore be 104·3 per cent.
At such a temperature, however, and in the short time available,

the alcohol would not be evaporated completely by the end of the
suction stroke, so that such a calculation is not applicable in this
instance. Experiment has shown that the minimum temperature
at which evaporation is completed before compression, is in the
neighbourhood of 150° F., and it will be well to consider the case in
which sufficient pre-heating is supplied to effect this. In this case
the volumetric efficiency works out at 90 per cent, and 37 per cent
of the fuel remains to be evaporated by means of additional external
heating to the extent of ·37 x 0·143 = ·053 B.Th.U. per cycle,
In practice it is found that the volumetric efficiency on alcohol is
considerably lower than 90 per cent, namely, 82-83 per cent as
compared with 76 per cent in the case of petrol. This shows that
under normal working conditions only a comparatively small pro-
portion of the alcohol is actually evaporated by the end of the
suction stroke. It is mainly for this reason that efficient pulveriza-
tion, which accelerates the transfer of heat from the air to the fuel
particles, is so particularly desirable when using alcohol.
The above conclusions may be summarized as follows. Under
the conditions quoted above—and they may be taken as average
working conditions, except perhaps in the case of alcohol—the final
suction temperature and the volumetric efficiency will be :
Suction Volumetric
Fuel. Temperature. Efficiency.
per cent.
Petrol 258 76·2
Benzene 235 78·5
Alcohol 150 90·0
With a 20 per cent weak mixture the figures become :
Suction Volumetric
Fuel. Temperature. Efficiency.
Petrol 263 75·5

Benzene 242 77·6
Alcohol 150 89·6
In the case of alcohol extra heat to the amount of 0·033 B.Th.U.

per cycle has to be supplied, and 0·029 B.Th.U. with the weak
mixture, if evaporation is to be complete.
It should be noted that the volumetric efficiency refers to the
volume of air and fuel vapour, not air alone.
Compression Temperature.—During the compression stroke
the fuel and air are compressed nearly adiabatically to one-fifth of
their original volume. At the commencement of compression the
mixture, in the case of petrol or benzene, is slightly below the mean
surface temperature of the cylinder, so at first they will absorb
heat, but will lose heat later in the stroke. For these fuels the
mean value of the exponent during compression for such an engine
running at 2000 R.P.M. may be taken as 1·35. With alcohol the
conditions are not quite the same, for
(1) The final suction temperature is substantially below the
mean wall temperature, so that the mixture is appreciably heated
during the earlier part of the stroke.
(2) As the alcohol forms an appreciable fraction of the charge
(11 per cent by weight), it will decrease the mean exponent for
the mixture, since for alcohol vapour is only 1·13 as against 1·4
for air.
(3) A considerable portion of the fuel is liquid at the end of the
suction stroke, unless extra induction heat is supplied, and some of
the heat of compression is applied to its evaporation.
We will ignore for the moment the last factor, and take for
a “ correct ” alcohol mixture as being about 1·33.
The absolute temperature at the conclusion of the compression
stroke in the case of petrol or benzene may be arrived at by multi-
plying the final absolute suction temperature by 5 (1·35-1) = 1·755 ;
This gives:
Petrol correct mixture 1258° F. abs.
20 per cent weak mixture 1267° F. abs.
Benzol correct mixture 1220° F. abs.
20 per cent weak mixture 1232° F. abs.
The compression pressure in each case will be 140 x 5(1·35) = 123 lb.
per square inch absolute or 108·3 lb. per square inch gauge.
With the alcohol mixtures, the final suction temperatures are
the same both for the normal and the weak mixtures, so that the
compression temperature, uncorrected for the latent heat of the
surplus liquid, are also the same, being
609 x5(1·33-1) = 1035° F. abs.
With the correct mixture there is, as previously shown, a heat

deficit of 0·053 B.Th.U. per cycle, this amount being necessary for
the evaporation of the alcohol which remains in a liquid state at the
end of the suction stroke. This causes a drop of 0·053 x 1270 = 67° F.,
making the actual compression temperature 968° F. abs. or 475° F.
With the weak mixture, the heat deficit is only 0·029 B.Th.U.
per cycle, which raises the compression temperature to 998° F. abs.
or 505° F.
The uncorrected compression pressure is 140 x 5(l·33) = 119 lb.
per square inch absolute. The cooling due to evaporation reduces
this to 111 lb. per square inch abs. for the normal mixture, and
114·7 lb. per square inch abs. for the weak mixture.
Combustion Temperatures.—Since combustion takes place
at constant volume, the whole of the chemical energy stored in the
mixture, with the exception of that lost to the walls of the combustion
chamber, will be devoted to increasing its internal energy. It is
well known, however, that the obvious method of finding the tem-
perature rise, that of dividing the heat output by the specific heat
at normal temperatures, gives results that are far too high, in fact
practically double those that are actually attained. This discrep-
ancy is due to the three following influences :—
(1) The specific heat of the gases, of which the working fluid is
composed, increases with increase of temperature.
(2) At high temperatures the products of combustion, CO2 and
water, dissociate with absorption of heat into carbon monoxide and
oxygen, and hydrogen and oxygen respectively, according to the
formulae
2CO2 2CO + O2
2H2O 2H2 + O2.
(3) Heat is lost by radiation and conduction to the walls of the

combustion chamber.
The specific heat of the gases, of which the working fluid is
composed, and the amount of dissociation at any temperature, have
been found by direct experiment, while the loss to the jackets can
only be estimated from actual engine experiments. The amount of
energy taken up by the gases as sensible heat can readily be calcu-
lated, since the specific heat of a gas at constant volume is unaffected
by changes of pressure or by admixture with other gases. Unfor-
tunately the degree of dissociation is influenced by alterations in
pressure and, in cases such as the present, where two kinds of
dissociation have a common product (oxygen in this case), by the
relative proportions of the gases present. This renders the actual
calculation of the energy absorbed in this manner a somewhat
complex and extremely wearisome process ; it has, however, been
dealt with very fully by Tizard and Pye, so that the results alone will
be given. The most convenient method is to construct a curve
showing the total internal energy of the mixture, at any temperature,
plotted against the temperature. Since the amount of internal
energy at any stage in the cycle can easily be found, the corre-
sponding temperatures can at once be read off.
From the work of Tizard and Pye 1 which is based on the
experimental data of Pier and Bjerrum 2 the curve shown in fig. 26
has been constructed, which also gives a graphical construction
developed by one of the author's assistants, Mr. J. F. Alcock,
whereby the temperatures at the beginning and end of the expansion
stroke can be read off with a fair degree of accuracy. Owing to
the influence, previously mentioned, of pressure and charge pro-
portions on dissociation the construction of such a curve to meet
a reasonably wide range of conditions renders it necessary to
compromise to some extent and to take mean values.
Thus, the energy curve shown applies strictly only to a benzene-
air complete-combustion mixture at a compression ratio of 5 to 1.
However, the effect of a change in the compression ratio is almost
negligible within the limits used on the constant-volume cycle; as
is the effect, also, of replacing benzene by any other hydrocarbon
fuel. If used for a fuel such as alcohol or ether, however, the error
becomes appreciable, owing to the different specific heat of the
products of combustion. Strictly speaking, it does not apply to
mixtures which are either weaker or richer than the chemically
correct mixture, although here again the divergence is very small
within the range available and with a homogeneous mixture.
The internal energy curve is plotted in terms of foot-pounds
per standard cubic inch on a vertical scale, against the tem-
perature on a horizontal scale. The other full-line curve shows
the energy present as heat, so that the difference between the
two curves shows the chemical energy stored in the products of
dissociation. Zero energy is taken at 100° C. (212° F.), as
being an average temperature at the beginning of compression.
Variations in this temperature, being relatively small, will have but
1
Automobile Engineer, February and March 1921.
2
Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, 1912.
little influence on the combustion and exhaust temperatures. The

explanation given below of the use of the diagram is supplemented
Fig. 26.—Internal Energy Diagram for working Fluid of Internal-Combustion Engine

running on Volatile Hydrocarbon Fuels
by an example worked out for the following data, the construction

lines of the example being shown dotted in the figure.
Compression ratio, R = 5 to 1
Energy content = 46·2 ft. lb. per cub. in.
Heat loss during combustion = 6 per cent The actual value of these losses
Heat loss during expansion = 6 per cent will be considered in Chap. III.
(E 246) 6
There are three factors in an actual engine which modify the
temperature attained by the combustion of a mixture of any given
energy content. They are the
(1) Heat put into the mixture by compression.
(2) Loss due to cooling by the walls of the combustion chamber
during combustion.
(3) Effective weakening of the mixture due to dilution with the
residual exhaust products.
Factor (1) is allowed for by laying off the heats of compression
for various ratios by the marks “R = 5,” &c., on the line PP1
near the bottom of the diagram. The energy content is then
marked off above this on the vertical line O1Y1 representing the
100° C. (212° F.) starting-point. In the example, the 46·2 ft. lb.
energy content is laid off above the 3·6 ft. lb. of compression,
making a total of 49·8 ft, lb., this being the gross energy content
from which the losses due to factors (2) and (3) must be deducted.
These are provided for in the following manner :—
On the horizontal scale C is marked the effective energy loss due
to dilution with residual exhaust, assumed to be at 2100° F. abs.
( =1165° C. abs.). Scale E shows the percentage loss due to cooling
during combustion. This is laid off at any figure which previous
experience shows as probable for the type of combustion chamber
in question, namely, 6 per cent in the example. A line is then
drawn between these two points, and the point of intersection of
the line so drawn with the scale D gives the total percentage loss
due to these two causes, corresponding to 11·5 per cent in the
example chosen.
To transfer this to the diagram, a line is dropped vertically from
the above intersection point. Another line is drawn from the
point on the line O1Yl, giving the gross British thermal units per
cubic inch, to the suitable compression point on the line PP l , and
representing 100 per cent on scale D ; or 49·8 ft. lb. per cub, in. in
the example. From the intersection of the above two lines, a
horizontal line is run to the energy scale on one side, and to the
energy curve on the other. The point on the energy scale shows
the net energy available for expansion, or 44·5 ft. lb. per cub. in.
in the example. From the energy-temperature curve the actual
flame temperature can be read off, this is 2475° C. (4487° F.) in
the example.
The drop in temperature during the expansion stroke depends
on the two factors of (a) external work done, and (b) heat loss to the
walls. The net power output is given as a percentage of the

heat content of the mixture on scale F, the formula used being
0·258
n=l — . 0·258 is the mean value for the exponent, and
covers all dissociation and similar effects, but not wall losses. The
wall loss during expansion is laid off on scale E. A line drawn
between these points gives their sum on scale D as before. A
perpendicular from this point is dropped to meet a line from the
net-energy point on O1Y1 to the suitable-compression point on the
line PP1. As the gross work done during expansion is the sum of
the net work mentioned above and the compression work, this latter
amount, which is 3·6 ft. lb. in the example, must be laid off below
the above intersection point, to find the energy content at the end of
expansion, which is 24·5 ft. lb. in the example. The corresponding
final temperature, 1675° C. (3047° F.) in the example, can then be
read off from the energy curve.
Taking an actual example from experiments on the author's
variable-compression engine, with a correct mixture of an energy
content of 46·2 ft. lb. per cub. in. and a compression ratio of 5 to 1,
the actual maximum flame temperature, as obtained from the above
diagram in fig, 17, allowing for the additional heat of compression,
the wall loss during combustion and the dilution by residual exhaust
products, will be 2475° C. (4487° F.), corresponding to an energy
content of 44·5 ft. lb. per standard cub. in. At a ratio of 5 to 1,
the observed indicated thermal efficiency is 31 per cent; of this,
5 per cent is due to the change in specific volume of the mixture,
so that the heat drop is 46·2 x 31 x 100/105 = 13·6 ft. lb. per
cub. in. Add to this the 3·6 ft. lb. of compression work restored
during expansion, and the 6 per cent of 46·2 or 2·8 ft. lb. of wall
loss during expansion; the total heat-drop during expansion then
becomes 20·0 ft. lb. per cub. in., leaving a final energy content of
24·5 ft. lb. per cub. in,, which, it will bo observed, coincides with the
figure found in the example under the same conditions. The corre-
sponding final temperature is 1675° 0. (3047° F.)
While affecting the final temperature directly, it should be
observed that the loss of heat during expansion has only a slight
influence on the actual efficiency; this has been ignored in the
construction, because much of it is lost late in the expansion stroke,
where its value is less. Another slight error allowed to remain in
the construction, for the sake of simplicity, is that a percentage of
the net heat available during combustion is deducted for the jacket
loss during expansion ; whereas this is given as a proportion of the
total heat available in the fuel. The error due to this cause is,
however, very small, being in the case considered 2·8 [(46·2 - 44·5)
÷ 44·5] = 0·11 ft. lb. per cub. in., and can be ignored safely.
At the end of the expansion stroke the temperature of the gases
is about 3050° F. or 3509° F. absolute, as has been seen, and they
are at an absolute pressure of about 70 lb. per square inch. When
the exhaust valve opens these gases will expand rapidly down to
atmospheric pressure, and their temperature will fall in the ratio
where is approximately 1·30. This brings their
temperature down to 2450° F. abs., and the loss of heat during
the exhaust stroke further reduces their temperature to about
2100° F. abs.
A similar calculation in the case of an ethyl-alcohol mixture
makes the residual temperature about 1950° F. abs.
When the temperature at any point in the cycle has been found,
the corresponding pressure is, of course, easily obtained. Thus, in the
case of the petrol given above, the compression pressure is 123 lb. per
square inch abs. and the temperature 1258° F. abs. As the tem-
perature after ignition is 4487° F., or 4946° F. abs., and the ratio of
the specific volumes before and after combustion 1·05, the pressure at
the commencement of expansion is therefore 123 x 1·05 x = 508·5
lb. per square inch abs. or 493·8 lb. per square inch gauge.
At the end of the expansion stroke the volume has increased
five times, and the temperature has dropped to 3509° F. abs. The
pressure is therefore =72·2 lb. per square inch
abs., or 57·5 lb. per square inch gauge.
The “ explosion ” pressure thus calculated is somewhat higher
than that actually found in practice due to the finite speed of
burning of the mixture, which causes a slight rounding of the peak
of the diagram, though not enough appreciably to affect the thermal
efficiency.
With benzene, the temperatures at the beginning and end of
expansion will be 2470° C. (4480° F.) and 1670° C. (3040° F.)
respectively, the corresponding pressures being 505 lb. per square
inch abs. (490·3 lb. gauge) and 71·8 lb. per square inch abs. (57·1 lb.
gauge) respectively.
From the above considerations we are able to construct an
indicator diagram giving the pressures and temperatures through-

out the cycle under normal working conditions, such as would
apply in the case of a small but efficient cylinder of the size
quoted, and when running at a speed of 2000 R.P.M. The influence
of cylinder size on the performance will be considered later in
Chapter III, when it will be seen that it does not play any very
important part; neither, indeed, within reasonable limits does the
actual speed of revolution, provided always that it be fairly high,
i.e. 1000 R.P.M. or over. At speeds below about 1000 R.P.M.
and with a cylinder of the size under consideration, the loss of
heat to the cylinder walls will begin to make itself felt, and will
influence the performance appreciably.
Fig. 27.—Indicator Diagram for “ Correct ” Petrol Mixture

at Compression Ratio 5 : 1.
The indicator diagram shown in fig. 27 applies therefore strictly

only to the conditions quoted above, though it would differ but
little over a wide range of size or speed provided always that the
combustion chamber were of an efficient form and that there is
ample turbulence to spread combustion rapidly throughout the
whole mass of the working fluid.
Once the thermal efficiency, the volumetric efficiency, and the
total internal energy of the fuel-air mixture have been determined,
it is possible to arrive also at the mean effective pressure and
therefore the power output, by multiplying together the thermal
efficiency, the total internal energy (in terms of ft. lb. per cubic
inch x 12), and the volumetric efficiency.
In the case under consideration the thermal efficiency with a
“ correct ” mixture, i.e. a mixture giving complete combustion
without excess either of fuel or air, is 31 per cent. With a 20 per
cent weak mixture it should be considerably higher on account of the
lower maximum flame temperature, but this, in practice, is offset
by the very much slower rate of burning, with the result that it
will be increased only to about 32·5 per cent.
The energy liberated by the combustion of 1 standard cubic
inch of petrol-air mixture was given as 46·2 ft. lb., but in so far as
the available energy from the point of view of power output is
concerned, we must multiply this by the change in specific volume,
since, if the products of combustion occupy at the same temperature
a greater volume than before, the pressures will be higher, though
the temperatures remain unaltered. This factor has been taken into
account in determining the maximum and terminal pressures, and
it, of course, applies also to the mean effective pressure, which will
be increased or decreased according as the specific volume increases
or decreases; here petrol scores a marked advantage over benzene
(benzol), and alcohol over either. It is convenient to use the term
“ total internal energy of the mixture ” (as distinct from the heat
energy liberated by combustion) to include the change in specific
volume, i.e. the heat energy liberated, multiplied by the specific
volume for a “ correct ” mixture. The total internal energy for
the three fuels under consideration then becomes :
Heat Energy Total Internal

Change in liberated per Energy per
Fuel. Specific Volume. Standard cub. in. Standard cub. in.
ft. lb. ft. lb.
per cent.
Petrol + 5·0 46·2 48·5
Benzene + 1·3 46·9 47·5
Alcohol + 6·5 44·5 47·4
With petrol and a correct mixture in the example chosen, the

thermal efficiency is 31 per cent, the internal energy 48·5 ft. lb. per
standard cubic inch, and the volumetric efficiency 76·2 per cent.
The indicated mean effective pressure will therefore be
·31 x (48·5 x 12) x ·762 = 137·4 lb. per square inch.
In the case of benzene the same calculation will give
·31 x (47·5 x 12) x ·785 = 137·8 lb. per square inch,
or, to all intents and purposes, exactly the same as with petrol,
since the lower internal energy balances almost exactly the higher
volumetric efficiency.
With alcohol, the same calculation will show that the indicated
mean pressure should be 158·3 lb. per square inch, but this is based
on a volumetric efficiency of 90 per cent, an efficiency which is not,
in practice, realized for reasons already given. If the volumetric
efficiency betaken as 82·5 per cent, which corresponds with experi-
mental results under similar conditions, the indicated mean pressure
becomes 158·3 x = 145 lb. per square inch, which is in very close
agreement with observed results.
Again, for a 20 per cent weak mixture we must reduce the total
internal energy accordingly, but, on the other hand, the thermal
efficiency is increased owing to the lower flame temperature ; also
the volumetric efficiency is reduced very slightly owing to the smaller
influence of the latent heat of evaporation for such a mixture. The
figures then become :
Indicated Mean Pressure,

lb. per sq. in.
Observed I.M.E.P.
Fuel. (Correct Mixture),
Correct 20 per cent lb. per sq. in.
Mixture. Weak.
Petrol 137·4 118·0 136·0

Benzene 137·8 118·2 136·0
Alcohol 145·0 124·0 143·6
If, now, the mixture be further enriched by the addition of 20

per cent excess of fuel, although the heat liberated per standard
cubic inch of mixture will be no greater, the total internal energy
will be increased very slightly owing to the greater increase in
specific volume when excess of fuel is present; again, owing to the
greater latent heat available the volumetric efficiency will be
increased slightly, while, finally, the thermal efficiency, based on
that portion of the fuel which is burnt completely, will be slightly
higher on account of the lower flame temperature ; the net result of
all these changes will be that the indicated mean pressure will, in all
cases, except that of benzene, be some 4·5 per cent greater than
with a correct mixture. In the case of benzene, however, owing to
the small change in specific volume, the gain in power by using a
20 per cent rich mixture will be only about 3 per cent. If the mixture
be enriched beyond 20 per cent excess of fuel, there will be no further
gain in power on petrol or benzene owing to the slower rate of burning,
but, on alcohol, there will still be a small further gain on account of
its high latent heat and large increase of specific volume.
The indicated horse-power obtainable from the cylinder under
consideration will be as follows :—
I.H.P.
Fuel,
20 per cent Weak. Correct. 20 per cent Rich.
Petrol 15·75 18·35 19·15

Benzene 15·8 18·4 19·0
Alcohol 16·55 19·35 20·2
CHAPTER III
DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT IN A HIGH-SPEED
FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE
It is usual to express the distribution of heat in an Internal-Com-
bustion engine in terms of the proportion converted into indicated
horse-power, the proportion yielded up to the cylinder walls, and,
lastly, that rejected to the exhaust; the latter item being the
residue after deducting from the total heat of the fuel the two former
categories ; it generally includes also the losses by radiation. This
form of subdivision is perfectly legitimate so long as it is clearly
understood that it is no more than a convenient form in which both
to measure and to express the heat distribution ; indeed, it is
practically the only form in which it can be directly measured.
Many engineers, however, still appear to be under the impression
that it represents the true disposal of the available heat of the fuel,
and, acting on this supposition are often sadly misled.
The proportion of the total heat of the fuel converted to indicated
horse-power can be determined readily enough and quite accurately
from the known heat supplied and the known horse-power developed
from it.
The heat yielded up to the cylinder walls and carried away by
the cooling water can also be determined fairly accurately; it must
be understood, however, that it includes :
(1) The heat given up by radiation, conduction, convection, &c.,
during the period of combustion.
(2) The heat given up during the expansion period.
(3) The heat given up during the exhaust stroke.
It is necessary to examine each of these sources separately.
(1) H e a t lost during Combustion.—The period of combustion
as distinct from expansion is relatively a short one, but it is one
during which the ruling temperature in the combustion chamber is
very high indeed, i.e. between 4200° F. and 4500° F. in the case
of most volatile liquid fuels such as petrol, benzol, &c. Also it is
73
a period during which the gases within the combustion chamber
are in a state of violent commotion so that heat is conveyed very
readily by convection, &c.
Now, if by any means the loss of heat to the cylinder walls
during this period could be suppressed, such heat could be con-
verted into indicated horse-power at an efficiency corresponding to
the efficiency of expansion alone (i.e. exclusive of the negative work
done during compression), which in an engine with a compression
ratio of 5 : 1 is roughly about 40 per cent. The remaining 60 per
cent of the heat so recovered would, in any event, be rejected to the
exhaust after expansion.
(2) H e a t lost during Expansion.—Loss of heat during the
expansion stroke may or may not be serious, depending upon the
stage in the expansion stroke at which it is lost. Loss of heat at
the very commencement of the expansion stroke is almost equally
as serious as that lost during the combustion period, because had
its loss been suppressed it would have been utilized at an efficiency
corresponding to nearly the full ratio of expansion, whereas heat lost
during the latter part of the expansion stroke is of very little moment,
for even had its loss been suppressed it could have done but little
useful work during the remainder of the expansion stroke and nearly
the whole of it would have been rejected to the exhaust in any case.
At first sight it would appear that, owing to the higher tempera-
tures and pressures ruling at the beginning of the expansion stroke,
the loss of heat will be much greater during the earlier period, but
against this it must be remembered that, as the expansion proceeds
and the piston descends, an increasing area of cold cylinder barrel
is exposed. Also, owing to dissociation and subsequent recombina-
tion, the fall in temperature during the expansion stroke is nothing
like so great as it might appear ; the final temperature, even with a
compression ratio of 5 : 1, being still well over 3000° F.
From the above considerations it will be seen that, though it is
customary to yoke together the heat lost during combustion and
expansion as though its influence during each period were the same,
it is most certainly inaccurate and misleading to do so. Of the
average heat loss during expansion, probably only about 20 per cent
could be converted into useful work and the remaining 80 per cent
would be rejected to the exhaust.
(3) H e a t lost during the E x h a u s t Stroke.—Although during
the exhaust stroke the temperature of the gases is very much lower.,
yet heat is given up to the cooling water with great rapidity during
DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT IN A FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 75
this period, for in addition to the normal heat flow to the cylinder
walls the hot gases are issuing at an exceedingly high velocity past
the exhaust valve and through a short length of exhaust pipe which
is always included in the cylinder jacket and cooled by the circulat-
ing water, consequently of the total heat carried away by the cooling
water at least one-half and often more than half is given up during
the exhaust period. Now the whole of the heat taken up during
the exhaust stroke, by far the bulk of that taken up during expansion,
and about 60 per cent of that taken up during combustion, should.
have been debited to the exhaust loss account.
In addition, of the total heat carried away by the cooling water,
a very substantial proportion is generated by the friction of the
piston on the cylinder walls.
It is interesting to take a specific example and to trace out as
accurately as it is possible so to do the true gain in efficiency which
would be effected if all heat loss to the cylinder walls were completely
suppressed. Let us take, as a fair average example, the case of a
well-designed and efficient engine with a compression ratio of 5 : 1
in which
32 per cent of the total heat of the fuel is converted into useful work on the
piston,
28 per cent of the total heat of the fuel is carried away by the cooling water,
40 per cent of the total heat of the fuel remains and is accounted as lost to
exhaust radiation, &c.
Of the total heat carried away by the cooling water, approxi-
mately 6 per cent will be lost to the walls of the cylinder during the
combustion period, about 7 per cent will be yielded up during
expansion, and the remaining 15 per cent during the exhaust stroke.
Of the 6 per cent lost during the combustion period roughly about
40 per cent would appear as useful work or 2·4 per cent of the total
heat of the fuel. Of the 7 per cent lost during expansion, somewhere
about 20 per cent would be utilized or 1·4 per cent of the total heat
of the fuel. Of the 15 per cent lost during the exhaust stroke, no
part could have been utilized. We find therefore that, although
28 per cent of the total heat of the fuel has been carried away by the
cooling water, only 3·8 per cent could have been converted directly
into useful work on the piston, and the efficiency of the engine
would be increased from 32 per cent to 35·8 per cent only, a gain of
barely 12 per cent. Nor is this all, for, had all loss of heat to the
cylinder walls been suppressed, the temperature of the working
fluid would necessarily have been correspondingly higher, with the
result that the losses due to the increase both of specific heat and of
dissociation at the higher temperatures would be increased sub-
stantially, and the net gain would be very small, probably only
from 32 per cent to about 34·5 per cent or possibly 35 per cent.
These figures show clearly how relatively small a part the loss of
heat to the cylinder walls plays in an Internal-Combustion engine,
and how misleading it may be to assess that loss of heat by the heat
carried away by the cooling water. As a first approximation it is
fairly correct to assume that, of all the heat carried away by the
cooling water of a cylinder, little more than 10 per cent could actually
be converted directly into useful work.
Tables I., II., and III. show the distribution of heat as found in
the author's 4½ in. x 8 in. variable-compression research engine shown
in figs, 3 and 4 under several different conditions. These figures were
all obtained under circumstances which ensure a very high degree
of accuracy.
Group A.—Distribution of heat at different speeds with wide
open throttle. In all cases the mixture strength was approximately
10 per cent weak, the jacket temperature was kept constant at
140° F., and the heat input to the carburettor was maintained at
0·0433 B.Th.U. per revolution.
The three sets of tests in this group were run, one on ethyl alcohol
95 per cent, and the other on petrol, sample (A), at a compression
ratio of 3 · 8 : 1 , while the third set was run on ethyl alcohol 95 per
cent at a compression ratio of 7 : I.
It will be observed :
(1) That owing to the lower mean cycle temperature the thermal
efficiency obtained with alcohol is substantially higher than that
obtained with petrol at the same compression ratio.
(2) For the same reason, the proportion of heat carried away by
the cooling water is less,
(3) That the thermal efficiency is affected very little by a wide
variation in speed.
(4) That the proportion of the heat taken away by the cooling
water falls slightly as the speed is increased.
The results shown in Group B were observed under the following
conditions. The engine was run at a constant speed of 1500 R.P.M.,
corresponding to a piston speed of 2000 ft, per min., and the load
was varied by throttling, the mixture strength being kept constant
throughout at about 10 per cent weak, while the heat input to the
carburettor was maintained at 0·0433 B,Th.U. at full load and
TABLE I—GROUP A
Fuel, Ethyl Alcohol 95 per cent

Compression ratio 3·8 : 1
R.P.M. 975 1300 1500 1700

Piston speed ft. per min. 1300 1733 2000 2266
Heat to I.H.P., per cent 26·9 27·0 26·9 27·0

„ cooling water, per cent 25·1 24·7 24·4 24·2
„ exhaust, radiation, &c. 48·0 48·3 48·7 48·8
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0
Fuel, Petrol, sample (A)

R.P.M. 975 1500 1700

Piston speed, ft. per min. 1300 2000 2266
Heat to I.H.P., per cent 25·9 26·1 26·1

„ cooling water, per cent 30·4 28·0 27·0
„ exhaust, radiation, &c. 43·7 45·9 46·9
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0

Compression ratio 7 : 1
R.P.M. 975 1300 1500 .

Piston speed, ft. per min. 1300 1733 2000
Heat to I.H.P., per cent 37·6 38·1 38·3

„ cooling water, per cent 25·4 24·3 23·9
„ exhaust, radiation, &c.,
per cent 37·0 37·6 37·8
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0

reduced proportionately as the load was reduced. The circulating
water temperature was maintained constant throughout at 140° F.
TABLE II—GROUP B

R.P.M. 1500
Percentage of maximum I.H.P. 100 80 60 40

per cent 41·1 39·0 35·8 32·2
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0
Fuel, Petrol, sample (A)

R.P.M. 1500

per cent 40·0 37·8 34·1 31·0
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0
From these tests it will be observed t h a t :

(1) Provided that, as in the above cases, the time of ignition is
advanced as the weight of charge is reduced, and therefore the
relative proportion of residual exhaust products is increased, the
thermal efficiency remains practically constant over a wide range
of load.
(2) That as the load is reduced a greater proportion of the
exhaust heat appears in the cooling water.
Lastly, a set of tests were run on hydrogen (Table III.). On this
fuel alone it is possible to reduce the power output over a wide range
by controlling the supply of fuel only, i.e. by qualitative governing,

without relying upon stratification. These tests are particularly
interesting as they are, it is believed, the only experiments which
have yet been carried out in which the power output has been varied
solely by varying the mean mixture strength of the working fluid.
TABLE III
Fuel, Hydrogen Gas

R.P.M. 1500
Mixture strength at maximum load 10 per cent weak

per cent 43·1 39·5 36·5 31·4
Total heat 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0
In these tests it will be observed t h a t :

(1) The thermal efficiency increases rapidly as the load is reduced,
due to the lower mean temperature.
(2) The proportionate heat supply to the cooling water increases
slightly as the load is reduced, but at nothing like the rate shown in
the previous tables, when governed quantitatively.
It is interesting to compare the results obtained on hydrogen
with those found in the previous group. In the latter case the load
is varied by varying the weight of working fluid per cycle, the
temperature remaining practically constant, while in the tests with
hydrogen the weight remained constant and the temperature was
varied. As might be expected when the temperature is varied, so
the efficiency follows suit, rising as the mean cycle temperature falls.
Incidentally, also, the results obtained in Group B serve to illustrate
how small a part direct heat loss to the cylinder walls actually plays,
for as the weight of charge is reduced at nearly constant temperature,
the relative heat loss must be increased substantially and yet the
thermal efficiency remains unchanged. That quite a substantial
change in heat loss has so little effect on the thermal efficiency
illustrates how small, in itself, this whole source of loss must be—
that it actually effects no reduction at all in the thermal efficiency is
probably due to the fact that as the weight of charge is reduced,
so is the proportion of residual exhaust products increased, with the
result that the temperature is slightly lower, and this very slight
lowering of the flame temperature results in a gain in efficiency
sufficient just to balance the increased relative heat loss.
The conclusions to be drawn from the preceding observations
and tests are;
(1) That the direct loss of heat to the cylinder walls plays a
comparatively insignificant part in the performance of an Internal-
Combustion engine, and that even were the whole of this loss
completely suppressed, the gain in power output and efficiency would
be equivalent only to the conversion of an extra 2*5 to 3 per cent
of the heat of the fuel into useful work,
(2) That, of the total heat carried away by the cooling water,
only a very small proportion could be converted into useful work,
and by far the bulk would appear in the exhaust.
(3) That when running with wide open throttle, the heat flow to
the cooling water is very nearly proportional to the speed of the
engine, i.e. the proportion remains nearly constant.
(4) When the load is reduced by throttling a much larger pro-
portion of the heat rejected to the exhaust is taken up by the cooling
water, before the gases enter the exhaust pipe.
It is frequently stated that the relative inefficiency of a com-
bustion chamber with a large surface volume ratio is due to the
increased heat losses. From the above it is clear that this cannot
have any great influence. The most probable cause of the com-
parative inefficiency is, as shown in Chapter IV, that, owing to
the lack of turbulence in such types of combustion chamber, an
appreciable portion of the charge clings to and is so chilled by the
walls that it either escapes combustion altogether or burns so late
in the expansion stroke as to be of little value.
Supercharging.—Though first developed by Sir Dugald Clerk
more than thirty years ago, the use of supercharging has only
recently come into prominence as a means of increasing the power
output of high-speed engines when working at ground level. That
it has not been employed earlier may be explained by the fact
that it is only in quite recent years that high-speed engines have
been produced whose efficiency and freedom from detonation have
rendered them capable of dealing with the intensity of heat flow
which supercharging involves.
The high-speed engine of ten years ago could barely stand the
normal atmospheric density and was often either deliberately or
inadvertently throttled at the valves, carburettor or both. As the
efficiency improved, and therefore the proportion of destructive
waste heat diminished, so the breathing capacity of engines was
increased, until to-day we have so far reduced the waste heat that
we can afford to supplement the normal atmospheric density, in
other words, to supercharge. It must not, however, be supposed
that because one engine of good modern design will withstand
supercharging, another of inferior design will do likewise. To couple
a supercharger to an inefficient engine is merely to court disaster.
TABLE IV.—1500 R.P.M. R = 4·3
Intake Heat to
Intake Press., Air, B.H.P. B.M.E.P., Heat to Cooling Cooling Water,
Atmos. Abs. Temp. lb./sq. in. Water, H.P. per cent of
deg. F. B.H.P.
1·0 87 14·7 93 13·4 91·5

1·52 90 27·8 175 19·6 70·3
2·02 90 40·0 252 25·1 62·8
2·50 92 51·5 324 30·7 59·6
3·11 94 64·2 404 37·0 57·7
3·49 96 72·8 457 40·6 56·0
3·62 102 75·6 475 41·8 55·3
With a view to determining how the distribution of heat was

influenced by supercharging, and also the effect of the latter on
detonation, a special engine was designed and constructed at the
author's laboratory for supercharging experiments up to very high
pressures, namely, up to initial pressures of four atmospheres
(absolute). For such work a single sleeve valve was employed, since
the use of such a valve eliminated at once both the difficulty of
balancing the inlet valves against high intake pressures and also
the obvious one of burning out of exhaust valves. The engine in
question is of 4½-in. bore by 5½-in. stroke with a fixed compression
ratio of 4·3 : 1; it is designed safely to withstand a maximum pres-
sure of 2200 lb. per sq. inch (which pressure has on occasion been
exceeded), and to run at a normal speed of 1500-1800 R.P.M.
In view of the very high maximum pressures to be catered for
the reciprocating parts are necessarily very heavy, and the mechani-
cal efficiency in consequence is somewhat low, viz. approximately
(E 246) 7
75 per cent at 1500 R.P.M., and normal intake pressure. As the
intake pressure is increased, the absolute friction losses increase but
little, with the result that the mechanical efficiency rises rapidly.
Induction air is supplied under any desired pressure from a large
piston compressor and a system of intercoolers is arranged so that
the temperature of the intake air can be maintained at any de-
Fig. 28
sired figure between 80° F. and 180° F. Since the air compressor
supplying the supercharge is separately driven, and in any case is
of large excess capacity, its power absorption has not been taken
into account in the following figures, nor has allowance been made
for the energy returned to the engine piston by the supercharge air
during the normal suction stroke.
Since measurement of the air supply involved very great diffi-
culty the air/fuel ratio could not be determined with sufficient
accuracy to justify expressing the heat balance in terms of the total
heat of the fuel as in the case of the preceding experiments on the
variable compression engine. It is therefore expressed in terms of
the brake horse-power of the engine. The figures, in consequence,
are not directly comparable with those given previously, but they
show accurately the effect of supercharge on heat flow.
In fig, 28 is shown the increase in B.M.E.P. (uncorrected for the
Fig. 29
power absorbed by the supercharger) in heat flow to the jackets,

in maximum pressure, in mean effective pressure and in exhaust
release pressure, as the pressure of the air is raised from normal
atmospheric density to 3·5 atmos., while fig. 29 shows superimposed
a series of indicator diagrams at varying initial pressures.
Investigations were also made into the influence of supercharg-
ing on the tendency to detonate. Since the engine has a fixed com-
pression ratio it was necessary to prepare a number of different fuel
mixtures with various proportions of benzole added to a standard
petrol. Starting with pure petrol the intake pressure was increased
very gradually until detonation became apparent; the particular
fuel in use at the time was then tested on the variable compression
engine and its H.U.C.R. determined. A prepared benzole/petrol
mixture was then supplied and the intake pressure further raised
until detonation again supervened. This process was repeated step
by step with both “ cold ” air, i.e. 80°-90° F. and hot air 170°-180°
F. with repeated check tests of each mixture on the variable com-
pression engine. The results of these tests were as shown in fig. 30
from which it will be seen that the general tendency to detonate
increases with increase of intake pressure more or less according
to the empirical formula
0·73
where R = Highest useful compression ratio.
where P — Intake pressure.
Ignition Advance.—The ignition advance required at various
intake pressures, with maximum power mixture strength, is as
follows:
Intake Press., Ignition Advance.,
Atmos. Abs. degrees F.
1·0 40
1·5 40
2·0 38
2·5 36
3·33 33
3·66 31
Since this engine is not very sensitive to small changes in ignition
timing these values are necessarily approximate.
The general gist of the whole of this investigation may be sum-
marized in the graphs shown in fig. 31, which show the increase in all
directions with increase of intake pressure over and above normal
atmospheric pressure.
Influence of Cylinder J a c k e t Temperature.—It is fre-
quently found that engines give more power and run more efficiently
when the jacket water is hot. This is usually, but quite wrongly, attri-
buted to the reduced heat loss to the cylinder walls when the jacket
temperature is higher. It is due rather to the fact that the warming
of the air and induction system is generally effected by means of the
cylinder circulating water, consequently when the cylinder jackets
are cold, so also is the induction system, with the result that a
considerable proportion of the fuel precipitates, the distribution
becomes defective, and both the power and efficiency suffer in conse-
Fig. 30
Fig. 31
quence. It is due also to the fact that the piston friction is depen-
dent upon the viscosity of the oil on the cylinder walls and this, in
turn, is dependent upon their temperature.
In engines in which the temperature of the induction system is
controlled independently of the cylinder temperature, the difference
in power, if any, is much less marked, and it then becomes a question
of the relation between three factors.
(1) The variation in heat loss to the jackets with temperature.
(2) The variation in volumetric efficiency with temperature.
(3) The variation in piston friction with temperature.
With regard to the heat loss to the jackets. It has already been
shown that if the whole of the loss during combustion and expan-
sion were completely suppressed, the indicated horse-power would
be increased by less than 10 per cent, taking into account the loss
due to dissociation, &c., at the higher temperatures, which would
then be reached. Now the mean temperature during combustion
and expansion may be taken as about 3800° F., and that of the
inner surface of the cylinder walls with boiling jacket water as, at
most, about 300° F., the temperature difference between the two
being about 3500° F. If now the temperature of the jacket water
be reduced by 150° F. (that is, from boiling to 72° F.) the temperature
difference between the gases and the cylinder walls will only be
increased to 3650° F., an increase of little more than 4 per cent.
Assuming that the heat loss is proportional to the temperature
difference (and this is approximately true), then the difference in
the indicated efficiency and power due to the greater heat loss with
cold jackets will only be 4 per cent of 10 per cent, or about 0·4 per
cent. With a very badly designed combustion chamber it might
conceivably amount to as much as 1 per cent, but in any case it is
but a trifling amount.
With regard to the variation in volumetric efficiency the differ-
ence here is much more marked and is in the reverse direction.
With hot cylinder walls at 300° F., the rise in temperature of the
working fluid due to contact with the inlet valve and cylinder walls
during its entry will amount to about 80° F. With cold water it
will be about 55° F., assuming that the mean surface temperature of
the walls is, in each case, about 90° F. higher than that of the jacket
water. Experiments quoted elsewhere show that with a cylinder of
normal design the change in the temperature rise of the entering
gases is about one-sixth of that of the cylinder walls. The mean
absolute temperature of the working fluid after its entry to the
cylinder may be taken as about 700° F. absolute. The weight of
charge taken into the cylinder and therefore the power output will be
proportional to the absolute temperature, so that if this is reduced by
25° F. the weight of charge taken into the cylinder, per cycle, will be
increased in the proportion of or about 3·75 per cent. From the
above considerations it will be seen that while the power and efficiency
may be reduced by from 0·4 per cent to 1 per cent, due to increased
Fig. 32.—Variation in indicated Mean Pressure with Cylinder Temperature
heat losses, the weight of charge taken in will be increased by

about 3·75 per cent, the net result being a gain of about 2·75 to 3·25
per cent in the indicated horse-power by reducing the temperature
of the cooling water from boiling to about 72° F. or what is usually
termed stone cold.
So far as the indicated horse-power is concerned, therefore, any
reduction in the temperature of the cooling water involves an appre-
ciable increase in the power developed in the cylinder. Fig. 32 shows
the mean results of a large number of actual tests, from which it will
be seen that the observed results agree very closely with the above
deductions.
The third factor, namely piston friction, plays a very important
part. In Chapter IX, dealing with piston design, it will be emphasized
that piston friction is dependent in a very large measure on the
viscosity of the lubricating oil, and therefore upon the temperature
of the cylinder walls—the colder the walls, the higher the viscosity
of the oil clinging to them, and therefore the greater the friction. In
the case of pistons with large bearing surfaces and heavy inertia
pressures the difference in friction between hot and cold jackets
may amount to as much as 8 per cent of the indicated horse-power
of the engine, in which case the gain in indicated horse-power from
the use of cold circulating water would be completely swamped by
the extra friction, and the net result would be a loss of about 5 per
cent in brake horse-power. On the other hand, with a very light
piston, with the minimum of bearing surface, the difference may
be as little as 3 per cent, in which event the brake horse-power of the
engine will be independent of the jacket water temperature. Quite
recently tests have been carried out on three single-cylinder engines,
each of about the same size, in which the carburettor and induction
system were heated independently of the circulating water. One of
these engines was fitted with a cast-iron trunk piston of orthodox
design, one with a very light aluminium slipper-type piston, and one
with a cross-head piston, in which the friction of the piston on the
cylinder walls is practically negligible. The results obtained are
given below:
B.H.P. at 1200 R.P.M.
Jacket Jacket Difference

Engine No. Water, Water, per cent.
212° F. 80° F.
(1) Cast-iron trunk piston B. 8 27 25·7 -5

(2) Aluminium slipper - type
piston E. 35 28·3 28·3 Nil
(3) Cross-head piston T.S.1 29·4 30·0 +2
In the case of the engines used for tanks which were fitted with
cross-head pistons and independently heated induction systems, it
was invariably found that the brake horse-power was from 1·5 per
cent to 2 per cent higher with “ cold ” jacket water, i.e. about 80° F.,
than with. “ hot, ” i.e. about 180°-200° F. The difference in power was
quite appreciable in service, and tank drivers frequently expressed
surprise that their engines appeared to be more “ lively ” when
the cylinders were cold.
To sum up, apart from any question of carburettor temperature,
the power output of an engine may increase or decrease as the jacket
temperature is raised, depending upon the piston friction; if the
piston friction is high, the power output will increase; if low, it will
not increase. The increase in heat loss over the most extreme con-
ditions is so small as to be negligible. The increase in volumetric
efficiency is comparatively large, but is usually not sufficient to balance
the increase in piston friction, hence the loss of power so often
observed.
In most cases, however, the temperature of the carburettor and
induction system is dependent also upon the jacket-water tempera-
ture, and when operating with fuels of low volatility the variation of
temperature of these parts may play a supremely important part,
particularly if the distribution is inherently defective or the mixture
is rather weak,
Gas Velocity and Indicated Mean Pressure.—From
analysis of a very large number of observations and test results, the
author has found that the best all-round compromise between such
various conflicting conditions as (1) the attainment of the highest
possible volumetric efficiency, (2) the attainment of the necessary
degree of turbulence, (3) the reduction of the fluid pumping losses to
the lowest possible limit, is achieved when the mean gas velocity
through the valves is in the neighbourhood of 130 ft. per second,
Clearly from the point of view of conditions (1) and (3) it is desir-
able to keep the velocity as low as possible, while to fulfil condition
(2) a high gas velocity is required. The gas velocity, as is customary,
is expressed in terms of feet per second through the valve opening
on the assumption (a) that the valve is wide open throughout the
entire stroke; (b) that the mean and not the maximum piston speed
is taken into account.
There is now abundant evidence that where the valves open
directly into the main body of the combustion chamber a somewhat
higher gas velocity may be employed without impairing the volu-
metric efficiency; on the other hand, with such a combustion
chamber free from pockets or recesses turbulence will be better
maintained and a lower gas velocity will suffice. In other words,
when the valves are so placed that they open freely into the com-
bustion space, both the efficiency and the mean pressure are less
dependent upon gas velocity. In practice, however, the size of the
valves and valve passages is largely controlled by mechanical limita-
tions, Practical experience indicates that, when valves are fitted
directly in the cylinder heads, only as much area of opening should
be given as can be provided without allowing the symmetry and
compactness of the combustion chamber to suffer. It would seem
preferable, therefore, to increase the gas velocity up to as high as
160 ft. per second, rather than to distort the combustion chamber
in order to accommodate larger valves.
The valve-opening diagram is clearly a very important factor,
and in the absence of precise information it must be assumed that
the valve-opening diagram is in each case that best suited to the
general design of the engine and its pipe-work.
Fig. 33.—A Selection of Curves showing M.E.P. and Fuel Consumption on a Gas-Velocity Basis
The author has now a great deal more information on this

subject, derived from a very large number of engines tested in his
own laboratory and under his own observation. Further, since all
these engines were designed on the same basis having the same valve-
opening diagrams, and all running at sufficiently high speeds to
eliminate any appreciable variation in the heat losses, the results
are directly comparable; and the deductions to be drawn from
them are probably quite reliable. The results of some of these
tests are shown in fig. 33, from which it will be seen that, while both
the mean pressure and fuel consumption differ very considerably,
depending both upon the compression ratio and the efficiency of the
GAS VELOCITY, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY 91
combustion chamber, the relation between mean pressure, efficiency,

and gas velocity is substantially the same in all cases.
Again, a series of experiments was carried out on the special
single-cylinder research engine illustrated in figs. 3 and 4; this
engine is fitted with two inlet and three exhaust valves. Pro-
vision is made for throwing any of the valves out of operation.
The results obtained with various combinations of valves in action
are shown in fig. 34.
Many useful deductions can be drawn from the results of this
last series, the more so because: (1) The tests were carried out
under conditions ensuring an exceptional degree of accuracy; (2)
the area of valve opening; and therefore the gas velocity, could be
altered without disturbing any other condition.
All experience serves to indicate that the velocity through the
exhaust valves may be as much as 50 per cent higher than through
the inlet valves without causing any appreciable resistance or other
loss. Although the same weight of working fluid has to pass through
both the inlet and exhaust valves in much the same time the con-
ditions under which it passes are very different. In the first place,
at the time when the exhaust valves open, the pressure in the
cylinder is relatively high, generally from 50 to 70 lb. per square
inch above atmosphere. The sudden release of the gases at this high
pressure results in the setting up in the exhaust pipe of a very high
velocity, and the kinetic energy acquired by the gases in this pipe
assists greatly in the withdrawal of the remainder from the cylinder.
Unless, therefore, the silencer offers any undue resistance the energy
expended in driving out the exhaust products is almost negligible,
and, within limits, is almost independent of the gas velocity.
While distinct evidence of wire-drawing accompanied by a
rapid increase in the fluid pumping losses becomes apparent so soon
as the inlet gas velocity exceeds about 150 to 160 ft. per second,
there is no evidence of any measurable fluid resistance, at all events
until the exhaust gas velocity exceeds about 240 ft. per second.
One reason for this is that owing to their high release pressure
the bulk of the exhaust products is discharged while the piston is
more or less at rest. It must also be remembered that while a back
pressure of, say, 1 lb./in. on the exhaust stroke only decreases the
effective mean pressure by that amount, a negative pressure of
1 lb./in. at the end of the suction stroke will reduce the mean
pressure by or nearly 7 per cent, a much greater loss.
92
TESTS WITH ONE OR MORE VALVES THROWN OUT OF OPERATION
I.H.P. (Compression ratio 6 : 1 in all cases.)
Number of Valves in Operation and Mean Gas Velocity.
Column No. 1. Column No. 2. Column No. 3. Column No. 4.
No. of Valves 2 inl. 3 exh. No, of Valves 2 inl. 2 exh. No. of valves 2 Inl. 1 exh. No. of valves 1 inl. 3 exh.
Gas velocity, Gas velocity, Gas velocity, Gas velocity,

ft. per sec. ft. per sec. ft. per sec. ft. per sec.
I.H.P. I.H.P. I.H.P. I.H.P.
R.P.M. Inlet. Exhaust. Inlet. Exhaust. Inlet. Exhaust. Inlet. Exhaust.
900 66·1 86·6 19·9 66·1 137·2 20·0 66·1 235·0 18·8 132·2 86·6 19·1
1100 81·0 106·0 24·5 81·0 168·0 24·55 81·0 287·5 22·9 162·0 106·0 23·0
1300 95·5 125·0 29·4 95·5 198·0 29·4 95·5 339·0 26·0 191·0 125·0 27·0
1500 111·0 144·5 34·5 111·0 228·5 34·4 111·0 391·0 26·7 222·0 144·5 30·7
1700 124·8 163·0 39·8 124·8 259·0 39·3 124·8 443·0 26·4 249·6 l63·0 33·8
1900 139·6 183·0 45·1 139·6 290·0 44·3 139·6 496·0 25·2 279·2 183·0 36·0
Fig. 34.
GAS VELOCITY, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY 93
From the more reliable data now available it is possible to con-
struct a curve giving the relation between inlet gas velocity and
volumetric efficiency with a very fair degree of accuracy. As already
explained, however, the volumetric efficiency is also influenced
to a very large extent by the vaporisation of fuel within the cylinder
and upon the degree of pre-heating before entry; it is therefore
dependent upon these factors also. The curve shown in fig. 35
gives to a close approximation the relation between the volumetric
Fig. 35.—Volumetric Efficiency and Gas Velocity
efficiency obtained and inlet gas velocity for an efficient and

up-to-date design of petrol engine with normal valve timing; for an
engine running on benzol it is about 2·5 per cent too low, and for
alcohol about 8 per cent too low, provided, of course, that the
amount of pre-heating is the same for each fuel. The curve also
assumes that the induction piping and carburettor offers no abnormal
resistance, and that not more than four cylinders draw their supply
from any one carburettor.
To sum up, it is clear that all the evidence available to-day
tends to confirm the assumption that the most satisfactory com-
promise is attained when the gas velocity through the inlet valves
is from 130 to 160 ft. per second, depending upon their position
in the combustion chamber; the gas velocity through the exhaust
valves may, however, be as much as 50 per cent greater without
any ill effect.
Influence of Cylinder S i z e on P o w e r and Efficiency.—
For equal compression ratios the indicated power and efficiency of
an engine is influenced by two factors; (1) Incomplete combustion
of the layer of working fluid which clings to the walls of the
combustion chamber; (2) direct loss of heat to the walls of the
combustion chamber.
Both depend clearly upon the relation between the surface of
the combustion chamber and its volume, but the former depends
also upon the thickness of the layer adhering to the walls, which in
turn is dependent upon the degree of turbulence or scouring effect.
Both these sources of loss are reduced to a minimum when the com-
bustion chamber is as compact and symmetrical as possible, for not
only is the surface/volume ratio then reduced to a minimum, but the
scouring effect of turbulence has the fullest possible play,
Assuming that the combustion chamber is similar in all cases,
then it is evident that the relation of surface to volume will be
reduced as the size of the cylinder is increased; since, so long as the
proportions are similar, one factor varies as the square of the size
and the other as the cube. It follows, therefore that under similar
conditions the power output per unit volume and efficiency of an
engine will increase with increase of size. Exactly how much it
will increase must depend upon the proportion which these sources
of loss bear to the whole, that is to say, the gain in power and
efficiency with larger cylinders must depend largely upon the design
of the combustion chamber. When the combustion chamber in all
cases is as compact and symmetrical as possible, the gain with
increase of size will be at a minimum.
It should be emphasized that the above arguments apply for
equal compression ratios. When, however, the effect of cylinder size
on the incidence of detonation is taken into account, it will be
found that the compression ratio of the smaller cylinder can be
increased to an extent which will compensate for the greater heat,
loss, &c., with the result that at its appropriate compression ratio
the performance—viz. mean pressure and efficiency of any petrol
engine—is virtually independent of cylinder size.
CHAPTER IV
INFLUENCE OF FORM OF COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
Of all the features of design which control both the power output
and efficiency of an internal-combustion engine, by far the most
important is the form of the combustion chamber. Upon this
depends not only the efficiency with which the fuel is burnt, and
therefore the power output and efficiency of the engine, but also, to
a very large extent, the liability to detonation; and detonation by
limiting the compression ratio that may be used sets an additional
limit on the efficiency.
The term “ Efficiency ”, never very closely defined, has, of late
years, become much abused. It is quite customary nowadays to
describe an engine as “ efficient ” merely because it is capable,
mechanically, of running at a very high speed, though this is clearly
a misuse of the term,
While the term “ efficiency ” is often abused, its true importance
is still more often overlooked. It is argued frequently that since
fuel is cheap and air still cheaper “ efficiency ” is of but little prac-
tical importance. From the point of view of fuel cost, this is often
true, but it cannot too strongly be emphasized that besides deter-
mining both the power output and fuel economy the efficiency of an
engine is also a measure of its reliability and maintenance of tune,
for it must be remembered that the reliability of an engine depends,
not so much, it is true, on the proportion of the total heat converted
into useful work, but rather upon the proportion of the total heat
which is not so converted, and which is left over to make trouble.
Fully 90 per cent of the ills from which internal-combustion engines
suffer are due, directly or indirectly, to excessive heat flow; directly
in the form of cracked cylinders and valve seats, seized or burnt
pistons and burnt out valves; in the form of carbonization, or
gummed up piston rings, &c., and indirectly in the form of partially
carbonized or contaminated lubricating oil, resulting in choked
oilways and consequent bearing failures. Now each and all of these
95
sources of trouble, whether they result in complete breakdown or
in loss of tunc, are attributable to excessive heat flow, and it must
constantly be borne in mind that the whole of this destruction is
wrought by the flow of waste heat, and that one is really more
interested in reducing the amount of heat left behind than anything
else. The only possible way in which the waste or residual heat can
be reduced is by converting a greater proportion of it into useful
work.
Let us consider two engines of the same given cylinder capacity;
each, at the same speed, will consume the same weight of air.
Whether that air be saturated or supersaturated with fuel, the same
amount of heat will be liberated, and we will suppose that it is
the equivalent of 100 H.P. in each case. If now one engine has a
thermal efficiency of 30 per cent and the other of 20 per cent, it
follows that not only will the former engine give 30 H.P. as against
20 H.P. in the other case, but the amount of heat left over to make
trouble will be only 70 per cent in the former case and 80 per cent
in the latter, so that we can actually get 50 per cent more power
from the same engine, and that with a lower heat flow. Now sup-
pose that we run both engines at the same power output, say 20
H.P. To get this power output in the case of the more efficient engine
we shall need to liberate only the equivalent of 66·6 H.P. worth of
heat, 20 of which will be available as power and 46·6 will be left over.
In the case of the less efficient engine we have seen that to get 20
H.P. we have to liberate 100 H.P. worth of heat, and have the
equivalent of 80 H.P. left over to make trouble. It will be seen,
therefore, that by increasing the efficiency from 20 to 30 per cent,
the waste heat is reduced to very little more than one-half, and the
more efficient engine will run probably ten times as long at the same
power output without trouble or loss of tune. It is on the score,
therefore, of reliability and of sustained and consistent performance
that the necessity for efficiency is most insistent.
In the design of the combustion chamber the most important
considerations are:
(1) The maintenance of the turbulence set up by the gases during
their entry;
(2) The position of the ignition plug;
(3) The avoidance of any pockets where the gases may become
stagnant;
(4) The provision of a free and unobstructed entry for the gases
after passing through the inlet valve.
INFLUENCE OF FORM OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER 97
Turbulence.—The maintenance of turbulence until the time of
ignition is probably the most important consideration of all, for upon
turbulence depends the rate at which combustion takes place. If
the combustible mixture were completely stagnant at the time of
ignition, the initial flame brought into life by the passage of the
spark across the points of the ignition plug would spread so slowly
that, even in a comparatively slow-speed engine, barely half the
working fluid would be burnt before the exhaust valve opens. No
matter what fuel be used (except possibly hydrogen), we have to rely
almost entirely on turbulence or mechanical disturbance to distribute
the wan and timid flame rapidly throughout the combustible mixture,
and this becomes the more important as the density of the charge
is reduced by throttling; for as the density is reduced so is the
proportion of residual exhaust products increased, and these, being
diluents, tend to lower the flame temperature and so greatly to
discourage and retard the process of inflammation. We rely, there-
fore, entirely upon mechanical disturbance, or turbulence, to speed
up the process of combustion and to spread inflammation rapidly
throughout the whole bulk of the working fluid.
Apart, however, from the question of accelerating combustion,
turbulence plays another and highly important part. In any in-
ternal-combustion engine cylinder there is always a layer of work-
ing fluid adhering more or less to the cold cylinder walls. This, by
its close proximity to cool surfaces, can get rid of its heat so rapidly
that it escapes complete combustion. It is upon turbulence that
we have to rely, to scour away this layer and to distribute it through-
out the combustion chamber. There is little doubt but that the
effective thickness of this layer, and its influence upon the power
output and efficiency of an engine, depend largely upon the degree
of turbulence within the combustion chamber.
Turbulence in itself, so far as the author has been able to ascer-
tain, has no very important influence upon the tendency of the com-
bustible mixture to detonate. If the mixture is completely stagnant
and ignited from any one point, the flame will extend from that point
very slowly at first, but at a steadily increasing velocity until ulti-
mately it reaches a speed at which the unburnt gas, compressed by
the rapidly approaching flame, receives heat from compression and
also by radiation and conduction at a rate in excess of that at which
it can get rid of it to the cool cylinder walls, with the result that its
temperature is raised above its self-ignition temperature. It then
ignites spontaneously and almost instantaneously throughout its
(E 246) 8
whole bulk, thus setting up an explosion or detonation wave. If
instead of being stagnant the combustible mixture is in a state of
violent disturbance at the time when ignition is started, the whole
process is speeded up enormously; but it is the whole process that is
so speeded up and not any one part of it, with the result that the
phenomena are precisely the same, though on a different scale so
far as speed is concerned.
It is generally supposed that a combustion chamber having a
large surface in relation to its volume owes its low efficiency entirely
to direct heat loss to the cylinder walls, but in Chapter III. we
have seen that direct heat loss plays a relatively small part in the
performance of an engine, and it is far more probable that this form
of combustion chamber owes its low efficiency rather to the fact
that not only is the area of the layer of gas which clings to the walk
and so escapes combustion considerably greater, but, in addition,
its thickness also is greater, due to the fact that in such a chamber
there is more resistance to the motion of the gases, and the scouring
effect of turbulence is therefore less. Although it is not possible to
state definitely that this is the case, yet there is a great deal of pre-
sumptive evidence in favour of such an assumption; not the least
of which being that in any given design of combustion chamber an
increase in turbulence, e.g. by increasing the velocity through the
inlet valve, will often produce an increase in efficiency without
altering in any respect the flow of heat to the cooling water. This,
in itself, would not be conclusive evidence, but coupled with a
great deal of other indirect evidence it carries a good deal of
weight.
Position of the Ignition Plug.—The position of the
ignition plug in the combustion chamber is very important, for
upon it depends:
(1) The tendency to detonate;
(2) The time taken to complete combustion.
The influence of sparking plug position upon detonation has al-
ready been discussed in Chapter II and need not be reiterated here.
Apart from the question of detonation, the distance from the point
of ignition to the farthest point in the combustion chamber controls,
for an equal degree of turbulence, the time taken for inflammation
to spread throughout the working fluid. This is very important,
more particularly so on light loads, for, other things being equal,
the rate of burning depends upon the flame temperature, and this,
in turn, depends upon the proportion of residual exhaust products,
As the load is reduced by throttling, so is the proportion of inert
gases increased, and, in consequence, the flame temperature is
reduced and with it the rate of burning. It may be argued that,
within limits, the rate of burning matters but little, because it is
always possible to advance the time of ignition to suit. This, how-
ever, does not quite meet the case, even on full load, for, if the
period of combustion be prolonged unduly, the direct heat loss to
the cylinder walls at this vital period may begin to assume serious
proportions, while when the load varies rapidly, as it does in all
forms of motor traction, it becomes almost impossible so to adjust
the time of ignition as to suit all conditions.
If the plug is placed centrally in the combustion chamber, a
small ignition advance will serve for all conditions of speed or load,
and the engine will run at all times at a high efficiency with fixed
ignition timing. If, however, the plug is placed in such a position
as to leave a long travel for the flame, not only will a considerable
ignition advance be required at full load, but the engine will, at all
times, be much more sensitive to the time of ignition, and will not
run efficiently at light loads unless the ignition is still further
advanced. It should be noted that both the time taken to com-
plete combustion and the tendency to detonate depend, for equal
degrees of turbulence, upon the absolute, not the relative, distance
from the sparking plug to the farthest point in the combustion
chamber. Thus, both the time of combustion and the tendency
to detonate will be nearly the same in a cylinder of 8-inch diameter
with the plug in the centre as in one of 4-inch diameter with the
plug at one side, or for similar plug positions both the tendency
to detonate and the time of combustion will be greater with the
larger cylinder. This factor would militate against the large
cylinder were it not for the fact that in the larger cylinder
turbulence is the better maintained, the gases are in more rapid
motion, and combustion therefore spreads relatively faster. Hence
the efficiency does not suffer, though the tendency to detonate
necessarily remains greater in the larger cylinder.
In the design of the combustion chamber the three points to be
aimed at are:
(1) To provide a chamber into which the valves open directly,
so that after entry the gases need turn no corners and so lose their
initial velocity;
(2) To arrange that the sparking plug be placed centrally in the
combustion chamber;
(3) That there should be no valve or other pockets where the
gases may become stagnant.
At first sight it might appear that the ideal combustion
chamber would be a true sphere, but although this would be excellent
from the point of view both of surface/volume ratio and of turbu-
lence, it would be ideal only if the point of ignition were at the
centre, which is obviously impossible. Since the point of ignition
must of necessity be situated somewhere on or very near the surface,
it follows that the distance which the flame will have to travel will
be equal to the full diameter of the sphere, and this will give rise
to detonation and necessitate the use of a lower compression ratio,
Fig. 36
with consequent loss of power and efficiency. Probably the nearest

practical approaches to the ideal combustion chamber is that shown
in fig. 36.
This form, while almost ideal on thermo-dynamic grounds,
is not very convenient from a mechanical point of view, because
it necessitates the use of overhead valves operated from two
camshafts, for the central position of the sparking plug precludes
the use of a central overhead camshaft. It is, however, particularly
applicable to sleeve-valve engines, and the fact that it is inherent
to this type of engine is, in the author's opinion, one of the strongest
arguments in favour of the sleeve valve. For engines required to
develop a high power output and efficiency, similar forms of com-
bustion chamber but with the sparking plug placed at the side,
are very commonly employed, and are, indeed, practically universal
for all aircraft engines. The effect, however, of placing the plug at
the side is to increase both the degree of ignition advance and the
tendency to detonate, and so necessitate the use of a somewhat
lower compression ratio and a consequent reduction both in power
and efficiency. By using two sparking plugs, however, placed at
opposite sides of the combustion chamber, this disadvantage can
largely be overcome, for the distance which the flame has to travel
from the point of ignition until combustion is completed is then
almost halved. In the case of aero-engines where dual ignition is
insisted upon, on the score of reliability, this form has become almost
a standard one.
The form of combustion shown in fig. 37, in which two horizontal
valves are placed in a small cylindrical combustion chamber, is one
Fig. 37
of the Lest possible from the point of view both of detonation and
combustion efficiency so long as the clearance between the piston
and the cylinder head is reduced to the very limit necessitated by
mechanical considerations, and so long also as the engine runs at a
comparatively low piston speed and therefore does not require
large valves. It is therefore a particularly efficient form for short-
stroke engines, but though excellent for power output and efficiency
it is unfortunately very inconvenient from a mechanical point of
view when applied to a vertical engine on account of the valve
operation and pipe work.
The form shown in fig. 38, in which the inlet valve is placed
vertically over the exhaust in a side-pocket, and in which both the
piston and cylinder crown are concave, is surprisingly efficient in
maintaining turbulence despite the fact that the valves are pocketed,
but, as may be expected with so long a travel for the flame, it is very
bad from the point of view of detonation and therefore can only
be used with a low compression ratio. With this form of com-
bustion chamber and with the sparking plug fitted in the valve
pocket, the tendency to detonate is considerable, while with the plug
fitted on the side, remote from the valve pocket, it is one of the
very worst possible forms, from the point of view of detonation, as
indeed might be expected. This form, therefore, necessitates the
use of a low compression ratio, but gives a very good power output
and efficiency at that compression.
Fig. 38
Some ten years ago, and as the result of a good deal of previous
experimental work carried out before and during the War, the
author patented a form of cylinder head for side-valve engines;
an example of which is shown in fig. 39; this has come to be known
as the “ turbulent head ”, and is now widely used. The primary
objects aimed at in this design of head were:
(1) To create additional turbulence during the compression
stroke in order to:
(a) Increase the rapidity of burning and so obtain both a greater
effective expansion ratio and, at the same time, render the engine
much less susceptible to ignition timing.
(b) Scour away as far as possible the layer of gas which nor-
mally clings to the cool surfaces of the combustion chamber and is
Fig. 39
therefore chilled to such an extent as to escape complete combus-
tion either entirely or until so late in the expansion stroke as to be
of little value.
(c) Reduce the tendency to detonate by keeping the unburnt
gas in rapid motion, thus enabling it the more readily to get rid of
the heat of compression by the oncoming flame front and, at the
same time, to break up the flame front.
(2) To reduce the length of flame travel from the sparking plug
Fig. 40
to the farthest point in the combustion chamber by rendering in-

operative, so far as detonation is concerned, the part of the com-
bustion chamber over the farthest side of the piston. This was
accomplished by bringing the piston into such close contact with
the head that the gas between these two relatively cool surfaces
was so chilled as to avoid detonation.
(3) To keep the flame travel as short as possible by placing the
sparking plug in a central position.
(4) To reduce, to the minimum, the surface/volume ratio and
therefore the heat loss during combustion, though this latter is
relatively small.
The above were the intentions of the design at the time it was
INFLUENCE OF FORM OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER I05
first produced; by such means it was found possible to obtain from

a side-valve engine a power output and economy at least as good
as those previously obtainable from an overhead valve engine of
equal dimensions, with the added ad-
vantage of a reduction both in the
tendency to detonate and in the
“ sensitiveness ” to ignition timing.
During the past few years the author
and his staff have been carrying out a
series of investigations in relation both
to the effects of turbulence and de-
tonation. For this purpose, the fol-
lowing specially designed apparatus
has been employed:
(1) A special single-stroke variable
compression engine in which the piston
makes one rapid compression stroke
and is immediately caught and locked
on top dead centre. The charge in the
combustion chamber can be fired either
Fig. 41
by a sparking plug in the ordinary way, or by compression ignition

alone. A small fan is fitted inside the combustion chamber to give
any desired degree of turbulence. See figs. 40 and 41.
(2) A special side-valve research engine (figs. 42 and 43) equipped
with very delicate means for measuring the pressure during com-
bustion at each degree of crank-angle, and with a series of quartz
windows controlled by a stroboscope for observing the rate of
spread of flame outwards from the sparking plug to the farthest
point in the combustion chamber. The engine is equipped with
readily detachable heads and over eighty different forms and shapes
Fig. 42
have been tested and examined as to power output and efficiency,

rate of pressure rise, sparking plug position, speed of flame travel,
tendency to detonate and all such relevant factors.
(3) A variable compression engine in which also various com-
binations and positions of both valves and sparking plugs can be
tested.
(4) A sleeve-valve engine in which the turbulence can be
controlled both in direction and extent by means of guide vanes
immediately outside the inlet ports, and recorded by means of
a form of anemometer fitted within the combustion chamber.

(5) A considerable number of research engines built originally
for other investigations, but applicable for the purpose of such
experiments. In all cases a Dobbie Mclnnes “ Farnboro ” electric
indicator was employed to determine and record the pressure changes
in the cylinder and more particularly the rate of pressure rise during
the progress of combustion.
Fig. 43
Such an investigation naturally takes many years and is ex-

cessively tedious, for the most meticulous care must obviously be
taken to ensure that all conditions are strictly comparable, especially
such factors as mixture strength, air, water, and oil temperatures,
&c. Moreover, it is obvious that the experimental apparatus must
be so designed and constructed as to ensure the highest possible
consistency from a mechanical point of view.
The general gist of the experiments carried out has, on the whole,
confirmed the conclusions previously expressed, but it is now possible
to separate out and to evaluate the various individual factors.
Briefly, the more recent experiments have shown:
(1) That the rate of burning depends primarily upon the degree
of turbulence, and may be
expressed in terms of in-
crease of pressure per degree
of crank-angle.
(2) That, to a secondary
extent, the rate of burning
depends upon the compres-
sion ratio; the higher the
compression the more rapid
the burning and therefore the
less need for turbulence. The
diagrams, fig. 45, taken con-
secutively from the variable
Fig. 44.—Max. press., 466 lb. per sq. in. Pressure
compression engine, described rise, 34·4 lb. per sq. in. per deg. Ignition ad-
in Chapter I, at ratios of 4, 5 vance 16·5 deg. E.
and 6·0 : 1, but with exactly
the same degree of turbulence in each case, show this very clearly.
(3) That, at any compression ratio, the best power output and
efficiency are obtained on full load when the rate of pressure rise is
Fig. 45—A, R = 4·0 : 1. 1 M.E.P. =: 120 lb. per sq. in.

B, R = 5·0 : 1. 136
C, R = 6·0 : 1. 146·5
approximately 30 lb. per square inch per degree of crank-angle, but

that at light loads a somewhat greater degree of turbulence is de-
sirable. Fig. 46 shows the observed relationship between power out-
put and rate of pressure rise. It will be seen that over the range
25 lb, to 35 lb. per square inch per degree the curve is fairly flat;
below 25 lb. the loss by delayed and incomplete combustion be-
comes serious; in practice, very serious, for delayed combustion
means heavy carbonization,
a tendency to burn out or
pit exhaust valves, a “ sensi-
tiveness ” to ignition timing
and a tendency to fire back
into the carburettor if the
mixture is weakened to the
Fig. 46 economical limit. Above
about 35 lb. per square inch
the heat loss by intense convection exceeds the gain due to the
more rapid burning and the performance once more begins to fall.
Also, at these high rates of pressure rise the very abrupt application
of pressure intensifies crankshaft spring, piston slap, &c., and renders
the engine running very harsh, noisy, and rough.
(4) That in the so-called “ turbulent head ”, turbulence is set
up to an almost equal degree by:
(a) The initial velocity through the inlet valve.
(b) The velocity through the restricted throat during compres-
sion,
It is intensified also by the final ejection, just prior to ignition, of
the gases entrapped between the piston and cylinder head,
During the series of experiments referred to, each of the above
factors was varied individually step by step, and its influence evalu-
ated.
(5) That though each of the factors (a) and (b) influences the
degree of turbulence to an almost like extent, it is usually unde-
sirable, because of secondary considerations, unduly to intensify
either of them at the expense of the other; that is to say, it does not
pay, on the grounds of volumetric efficiency, to provide a very
small inlet valve and a large throat, thus relying for turbulence
mainly on intake velocity, nor, on the other hand, does it pay to
provide a very large valve and rely for turbulence on a very re-
stricted throat; for either method alone or when exaggerated unduly
tends to restrict the breathing capacity of the engine.
(6) That turbulence from each of the three sources increases
proportionately with increase of speed so that the relationship of
rate of pressure rise to crank-angle remains substantially constant
throughout the whole speed range of the engine; thus a combina-
Fig. 47.—Pressure rise 32·5 lb. per deg. Ignition 10 deg. E. Max. press. 438 lb.
Speed 800. Full load. O.V.S. Detonation. Max. power mixture strength,
I.M.E.P. 122 lb.
Fig. 48.—Pressure rise 32•5 lb. per deg. Ignition 13 deg. E. Max. press. 446 lb.
Speed 1200. Full load. No detonation. Max. power mixture strength.
I.M.E.P. 127 1b.
Fig. 49.—Pressure rise 31·8 lb. per deg. Ignition 21 deg. E. Max. press. 442 lb.
Speed 1800. Pull load. No detonation. Max, power mixture strength.
tion of valve size and combustion chamber proportions designed to

give a rate of pressure rise of 30 lb, per square inch per degree at
full throttle will give this rate at any engine speed. A typical
example of this is shown by the series
of indicator diagrams taken from a
commercial vehicle engine equipped
with such a head. (Figs. 47, 48
and 49.)
(7) That in all cases the best pos-
sible position for the sparking plug is
nearly in the centre of the “ effective ”
combustion chamber, not quite in
the centre, but with a slight bias
towards the exhaust valve head, since
this neighbourhood is necessarily the
hottest zone and should therefore
have the shortest flame travel. Only
a slight bias is desirable however.
Fig. 50—Sparking Plug Positions If pushed too far over towards the
No. 1, Normal position in Ricardo Tur-
bulent Head. No. 2, Over Exhaust
exhaust valve the length of flame
Valve. travel in the other direction then
becomes too great.
Experiments on a turbulent head to investigate the effects of
various positions of the sparking plug (see fig. 50) gave the follow-
ing results, shown in Table I.
TABLE I
Full Throttle Performance

corrected to C. R. 5 : 1. Ignition
Position of Advance, H. U. C. Ratio on
Sparking Plug. degrees Shell No. 1 Petrol.
B.M.E.P., Fuel Consumption, Early.
lb./sq. in. Pt/B.H.P./hour.
1 111·9 0·552 17·6 5·87 : 1

2 109·7 0·577 19·8 5·65 : 1
3 110·5 0·577 23·0 5·3 : 1
4 109·5 0·579 22·0 5·45 : 1
It will be noticed that position No. 1 is that giving the best re-
sults both in power and efficiency, together with the least tendency
to detonate. Although in position No. 2 the sparking plug is well
over the exhaust valve, a hot region, the tendency to detonate is
greater than for the more central position No. 1. The reason for this
lies in the greater length of flame travel in position No. 2. In Posi-
tion 4 the effect is still more marked.
(8) That so far as detonation is concerned, the clearance be-
tween the piston and cylinder head in the “ inoperative ” portion
is the main determining factor,
and is critical. Here detona-
tion is liable to take place, as
shown by observation through
the quartz windows, so soon as
a certain minimum clearance
is exceeded. Fig. 51 shows
the observed relationship be-
tween clearance space and the
tendency to detonate, from
which it will be seen that a
reduction in clearance from
0·15 in. to 0·10 in. alone per-
Fig. 51.—Curve showing tendency to detonate
mits of the compression ratio plotted against head clearance. Spark in
being raised by no less than normal position for Ricardo head.
0·85 ratio, viz. from 5·75 to 6·6.
(9) That the effect of turbulence alone upon the tendency to
detonate and as distinct from much more important factors such
as length of flame travel is appreciable, but not outstanding. It is
extremely difficult in any practicable engine to vary the degree of
turbulence without varying also other relevant factors which are
liable to confuse the issue, so far as detonation is concerned. For
the purpose of this part of the investigation the single-stroke engine,
with and without the fan running, proved the most instructive. In
this apparatus the compression could be varied within wide limits,
while the fan speed, and therefore the turbulence, was under com-
plete control. It was found that as the fan speed was increased, so
the compression ratio could be raised progressively, when the
same fuel was used, at the same mixture strength and the same
temperature.
Again, a series of experiments on the research engine No. 2 on
which only the area of the throat or passage connecting the com-
bustion chamber proper with the cylinder was varied, showed that,
as this area was reduced, and the turbulence and rate of pressure
rise increased thereby, so the ratio of compression within the de-
tonation limit could be raised.
Thus a series of tests on a large number of heads all fitted to
the same cylinder, and with the same minimum clearance above
the piston, but differing only in the throat area, yielded the results
shown in Table II.
TABLE II
Degree of Turbulence
(expressed in terms of Highest Useful Com-
rate of pressure rise, pression Ratio of Shell
lb. per square inch per No. 1 Petrol.
degree of crank angle).
25 5·35:1
30 5·55:1
35 5·80:1
40 6·10:1
45 6·55:1
50 6·85:1
55 7·05:1
60 7·15:1
The above tests may be considered as strictly comparable in

every respect except that as the throat area was reduced, so per-
force was the maximum length of flame travel, though only to a
very small extent. It will be seen that as the turbulence is intensi-
fied so is the permissible compression ratio increased, but that over
the range practicable with any normal design of engine, namely
from 25 to 35 lb. per square inch per degree, the effect of turbulence
upon detonation is not of a very large order.
In a similar manner the influence upon detonation of the depth
of the layer of gas contained in the clearance between the piston
and cylinder head was determined by varying this alone. A series
of experiments which could be carried out without the disturbance
of any other relevant factor except that decrease of clearance, by
increasing the rapidity of ejection of the entrapped gases, tended
somewhat to increase the turbulence. The result of these obser-
vations taken with five different clearances and with a fixed throat
area giving rather high turbulence are given in Table III.
It will be noted that as between heads B and C a difference in
clearance of from 0·085 to 0·147 accounts for over one whole ratio
of compression, though the observed difference in rate of pressure
rise as between these two tests was less than 3 lb. per square inch
per degree. The very large difference is here to be accounted for by
the fact that a clearance of 0·147 was sufficient to allow detonation
to occur in the shallow pocket so formed. In other words the farther
portion of the combustion chamber over the piston has, at this
(E 246) 9
larger clearance, become “ operative ” so far as detonation is con-
cerned. This was confirmed by observation through the stroboscope
and quartz windows when the flame could be seen to pass across
the clearance space at full velocity, whereas with the smaller
clearance space it slowed down very appreciably after entry. Thus,
as between heads B and C the effective length of flame travel is in-
creased by 2½ in., i.e. the length of the clearance space lying between
the piston and cylinder head.
The effect on turbulence of varying the size of the inlet valve
was almost exactly similar to that of varying the restricted throat,
that is to say, when the area of the inlet was doubled, the rate of
pressure rise was approximately halved and vice versa, thus showing
TABLE III
Clearance between Highest Useful

Head. Piston and Head, Compression Ratio of
Inches. Shell No. 1 Petrol.
A 0·022 6·9 : 1
B 0·085 6·8 : 1
C 0·147 5·67 : 1
D 0·210 5·48 : 1
E 0·272 5·37 : 1
that turbulence can be promoted to an almost like extent by re-

striction either at the inlet valve throat or in the communicating
passage.
A series of tests was carried out in order to determine the in-
fluence of shape generally. Keeping the clearance above the piston
and the throat area constant, various contours ranging from a plain
rectangular section to rounded sides with a “ streamline ” slope
over the piston were also tried several years ago. The effect on per-
formance was negligible, even between the two extremes; the dif-
ference in power output, fuel consumption, detonation and all
other relevant factors was observed to be less than 1 per cent.
Limitations of the Turbulent Head.—The chief limitations
of the ordinary turbulent head are:
(1) That with high degrees of turbulence, although the maximum
pressure is not increased to any appreciable extent, the very abrupt
application and rise of pressure following ignition causes “ spring ”
of the moving parts, especially the crankshaft, and so gives rise
to a high periodicity vibration accompanied by an indeterminate

drumming noise, the combination of the two being usually described
as “ roughness ”. In practice, this roughness determines and limits
the degree of turbulence which may be employed. Conversely
the degree of turbulence which may be used without roughness is
a measure of the rigidity and stiffness of any engine, more particu-
larly as regards its crankshaft. A really well-designed engine with
an adequately supported crankshaft will run quite smoothly with
a rate of pressure rise up to 30 lb. per square inch per degree, but
only an exceptionally "stiff" engine will stand 35 lb. per square
inch per degree without roughness.
Fig. 52
An examination of the problem of roughness has, therefore,

played a very prominent part in the general investigation,
It has been found that roughness is due, not to the absolute rate
of pressure rise but rather to the very abrupt application of pressure,
and that, if the pressure is applied at first gradually, a very rapid
rate of pressure rise may be employed later without any trace of
roughness, much in the same manner as a cam-operated valve, even
with a very high rate of acceleration, can be made quite silent in
operation by the provision of a gradual approach curve to take up
all clearance and backlash. In order to provide a gradual initial
pressure rise and thus gently to take up all spring and backlash,
means were sought whereby a small proportion of the total charge
could be isolated, and burned in a more or less stagnant condition,
while the main bulk was in a state of normal turbulence. By igniting
first this stagnant portion, a slow but gradually increasing rate
of pressure rise could be attained initially, followed by extremely
rapid burning so soon as the flame reached the main portion of the
charge. By isolating and stagnating 15 per cent of the total charge,
it was found possible to burn 85 per cent of the charge at a rate of
pressure rise even as high as 50 lb, per square inch per degree without
any appreciable roughness and certainly with markedly less rough-
ness than in an ordinary turbulent head at a rate of 30 lb. per square
inch per degree. The two superimposed indicator diagrams in
fig. 52 illustrate the different
conditions; in one case the
whole charge was burnt at
the rate of about 50 lb. per
square inch per degree; in
the other, about 15 per cent
was burnt slowly and the
remainder at the rate of
about 50 lb. per square inch
per degree. In the former
case, the running was intol-
erably rough; in the latter,
quite reasonably smooth.
The cylinder head shown
in fig. 53, patented recently
by the author, and known
as the “ Shock - Absorber ”
type shows the practical ap-
plication of this principle.
In this type of head, a
shallow flat-roofed pocket is Fig. 53.—“ Shock Absorber ” head
provided with the sparking
plug fitted centrally therein. The pocket opens out into the main
combustion chamber through a wide but shallow mouth extending
about half-way round the circumference, and having a very abrupt
rectangular opening. This pocket may be placed anywhere in the
cylinder head, but it is convenient to place it over either the inlet
or exhaust valve. The capacity of the pocket may be varied at
will, depending upon the amount of gradual “ take up ” required.
In practice, the best compromise is reached when the capacity of
the pocket ranges between 10 and 25 per cent of the total capacity
of the combustion chamber. The gas driven into this pocket during
the compression stroke is broken up by the abrupt and sharp-edged
entry into local eddies which die down very soon in so restricted
a space,
On ignition, the gas in the pocket burns slowly, but at a steadily
increasing velocity, until the flame reaches the open mouth when,
owing to the abrupt change of section, the flame front is broken up
and disseminated rapidly throughout the main body of the com-
bustion space; stroboscopic and pressure rise observations on one
experimental head, in which the capacity of the pocket was ap-
proximately 15 per cent of the total volume of the combustion
chamber, showed that the time from the actual passage of the spark
until the flame reached the open mouth amounted to 30° when the
Fig. 54
shallow pocket was placed over the inlet valve, while the com-
pletion of combustion (up to the point of maximum pressure) of the
main body of the charge amounted only to 12°. In other words,
the burning of 15 per cent of the total charge occupied 30° of the
crankshaft, while that of the remaining 85 per cent occupied only
12°. When the pocket was placed over the exhaust valve, the rate
of burning therein was faster by about 4 crankshaft degrees, due to
the higher temperature both of the gas and of its surroundings when
in this position. See fig. 54.
From the point of view of detonation, although the sparking
plug is no longer centrally situated, the “ Shock-Absorber “ type of
head is very slightly better than the ordinary turbulent type, be-
cause, so far as detonation is concerned, the effective length of flame
travel is little more than that from the open mouth of the pocket to
the farthest point in the combustion chamber.
It is found with the “ Shock Absorber ” type head that the dis-
turbance caused by the burning of the pilot charge and the emer-
gence of the flame on a wide front, tend to create additional turbu-
lence in the main body of the combustion chamber, so much so that
when, to a given turbulent head, having a normal rate of pressure
rise of 35 lb. per degree, a shallow pocket was applied, the rise of
pressure rose to over 45 lb. per degree, though none of the con-
trolling factors were altered. This means, in effect, that for a
“ Shock-Absorber ” type head, the throat connecting the combus-
tion chamber with the cylinder may be enlarged considerably and
still allow of the same degree of effective turbulence and the same
rate of pressure rise, as with the ordinary turbulent head, in fact,
the restriction, as such, becomes less of a necessity.
In either the side valve or in the conventional overhead valve
type of engine, the valves are placed in a single row, along the engine,
consequently the total available valve area, or in other words, the
breathing capacity, is limited by the length of the engine or rather
that of the cylinder block.
In practice, the requirements of the crankshaft and its bearings
dictate the minimum cylinder centres and therefore the length of
the cylinder block. For any given size of cylinder the total available
valve area obtainable when all the valves are in a single row and
minimum cylinder centres are adhered to, is such as to limit the peak
of the power curve to a piston speed of about 3000 ft, per minute,
and this limitation applies alike to either side valve or overhead
valve engines so long as the valves are in a single row. In order,
therefore, to obtain the peak of the power curve at piston speeds
well in excess of 3000 ft. per minute, it becomes necessary to arrange
the valves in two rows. In racing-car engines it has now become the
invariable practice to employ two rows of inclined overhead valves,
each row operated by a separate overhead camshaft, thus allowing
of the use of a centrally placed sparking plug between the two
camshafts. This provides probably the most efficient form of head
possible with any arrangement of poppet valves, but is open to the
objection that it is complicated, costly, and inaccessible; for this
reason it is seldom used except for purely racing purposes. The
object of the “ High Power ” head is to reproduce as nearly as possible
the above conditions, without resort to an overhead camshaft, and
in a form which is relatively inexpensive and accessible.
The high-speed capacity and the high efficiency of the twin
overhead camshaft engine are due to:
(1) The ample breathing capacity afforded by having the inlet
and exhaust valves in separate rows, thus doubling the length
available for valve accommodation.
(2) The central position of the sparking plug,
(3) The very short length of flame travel due to the central
sparking plug and the absence of any corners or pockets where the
gases may be entrapped and detonated, thus allowing of the use of
a high ratio of compression.
(4) The low weight of the moving masses between the cams and
the actual valve heads, thus allowing of high rates of acceleration
and therefore of a very efficient valve opening diagram.
In the “ High Power ” type of head, these conditions are repro-
duced as far as possible in the following manner:
Fig. 55 Fig. 56
(1) A double row of valves is obtained by placing the inlet valve

overhead and operating it through a push rod and rocker; the
exhaust valve, however, is retained in its usual position, as in a
side-valve engine. In this there is, of course, nothing in the least
novel.
(2) The sparking plug is placed in the centre, or almost in the
centre, of the effective combustion space.
(3) The overhead inlet valve is situated in the flat “ inoperative ”
portion of the combustion chamber, the latter is offset as in the
ordinary turbulent head and embraces only the exhaust valve and
a small proportion of the piston area; thus, the chamber, in plan,
is similar to but considerably more compact than in the case of the
ordinary turbulent head, since it embraces one valve only, and the
length of flame travel is no greater than in the twin overhead cam-
shaft type of engine. The whole combustion chamber, in fact, is
very nearly similar to that of the racing engine, but is offset side-
ways in relation to the piston, as shown in figs. 55 and 56. The con-
ditions as regards turbulence are practically the same as in the
ordinary turbulent head, and, of course, a “ Shock-Absorber ”
pocket can be employed if desired. The location of the inlet valve
entirely outside the operative portion of the combustion chamber
is, of course, both the novel and the essential feature of this type
of head.
(4) Since the inlet valve opens directly into the cylinder barrel
and beyond the combustion chamber, there is no resistance in
series with it due to the restricted throat., and conversely there is
no need to limit the restriction, i.e. the degree of turbulence, to
avoid throttling. Again, since we do not depend for turbulence on
the entering velocity through the inlet valve, this valve can be
made of almost unlimited size; moreover, since it is outside the
combustion chamber, its size does not influence either the area of
the chamber or the length of flame travel.
(5) In the case of the exhaust valve the mass interposed be-
tween the cam and the head is little or no greater than in the over-
head camshaft type. In the case of the inlet valve it is, of course,
considerably greater, but the inlet valve, unlike the exhaust, can
be masked to any desired extent, and an efficient opening diagram
can be obtained thereby with a relatively low rate of acceleration
and therefore allow of a very high engine speed. Again, the inlet
valve is not opened against a high back pressure so that the oper-
ating mechanism can be made considerably lighter than would be
the case if the exhaust valve were placed overhead. Also, since the
overhead valve is the cool one, no large clearance is required to
allow for expansion.
Samples of this head were tested on the No, 2 research engine;
these, at the same compression ratio and the same speed, gave ap-
proximately 7 per cent more power and 5 per cent lower fuel con-
sumption than the best of the ordinary turbulent heads. Using a
throat area which would give a rate of pressure rise of 40 lb. per
square inch per degree in the ordinary turbulent head, the rate in
the “ High Power ” head was only 29 lb., showing that the removal
of the inlet valve to beyond the combustion chamber had reduced
the turbulence. With this type of head, brake mean pressures as
high as 122 lb. per square inch have been maintained up to well
over 4000 R.P.M. on ordinary commercial petrol.
The high-power type of head has been adopted and is in use in
several very high-speed engines on the Continent, where it has given
results almost identical with those obtained from the conventional
twin overhead camshaft type. Owing to its high inherent efficiency
and to the mechanical design, which allows of very ample water
circulation round the exhaust valve seating and valve stem, it is
particularly well adapted to supercharging; all the more so, since
the short flame travel allows of the use of a fairly high ratio of
compression even when supercharged.
Determination of the Combustion Chamber Efficiency.
—It has been shown that the efficiency of the combustion chamber
is the most important of all the factors which control both the
power output and the thermal efficiency of an engine. Unfortu-
nately, however, it is, in most cases, very difficult to determine
even the relative efficiency of two different designs of combustion
chamber, in the case of multiple-cylinder engines, because irregu-
larities in distribution play so important a part as to render a
determination based on the known consumption of fuel per horse-
power hour of very little value. It is very commonly found that of
two engines the measured fuel consumption per horse-power hour
is the same, despite the fact that one may have a considerably
more efficient combustion chamber, and therefore develop more
power than the other. At first, it would appear that the design
of both engines is equally efficient, whereas in fact the former is much
the more efficient of the two, but the practical value of its high
inherent efficiency has been annulled by greater irregularities in
distribution. Were it practicable to change the whole distribution
system from one engine to the other a very marked change in effi-
ciency would at once be observed; but this in practice is seldom,
if ever, possible, because in almost all existing designs of multi-
cylinder engines a considerable proportion of the induction passage
is embodied in the cylinder casting.
The most practical method which the author has yet found for
determining the true efficiency of a multi-cylindered engine inde-
pendently of all irregularities in distribution, defective Carburation,
&c., depends upon the fact that in the case of any hydro-carbon
fuel or alcohol the heat energy liberated by the combustion of any
given weight of air is almost exactly the same, however much excess
of fuel may be present, provided always that there is an excess of
fuel, or, in other words, so long as the mixture is over-rich the thermal
efficiency, based on that portion which is burnt, will be the same
over a very wide range of mixture strength on the rich side, with
the result that over the range from 5 per cent rich to 35 per cent rich
the heat liberated by unit weight of air is constant to within extra-
ordinarily narrow limits.
If, now, instead of measuring the weight of fuel consumed, we
measure the air consumption and calculate the efficiency obtained
in terms of lb. of air consumed per horse-power hour, we shall arrive
at a means of determining the true thermal efficiency of an internal-
combustion engine irrespective of any losses due to irregularities in
distribution, defective Carburation, precipitation of liquid fuel, etc.
If, by air measurement, we find that the thermal efficiency of an
engine is low, then we know that the combustion chamber design is
at fault, and that no amount of juggling with the carburettor or
distribution system will avail.
On the other hand, as so often happens, an engine apparently
well designed and with what would appear to be an efficient form of
combustion chamber shows on test a very poor fuel economy; in
such a case, we can, by ascertaining the air consumption, determine
at once whether the fault lies in the engine design or in that of its
distribution system. Given reliable means for measuring accurately
the air consumption, it is necessary only to set the carburettor to give
a rich mixture, in practice to set it to the mixture giving maximum
power (which on petrol is about 15 to 20 per cent rich) and take
readings of air consumption ; all that is needed being to ensure that
the mixture strength is such that the weakest cylinder in the group
is receiving a mixture not less than about 5 per cent rich. Since there
is an extremely wide range available beyond this, i.e. up to about
40 per cent rich (after which combustion becomes delayed again as
on the weak side), this presents no difficulty whatever.
The absolute value found for the thermal efficiency by this method
is, in all cases, somewhat higher than that obtained from the fuel-
consumption readings when working with the most economical
mixture strength, and this is so even in the case of single-cylinder
engines, where distribution losses can be almost entirely eliminated,
the difference being due to :
(1) The larger increase in specific volume when an over-rich
mixture is used.
(2) The slight loss due to condensation of liquid fuel on the
cylinder walls which escapes combustion and ultimately finds its
way past the piston into the crankcase.
(3) The small loss due to precipitation of liquid fuel on the
walls of the induction pipe; this fuel enters the cylinder in gulps of
liquid which are not completely vaporized, at any period during
the cycle.
(4) The small loss of liquid or vapour due to “ blow-back,” or
reverse flow in the induction pipe due to the sudden closing of the
inlet valve.
Once the air consumption is known, the thermal efficiency of
any engine can be determined from the formula :
where C is a constant representing the amount of heat liberated by

the combination of 1 lb. of air; for all petrols it may be taken as 196.
The following table gives the effective calorific value, the mixture
strength for complete combustion in terms of air/fuel ratio by
weight, the amount of heat liberated by the combination of 1 lb. of
air, and the value of C in the formula above, for a representative
selection of fuels, from which it will be seen that over the whole
range of available fuels the heat liberated by the combination of
1 lb. of air is substantially the same,
The figures given in the fourth column are calculated as for a
TABLE IV
Effective Lower Air Fuel Heat liberated Value of

Fuel. Calorific Value Ratio. by 1 lb. of Air
B.Th.U.s per lb. Constant.
B.Th.U.s.
Petrol samples—
(1) 19·200 15·05 1275 197·0
(2) 19,020 14·7 1295 195·0
(3) 19·120 14·8 1293 195·5
(4) 18,900 14·6 1295 195·0
(5) 19,090 14·9 1282 197·0
(6) 19,250 15·0 1285 196·5
(7) 18,920 14·7 1288 196·0
Kerosene 19·100 15·0 1275 197·0
Hexane 19·390 15·2 1275 197·0
Heptane 19·420 15·1 1285 196·0
Benzene 17·460 13·2 1320 192·5
Toluene 17·660 13·4 1315 193·0
Cyclohexane 18·940 14·7 1290 196·0
Heptylene 19·320 14·7 1320 192·5
Ether 16·830 13·0 1295 195·0
Ethyl Alcohol—
99 per cent 11·950 8·95 1333 190·0
95 11·125 8·4 1330 190·5
mixture giving complete combustion, as also the value of the constant
C; but over a very wide range of mixture on the rich side, the variation
is, in all cases, very small indeed, and appears to be almost exactly
the same in the case of all volatile liquid fuels, so that the possible
error due to variations in mixture strength is extremely small.
The following tables, Nos. V to VII, give the results of typical
TABLE V
Petrol R=5 : 1, Sample No. 4
Date of test, 5/7/21
Indicated Lb. of Air Indicated

Lb. of Air Mean Pres- Indicated
Mixture Strength. per Hour. sure, lb. Horse- per I.H.P. Thermal
per sq. in. Power. Hour. Efficiency.
Per cent.
Correct 196·0 132·0 32·0 6·13 32·1
Plus 5 % excess fuel 196·5 135·0 32·7 6·0 32·8
10 197·0 136·5 33·1 5·95 33·1
15 197·5 137·5 33·3 5·93 33·2
20 198·1 138·0 33·4 5·94 33·15
25 198·8 138·0 33·4 5·96 33·05
30 199·5 137·5 33·3 5·98 32·85
35 200·0 136·5 33·1 6·04 32·7
Maximum thermal efficiency calculated from fuel consumption 32·1 per cent,
with, mixture 16 per cent weak.
TABLE VI
Ethyl Alcohol 99 per cent R = 5 :1
Indicated Indicated Lb. of Air

Lb, of Air Mean Pres- Indicated
Mixture Strength. per Hour. sure, !b. Horse- per I.H.P. Thermal
per sq. in. power. Hour. Efficiency.
Per cent.
Correct 199·0 141·0 34·2 5·82 32·9
Plus 5 % excess fuel 199·5 143·0 34·6 5·77 33·3
10 200·0 144·5 35·0 5·72 33·65
15 201·0 145·5 35·25 5·70 33·7
20 202·0 146·5 35·5 5·69 33·75
25 203·0 147·0 35·6 5·70 33·7
30 204·0 147·3 35·7 5·72 33·65
35 205·0 147·6 35·8 5·73 33·6
with mixture 15 per cent weak.
TABLE VII
Ethyl Alcohol 95 per cent R = 5 :1
Indicated Indicated
Lb. of Air Mean Pres- Lb. of Air Indicated
Mixture Strength. per Hour. sure, lb. Horse- per I.H.P. Thermal
per sq. in. Power. Hour. Efficiency.
Per cent.
Correct 203·0 145·0 35·1 5·79 33·1
Plus 5 % excess fuel 203·5 146·7 35·5 5·72 33·6
10 204·0 148·0 35·8 5·71 33·65
15 205·0 149·0 36·0 5·70 33·7
20 206·0 149·5 36·15 5·70 33·7
25 207·0 150·0 36·25 5·70 33·7
30 208·0 150·3 36·3 5·71 33·65
35 209·0 150·5 36·35 5·74 33·4
with mixture 15 per cent weak.
tests on petrol and alcohol (the latter both nearly pure and 95 per
cent) over a wide range of mixture strength from correct to 35 per
cent over-rich, taken on the variable compression engine described
in Chapter II, while at the foot of each table the maximum thermal
efficiency as deduced from the fuel consumption at the most economical
mixture strength is given for purposes of comparison.
In Table VIII are given the results of air measurement tests at
varying compression ratio, ranging from 4 · 0 : 1 to 7 · 0 : 1 , the fuel
used in this case being benzol. Here again the agreement between
the calculated thermal efficiency from the air consumption with a
rich mixture, and from the fuel consumption with a weak mixture, is
on the whole very consistent.
Similar tests carried out on a six-cylinder aero-engine with a
compression ratio of 4 · 7 : 1 showed an air consumption of 6·4 lb. of
air per I.H.P. hour over a range of mixture strength from 10 per
cent to 25 per cent over-rich, using standard aviation petrol. The
air efficiency in this case works out at 31 per cent, a figure very con-
siderably greater than that obtained from the fuel consumption,
which was only 28·2 per cent at the most economical mixture
strength. The discrepancy in this case represents the loss due to
irregularities in distribution, etc. A comparison of these results
with those given previously for the variable compression research
engine is very interesting, all the more so because both engines have
TABLE VIII
Varying Compression Ratio
Fuel, Benzol, about 20 per cent rich
Indicated
Indicated Thermal
Indicated Indicated Thermal Efficiency
Compression Lb. of Mean Pres- Lb, of Air Efficiency as found
Ratio. Air per sure, lb. Horse- per L.H.P. as found by by Fuel
Hour, per sq. in. Power. Hour. Air Measure- Measure-
ment. ment 15 per
cent weak.
Per cent. Per cent.

4 203 125·0 30·3 6·70 28·8 27·7
5 195 136·5 33·1 5·90 32·8 32·0
6 189 145·0 35·2 5·37 35·9 35·0
7 185 152·0 36·8 5·03 38·3 37·3
nearly identical forms of combustion chamber, very nearly the

same cylinder capacity, and, in both cases, the charge is ignited by
sparking plugs at opposite sides of the combustion chamber. That
the aero-engine does not show, by the air-consumption test, so high
an efficiency as the research engine at the same compression ratio,
namely, only 31 per cent as against 31·7 per cent, is to be explained
probably b y :
(1) Although two plugs were used they were sparked by two
separate magnetos, and therefore not so accurately synchronized.
(2) The aero-engine had a relatively shorter stroke, so that
the combustion chamber was flatter, and therefore somewhat less
efficient.
(3) The mechanical condition of the aero-engine was probably
not so good, i.e. there was probably more leakage loss.
The difference in fuel consumption was, however, much more
marked, for the maximum thermal efficiency was 30·9 per cent
reckoned on the fuel consumption at a compression ratio of 4·7 : 1 in
the case of the single-cylinder research engine and only 28·2 per cent
in the six-cylinder aero-engine. After allowing for the different
combustion-chamber efficiencies of the two engines, the loss by irregu-
larities in distribution, loss of unburnt fuel, etc., of the aero-engine
is about 10 per cent, while in the single-cylinder it is only about 2·5
per cent. The indicated mean pressure was found to be exactly the
same in both engines, namely, 133 lb. per square inch; but measure-
ments of volumetric efficiency showed that, while the research
engine had a volumetric efficiency at this compression ratio of 76·2
per cent, that of the aero-engine was 78 per cent, a difference which
very approximately compensates for the lower combustion chamber
efficiency of the latter engine. Again, tests carried out on a four-
cylinder commercial vehicle engine with a compression ratio of 4·24:1
showed an air consumption of 7·75 lb. per I.H.P. hour = 25·6 per
cent thermal efficiency as against 6·58 = 30·4 per cent in the variable
compression engine at the same ratio, from which it may be
deduced that the efficiency of the combustion chamber was only 85
per cent that of the research engine at the same comparison ratio.
In this particular engine the design of the cylinder head was
very defective, the valves being placed in deep-set shallow valve
pockets with the sparking plugs directly over the inlet valves.
The fuel efficiency at the most economical mixture strength was,
however, about 23·8 per cent, showing that the efficiency of dis-
tribution, if such a term may be used, was, in the case of this
four-cylinder engine, as high as 93 per cent. In other words, this
engine made up, to some extent, so far as fuel efficiency was con-
cerned, for bad cylinder design by having a quite unusually efficient
distribution system, but the bad cylinder design showed itself in the
low power output obtainable, the indicated mean effective pressure
being only 93 lb. per square inch as against 129 lb. per square inch
in the variable compression engine under exactly similar conditions.
Had the volumetric efficiency been the same in both cases, the mean
effective pressure would have been x 129, or about 110 lb. per
square inch; that it was, in fact, only 93 lb. was due again to defective
cylinder design, whereby the free entry of the gases after leaving the
inlet valve was obstructed by the surrounding walls of the shallow
valve pockets. Air measurements showed also that, while the
volumetric efficiency of the research engine at this compression ratio,
and at the same temperature, was 77 per cent, that of the four-
cylinder engine was only 66 per cent, so that the maximum M.E.P.
should have been x 110, or 94 lb. per square inch, a figure which
agrees very closely with the 93 lb. actually measured during the
tests. This latter is rather a striking example of an inherently
defective engine, which showed a comparatively good economy
because its induction system was unusually efficient.
In the absence of any means for measuring the air consumption,
a fair estimate of the efficiency of different forms of combustion
chamber can be gained by comparing the maximum mean effective
pressure, but this again assumes that the volumetric efficiency is the
same in both instances.
Such an assumption is, of course, not always justifiable, bub it
is at least fair to assume that the variations in volumetric efficiency
as between two somewhat similar types of engine will be very much
less, and will have a much smaller influence on the determination of
the combustion-chamber efficiency, than the variations in mixture
strength, as between individual cylinders, despite the rather ex-
ceptional example quoted above. Where means are available for
air measurement, the efficiency of any form of combustion chamber
can very readily be determined from the measured air consumption.
If an engine consumes its air efficiently, then it is an efficient
engine, and to render it economical in fuel is a question solely of
Carburation and distribution. If its air consumption is heavy, then
no amount of finessing with carburettor adjustments or distribution
design will render it efficient.
CHAPTER V
LUBRICATION AND BEARING WEAR
Three factors have to be considered in the design of any bearing :
first, the ability to carry the necessary duty in the space available
with a reasonable margin of safety against breakdown ; next, the
rate of wear of the bearing surfaces ; and, finally, the energy lost in
friction.
Piston friction will be dealt with in a later chapter, so that the
bearings only will be considered here.
These are generally of the “ plain ” or sliding friction type.
Ball and roller bearings, being of a fundamentally different nature,
are not included.
Where two surfaces, apparently in contact, are moving relatively
one to the other, there are three possible cases to be considered.
In the first case, that of “ dry ” friction, the surfaces are in
actual contact without any lubricant. In this case the friction is
very great, and only very low loads and speeds can be imposed
without seizure. This case never occurs when a bearing is function-
ing properly, so need not be dealt with further.
The second condition, that of “ greasy ” friction, occurs when the
surfaces, though virtually in contact, are actually lubricated with
some substance which discourages their mutual adhesion. The
lubricant in such cases appears to function by exerting some kind of
chemical action on the metallic surfaces,
Lastly, there is “ viscous ” friction, in which the surfaces are
completely separated by a film of lubricant: this is clearly by far
the most desirable state of affairs, and, fortunately, it is one which
can easily be attained in a well-designed and adequately lubricated
bearing, and may, in fact, be regarded as the normal condition.
In a journal bearing the necessary oil film between, the loaded
surface is maintained by a wedging action, due to the fact that
the shaft sets itself eccentrically in its journal. This is made clear
in fig, 57, where it can be seen that the oil in the wide space A is
(E 246) 129 10
dragged by the rotation of the shaft into the narrow space B, thus
forcing the surfaces apart. Under these circumstances the frictional
loss and the thickness of the oil film for any given conditions can be
evaluated theoretically, and it has been
found that the results so obtained hold good
in practice. These two factors—film thick-
ness and friction—depend, for any given
bearing, solely on the load, the speed, and
the viscosity of the lubricant.
The influence of these three factors is
roughly as follows: Increase of load, alteris
aequis, increases the friction, though not
nearly in direct proportion, and decreases
the film thickness. Increase of speed increases both the friction and
the film thickness, as does also an increase in the viscosity of the
lubricant. However, increase of either load or speed, by increasing
the rate of energy loss, heats up the oil, and thus decreases its vis-
cosity.
This fact, in the case of an increase of load, to some extent
nullifies the increased friction; it still further decreases the film
thickness, while with increased speed the theoretically increased
film thickness is actually reversed. Thus both increased load and
speed tend to reduce the film thickness.
It is clear that, as no surfaces are perfectly smooth, there is a
limiting thickness of oil film at which the high spots of the two
surfaces begin to bridge across the oil film.
At these points the oil film is no longer of appreciable dimensions,
so that the laws of “ greasy friction ” begin to apply. The frictional
force, under these circumstances, is, at such points, considerably
higher than with viscous friction, and obeys totally different laws.
The chief factor appears to be a property, probably of a chemical
nature, called “ oiliness,” which tends to reduce friction between two
surfaces in contact. It is quite distinct from viscosity, as quite thin
oils, such as sperm or rape, can have it in a far greater degree than
more viscous substances, such as treacle, from which it appears
to be entirely absent. Unfortunately the data on this subject is
very limited and largely contradictory, but it is fairly well established
that oils of animal or vegetable origin, such as sperm, rape, and
castor oils, are considerably “ oilier ” than the hydrocarbon mineral
oils, while viscous substances of a “ sticky ” nature are entirely
devoid of the property,
LUBRICATION AND BEARING WEAR 131
It is clear that if the lubricant has but little “ oiliness,” the
friction at the “ high spots ” will be exceedingly high, and that the
heat so generated will still further reduce the thickness of the oil
film, thereby making matters worse, and so starting a “ vicious
circle ” ending in seizure, unless the bearing lining has so low a
melting-point that it can fuse locally without boiling off the lubricant
as in the case of white-metal.
With an oily lubricant, on the other hand, the increase in friction
at the “ high spots ” will be much less, and the risk of seizure
correspondingly deferred.
The influence of “ oiliness ” is thus only of importance where,
owing to excessive loading, unsuitably disposed surfaces, or inade-
quate oil supply, a complete film of oil cannot be maintained. It
has apparently no influence on the friction under normal conditions,
though it may enable one to use, in any given case, a thinner oil,
with correspondingly reduced friction, by relying, as a reserve in
case of abnormal conditions, upon oiliness rather than upon excess
viscosity,
To return to the consideration of normal conditions, the main-
tenance of an adequate oil film necessitates efficient arrangements
both for the removal of the heat generated and for the continuous
replenishment of the oil in the bearing.
The heat is got rid of, to some extent, by the oil which forms the
actual oil film, but mostly either by conduction from the bearing
surfaces, or by excess oil which runs through or over the bearing
without actually forming the load-carrying film. The advantages
of forced lubrication are mainly due to the cooling effect of the
excess lubricant.
The supply of oil to the bearing is greatly facilitated by the
“ pumping ” action caused by alternating loads, it being found that
any given bearing will carry an alternating load considerably in
excess of the maximum steady unidirectional load. Again, a narrow
bearing loses a far greater proportion of its oil through side leakage
than does a wide one, so is correspondingly less efficient when subject
to “ natural ” lubrication, while with forced lubrication a narrow
bearing will carry a heavier continuous load per square inch of
projected area because of the greater quantity of oil which can be
circulated through it and therefore the better cooling. It is also
necessary that the surfaces should be of such a shape that the wedging
action, which maintains the oil film at the highly loaded parts of the
bearing, can take place, for the pressure which must exist in order
to carry the load is far in excess of any that a forced lubrication
system can supply.
Fortunately, journal bearings are naturally suitable, as explained
earlier, but with thrust collars special measures have to be taken,
as in the Michel bearing. However, in practically all cases, in so
far as high-speed internal-combustion engines are concerned, such
thrust loads as are involved are most conveniently dealt with by
the adoption of ball thrust races.
When conditions are too severe for even a molecular oil film to
survive, the surfaces come into actual metallic contact with one
another—that is to say, when the oil film becomes so thin that the
two surfaces come within the zone of molecular attraction, an
exceedingly high temperature is at once set up, resulting in local
fusion of the surfaces. In some cases such local fusion may, by
removing a high place in the surface of the bearing, relieve the
loading at this particular point and so permit of the re-formation of
the oil film. Unless this occurs, and the oil film re-forms imme-
diately, the surface fusion will spread until the bearing either seizes
solid or the bearing metal melts and runs out. When both bearing
surfaces are hard and of anything approaching the same melting
point, the surface fusion is generally accompanied by partial welding,
and the two surfaces become inextricably locked. When the
material forming one surface is relatively soft and has a low melting
point, as in the case of white metal, the bearing merely melts, either
locally or completely ; in the former case, as already pointed out,
local melting may be due to the existence of a high spot, and the
fusion of this high spot may at once relieve the cause of trouble and
permit of the restoration of the oil film in time to prevent any
further spread of surface fusion : this is possible because the melting
point of white metal is well below the boiling point of the lubricant.
Local fusion is a very common occurrence in white metal lined
bearings, especially when new and not too well fitted, and is often
quite harmless.
The intensity of heat flow when an oil film breaks down locally
is very surprising ; it is quite common to find two case-hardened
steel surfaces fused together locally and the temper of the surfaces
undisturbed within less than ½ in. from the point of fusion. This
corresponds to a temperature difference of something like 2500° F.
in ½ in.
The case of bearings submitted to very heavy loads and low
rubbing speeds is somewhat different. Here the time element
enters prominently into the question. Since at low speeds the
wedging action, tending to maintain the oil film, is very slow, the
effect of the pumping action, due to change of load, is of correspond-
ingly increased importance. There is abundant evidence that under
severe loads and favourable conditions even bronze bearings may be
-crushed without breaking down the oil film. So long as facilities
are available for the replenishment of the oil, and so long as the
rubbing velocity is such that the product of loading and rubbing
velocity does not exceed a certain figure—that is to say, so long as
the heat generated does not exceed the rate at which it can be dis-
sipated by replenishment with cool oil or by conduction—a journal
bearing will not fail from pressure. Failures of heavily loaded, slow-
moving journal bearings are almost invariably due either to an
interruption in the oil supply or more frequently to bending or dis-
tortion of one of the members, causing excessive local pressure and
heat flow. The only bearings in a high-speed internal-combustion
engine submitted to very heavy loading with low rubbing velocity
are the gudgeon-pin bearings. Experience has shown that when
the gudgeon-pin is supported in such a manner that it does not
distort appreciably through bending, maximum pressures up to
6000 lb. per square inch may quite safely be carried, without forced
lubrication and without perceptible wear.
W e a r of Bearings and Shafts.—In view of the fact that
most bearings are completely oil-borne, it is perhaps a little surprising
at first sight that wear should take place at all, since the two surfaces
never actually come into contact. The explanation appears to be
that all wear is due to the abrasive action of small particles of grit
carried by the oil. These particles, which are, for the most part, so
small that they cannot be removed by filtration, are carried by the
oil into the bearing and there embed themselves in the softer of the
two surfaces ; thus in a white metal lined bearing the particles of
grit invariably embed themselves in the soft white metal. Once
partially embedded they proceed to lap the shaft. It is clear that
only those particles of grit which project far enough from the softer
material to span the oil film and so actually touch the other member
can cause wear. Other things being equal, therefore, the rate of
wear depends upon the thickness of the oil film, which, in turn, de-
pends upon the pressure and temperature—the cooler the lubricant, or
the lighter the pressure, the greater is the thickness of the oil film and,
therefore, the greater the distance across which the particles of grit
must reach before they can come in contact with the harder member.
Again, the rate of wear depends upon the hardness of the sur-
faces of the materials. It is common knowledge that when a soft-
steel shaft runs in white-metal bearings it is the shaft and not the
bearing material which wears ; this is perfectly natural, since the
particles of grit will always tend to embed themselves in the softer
surface of the two and so proceed to cut or lap the other and harder
surface. In order to reduce wear it is desirable that the difference
in hardness between the two surfaces should be as large as possible :
thus in the case of a steel shaft running in white-metal bearings, the
softer the white metal the more readily will the particles of grit
embed themselves entirely out of harm's way, while the harder the
shaft the less readily will it submit to the cutting action of such
particles of grit as are not completely embedded.
All available evidence indicates that the once popular idea that
a hard white metal should be used, and that its surface should be
rendered even harder by hammering or driving a taper mandrel
through it, is quite erroneous—the surface of the white metal should
be as soft as is consistent with the necessary resistance to crushing.
In the case of two very hard surfaces, such as case-hardened steel
against cast-iron or hardened steel, very little wear occurs, the
probable explanation being that the hardness of both surfaces
exceeds that of the particles of grit, so that the latter are merely
ground up between the two surfaces and do not get any opportunity
of embedding themselves in either or of cutting them.
It has been observed that such bearing surfaces, even when
freely exposed to road dust, etc., do not wear readily, but that when
carborundum is introduced along with the lubricant very rapid
wear takes place.
It is when two surfaces, both relatively soft and of somewhat
similar hardness, are employed that the most rapid wear takes place.
A soft-steel shaft running in bronze bearings wears very rapidly
indeed, unless the load factor is so low as to permit of a very thick
oil film being maintained.
One very striking example of excessive wear between two sur-
faces of nearly similar hardness is to be found in the case of copper
aluminium alloys and phosphor-bronze. An alloy consisting of 88
per cent aluminium and 12 per cent copper affords an excellent
bearing material for hardened-steel shafts. It is light, which is
often important, is an excellent conductor of heat, and is readily
cast and machined. When, however, a phosphor-bronze shaft is
run in bearings of this aluminium alloy, the shaft, which is slightly
the harder of the two, wears away with almost incredible rapidity.
Similarly, experiments which the author has carried out with bronze
piston rings in an aluminium cylinder and with an aluminium piston
in a bronze-lined cylinder resulted, in the former case in the rings
wearing down to half their original thickness in eight hours, and in
the case of the bronze-lined cylinder the liner wore about 0·010 in.
oval in a run of twelve hours. In neither case did the aluminium
show any appreciable wear.
Again, a soft-steel shaft, running in a copper-aluminium bearing,
wears away very rapidly.
Probably the worst possible results are to be found when two
similar and relatively soft materials are used for the two members of
a bearing, for then not only is the difference in surface hardness
reduced to zero, but the opportunities for welding together in the
event of a failure of the oil film and consequent local fusion are at a
maximum.
In the case of cast-iron or hardened steel, both surfaces are so
hard as to be very little affected by grit, but, in the event of a
breakdown of the oil film, the two are very liable to become
welded.
Experience with aluminium pistons has shown :
(1) That when these are fitted in soft-steel cylinders the cylinder
bore wears very rapidly;
(2) When fitted in hard-steel cylinders—0·4 carbon —the wear
is very slight;
(3) When fitted in cast-iron cylinders finished by grinding, wear
of the cylinder bore takes place if the grinding material has not been
thoroughly removed. Such wear does not take place when the
cylinders are reamed or when lapped after grinding.
Maximum Pressures on Bearings.—So far as high-speed
bearings are concerned—that is to say, when the rubbing velocity
exceeds about 8 ft. per second—the load factor only, that is, the pro-
duct of load and speed, need be taken into account; the maximum
pressure, so long as it is not high enough to distort or crush the
bearing material, is of little moment, since it is not applied for a long
enough period to have any influence on the conditions of lubrication,
Limiting Load Factor.—The highest load factor which can
safely be carried by a bearing depends upon :
(1) The system of lubrication, whether forced, natural, or fed
with a measured quantity of fresh oil.
(2) The viscosity of the oil
(3) The facilities available for conducting away the heat
generated in the bearing.
Under the conditions ruling in high-speed engines in which the
circulation of oil is limited to that with which the piston scraper
rings can cope, with forced lubrication, and good facilities for dis-
persing the heat, load factors as high as 30,000 lb. ft. per second can
be safely carried in a journal bearing with alternating load. With
such a load factor the rate of wear is of course considerable, but
there are many examples of crankshaft centre bearings in aero-
engines with load factors as high and even higher than this, but
about 12,000 to 15,000 lb. ft. per second appears to be the upper
limit of sustained load for a splash- or trough-lubricated bearing.
Where very high rubbing velocities are involved, much higher
load factors can be carried when floating bushes are employed. Such
bushes, floating freely between the two members, rotate at an inter-
mediate speed, so that the rubbing velocity between either face is
halved; also they permit of a much greater circulation of cooling
oil through them. Under such conditions the load factor may be
increased by 50 per cent without imperilling the bearing.
Maximum Load.—Where the rubbing velocity is low the only
limit to the maximum load is set by the rigidity of the members.
There is no danger of the oil film being broken down by pressure
alone, provided there is scope for natural replenishment. When
serious distortion takes place, the load factor may be increased
locally—that is to say, the pressure may all be concentrated on one
point in the bearing; and since the rubbing velocity is the same at
all points, it follows that the product of pressure and rubbing speed
may be excessive at one point, causing rapid local heat flow and
ultimate breakdown of the oil film.
Load Factor and Wear.—Other things being equal, the rate
of wear may be taken as being almost directly proportional to the load
factor. It depends, however, very largely on the facilities for cooling;
thus, in the case of crankshaft bearings, for equal load factors with
forced lubrication the rate of wear on the main journal bearings is
more rapid than on the crankpin bearings, because the crankpin
bearings are always better served and therefore cooled with oil,
since it is flung out to them by centrifugal force.
Oscillating Bearings.—When the motion is oscillating only,
the wear on the members is no longer uniform; this objection can,
however, usually be overcome by allowing the harder member to
float freely—thus, in the case of a gudgeon pin, if this is fixed, either
to the piston or the connecting-rod, local wear will take place, but if
allowed to float freely in bearings, both in the connecting-rod and
piston, local wear on the pin can be avoided; further, a much heavier
load can be carried, because the rubbing velocity between any of the
members is halved.
From the above considerations, it is clear that, other things being
equal:
(1) The friction of a bearing, when freely lubricated, is nearly
proportional to the load factor on the bearing, and depends, though
to a lesser extent, upon the nature of the surfaces—the smoother the
surface the lower the friction.
(2) The rate of wear is also proportional to the load factor.
(3) When oil of higher viscosity is used, the friction is greatly
increased at first; but on account of the greater amount of energy
dissipated in shearing the oil film, the heat flow is greater, the tem-
perature is therefore higher, with the result that, after running some
time, the reduction in viscosity due to the higher temperature
nearly compensates for the higher initial viscosity, and so the con-
ditions as regards friction and the thickness of the oil film ultimately
become nearly similar. They do not become quite similar, because
owing to the higher temperature of the bearing the rate of dissipation
by radiation and conduction is greater, consequently the bearing
never reaches so high a temperature relative to the viscosity of the
oil as when a thinner oil is used.
T y p e s of Oils.—The oils used in internal-combustion engines
fall into two main divisions—mineral oils and those of animal or
vegetable origin. “ Compounded ” oils, and mixtures of the two
types, are also used,
Mineral oils, which are composed of various hydrocarbons,
mostly of the paraffin series, are by far the most frequently used.
This is partly because of their lower cost, and also on account of
their chemical stability, which renders them less prone either to
carbonization or to oxidation or gumming. On the other hand, they
do not appear to possess the property of “ oiliness ” to the same
extent as vegetable or animal oils. Except in cases where bearings
are very severely loaded and near their limit, mineral oils are
probably the most suitable, and so far as the author has been able
to determine by experiment there is no advantage to be gained from
the use of vegetable or compounded oils in any well designed and
properly lubricated engine.
For ball or roller bearings a pure mineral oil would appear pre-
ferable, since such an oil is less liable to form corrosive acids in
service.
Animal oils, such as whale and lard oils, and vegetable oils, such
as rape or castor oils, are largely composed of the esters of fatty
acids. Their chief virtue lies in their high “ oiliness,” which is of
use in cases where the oil supply is necessarily limited, as in crank-
case compression two-stroke engines, or where severe local over-loads,
due to distortion, etc., are probable. Their defects lie in their com-
parative instability, which renders them liable to become gummy
and acid by exposure to the air, and also causes them to carbonize
more rapidly than mineral oils. They are also expensive, and, the
supply being necessarily limited, would become more so if their
employment became general. Their use, therefore, should be, and
generally is, limited to exceptionally high-duty engines, and a few
other special cases,
Carburation
The function of the carburettor is not, as is so often supposed,
to gasify the fuel, but rather to provide constant proportions of
finely divided liquid fuel and air under all conditions of speed or
load. The gasification or vaporization of the liquid fuel takes place
in part in the induction system, and in part in the cylinder of the
engine.
The requirements of a good carburettor are that it shall—
(1) Provide a constant predetermined ratio of fuel and air at all
speeds and at all loads, under constant conditions.
(2) Pulverize the fuel as finely as possible under all conditions.
(3) That when the throttle is opened suddenly it shall provide,
momentarily, an over-rich mixture, for reasons which will be ex-
plained later.
(4) Provide an over-rich mixture for starting or running idle at
very slow speeds.
(5) Be provided with automatic or at least readily controllable
means of enriching the mixture throughout the whole or at least
the lower part of the range, until the carburettor and induction
system are fully warmed up.
(6) Be simple to adjust in the first instance and unlikely to get
out of adjustment in use,
Probably no carburettor yet made conforms to all these con-
ditions, though they are not impossible of compliance.
CARBURATION 139
It is worth while to examine each of these conditions separately
and to see what their compliance involves.
The first consideration, namely, that of providing a uniform
mixture strength under all conditions, or of “ metering,” as it is
generally termed, is the basic problem in carburettor design. The
simplest possible expression of a carburettor is a jet to which liquid
fuel is supplied at a constant level, such jet being situated in the
centre of a venturi nozzle, or choke-tube, through which the whole
Fig. 58
of the air passes on its way to the engine. The depression in the
choke-tube is therefore at all times a function of the I.H.P. of
the engine, and this depression is relied upon to draw petrol from
the jet. Unfortunately, the laws governing the flow of liquid from
a jet, and of air through a venturi throat, are not the same, for the
one medium is a liquid and the other is a gas. As the speed at
which the air flows through the choke-tube increases, so the flow
of fuel also increases, but at a considerably greater rate, with the
result that, if the proportionate sizes of jet and choke-tube diameters
are chosen to give a “ correct ” mixture at any one speed, the
mixture will be too weak at a lower speed and too rich at a higher
speed, as shown approximately in fig. 58,
To this simple form of carburettor some means of compensation
must therefore be provided, and for most purposes it must be auto-
matic. There are numerous methods of compensating, but they
may be divided broadly into two main groups:
(1) In which means are provided for supplying, automatically,
additional air as the power output increases.
(2) In which means are provided for supplying automatically
additional fuel as the power output decreases.
Intermediate between these groups are methods providing means
for checking the flow of fuel through the jet by obstructing it by
means of a reversed air-flow, etc.
The first group includes all
such devices as automatic extra
air valves operated by suction.
Broadly speaking, these are not
very satisfactory, because they
involve the addition of a con-
stantly moving part, which can-
not readily bo lubricated, and
unless the movement of this part
is controlled by an efficient dash-
pot serious wear is liable to occur;
on the other hand, if it is con-
trolled by a dash-pot, then its
Fig. 59.—Diagrammatic Arrangement,
Zenith Carburettor movement will be somewhat
sluggish, though this is not
necessarily a disadvantage in view of the third requirement stated
previously. In any case, however, it is always desirable to avoid
the use of an additional moving part if possible.
The second group includes those carburettors in which com-
pensation is effected by means of an additional jet fed by gravity
from the float chamber and open to atmosphere; the flow of such a
jet is unaffected by the depression in the choke-tube. Carburettors
belonging to this group can be adjusted to give fairly accurate
metering under all conditions of speed or load; and since they
contain no moving parts to wear or possibly to stick, they are, in
the author's opinion, to be preferred. The basic principle of this
type of carburettor is illustrated in fig. 59, while fig. 60 shows approxi-
mately the rate of flow from either jet. It will be seen that, as the
power output and therefore the depression in the choke-tube in-
creases., the flow of liquid from the main jet increases rapidly, while
CARBURATION 141
that from the gravity-fed jet, which has a constant head of only
about one and a half or two inches, remains substantially constant.
Its proportional flow therefore decreases. It is obviously possible
by a suitable selection of jet sizes to keep the fuel air ratio very
nearly constant over a wide range of speed and load.
In addition to these general groups there are large numbers of
purely mechanical devices whereby either the fuel supply, the air
supply, or in some cases both, are varied mechanically by the move-
Fig. 60.—Mixture Strength delivered from Main and Compensating Jets,

Zenith Type Carburettor.
ment of the throttle level. Such devices cannot possibly afford true
compensation for all conditions of speed or load, since no change
can be effected without movement of the throttle. For certain
purposes, however, such, for example, as marine work in which the
torque and speed vary in a fixed relation, mechanically compensated
carburettors are probably quite satisfactory. The advantages of
this form are that a mechanically compensated carburettor can be
made very cheaply; it has only one jet to look after and no adjust-
ment which can be deranged. It will fulfil the requirements of a
marine engine, but certainly will not give accurate metering when
applied to engines in which the speed or torque may vary without
movement of the throttle.
The second condition, namely, thorough pulverization, is not at
all easy to comply with. It is, however, an exceedingly important
factor, because it is most desirable from every point of view to keep
the suction temperature as low as possible. Whether the fuel enters
the cylinder in a liquid or a gaseous state, it will, so long as it is finely
divided, be completely evaporated after its entry to the cylinder, on
coming in contact with the hot residual products therein.
In a previous chapter it has been shown that it is always very
desirable to keep the suction temperature as low as possible, and to
this end it is often preferable to allow the fuel to enter in a finely
divided but still liquid state, and so to make use of the latent heat
of evaporation of the liquid to lower the temperature in the cylinder.
This, however, is possible only when the liquid is very finely pul-
verized, and when the induction system is so arranged that reason-
able uniformity of distribution can be obtained without too much
differentiation due to the unequal inertia of air and liquid particles;
if delivered in coarse drops, these will coalesce and precipitate on the
walls of the induction system, finally entering the cylinder in gulps
of liquid, which will never evaporate. These pass through the
cylinder unburnt, while a proportion of the liquid fuel will find its
way past the piston and into the crankcase, where it will contaminate
the lubricant,
In most carburettors the velocity of the air past the jet is relied
upon to pulverize the fuel, and, for this purpose, every effort is made
to obtain a high velocity at the least possible sacrifice in power
output.
Unfortunately, however, pulverization becomes of most import-
ance when the engine is running at low speeds or reduced loads, i.e.
when the quantity of air passing, and therefore, its velocity, are at
a minimum. With a venturi orifice of the best possible design the
volumetric efficiency, and therefore the power output of the engine,
will be penalized severely if the air velocity exceeds 400 ft. per
second, and the author has found that to obtain a good compromise
between maximum power output on the one hand and good
economy on reduced loads on the other, the mean velocity through
the choke-tube should not exceed 400 ft. per second when four
cylinders are drawing from a single carburettor, 330 ft. per second
for three cylinders, and about 250 ft. per second for single cylinders,
the lower velocity in the latter cases being permissible because:
(a) With less than four cylinders the suction is intermittent and
the maximum velocity therefore considerably greater.
CARBURATION 143
(6) The fewer the number of cylinders drawing from any one
carburettor the shorter the total length of induction pipe.
To obtain better pulverization one or other of two methods may
be employed:
(1) A very small choke may be used and the bulk of the air
admitted elsewhere, the bulk supply of air being cut off as the load
Fig. 61.—Section, Claudel Carburettor
is reduced—this entails a combination of mechanical and fluid

compensation.
(2) What is termed a shrouded or diffuser jet may be used in
which air is drawn through the liquid to form an emulsion, which is
then delivered from the jet, as employed in the Claudel carburettor,
figs. 61 and 62.
The former has the advantage that it becomes possible at reduced
loads to maintain the velocity not only past the jet, but also through-
out a considerable proportion of the induction system. It carries
with it, however, the disadvantage that the carburettor becomes
somewhat complicated,
The diffuser or shrouded jet gives good pulverization at the jet
itself, but, owing to the low velocity in the whole of the induction
system at light loads or low speeds, particularly the latter, the finely
divided particles are given too much opportunity to coalesce. It
carries with it, however, the additional advantage that the flow of air
through the fuel in the jet tends to effect a certain, though limited,
measure of compensation.
For the Carburation of all engines liable to sudden demands, such
Fig. 62.—Diagrammatic Arrangement, Claudel Carburettor.
as all road vehicle engines and all engines under the control of a
sensitive governor, it is most important that, on the sudden opening
of the throttle, the carburettor shall deliver momentarily an over-
rich mixture. The reason for this is as follows:
When an engine is running light or at a very much reduced load
the pressure in the induction system may be only about 5 lb. per
square inch absolute. At this pressure and even at quite low tem-
peratures almost the whole of the fuel flowing through the induction
system will be evaporated and the walls of the induction passages
will be dry. If now the throttle be opened suddenly the pressure
in the system will at once rise from, say, 5 lb. per square inch to
nearly 15 lb. per square inch absolute, while the temperature con-
ditions will remain unaltered. Now, although the fuel may evapor-
ate completely when under a pressure of only 5 lb. per square inch,
CARBURATION 145
when the pressure is raised by nearly three times, this will no longer
be the case, unless the induction system be very hot. The immediate
result is that the first portion of the fuel admitted after the throttle
is opened deposits at once on the walls of the induction system, and,
unless the mixture supplied by the carburettor is very rich, that which
reaches the cylinders is far too weak to burn; this state of affairs
will continue until sufficient fuel has been supplied thoroughly to
wet the walls of the induction system, for when working under full
throttle conditions the whole of the walls are normally lined with a
layer of liquid, the thickness of which depends both on the tem-
perature of the walls themselves and upon the velocity of flow
through them. The practical effect of this is that, when the throttle
is opened suddenly after idling, the engine will splutter and backfire
or even stop firing altogether for a few revolutions; if now the
throttle be closed again, the half-formed wet layer will immediately
re-evaporate and the engine will run steadily again; by repeatedly
opening and closing the throttle the necessary wet layer can be
built up gradually. To obviate this difficulty one or other of three
expedients must be adopted:
(1) The carburettor must be set to deliver, at all times, an over-
rich mixture.
(2) The walls of the induction system must be maintained at so
high a temperature that little if any liquid fuel can lie upon them,
even at atmospheric density,
(3) The carburettor must be provided with some means whereby
a little liquid fuel is stored up when running idle, and delivered to
the induction system immediately the throttle is opened.
The first of these may be dismissed at once as altogether too
extravagant. The second method can, at best, be but a partial
remedy only, though a certain amount of pre-heating is essential
in the case of present-day petrols, whose mean volatility is low and
most of which have a final boiling point of over 400° F. To raise the
induction system, however, to such a temperature as will prevent
entirely any condensation even of the highest boiling fractions is
practically out of the question, and would, in any event, so reduce
the power output, increase the tendency to detonate, and, by rais-
ing the whole cycle temperature, so lower the efficiency of the engine,
as to be quite outside the range of practical politics.
The third method, namely, the momentary supply of an over-
rich mixture, meets the case satisfactorily; it costs nothing in
power output, and permits both of working normally with the most
(E 240) 11
economical mixture strength, and of reducing the heat input to the
induction system.
In the case of carburettors using a gravity-fed compensating jet,
this condition can be met by providing a well having a capacity
sufficient to supply a 100 per cent excess of fuel for, say, 3 or 4
cycles, and fed from the compensating jet. When running on full
throttle this well is normally dry, but when idling the well fills up
to nearly the level in the float chamber. So soon as the throttle
Fig. 63.—Sectional Arrangement of Zenith Carburettor, showing details of Pilot Jet
is opened the sudden depression caused by the inflow of air to the

induction system draws the whole of the contents of the well into the
induction system and thus provides, momentarily, an over-rich
mixture.
When a shrouded or diffuser jet is used the same effect can be
brought about by providing in the annular passage around the jet
sufficient capacity to meet this instantaneous demand.
Both the Zenith and the Claudel carburettors cater for this con-
dition, the former by means of a well fed by gravity, as shown in
fig. 63, and the latter by the use of a diffuser jet with large capacity.
Neither, however, provides, in the author's opinion, sufficient capacity
to meet the case of a four-cylinder engine with a relatively cool
CARBURATION 147
induction system, and both could certainly be improved by the
addition of a small plunger pump actuated mechanically by the
throttle lever.
The fourth condition, namely, that it shall provide an over-rich
mixture for starting, is met, in nearly all cases, by the provision of a
separate, or pilot jet, and some provision is usually made whereby
this jet drops out of action so soon as the engine has attained suffi-
cient speed to bring the main jets into operation. In those carbur-
ettors using a gravity-fed compensating jet, the pilot is fed from the
compensating jet and automatically drops out of action so soon as
the level in the well falls beyond a certain point.
To start from cold, i.e. 60° F., on ordinary commercial petrol,
it is necessary to provide a minimum mixture strength from
three to four times over-rich, depending upon the vapour tension
of the fuel and upon the actual temperature of the mechanism. For
the purpose of starting merely, there is no objection to using an ex-
cessively over-rich mixture, provided that its supply is discontinued
so soon as the engine is under way. When the pilot jet draws from
a well fed by the compensating jet and is but slightly submerged, as
in the Zenith or Claudel carburettor, it will deliver an excessively
rich mixture only when the level is at a maximum, and this again
can occur only when the engine is at rest, for the very minimum
running speed will suffice so to lower the level in the pilot jet chamber
as to cut this jet either partially or completely out of action.
When, however, the pilot jet is fed direct from the float chamber, it
is necessary, in order to obtain a sufficiently rich mixture, either to
flood the carburettor and so both raise artificially the level in the
pilot jet and at the same time expose for evaporation a considerable
surface of liquid petrol in and around the air intake to the carbur-
ettor, or partially to close the air intake to the carburettor and
thereby subject the main jet to excessive suction.
The fifth condition, namely, adjustment of mixture strength to
compensate for changes in temperature, is met only in those carbur-
ettors which are provided either with variable jets or with a control
on the air supply. It is an important condition, but one which is
generally unprovided for; indeed, it is not at all an easy one to meet
adequately. Although an engine should require the same mixture
proportions, once the induction system has been wetted, whether it
is hot or cold, yet it is none the less desirable to reduce slightly
the size of the jet as the carburettor warms up, because the viscosity
of petrol and indeed of most volatile liquid fuels varies considerably
with temperature, and, with a given size of jet and a given depression,
the quantity of fuel passed will increase as the temperature of the
liquid rises, due to the reduced viscosity. The influence of the varia-
tion in the viscosity of the liquid can be reduced to the minimum
by employing always very short jets or at least a very short length
of orifice of small diameter, but it cannot be eliminated entirely by
such means.
In all carburettors used for aircraft, and which are therefore
required to operate under wide variations both of density and tem-
perature, it is absolutely essential to provide some means of varying
bodily the mixture strength. This is effected by means of what are
termed altitude controls. Altitude controls take several different
forms, but the most usual is that in which the float chamber is
hermetically sealed and the air space in it connected to the car-
burettor at two points, one below the choke-tube and the other
between the choke-tube and the throttle. Between these two points
there is a considerable difference in pressure, due to the resistance
offered by the choke-tube. A control cock is fitted in the passage
connecting above the choke-tube, and this passage is made very much
larger, the other being in the nature of a small permanent leak only.
"When the control cock is closed the pressure in the float chamber is
equal to that of the outside air, since it is balanced by the permanent
leak, but on opening the control cock the pressure in the float chamber
falls to something between that ruling in the passage above the choke-
tube and that of the outside air, depending upon the respective
areas of the connecting passage-ways. As the pressure in the float
chamber is reduced, so the level in the jet falls, and less liquid is
delivered from it. By adjustment, therefore, of the control cock
it is possible to lower the level of liquid in the jet to any desired
extent, and so to vary the mixture strength. This method and the
several variations of it, serve admirably for aircraft when the engine
is driving a propeller and the torque-speed characteristic is therefore
definite throughout the range; but it is in the writer's opinion some-
what doubtful whether it forms a suitable means of control for such
purposes as motor vehicles, owing to its influence either on the
gravity-fed compensating jet or upon the diffuser when such jets are
used. For carburettors with mechanical compensation it would no
doubt work admirably.
The sixth condition, namely, that it shall be simple to adjust in
the first instance, and unlikely to get out of adjustment in use, is
a very important one indeed, because in practice it is often very
IGNITION 149
difficult to determine whether the metering is correct or not—too
weak a mixture, either throughout or at any point in the range, shows
itself at once by backfiring into the induction system, but it is not
always so easy to make sure that the mixture is not too rich. Car-
burettors in which a gravity-fed compensating jet is used are always
rather difficult to adjust accurately in the first place unless the
engine is run under conditions wherein its fuel consumption, etc,
can readily be determined at all loads and speeds, as on the test
bench. On the other hand, such carburettors, once adjusted, will
remain in adjustment for all time.
Carburettors with moving parts controlling the compensation
are, on the whole, much easier to adjust in the first instance, but arc
liable, owing to wear, leakage, etc, to lose their adjustment. Finally,
there are, on the market, several carburettors which, though they do
not under any circumstances give correct metering, are none the less
so easy to adjust to give a fair average proportionality, that in Tin-
skilled hands they are often found to yield results as good as or
better than those of more scientific design.
As stated previously, there is, so far as the author is aware, no
single carburettor which conforms to all the conditions he has laid
down; but despite this, a good modern carburettor when properly
adjusted is a remarkably efficient piece of apparatus. Though often
much abused, the fault more often lies with the distribution system
than with the carburettor itself.
It must be remembered always that the carburettor and the
distribution system are closely interdependent. When the distribu-
tion system, either by its large exposed surface, the low velocity
maintained in it, or its low temperature, is such as to encourage
precipitation, then it is desirable to use a carburettor which will give
very thorough pulverization, even at the expense of some loss by
wire-drawing, and which will supply a large excess of fuel when the
throttle is opened suddenly. On the other hand, with a different
distribution system quite other characteristics may be desirable.
It is quite wrong to suppose that any standard carburettor may be
tacked on to any existing distribution system without regard to the
particular characteristics of either.
Ignition.—By a process of elimination ignition systems for
high-speed internal-combustion engines have been reduced to two
main types:
(1) The high-tension magneto.
(2) The high-tension coil and battery system.
The former was in almost universal use until a few years ago;
the latter is a reversion to an earlier type, and has come into pro-
minence again because nearly all vehicles and aircraft are now
equipped with electric-lighting sets, so that an ample supply of low-
tension current is always available.
Intensity of Spark.—Although when working on full throttle
with a “ correct ” or slightly over-rich mixture the intensity of the
spark is of very little importance, yet on reduced loads or weak
mixtures the intensity plays a very prominent part. It has been
found experimentally that when the nature, conditions, or con-
sistency of the fuel/air mixture are such as to yield very rapid burn-
ing, then a very feeble spark will suffice. So far as maximum power
output alone is concerned, the intensity of the spark does not play
any serious part; it has, however, a considerable influence upon
the maximum efficiency attainable, since it governs, to some extent,
both the range of burning on the weak side and the rate of burning
when throttled.
In the ordinary high-tension magneto, the intensity of the spark
is at a maximum only at the point of maximum flux, and is therefore
reduced when the time of ignition is either advanced or retarded be-
yond this point. In the coil and battery system, on the other hand,
the intensity remains the same irrespective of the time of ignition.
This is a substantial argument in favour of the latter system.
In the past, the coil and battery system was superseded by the
high-tension magneto on the score of reliability for two reasons:
(1) Because there was no charging dynamo available, with the
result that the battery was not kept fully charged and was frequently
allowed to run down, with consequent complete failure of the igni-
tion system.
(2) The early low-tension contact-breakers were generally ill
designed and badly made, and gave continual trouble.
When the high-tension magneto first appeared on the market it
had two substantial advantages over its rival system: namely, a
constant supply of low-tension current, and a really well-designed
and well-made low-tension contact-breaker.
These advantages are not so prominent to-day, for nearly every
high-speed engine is equipped with a charging dynamo for lighting
and starting.
It is not proposed to discuss the details of either system, for
these are now well known and can be found in any text-book on
the subject.
IGNITION 151
Sparking Plugs.—Probably no part of an internal-combustion
engine is more complained of and abused than the sparking plug,
though the complaints levelled against It are often unjust. It is
generally complained either that sparking plugs oil up and so become
inoperative, or that they give rise to pre-ignition; but the fault quite
as often lies in the choice of an unsuitable plug for the engine or in
defective design, with the result that too much oil passes into
the combustion chamber.
In any type of sparking plug there is a limited range of tem-
perature between which the points will be sufficiently hot to burn off
any oil which may be deposited upon them, and sufficiently cool to
avoid pre-ignition.
In those engines in which, owing to defective piston design, the
quantity of oil passing the piston is excessive, it is necessary, in order
to burn off the oil, to employ a type of plug with thin points which
will keep hot when running on reduced loads. In this connection it
should be remembered that, in a throttle-controlled engine, the actual
temperature of the working fluid is nearly the same at any throttle
opening, and that it is the total quantity of heat and not the tem-
perature which varies. If the plug points are thin and their facilities
for getting rid of the heat are poor, they will attain a temperature
corresponding to the mean temperature of the cycle irrespective of
the quantity of heat liberated. If, on the other hand, they are
provided with good facilities for getting rid of the heat imparted to
them, then their temperature will be governed rather by the quantity
of heat, but will at all times be somewhat lower. In other words, in
plugs with long thin points the points will always be hot but will
remain at much the same temperature at any load; while in plugs
with short, thick points and good facilities for getting rid of their
heat, the points will keep cooler at all loads, but their temperature
will vary over a wider range as the load is varied. From the point
of view of maintaining an equable temperature at all loads, com-
paratively long, thin points are preferable, and so long as the com-
pression is low and there is no detonation to increase the temperature
and rate of heat flow they will not give rise to pre-ignition. But
when the compression ratio is high and the proportion of diluent is
therefore small, pre-ignition will occur the more readily; moreover,
under these circumstances detonation is the more liable to occur,
and this, as has been shown previously, will give rise to overheating
of the plug points. For such engines, therefore, it is necessary to
use a type of plug whose points will keep as cool as possible. When,
by careful design, the flow of lubricating oil to the combustion
chamber is reduced to the lowest limit, it becomes possible to use a
“ cool ” plug without trouble from oiling up, and it is then preferable
to do so, for the thick points naturally last longer, and there is less
risk of overheating from momentary detonation or other causes.
For low-compression engines or for engines whose duty is com-
paratively light a “ hot ” plug may be used with advantage, more
especially if they have any tendency to pass an excess of oil; while
for high-compression engines a “ cool ” plug must be used, and
the tendency to oil up must be overcome by adequate piston de-
sign. No single plug can at present be made to suit a high-com-
pression engine which passes excess oil into the combustion chamber,
but the remedy lies in the design of the engine, and it is not fair to
abuse the sparking plug because it is being called upon to meet
conditions outside its legitimate range.
CHAPTER VI
MECHANICAL DESIGN
In the design of an internal-combustion engine, as in all creative
work of this nature, the aesthetic side must not be overlooked. In
the first place, beauty of form and of proportions is in itself an
admirable guide to mechanical correctness ; for mankind has come
to regard as beautiful that which is mechanically correct, whether
it be in nature, in architecture, or in engineering.
In general, beauty and efficiency—in the widest sense of the
term—are synonymous, and the appeal of any design to the
aesthetic sense is often as reliable a guide as is a mathematical
analysis of its mechanical features. Again, the aesthetic side
makes a powerful though an unconscious appeal to the user, whose
artistic sense, mute and inarticulate though it may be, will always
be roused.
The designer's first aim should be to ensure that the products of
his work will receive the care and even affection which he hopes will
be bestowed upon them by their users. To this end he should make
an appeal to them through their artistic sense rather than to fads
or fashion, for the former is innate in all mankind, while the latter
may vary widely.
There is a prevalent but quite erroneous belief that the reliability
and even the efficiency of an engine are, to a large extent, a function
of the actual number of parts it contains. Speaking generally, there
can be no greater fallacy. While it is obvious that the number of
parts should be kept down to the minimum compatible with efficiency
and mechanical correctness, this can very easily be overdone. Few-
ness of parts too often denotes excess of compromise. All design
must necessarily be based on compromise, and it is upon the sound-
ness of judgement by which the compromise is arrived at that the
success of an engine ultimately depends. In an internal-combustion
engine many of the parts are subjected to complicated stresses,
both heat stresses and pressure stresses; and when, by multiplying
153
the number of parts, such stresses can be reduced or dealt with
separately, this should be done unhesitatingly. No member should
be subjected to compound stresses if by the provision of additional
members these can be split u p ; for example, when a member is
subjected to combined torsion and bending it is preferable, where
possible, to replace it by two separate members, one designed to
deal with the bending alone and free from torsion, and another
subject to torsion only and free from bending. To do this may
involve the introduction of perhaps six or eight times as many parts
in this particular piece of mechanism, yet the safety and reliability
will be many times greater. Again, in the design of an engine the
problem often arises of carrying a shaft in two bearings whose
perfect alignment with each other cannot be ensured in machining
or is liable to disturbance in use owing to distortion, &c. In such
cases the choice lies between fitting a fairly flexible shaft which will
accommodate itself by flexure to slight errors in alignment, or the
provision of double universal joints between the two bearings. In
the former case the shaft is liable to fail ultimately from fatigue
through constant flexure, however slight, while the bearings are
liable to give trouble, and in any case the friction will be much
greater. In the latter case safety and the minimum of friction are
ensured, but at the cost of several extra parts. A choice of this
nature confronts every designer almost daily, and he has to decide
whether he will risk the simple expedient or resort to the more com-
plicated one. He is generally too liable to adopt the former course
on the ground of manufacturing cost, but in such case he has no
right to boast that he is using fewer parts—he is doing so only
because he cannot afford to use more, or because he has neither the
knowledge nor the experience to appreciate the risk he is incurring.
Again, in the larger sizes of engine it is often desirable to duplicate
the exhaust valves, even though this may involve the duplication
of the whole valve gear also. By doing so, smaller valves can be
employed, and both the temperature of the valve heads and the
stresses in the valve gear will be reduced, the valves will remain
in good condition for a far longer time, while the margin
of safety in the valve gear will be greatly increased. The net
result of duplicating the exhaust valves will be that the engine
will retain its efficiency for a much longer period, and will at all
times be more reliable. It is better far to use 500 parts if need
be, to comply with the laws of sound mechanics, than to defy
them with a single part. The craving to make one single member
MECHANICAL DESIGN 155
perform several distinct functions is often very difficult to resist,

but it should be firmly controlled.
It is possible to produce an internal-combustion engine composed
of only seven parts (exclusive of studs and nuts). If fewness of
parts were a criterion, such an engine should sweep the board. In
practice this type of engine has earned almost universal condemnation
because of its unreliability and the ingenuity with which it devises
different ways of going wrong. At the other end of the scale the
aero-engine which, during the war, showed itself capable of running
for, by far, the longest period, without overhaul, was the Rolls-Royce
“ Eagle,” an engine which contains at least 50 per cent more parts
than any other engine in the service.
That increased number of parts necessarily involves increased
care and maintenance on the part of the user is a sheer fallacy.
Fewness of parts saves manufacturing costs to some small extent,
but it certainly confers no benefit whatever upon the user. Even
to the manufacturer it does not always effect a saving, for the amount
of fitting work required is often inversely proportional to the number
of parts, and fitting is nowadays the most costly of all classes of work.
Designers will do well to realize that “ simplicity ” as ordinarily
understood is by no means always a virtue; in nine cases out of ten
it is a positive vice.
The foregoing remarks must not be read as implying a disregard
of manufacturing cost. On the contrary, manufacturing cost is
generally much the most important consideration once the needs of
all-round efficiency have been catered for, and by efficiency in this
sense is meant not merely thermal efficiency but reliability and
durability.
In days gone by, material and skilled fitting were both com-
paratively cheap, while tooling was a costly item. To-day, however,
owing to the vast improvements in machine-tool design, tooling and
grinding have become relatively cheap, while the cost of material
has risen enormously and skilled fitting has become almost un-
obtainable. The designer therefore must accommodate himself to
these altered conditions and economize material and hand-fitting
wherever possible. In this connection he will often find that it is
an actual economy to employ a greater number of parts if the total
weight of material used is no greater and some hand-fitting is saved
thereby. With well-thought-out design and accurate machine work
it should be possible to eliminate hand-fitting almost entirely. Much
of the hand-fitting which is done to-day is unnecessary and even
undesirable; the scraping-in of bearings, for example, is a custom
which dates from the time when accurate machine work could not
be relied upon and when designers did not realize the value of self-
alignment. Now that crankshafts can be finished by grinding to
within extremely close limits, and all their bearing housings can be
machined at one operation, scraping is no longer necessary; indeed,
no amount of hand-scraping will give so accurate or uniform a bearing
as that afforded by the machining. Again, from an economical as
well as from a mechanical point of view it is essential that all shaft-
bearing housings shall either be machined at one operation or their
alignment be ensured by spigoting. If, for any reason, neither of
these is possible, then it is not only better but often even cheaper
to provide universal joints and so be independent of alignment,
rather than to rely upon a doubtful alignment secured by costly
hand-fitting. Not only is hand-fitting expensive and unreliable,
but it is also the most effective barrier against interchangeability.
The old belief that a “ hand-made ” piece of mechanism is preferable
to a “ machine-made ” dies hard, but the sooner it is buried the
better; to-day it is an anachronism.
D e s i g n and Material.—It is commonly supposed that, to be
successful, a high-speed internal-combustion engine must of necessity
be made from very carefully selected and highly specialized materials.
While, of course, it is obvious that the higher the quality of the
material the better, yet, with appropriate design, the ordinary
materials of commerce will be found to give perfectly satisfactory
results, and are, in fact, much more widely used than is generally
supposed. It is only when the weight is very closely limited, as in
the case of an aero-engine, or when an exceptionally high output is
desired, that fancy materials become necessary,
The ordinary multi-cylinder high-speed engine necessarily in-
volves the use of some very complicated castings, and the choice of
material for these is, in practice, governed almost solely by foundry
considerations. The material of the cylinder block and crankcase,
for example, must be such that it will flow freely in the mould
and yield a homogeneous casting, a consideration which generally
dominates all others.
In general, surface hardness is of far more importance than
tensile strength; for the necessity for extreme rigidity, which is the
first principle in high-speed engine design, compels the use of such
heavy scantlings in any case, that tensile strength plays a very
secondary part. From the point of view of rigidity all steels are
substantially equal, for the modulus of elasticity is practically the

same for all.
Crankcase.—For the crankcase, either cast iron or aluminium
may be used, depending upon whether weight is an important factor
or not. The chief consideration in the design of a crankcase for a
multi-cylinder engine is to provide sufficient depth to resist the
bending moment due to the opposed couples in a four- or six-cylinder
engine. This bending moment is not severe in so far as it affects the
structural strength of the crankcase, but it is often quite sufficient
to cause very tiresome vibration at certain critical speeds, and in
order to prevent this it is necessary to employ a design of crankcase
so strong to resist both bending or torsion that, from a structural
point of view, it has an enormous factor of safety. Since rigidity is
a function of design rather than of material, it follows that, within
limits, any material which will cast well and possess reasonable
physical qualities will serve the purpose,
To ensure rigidity against bending and torsion it is very desirable,
if not essential, that the lower half of the crankcase shall form a
structural part of the whole, and particularly is this the case when
separate cylinders are used. When, as is customary, the crankcase
is divided on the centre line of the crankshaft, the two halves should
be bolted together with a large number of closely pitched bolts, to
ensure a good friction joint between the two, and the lower half
should in itself have ample rigidity considered as a girder. The
custom of using merely a light oil tray attached to the upper half by
a few loose-fitting bolts cannot be too strongly condemned. Although
the lower half of the crankcase may not and usually does not play
any part in the mounting of the crankshaft, and apparently is sub-
jected to no direct stresses, yet it has a very important function to
fulfil in completing the structure of the crankcase as a whole, and
assisting in and ensuring its absolute rigidity. This consideration
becomes particularly important in the case of six-cylinder engines,
in which crankcase vibration is, or used to be, a very common
source of annoyance. Fig. G4 is an illustration of a light
150 h.p. engine, which may be taken as a good example in this
respect.
Another consideration which must always be borne in mind is
the question of noise due to the vibration of flat panels, &c. As far
as possible all flat surfaces should be avoided, or, if this is not con-
venient, they should be broken up by internal ribbing. There is
some evidence to show that for similar designs and scantlings
(b) The cost of machining aluminium is considerably less than

that of cast iron; and since in a crankcase there are usually a very
considerable number of machining operations, this often outweighs
the higher initial cost of the material.
The difficulty in securing studs in aluminium is a real one, but
it is usually possible so to design a crankcase as to eliminate or
almost eliminate the use of studs. By extending the main crank-
shaft bearing bolts through to the top of the crankcase and utilizing
them to hold down the cylinder block, two groups of studs can be
eliminated and a very sound mechanical job results. Where studs
must be used they should be screwed in from 2 to 3 diameters, and
are then satisfactory, if properly fitted in the first place.
Cylinder Block.—Where a number of cylinders are cast together
in one block, cast iron is almost invariably used, though recently
aluminium blocks fitted with steel or cast-iron liners have been
adopted for aircraft engines and for a few motor-car engines also.
So far as the plain cast-iron block is concerned there is little to be
said except that two considerations should be aimed at in the choice
of a material; that it shall cast readily and be free from blow-holes
or porous places, and that it shall be as hard as possible compatible
with the first consideration. There appears to be no merit in the
use of the close-grained iron so often called for in specifications, for
an open grain may be just as good and is sometimes better. In this
connection it may be mentioned that cylinders finished by grinding
seldom wear so well as those which have been reamed; this appears
to be due to the retention of small particles of the grinding material
in the surface of the bore. These soon embed themselves in the
piston, which then proceeds to lap the cylinder walls, more par-
ticularly when the piston is of aluminium alloy. The habit of grind-
ing cylinder bores came into force at a time when it was found diffi-
cult to obtain a satisfactory finish by tooling alone; and it was soon
found to be both a cheaper and a more satisfactory means of ob-
taining at once a reasonably accurate bore and a good finish, and
so found wide favour in the eyes of manufacturers. With modern
improvements in machining methods it is now possible to obtain
excellent results by reaming and honing, and this process would
appear to be preferable. No doubt, with care and a suitable choice
of grinding wheels, embedding of the grinding material in the cylinder
bore can be avoided, but in many instances this is not the case to-day.
In recent years it has become rather the fashion to make the
whole cylinder-head detachable. This practice has many important
advantages. In the first place, it simplifies the cylinder block
casting very considerably and enables the cylinder to be bored
straight through—a very substantial advantage. In the second, it
permits of the valves being placed closer together, and so in the
case of side-valve engines, reduces the area of surface in the valve
pockets and permits of the cylinder centres being reduced, both very
valuable considerations. Thirdly, it eliminates the use of valve
plugs, which are always an objectionable feature, since they are
uncooled and are liable to leakage.
The principal objection to detachable heads is that they necessi-
tate the making of a gas- and water-joint over a large area and the
breaking of this joint in order to get at the valves or clean out the
combustion chambers. By the use of suitable copper asbestos
gaskets, by providing plenty of holding-down studs suitably spaced,
and an ample depth of head, these objections may be overcome.
Where trouble with cylinder-head joints has arisen, it can generally
be traced either to lack of rigidity in the head or to insufficient
or badly placed holding-down studs. Given careful design and
ample rigidity, the use of detachable cylinder-heads has much to
recommend it.
It is now customary to embody the induction manifold in the
cylinder block casting. This certainly makes for neatness, and, by
reducing the number of joints in the system, lessens the tendency
to leakage; but when these points are conceded—and admittedly
they are important points—there is nothing else left to recommend
the practice, which has three serious defects:
(1) The design of the induction system, and therefore the efficiency
of distribution, must be subordinated to foundry requirements. It
is seldom, if ever, possible to design an efficient distribution system
which can be embodied in the cylinder block casting.
(2) With modern petrol having a final boiling point of about
400° F., jacketing of the induction system with warm water is of
very little use; it merely serves to supply heat to the working fluid
before its entry to the cylinder, without ensuring evaporation of the
heavier fractions. In previous chapters it has been shown that
the less heat supplied to the gases before their entry to the cylinder
the better. To prevent precipitation some heat must be supplied
but to be of real use it must be supplied at a high temperature. It
is far better, therefore, to supply locally a small quantity of high-
temperature heat just at those points where, owing to changes in
velocity or direction, precipitation of liquid fuel is most liable to
occur, rather than to subject the whole system to a continuous

supply of low-temperature heat, which serves merely to reduce the
power output without evaporating any but the lighter fractions of
the fuel.
(3) When the induction system is cast in the cylinder block the
whole of its internal surface is rough; this greatly increases the
tendency of the liquid particles of fuel to precipitate, and it increases
also the frictional losses.
Fig. 65.—Section of Four-cylinder Engine, showing Open-sided Cylinders
Apart from the orthodox multi-cylinder monobloc type, there

are many other forms of cast-iron cylinder. Fig. 65 shows a fairly
common form for separate cylinders in which the sides of the water-
jacket are cast open and subsequently closed with thin sheet-steel
covers. This has the advantage that the casting is very simple,
can be inspected internally, and the core sand thoroughly removed.
Also, it permits of a number of cylinders being packed together more
closely than would otherwise be possible with separate cylinders,
thus both reducing the length of the crankshaft and increasing the
rigidity of the crankcase, as shown in fig, 66.
Fig. 67 shows a design for large cylinders, in this instance of 100
(E246) 12
B.H.P. Tank Engine, showing close pac
(4) The water connections can be secured to the main casting,

and not to light sheet-metal jackets*
Yet another form of cylinder construction which is sometimes
favoured consists in casting the whole cylinder block in aluminium
alloy with cast-in valve seats, and either screwed or pressed-in
steel liners. This construction is open to the objection that it is
Fig. 67.—Section of Cylinder and Head, 100 B.H.P. Engine. 8¼-inch bore, 9½-inch stroke,
Speed, 1150 R.P.M.
always difficult to ensure good thermal contact between the liner

and aluminium walls, on account of the very great difference in the
coefficient of expansion of the two materials.
A form of cylinder construction which has found great favour
for aircraft engines is that in which both the cylinders themselves
and the water-jackets are built up out of steel by welding. In such
a construction it is customary to forge the cylinder and cylinder
head as a plain thimble, to screw and weld the valve ports and valve
guides into this, and finally to weld over all a light steel water-jacket
pressed from thin sheet and made up in two halves. This form of
construction is very light and sound, and thanks to the absence of
castings, and therefore to the small proportion of scrap, it is not
nearly so expensive as would appear at first sight. The chief objec-
tions to it are:
(1) It is applicable only to separate cylinders, or at least it
Fig. 68.—Section of Cylinder showing loose hardened Steel Liner sealed by Rubber Ring
becomes very complicated when the water-jacket embraces more

than one cylinder,
(2) The water connections are attached only to light sheet-metal
jackets, which are liable to crack from vibration.
(3) Freedom of design is rather limited by constructional diffi-
culties.
As regards material for built-up steel cylinders, it would appear
that a high-carbon steel about 0·45 to 0·55 per cent carbon gives
good results as regards wear.
For plain cast-iron cylinders a mixture should be selected which
will flow freely and yield a homogeneous casting with as hard a
surface as possible and regardless of “ grain.”
Fig. 69.—Section showing cylinder construction of large Experimental Aero-engine developing

130 B.H.P. per Cylinder. Bore 8 inch, stroke 11 inch, speed 1400 R.P.M.
Crankshafts.—There is always a considerable difference of
opinion as to the most suitable material for crankshafts. Except
in the case of aircraft engines, tensile strength and yield point are
factors which need hardly be considered, for by the time the re-
quirements of torsional rigidity, freedom from whipping, stiffness
and rigidity of crankpins and journals, and the provision of adequate
bearing surface in a limited length, have all been met, it will be found
that the scantlings of the shaft are such as to put all risk of failure
from any source but fatigue, quite out of the range of probability.
The two essential requirements are resistance to fatigue and surface
hardness. In the author's opinion it is almost a waste of time to
calculate out the stresses in a crankshaft, for, if the design is
adequate from the points of view enumerated above, it will
invariably be found that the calculable stress in the material is
quite absurdly low. It must be remembered that the modulus of
elasticity for all steels is substantially the same, and since it is
rigidity which controls the design of a crankshaft, all steels are
nearly on a par in this respect. In the author's opinion a
straight carbon steel containing about 0·45 per cent carbon fulfils
all the requisite conditions quite satisfactorily for most commercial
purposes except for aircraft engines. These latter are excepted
because—
(1) Having no flywheel, aircraft engines are less susceptible to
torsional oscillations in the crankshaft, and the latter can therefore
be made considerably lighter.
(2) In order to save weight in the shaft and in the design gener-
ally, a bearing is always fitted between each crankthrow, hence the
tendency to whip is greatly reduced.
(3) Owing to their relatively short working life, the area of
bearing surface is generally cut down in order to reduce weight.
Apart from the question of cost of material, the advantages of
using a straight carbon steel for ordinary engines are:
(1) That every engineering establishment is familiar with the
methods of forging, heat treating, and machining it.
(2) That it is very uniform in quality, and much less sensitive to
errors in heat treatment.
In other words, it is decidedly more dependable than high tensile
alloy steels, all of which require careful heat treatment, and if wrongly
treated, are liable to be dangerous.
Fracture of a carbon steel crankshaft of reasonable design is
a very rare occurrence indeed, and is generally due either to want
of adequate fillets at the crankpins and journals, or to periodic

torsional vibrations; either of these causes will result in eventual
fracture from fatigue, no matter what the material may be. The
former may be avoided by providing an ample radius, and the latter
by avoiding periodic vibration, either by fitting a vibration damper
or by altering the scantling of the shaft so as to raise or lower the
periodic speed out of the normal running range. In the case of four-
cylinder engines with reasonably light reciprocating parts, it is
generally quite easy so to design the crankshaft that there shall be
no severe torsional vibration at any speed of which the engine
is capable. In the case of six - cylinder engines, however, it is
by no means so easy to do this, and it then becomes desirable
to employ vibration dampers or other means to check torsional
vibration.
The most important consideration to-day is to reduce the rate
of wear. This, as shown previously when dealing with lubrication,
is a function of the surface hardness, both of the shaft itself and of
the bearing material in which it runs. The harder the shaft and the
softer the bearing material the better, provided that the latter will
not crush. Wear appears to be due almost entirely to particles of
grit embedding in the soft bearing material and so lapping the shaft,
The rate at which they will lap away the shaft depends upon (1) the
surface hardness; (2) the load, which governs the thickness of the
oil film and therefore the distance which the particles have to bridge
before coming into contact with the shaft.
In general, the load on the crankshaft bearings is so severe that
it is not always possible to use a very soft bearing material, but it
should be borne in mind that, other things being equal, the softer
the bearing material the less will be the wear.
Balance W e i g h t s . — I n four- or six-cylinder engines, the centre
crankshaft journal is subjected to very severe loading on account
of the cumulative centrifugal and inertia pressure from the two
cranks on either side of it, since these are always in the same plane;
for this reason, either much greater surface must be given to this
bearing, or the crankshaft must be fitted with balance weights to
counteract the centrifugal pressure from the two centre cranks.
Unfortunately, if the two centre cranks are fitted with balance
weights, so also must the others. The provision of balance weights,
however, while it relieves the load on the journal bearings, and more
particularly on the centre bearing, and also reduces the tendency to
vibration of the crankcase, is very objectionable because, by adding
168
Fig. 70.—Crankshaft Assembly as used in 3-litre 1922 Vauxhall Racing Engines

MECHANICAL DESIGN
Fig. 71.—Roller-bearing built-up Crankshaft for heavy Commercial Vehicle Engine

169
masses with considerable inertia to the various throws of the
crank, it increases greatly the tendency to torsional vibration of
the crankshaft, and at the same time tends to lower its critical
speed. This may be, and often is, a serious objection to the use of
balance weights, for torsional vibration of the crankshaft is much
more serious in its effects and more difficult to deal with than that
of the crankcase. The use of balance weights, therefore, is by no
means always to be recommended; they may be of advantage in
reducing wear, or they may set up severe and dangerous periodic
vibration, depending upon the actual circumstances. In cases
where, owing to restrictions upon length or for other reasons, the
area of bearing surface of the centre bearing is limited, it sometimes
becomes necessary to provide balance-weights, and in such cases
their ill effects can be counteracted by the use of the well known
Lanchester torsional vibration damper,
There can be little doubt but that the ideal crankshaft should
have case-hardened journals and pins. It is very difficult satis-
factorily to case-harden a one-piece multiple-throw crankshaft on
account of its tendency to buckle when quenched, except in the case
of very short cranks such as are used in engines with two opposed
cylinders. It is, however, in the author's opinion quite open to
question whether the advantages of case-hardened bearing surfaces
are not such as to justify the use of built-up cranks, with the webs
shrunk on to the journals and the crankpins pressed or clamped
into place. Fig. 70 shows an actual example of a crankshaft con-
structed in this manner for an engine of 125 B.H.P., running at
a normal speed of 4000—4500 R.P.M., which has been found to
give very satisfactory results. Fig. 71 shows an alternative de-
sign with the crankpins clamped into place, and roller bearings used
throughout. This design is intended for an engine of more normal
speed and performance. The bearings on such a shaft should
prove well-nigh everlasting, but in the event of wear or any acci-
dent such as the fracture of a roller, the whole crankpin, complete
with its roller bearing, could be replaced quite easily. Apart
from their virtual immunity from wear, ball or roller bearings
have the advantage that they are not dependent upon continuous
lubrication to maintain the oil film and are therefore more reliable;
also, although the friction loss with plain bearings amounts, in any
average design, to less than 2 per cent of the maximum power of the
engine at high speeds, and at normal working temperatures, this
loss is almost independent of load, and is liable actually to increase
as the speed is reduced. While, therefore, the total frictional losses

of the plain bearings on a crankshaft are relatively small at high
speeds and full load, at reduced speeds and loads they begin to play
an important part. In the case of motor vehicle engines which, for
the bulk of their existence, operate under very light loads, and whose
average load factor is only from 30 to 40 per cent, the use of a bail-
or roller-bearing crankshaft would result in a very appreciable gain
in fuel economy, probably about 6 to 8 per cent.
W e a r of Crankshafts.—In general terms, it may be said that
while the greatest wear in crankshafts generally occurs in the main
journal bearings, actual failure of the bearing material is more
frequent on the crankpins, even when both journal and crankpin
bearings are subjected to the same load factor. The causes of this
state of affairs are not far to seek. The greater liability to failure
of the crankpin or connecting-rod big-end bearings as compared
with the main journal bearings when both are subjected to the same
mean loading per square inch is due to :
(1) The smaller heat capacity which the bearing has to draw
upon.
(2) Inadequate support of the bearing in the connecting-rod, the
big-end eye of which is generally lacking in rigidity.
In the event, therefore, of a temporary stoppage or slowing down
of the oil circulation, the crankpin bearing will, in a given time, attain
a much higher temperature than the main journal bearings, and, if
the stoppage be prolonged, it will reach the critical temperature at
which breakdown occurs (viz., about 360° F. for ordinary white
metal), long before the main journal bearings, which have behind
them the heat capacity of the whole of the crankcase.
With regard to wear, in most lubrication systems the oil is
delivered first to the main journal bearings, and passes thence to the
crankpin bearings, with the result that the journal bearings receive
and retain most of the grit in the lubrication system, and so the more
readily lap the shaft.
In general, the rate of wear appears to be almost directly pro-
portional to the load factor on the bearing, and the surface hardness
of the shaft, but is almost always most rapid at the bearing which
receives its lubrication first and so retains most of the grit.
Connecting-rods.—The chief considerations in the design of a
connecting-rod are :
(1) That it shall be stiff enough to resist not only bending and
crushing, but also vibration.
(2) That it shall be as light as possible.
(3) That the big-end eye of the rod shall be sufficiently rigid to
ensure adequate support to the bearing.
Adequately to fulfil conditions Nos. 1 and 3, means in effect that
the scantlings of the rod must be such that it has an ample margin
of safety so far as ultimate strength is concerned. When I. section
rods are used, and this is probably the most desirable form both
from the point of view of manufacture and of the disposition of the
material, the section must have sufficient width to resist vibration
in the plane of the crankshaft, as well as sufficient depth to resist
bending—this is too often forgotten and many mysterious troubles
and noises are probably due to sideways vibration of the connecting-
rod.
It is clearly most important to keep the weight of the connecting-
rod as low as possible consistent with fulfilling the other require-
ments, and in this connection it should be emphasized that it is the
weight of the rod as a whole, and not that of the reciprocating end
only, which has to be considered. In many cases it is quite as
important to keep down the weight of the rotating as it is the recipro-
cating end, for while the reciprocating mass of the rod affects the
balance of the engine, its rotating weight is of more importance in
so far as it influences the average pressure on the crankpin and
crank journal bearings due to centrifugal loading. In a six-cylinder
engine in which the reciprocating parts are balanced inherently,
rotating weight plays a more important part than reciprocating; on
the other hand, in a four-cylinder engine in which the secondary
disturbing forces due to the inertia of the reciprocating mass are
cumulative, it is the reciprocating weight of the connecting-rod
which must be considered first.
It is in the design of the eye of the big-end that particular care is
required.
The first consideration is to obtain a uniform support for the
bearing, and, to this end, not only must the eye of the rod be made
as rigid as possible in itself, but also the load transmitted down the
shank must be distributed over it as uniformly as possible. It is
generally useless to provide a wide bearing because of the practical
impossibility either of obtaining the necessary rigidity or of dis-
tributing the load over it. It is, in the author's opinion, very doubtful
whether any useful bearing surface can be obtained when the width
of the connecting-rod big-end bearing exceeds three-quarters of the
diameter of the crankpin; in any case it is very desirable to splay
out the outer webs of the shank at their junction with the big-end
eye, in order to distribute the loads transmitted down them.
Another frequent source of weakness in connecting-rod design
is the lack of provision of sufficient abutment for the two halves
of the connecting-rod bearing. The cap of the rod should be con-
sidered as though it were an arch loaded at its centre, but in tension
not in compression. Viewed in this light it is obvious that unless
the arch has a wide abutment it will tend to close in and so nip the
crankpin at the sides. In high-speed engines it is common practice,
Fig. 72 Fig. 73
in order to save weight, to cut down the width of the abutment to

the lowest possible limit, and many failures of big-end bearings
are directly attributable to this cause, Fig. 72 shows a design
of connecting big-end used in some aero-engines which gave rise
to constant failures of crankpin bearings. Fig. 73 shows the
same rod after the design had been corrected, when no further
trouble arose.
The problem of fitting the bearing itself in the connecting-rod
big-end has always been a difficult one. There can be little doubt
but that the most reliable method is to run the white metal direct
into the eye of the rod, for by this means alone can good thermal
contact be obtained. In some cases, particularly when aluminium
alloy connecting-rods of high conductivity are used, good thermal
contact is no longer desirable, for the flow of heat from the piston
down the shank of the rod may itself be such as to raise the tem-
perature of the bearing. In such cases we must rely entirely on oil-
cooling, and good thermal conductivity becomes a thing to avoid.
There are, however, several practical objections to this method:
(1) In the event of the lining being run out, it is not easily re-
placed.
(2) If the lining runs out, the steel surface of the rod will come in
contact with the crankpin and may do considerable damage.
In spite of these objections, however, direct white metalling of
the rod itself is probably the most satisfactory method for high-duty
engines. The alternatives are the use of die cast white-metal bear-
ings or white-metal-lined bronze shells. The former appear to be
suitable only for light duty, because of the difficulty in securing
uniform support and close contact with the metal of the rod, also
they are open to the objection that if the white metal runs out the
steel of the rod will come in contact with the crankpin; in this
respect the position is considerably worse than when the metal is
run direct into the rod, because of the much greater clearance
left. For medium-duty engines the use of bronze shells lined with
a very thin lining of white metal appears to offer the most satis-
factory compromise, for, in the event of failure, the shells can
readily be replaced and there is much less danger of the crankpin
suffering damage. In any event, the white-metal lining should
always be kept very thin, from 0·015 in, to 0·30 in. appears to be
ample.
As regards the small-end bearing there is little to be said except
that to ensure rigidity it should be short and of large diameter. If
lined with chilled phosphor-bronze this bearing should never give
the slightest trouble, nor show measureable wear, provided that the
gudgeon pin is stiff enough to resist deflection (which is seldom the
case), and is adequately supported from the piston. Troubles with
the small-end bearings of connecting-rods are almost invariably due
to deflection of the gudgeon pin, which causes heavy local pressure;
so long as this pin is stiff enough to afford uniform bearing, a very
small area of surface will suffice. As in the case of the big-end
bearing, it is quite useless to provide a width greatly in excess of
the gudgeon-pin diameter, both on account of the impossibility of
providing adequate support to the bearing and also on account of
the deflection of the gudgeon pin itself.
So far as material for connecting-rods is concerned, the problem
is somewhat the same as in the case of the crankshaft, but there is
one important difference, namely, that the material of the rod is
not called upon to function as a bearing surface, so that surface hard-
ness is not required. Since to fulfil the requirements as regards
rigidity necessitates automatically the provision of an ample margin
of safety, there is seldom any occasion to call for high tensile alloy
steels. Plain carbon steels or a mild nickel steel, which can readily
be forged or stamped, will be found suitable in all but very extreme
cases,
Gudgeon Pin.—Lack of stiffness and inadequate support of the
gudgeon pin in the piston are common failings in many high-speed
engines. Excessive wear and occasional seizure of the gudgeon-pin
bearings are still epidemic in some engines, and although the cause
is generally attributed to inadequate bearing surface or scanty
lubrication, careful examination will almost invariably reveal that
the real trouble is deflection of the pin causing excessive local
pressures. Although the pressure on a gudgeon-pin bearing is very
high, the rubbing velocity is low, and the average load factor is
certainly by no means a high one. Given that the pressure is
distributed uniformly over the surface of the bearing, the rate of
wear and the risk of seizure in this bearing should be insignificant.
In the normal design of trunk piston, the gudgeon pin is carried in
bosses which are attached only to the walls of the piston skirt, with
the result that the fluid pressure is conveyed to the pin at its two
extreme ends, for although the bosses themselves may be rigid
enough, their attachment to the piston is by no means so. Calcula-
tion will show that, in most instances, the deflection of the gudgeon
pin under the maximum fluid pressure is altogether excessive and
quite sufficient to concentrate the loading on the two extreme
ends of the bearing. It is clearly of the utmost importance either
that the gudgeon pin shall receive its load from the piston crown
at points as near its centre as the connecting-rod bearing will
allow, or its diameter shall be such that, when loaded at the two
extreme ends, there shall be no appreciable deflection. To conform
with the latter condition is nearly impossible, since in many instances
it would involve the use of a gudgeon pin of such large diameter and
weight as to be prohibitive. When, however, the gudgeon pin is
loaded at two points, about half the diameter of the piston apart,
there is no difficulty in obtaining the necessary rigidity with a
reasonable diameter. As a general rule, for engines of normal com-
pression, the diameter of the gudgeon pin should be one quarter of
that of the piston, and its true points of support one half the diameter
of the piston apart. With such proportions and with a full floating
gudgeon pin the working life of this bearing will be almost indefinite,
even with scanty lubrication.
Unless the pin be of abnormally large diameter, it is quite useless
to provide a wide bearing at the connecting-rod small end, since its
provision necessitates spreading the points of support and so increases
the deflection and renders the extra bearing surface valueless. In
the author's opinion it is very
doubtful whether any use can be
made of a bearing width exceeding
0·35 of the piston diameter. Given
sufficient rigidity, the wear on a
gudgeon-pin bearing is extremely
small, but, owing to the small angle
through which the connecting rod
oscillates, it is also extremely local
and tends to wear the pin oval.
This tendency can be overcome by
Fig. 74.—Method of locating a full
floating Gudgeon Pin the use of a floating gudgeon pin,
that is to say, by permitting the
pin to turn freely both in the connecting-rod bearing and in the
piston bosses, so that it will rotate slowly and wear uniformly all
round its circumference. The use of a floating gudgeon pin removes
also the difficulty of locating it endwise in the piston, which is a
serious trouble, and becomes acute in the case of aluminium pistons,
in which, owing to their large coefficient of expansion, the gudgeon
pin can be tight only when the piston is cold. Fig. 74 shows the
mounting and means of location which the author has found the
most satisfactory after much experience. In this design the load is
transmitted to the gudgeon pin by two heavy webs extending
straight down from the crown of the piston as near the centre as
the connecting-rod bearing will permit. The gudgeon pin floats
freely in the piston bosses, and is located endwise by means of light
washers secured by wire circlips sprung into grooves near the end of
the pin.
Tor the material of the gudgeon pin one consideration, namely,
surface hardness, should override all others, for if the pin is stiff
enough not to deflect appreciably under load, it will be strong enough
to resist fracture. From the point of view of surface hardness the
best possible material is case-hardened mild steel, and a steel should
be chosen which will give a glass-hard surface. In very exceptional
cases air-hardened steel may be used, but this is seldom necessary.
Valves.—In the design of the valves, it is necessary always to
remember that the objects in view are:
(1) To provide the freest possible entry and exit for the gases.
(2) To keep them as small as possible, consistent with the first
condition.
In order to comply with these conditions it is essential to make
the orifice coefficient of the valve and its surroundings as high as
possible, in order that it shall pass the maximum weight of gas with
the minimum of pressure difference. To this end care should be
taken—
(1) That the flow of the gases on either side of the valve port is
as free as possible—so far as possible there should be no abrupt
bends or changes of section on either side of the valve head.
(2) The lift should always be equal to at least one quarter and
preferably even to 30 per cent of the port diameter.
The use of unduly large valves, and more particularly of large
valves with a reduced lift, should always be avoided for the following
reasons:—
(1) Except in very slow-speed engines the provision of relatively
large valves must almost invariably be detrimental to the com-
pactness of the combustion chamber.
(2) For a given frictional resistance, and therefore for a given
volumetric efficiency and fluid pumping loss, a much higher entering
gas velocity may be employed when the valve is small, has a high
lift, and is well stream-lined, so that the degree of turbulence and
therefore the power output and efficiency are greater.
(3) Since both the inlet and exhaust valves get rid of the bulk
of their heat through their seatings, it follows that the larger the
valve the higher will be its temperature. It is very important to
keep the temperature both of the exhaust and inlet valves as low as
possible. The former because their durability is a function of their
working temperature, and the latter because the entering gases are
only too ready to take up heat from the inlet valves and so penalize
the volumetric efficiency. Heat picked up from the inlet valves
may be regarded as purely detrimental, for it is received too late in
the induction process to be of any use in assisting uniformity of
(E 246) 13
distribution. Its addition from this source results merely in reducing
the density of the charge and raising the whole temperature of the
cycle, both of which are highly undesirable from every point of view.
(4) Large diameter valves and, in particular, exhaust valves,
result in unnecessarily heavy stresses on the valve-operating gear,
since on full load the exhaust valves are opened against a pressure
ranging from 50 to 80 lb. per square inch. That the valves should
always be as light as possible consistent with mechanical strength
and heat dissipation is of course obvious, but there is a tendency in
many designs of high-speed engine to carry weight cutting in the
valves altogether too far, with the result that stretching, distortion,
Fig. 75 Fig. 76
and overheating are liable to occur. When the whole reciprocating

mass of the valve and all its auxiliary gear down to the cam arc
taken into account, it will be found that the weight of the valve head
alone forms but a very small proportion of the whole, and it is
generally bad policy to stint metal in the valve head and stem for
the sake of the relatively small saving in weight effected thereby.
Since a valve gets rid of its heat largely through the seating, it
follows that the seating should be made fairly wide in order to
provide a sufficient area of contact when the valve is at rest. Very
narrow valve seats save some trouble, both in the first instance and
subsequently when grinding in, but there is little doubt that the use
of wide seats tends to a higher and better sustained efficiency.
Figs. 75 and 76 show to scale two actual designs of valve and
the surrounding walls both being in the full open position. That
shown in fig. 76 is much the more efficient type of the two, and
owing to its better stream lining and more efficient orifice coefficient
it may be made considerably smaller and, though the head is much
more massive, it is for the same weight of gas delivered considerably
the lighter valve of the two, and will have much the longer life.
N u m b e r of Valves.—In order to keep the temperature of
the valve heads as low as possible and so to increase both the
durability of the exhaust valves and the volumetric efficiency,
it is, in large engines, always preferable to duplicate the inlet
and exhaust valves rather than to resort to the use of very large
Fig. 77
sizes. In the author's opinion, as a Tough general rule for more

or less normal engines using volatile liquid fuels, no single valve,
either inlet or exhaust, should be asked to deal with more than
200 lb. of air per hour, this giving in an engine of average efficiency
from 30 to 35 I.H.P. This rule applies nearly irrespective of the
speed at which the engine runs. It must of course be considered
merely as a first approximation, for there are many other factors
which enter into the consideration and are often of such magni-
tude as to overrule it. First of these is the form of the combustion
chamber. When, as is usual in the larger sizes of engine, the valves
are placed vertically in the cylinder head, duplication of the inlet
and exhaust valves introduces no difficulty and in no way penalizes
the efficiency of the combustion chamber. In some cases it is
preferable to employ two inlet and three exhaust valves, an ar-
rangement which lends itself very conveniently to an efficient de-
sign of combustion head. Such an example is given in fig. 77,
which shows the cylinder head and valves of an engine developing
80 B.H.P. per cylinder. In this instance two small exhaust valves
and a large one are used, the former being opened some 30° earlier,
in order to act as pilot valves to get rid of the bulk of the high-
pressure high temperature exhaust products before the large valve
opens, and so to relieve this valve and its operating mechanism.
CHAPTER VII
MECHANICAL DETAILS
Ball and Roller Bearings.—The use of ball and roller bearings
in internal-combustion engines is becoming more and more extended.
The great advantage of such bearings lies in—
(1) Their low coefficient of friction.
(2) Their independence as regards lubrication.
(3) Their freedom, under favourable conditions, from wear.
The disadvantages attaching to them are :—
(1) Their high first cost.
(2) Their tendency, under certain circumstances, to set up a dis-
agreeable growling noise.
In general it may be laid down that ball or roller bearings should
be used—
(1) In all places where the provision of adequate lubrication is
difficult.
(2) In places where it is difficult or inconvenient to provide a
sufficient surface hardness for ordinary plain bearings.
Ball or roller bearings appear to be particularly unsuitable and
to give rise to noise when applied to any shaft liable to flexure, as,
for example, when fitted to the main journal bearings of a very light
crankshaft.
Unlike plain bearings their durability and safety are nearly inde-
pendent of speed, but are dependent rather upon the maximum load
to be carried. On the score of reliability, therefore, they show to
great advantage in situations where the mean load is heavy and the
rubbing velocity very high, i.e. where the “ load factor,” as opposed
to the maximum load, is very high.
Fig. 78 shows a typical example of ball journal bearing, and
fig. 79 of a similar roller bearing.
In the author's opinion a suitable situation for ball, or preferably,
roller bearings, is in the connecting-rod and main crankshaft bearings
because, in the first place, these are very heavily loaded, and, at the
181
r Bearing
BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS 183
such bearings cannot be split and must be threaded over ; this

entails the use of a light and lanky crankshaft, the one thing which
should most sedulously be avoided. With such a crankshaft, con-
siderable flexure is bound to take place, and this by tilting the inner
race and so partially jamming the balls or rollers gives rise both to
undue wear and to the characteristic growling noise so often associated
with ball bearing crankshafts. It would appear desirable, there-
fore, if ball or roller
bearings are to be used,
to build up the crank-
shaft, using very heavy
and massive crankwebs
shrunk or pressed on
to the journals and so
reduce as far as possible
any tendency to flexure.
In the case of single-
cylinder engines with in-
side fly-wheels and built-
up cranks ball or roller
bearings may be used
with particular advan-
tage, for in this case the
main crankshaft bear-
ings are shielded from the
maximum shock press-
ures by the inertia of
the fly-wheels, while the
use of combined fly -
wheels and crankwebs Fig. 80.—Section of “Triumph” Crank-chamber,
permits of the fitting of a showing Ball or Roller Bearings
readily detachable crank-pin which can be case-hardened and
ground, and being detachable, allows of the connecting-rod eye
being unsplit. Fig, 80 shows an actual example of such an
arrangement as applied to the “ Triumph ” motor-cycle engine,
which has been found particularly satisfactory from every point
of view.
Where the loads to be dealt with are heavy, as in the case of
crankshaft bearings, it would appear preferable to employ roller
bearings despite the objection that such bearings provide no end-
wise location for the outer races.
race should
fit in its h<
case of ba'
Deflected Position always be ]
ning Ball Bearing amount of si
a shaft is ca
uxse essential that a single
•cation by the outer
left fr
theim
journa
capabl
consid
side t
authoi
AUXILIARY DRIVES 185
recommended, such as the Skefko bearing shown in figs. 81 and 82.

Such bearings, however, are liable to give trouble in erection
owing to the outer housing slewing round radially when being
threaded into position. The author has seen several instances in
which it has been well-nigh impossible to erect certain parts of an
engine on this account.
Auxiliary Drives.—In the design of any high-speed engine one
of the most difficult problems, if not the most difficult, to deal with
is that of driving all the auxiliary gear. This gear consists usually
of the camshaft, magneto, oil-pump, water-pump, and in many cases
also a fan and a dynamo. It is no easy matter to dispose all these
auxiliaries in convenient and accessible positions and to drive them,
each at their respective speeds, without noise or undue mechanical
complication. From the point of view of silence there can be little
doubt that the use of the so-called silent chain is the best means,
but it has its limitations. In the first place, it is absolutely essential
to provide means for adjusting the tension of the chains if anything
approaching a long working life is to be attained. Secondly, it is
necessary to provide an arc of contact of the chain with its sprocket
wheel of not less than 110° to .120°. This latter consideration pre-
cludes the use of a single chain embracing a number of sprocket
wheels. At the very outside, a single chain can embrace only three
wheels, and even this applies only when the wheels are disposed
approximately at the apices of an equilateral triangle—a disposition
which is not by any means always convenient. It is therefore
generally necessary to provide two chains, an arrangement which on
account of their width is very bulky and cumbersome and also very
expensive, for chains and sprocket wheels are at the best of times
very costly items.
Fig. 83 shows an arrangement wherein a single chain is employed
to drive the camshaft and magneto; in this instance the oil pump is
driven directly from the camshaft, and there is no positive drive to
the water-pump, fan, or dynamo, though the former, if it were
required, could be driven from the shaft driving the magneto. In
this arrangement provision is made for adjusting the chain by
mounting the magneto shaft and wheel in an eccentric housing: the
cylindrical portion of this housing is extended through the main wall
of the crankcase for a length of about 2 inches, and the magneto
bracket and magneto are clipped on to this projection, so that the
alignment of the magneto is entirely unaffected by any rotation of
the eccentric housing.
Fig. 83.—Single Chain triangulated Drive with eccentric Adjustment
Fig. 84 shows an arrangement for driving two camshafts, the

magneto, water and oil pump. In this arrangement one chain en-
circles the crankshaft sprocket, a half-speed idle wheel placed imme-
diately above, and a jockey wheel at the side, forming a nearly
From the point of view of silence alone, it would be far better,
where spur gears are used, to fit these at the fly-wheel end of the
crankshaft where the angular velocity is virtually constant. In
practice, however, there are generally serious objections to this,
both on the score of accessibility and because the shaft is usually
provided with a large flange for carrying the fly-wheel, formed
integrally with the crankshaft, so that it is not possible to thread
the crankshaft wheel into place. Such a position would, however,
be vastly preferable on the score of silence, particularly in the case
of six-cylinder engines, for the one serious objection to the use of
spur gearing lies in its noise, and this is very largely due to variations
in the angular velocity of the crankshaft at the end remote from the
fly-wheel,
When spur gearing is used, it is of the utmost importance to pro-
vide that the wheels shall be correctly meshed. To ensure this it
is preferable always to provide some means of initial adjustment,
for it is well-nigh impossible to ensure sufficiently correct machining
of the centres. When using spur gearing for the auxiliary drives,
the author prefers always to mount one or more of the idle wheels
in any train in a separate spider carrying the bearings for the wheel
and bolted up against the face of the crankcase. This allows of
some initial adjustment, for the spider can be attached by bolts
or studs having clearance holes, and adjusted until the meshing
is correct, when it may be finally and definitely located with a dowel
pin.
Fig. 85 shows an arrangement in which two oil pumps and a
camshaft are driven from a train of three spur wheels with the
intermediate or idle wheel mounted on a spider as explained,
Where the number of auxiliaries is very large, it is often convenient
to employ a cross-shaft driven by means of skew or spiral gearing;
this arrangement is neat and compact and is much in favour for the
drive of the magneto and water pump, both of which can then be
disposed in a very accessible and convenient position. Such a drive
is satisfactory and silent provided—
(1) That adequate provision is made for dealing with the end
thrust involved and for taking up any longitudinal backlash.
(2) That ample lubrication is provided; for such gears, being of
the rubbing rather than of the rolling variety, are naturally more
dependent upon continuous lubrication.
There are, of course, endless possible combinations and. permuta-
tions of auxiliary drive, but, generally speaking, the all-spur drive
of the speed, so that while at 1000 R.P.M. it may absorb only ¼ H.P.,
at 2000 it will absorb about 2 H.P., and at 3000 nearly 7 H.P. The
belt drive provided is usually nothing like adequate to transmit
7 H.P. at 3000 R.P.M., nor would it be reasonable to expend any-
thing approaching this horse-power in cooling the engine. The
practical result is that at any speed in excess of, say, about 1500
R.P.M. the belt slips. This results in rapid wear both of the belt
itself and its pulleys. In many cases, if not in most, the normal
running speed of the engine is such that the fan belt is constantly
slipping, which is highly undesirable, and gives rise to most of the
familiar troubles with this part of the mechanism. In general it is
far better so to gear the fan that it runs at a considerably lower speed
than that of the engine, and so to proportion the belt drive that it
will slip only when the engine is running at momentarily excessive
speeds.
There are some arguments in favour of driving the dynamo by belt,
for the armature of a lighting dynamo has a considerable mass and
will therefore tend to run at a constant angular velocity; if it is driven
positively from a member which has a varying angular velocity there
is bound to be acute disagreement. For this reason the use of any
form of toothed gearing for driving the dynamo is undesirable,
unless the gearing is situated at the flywheel end of the crankshaft.
Chain-driving may be satisfactory, because a chain, thanks to its
backlash, its elasticity, and its own weight, is capable of dealing
with moderate variations in angular velocity, though a belt is the
best of all in this respect. Most of the troubles with belt drives for
dynamos are due to inadequate size and, in some cases, to the
pernicious use of a three-cornered belt drive for the dynamo and fan,
a practice which cannot be condemned too strongly.
Lubrication Systems.—Broadly speaking, the various systems
of lubrication may be divided into two classes; namely, those which
supply the needs of lubrication alone and those which make use of
the oil both as a lubricant and as a cooling agent. To the former
belong all systems of trough or splash lubrication and those in which
a small measured quantity of oil is fed to each bearing, while to the
latter belong all those systems in which oil is fed under pressure
directly into the bearing itself. Both systems have their advantages
and disadvantages, and the choice must depend upon a consideration
of all the circumstances. As a broad generalization it may be said
that in cases where the load factor on the bearings is high, pressure
lubrication is essential for the sake of the cooling effect obtained,
while in cases where the load factor is comparatively low, splash
lubrication or measured feed may be preferable, on account of the
lower rate of wear, since less abrasive grit is imported into the bear-
ing, It must be remembered that so long as oil and means of ingress
are available, sufficient will always enter the bearing to maintain
the oil film, whether it be applied under pressure or not, so that from
the point of view of lubrication alone, as apart from cooling, the
pressure system scores little or no advantage over the splash.
Pressure Lubrication.—The primary object of using pressure
lubrication is to maintain a continuous circulation of a large quantity
of cool oil through the bearings, in order to carry away the heat
generated by friction. Bearing this in mind the objects to be aimed
at are:—
(1) To circulate as much oil through the bearings as possible.
(2) To keep the oil as cool as possible.
The amount of oil that can be circulated through the bearings
of an engine depends upon the pressure at which it is supplied, the
clearance in the bearings, and the viscosity of the oil. It should
always be remembered that the pressure in itself means nothing;
it is only as a measure of the rate at which the oil is being circulated
that it has any significance at all. In any pressure system, with a
pump of given capacity and normal characteristics as to volume and
pressure, the tighter the bearings or the higher the viscosity of the
oil the greater pressure will be required to force a given quantity of
oil through the bearing in a given time. If now, owing to wear in
the bearings or to the use of an oil of lower viscosity, the same
quantity can pass through the bearings more freely, the pressure
will fall, but this does not mean that either the lubrication or the
cooling effect has been reduced,
On starting up, with the oil and the bearings cold, a very high
pressure will naturally be required to circulate the oil through the
engine, but so soon as the engine warms up the pressure will fall
rapidly, due to the reduced viscosity. Under these circumstances,
however, the bearings are being equally well lubricated and in fact
better cooled than when the oil pressure is high, since the drop in
pressure is due merely to the increased flow through the bearings.
This point has been emphasized, because there is a very prevalent
belief that, with pressure systems, a low oil pressure indicates de-
fective lubrication, and it is not at all uncommon for operators to
use an oil of high viscosity in order to maintain a high pressure in
the system, though by doing so they are really both reducing the
flow and increasing the coefficient of friction and therefore the heat
generated at the bearings; in other words, defeating their own
object.
In order to ensure a free circulation of oil it is desirable, with
pressure feed lubrication, to keep the bearings reasonably slack.
From the author's experience it would seem that a minimum clear-
ance of about 0·0015 in. should always be permitted in all crankshaft
and connecting-rod bearings when forced lubrication is employed.
The practice of putting bearings up tight and allowing them to run
in cannot be recommended, since it results merely in both checking
the oil circulation and causing undue wear on the crankshaft itself.
"Where pressure lubrication is employed and the oil is led into or
near the centre of the bearing it is preferable not to use any oil
grooves in the bearings, since these merely permit of the escape of
oil without compelling it to circulate over the whole face of the
bearing and so pick up heat from all parts; it is, however, some-
times desirable to provide flats on the crank to help distribute the
flow from the oil hole. Both on the score of reducing friction surface
and eliminating the danger of nipping, it is well to relieve away at
the sides of the journal bearings, though such relief should not be
carried to the extreme ends and so provide a free escape for the oil.
With pressure feed lubrication it is generally desirable to use an
oil of low viscosity, since this will permit of a greater quantity being
circulated through the bearings in a given time and, by reducing the
friction, will reduce the heat generated. So far as the author can
discover, the only advantages of an oil of high viscosity are: (1) That
the oil film is thicker, the surfaces are therefore kept farther apart,
and there is less chance of minute particles of grit bridging the oil
film and wearing the metal surfaces; (2) it appears to be less liable
to work its way past the piston rings into the combustion chamber,
though this latter is very doubtful; and (3) the leakage loss is re-
duced. From every other point of view all the advantages would
appear to lie with the use of a thin oil.
R a t e of Circulation.—For engines of high duty the capacity of
the pump should be such that, at normal speed, about ½ gallon of oil is
delivered per hour for every brake horse-power of the engine. This
of course is a purely empirical rate based on practical experience.
In effect it means that even with very slack bearings and with an oil
of low viscosity it is about the maximum that can be circulated
under a reasonable pressure,
More recent experience with improved oil scraper rings on the
pistons and with improved design of oil outlets on the crankpins,

has shown that as much as 1½ gallon per hour per brake horse-power
can be circulated through the bearings, and a considerably higher
load factor can in consequence be carried. For extreme cases such
as racing aero-engines still further oil-cooling can be obtained by
maintaining a brisk circulation of cool oil through the crankshaft
itself from end to end in addition to that supplied to the bearings.
Fig. 86
T y p e of Pump.—There are three types of pump in general use:

the gear pump, the ordinary plunger pump, and the valveless oscillat-
ing plunger pump. Typical examples of each of these are shown in
figs. 86, 87, 88.
The former has the advantage that its motion is purely rotary,
and that it is cheap and easy to accommodate, but it has four serious
disadvantages:—
(1) Its volumetric efficiency falls very rapidly with wear.
(2) When slightly worn it has little or no suction lift, and unless
actually submerged it is liable to let go of the oil.
(E 246) 14
(3) It is very easily jammed
by the entry of particles of
foreign matter.
(4) It delivers a very rapidly
pulsating flow as the teeth en-
gage, and this is liable to set
up high periodicity vibrations
in the oil piping and so to cause
fatigue and fracture of these
pipes.
The ordinary plunger pump
has the advantage that its volu-
metric efficiency varies little
with wear, and also that it has
a high suction lift; but, on the
other hand, the suction valve is
liable to stick, either open or
closed, and so put the pump
out of operation; also it limits
the speed at which the pump
will operate (fig. 87).
The valveless plunger pump
as shown in fig. 88 is, in the
author's opinion, the most satis-
Fig. 87.—Reciprocating Oil Pump factory of the three types, for
it has no valves to stick or to
limit the speed of
operation; also it is
capable of dealing
with dirt, particles of
felt, and the other
foreign bodies with
which lubricating oil
is often freely sup-
plied, When run at
high speeds it is neces-
sary to provide an air
vessel on the suction
side in order to main-
tain a continuous flow
in the suction pipe.
Fig. 88.—Valveless oscillating Plunger Pump
LUBRICATION DETAILS 195
Oil Relief Valves.—In order to avoid the setting up of

dangerous pressures at starting, or when using thick oil or tight
bearings, it is necessary in forced lubrication systems to provide
a pressure relief valve, and this should be set to blow off at
about 25 lb. per square inch. When gear pumps are used and
the flow of oil is practically continuous, almost any type of
spring - loaded relief valve will serve, but when single - acting
plunger pumps are used and the flow is pulsating, the design of the
relief valve requires careful consideration, A form of relief valve
which the author has found to give very satisfactory results is shown
in fig. 89. It consists of a spring-loaded plunger sliding in a cylindri-
cal casing and arranged to uncover relief ports when at the end of
its travel. The diameter of
the plunger should be from
50 per cent to 100 per cent
greater than that of the
pump, and its stroke, before
uncovering the relief ports,
Pig. 89.—Plunger Type Oil Relief Valve
should be nearly equal to
that of the pump plunger, so that it has a swept volume equal to
two or three times that of the pump. It should be loaded by a long
flat-rated spring and will then act as a kind of mechanical air vessel,
steadying the pressure at all times, and relieving it when it exceeds
any predetermined limit. With such a relief valve the pressure
supply from a single-acting plunger pump is kept almost free from
fluctuation and will appear practically steady on the pressure gauge.
Such a relief valve should be fitted always as remote from the
pump as possible in order to ensure that the oil has had access to
all the bearings before reaching the relief; at the same time it is
desirable that the pressure gauge connection be taken from as near
the relief as possible, both in order to record a steady pressure and
also to ensure that it reads the minimum pressure in the system.
Oil Filters.—The primary objection to pressure feed lubrication
is that the circulation of a large quantity of oil through the bearings
necessarily involves the circulation also of a large quantity of grit,
and therefore tends to more rapid wear. The size of grit which
causes ordinary wear, as apart from visible scoring, is such as no
ordinary filter can hope to cope with, for it must be remembered
that the thickness of the oil film may be of the order of one-tenth
of a thousandth of an inch, and that it only requires a particle of
abrasive slightly in excess of this dimension to span the oil film
and abrade the metal surface. It is obvious that no gauze or
other such filter can possibly restrain the passage of particles of
this size, and that the most that can be hoped for is that it will stop
the larger particles, mostly of soft material, such as threads of felt
from the filtration of the oil, or lumps of carbon from the pistons.
The filter therefore may keep out foreign bodies which are otherwise
liable to choke the oil system generally, but it cannot hope to influence
the rate of wear. From the point of view of reducing wear it would
appear that the best remedy is to provide ample settling space in
the oil sump where the fine particles of grit can sink to the bottom
undisturbed. On the whole, therefore, it would appear desirable
to provide a coarse mesh filter, capable of arresting large particles
which might choke up the system, and which will not readily itself
become choked, and to rely upon an ample settling space for the
precipitation of the fine abrasive matter.
Whether such a filter should be fitted on the suction or delivery
side is still rather an open question. If on the suction side it is
liable, in the event of neglect, to stop the flow of oil to the pump ; if
on the delivery side it is, when choked, liable to burst and deliver
the whole of its collection into the bearings at one gulp. On the
whole, the best compromise appears to be to fit a very coarse mesh
filter capable of eliminating nuts, split pins, e t c , on the suction side,
and a somewhat finer mesh but substantial filter on the pressure side.
Experiments have recently been carried out with centrifugal
filters or separators, and there seems a prospect that these may
prove capable of eliminating some at least of the finer particles of
abrasive matter and so reduce the rate of wear on the bearings.
So far, however, very little is known as to their behaviour.
The system of lubrication in which a small measured quantity of
oil is fed to each bearing has a good deal to recommend it for engines
in which the bearings are not heavily loaded and which do not
therefore require oil cooling.
The quantity of oil so fed should be the minimum required to
maintain and replenish the oil film and provide a reasonable margin
of safety.
The advantages of this system are:
(1) That only clean oil enters the bearings, and that only in
relatively small quantities, hence the amount of grit or abrasive
matter imported into the bearing is reduced to the minimum, with
the result that wear also is reduced to the lowest possible limit.
(2) The amount of oil splashing about inside the crankcase is
reduced to the minimum, so that the cylinder walls cannot be over-

lubricated ; this is an advantage in one respect, but on the other
hand it renders independent lubrication of the cylinders necessary
and therefore introduces an extra complication.
The principal objection to this system, and it is a very serious
objection, is that the life of each and every bearing so fed is dependent
entirely on the continuous operation of the pump or other feeder,
and it provides no reserve to tide over a temporary stoppage.
The use of sight-feed drip lubricators and ring oilers may be
cited as the simplest expression of this form of lubrication, while, in
its more developed form, it is customary to employ either a battery
of small slow-moving pumps, each feeding one individual bearing,
&.c., or a single pump and distributing valve, the principal objection
to the latter system being the relatively long interval which must
elapse between replenishments.
The system of lubrication as shown in fig. 90 in which oil is fed
continuously into troughs into which the connecting-rods just dip, is,
in its effects, intermediate between the two foregoing. As regards
wear, it has the advantage that comparatively little oil is actually
forced into the bearings, and therefore the quantity of abrasive
introduced is relatively small. It does not, of course, provide for
any cooling by oil, since the quantity actually passing through or
over the bearings is comparatively very small, but it does provide a
good deal of reserve capacity in the event of any accidental stoppage
of the pump. One of the difficulties, however, with this system is
that it is often troublesome to provide, at all times, sufficient oil for
all the crankshaft bearings without over-lubricating the cylinder
walls. This difficulty can be met to a large extent by lowering
the troughs, and so reducing the depth of immersion when the
throttle is partially closed and the load factor on the crankshaft
bearings is reduced. This can be accomplished by hinging one
end of the troughs and connecting the other through suitable
linkage gear with the throttle lever of the engine, as is done in the
case of the Daimler sleeve valve engines.
When trough lubrication is used, it is sometimes possible to
dispense with an oil pump and to use either the flywheel of the
engine or a disc mounted on the crankshaft to throw oil up into a
gallery from which it may be led down to the troughs by means of
suitable ducts. This arrangement has, however, only a limited
application, for it is not always possible to provide a disc of diameter
sufficient to reach the oil, the highest level of which must be well
198
Fig. 90.—Typical Example of Constant Level Splash System

below that of the troughs. Unless there is room to fit a very large
diameter disc, the permissible range of oil level becomes dangerously
narrow.
To sum up : There can be no doubt but that wherever a high
duty is required, involving either heavy pressures or high rubbing
velocities, or both, forced lubrication alone can be relied upon, since
this system provides the oil cooling so essential where high load
factors have to be dealt with. The one and only objection to forced
lubrication is the increased rate of wear due to the large quantity of
extremely fine abrasive material introduced into the bearing. This
objection can best be met by :
(1) The provision of ample settling capacity in the base chamber
of the engine.
(2) The employment of materials for the bearings giving the
maximum possible difference in surface hardness.
(3) The provision of centrifugal filters or separators, though
not much is known as yet as to the efficacy of these devices ;
ordinary filtering is, however, of little use from the point of view
of wear.
Measured feed lubrication is no doubt very satisfactory for lightly
loaded bearings and gives the minimum of wear, but it involves the
use of many oil pumps and provides no reserve capacity ; as such it
is rather dangerous, since the stoppage of any one pump in the group
may prove disastrous. Trough lubrication is, on the whole, a good
compromise for engines in which the duty is comparatively light.
It tends to show a lower rate of wear than the forced system, though
higher than the measured oil system. It has the advantage of pro-
viding a very fair reserve capacity, and is on the whole a fairly reliable
and satisfactory system once its limitations are realized.
CHAPTER VIII
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR
The timing and operation of the valves are problems which
require very careful consideration, for they are factors which have
a powerful influence on the performance of the engine, and as such
deserve the most careful consideration. Since the timing and
opening periods must be decided upon before the cam gear can be
designed, it will be well to consider this side of the problem first.
The features to be aimed at as regards the inlet valves are :
(1) To induce the maximum possible weight of charge into the
cylinder at full loads.
(2) To expend the least possible energy in the process at all
loads.
(3) To produce the maximum of turbulence during the period of
entry.
As regards the exhaust valves, the problem is merely that of
getting rid of the exhaust with the least possible back pressure and
the least distress to the valve gear. So far as the exhaust valve
timing is concerned, there is very little to be said except that owing
to the high terminal pressure at the time when the exhaust valve
is first opened, the velocity past this valve is very high indeed and
the heat flow at this period very intense. The high pressure of
release, however, usually provides sufficient kinetic energy to
counteract the friction and inertia in the exhaust pipe, so that a high
mean velocity, both through the valve opening itself and through
the ports, &c., is permissible without introducing any appreciable
back-pressure, provided, of course, that there is no great resistance
imposed on the flow of the gases at the outer end of the exhaust
pipe. On the ground of heat dissipation it is desirable, and on the
grounds of back-pressure it is permissible, to use small exhaust
valves and to work with a high velocity through the valve opening
and ports. In practice it is perfectly satisfactory to work with a
velocity through the exhaust ports 50 per cent greater than that
200
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR 201
through the inlet, provided of course that the latter is not already
excessive. In a previous chapter it has been shown that, for all-
round performance, the best mean velocity through the inlet valves
is in the region of 150 ft. per second. The mean velocity through
the exhaust valves may, therefore, be in the region of 220 feet per
second.
In the case of the exhaust valves, it is particularly desirable, from
every point of view, to use small valves with a high lift, because, in
the first place, an exhaust valve can only get rid of the bulk of its heat
through the valve seating, for the heat carried away along the stem
forms only a very small proportion of the whole. It follows therefore
that the smaller the diameter of the valve and the greater its lift,
the better chance there is of keeping it reasonably cool. In this
connection it is necessary to emphasize that, although the maximum
area of opening is attained in the case of a flat-seated valve when
the lift of the valve is equal to approximately one-quarter of the
port diameter, it does not in the least follow that this should repre-
sent the maximum lift, because, in the first place, the valve is fully
open only for a small proportion of its total opening period, and
in the second, the orifice coefficient increases rapidly as the lift
is increased; or, in other words, for a given pressure difference a
greater weight of gas will pass through a given area of opening when
that area is provided by a small valve with a high lift rather than
by a large valve with a low lift. From these arguments it will be
seen that, wherever possible, the total lift of an exhaust valve should
always be at least equal to, and preferably greater than, one-
quarter of the diameter of the port.
Again, the exhaust valve, unlike the inlet valve, has to be lifted
from its seat against a pressure which may amount to anything up
to 80 lb, per square inch, and for this reason also it is obvious that
the diameter should be kept as small as possible in order to reduce
both noise and wear and tear,
From every point of view, therefore, it is highly desirable to use
the smallest possible diameter of exhaust valve and a high lift.
As regards the timing of the exhaust valve, two factors must be
taken into account. It must be opened sufficiently early to permit
of the exhaust pressure falling almost to atmospheric before the
return stroke of the piston commences, and it must be held open
sufficiently late to permit of the residual exhaust gas escaping right
up to the very end of the stroke. It is impossible to give hard and
fast figures for the most suitable setting for an exhaust valve, because
this must necessarily depend upon so many variable factors, such
as the mean gas velocity through the valve port and the rate of
acceleration of the valve. For a mean gas velocity, however, of
about 200 feet per second through the valve port and a normal
rate of acceleration, the best setting, in the author's experience, is
that the exhaust valve should already have travelled through
50 per cent of its total lift when the piston is at the bottom dead
centre and should be still 5 per cent open when the piston is at the
top centre. The actual point at which the valve leaves and returns
to its seating is practically meaningless as a guide to the valve
setting.
With regard to the inlet valve setting, we have to take into
account a number of factors which need not concern us in the case
of the exhaust valve. Also we have to be much more careful,
because not only does the volumetric efficiency, and therefore the
power output, of the engine depend very largely upon the inlet valve
setting, but also the negative work during the suction stroke may
be unnecessarily high. We have to consider how many cylinders
are drawing from any one source of supply and also how far our
efforts to obtain maximum power output should be subordinated
to the attainment of economy on reduced loads. It will be best to
consider first the conditions as they apply to a single-cylinder engine
for full power, and, later, to note what modifications are necessary
to meet other conditions. As in the case of the exhaust valves, we
ought to use a relatively small valve with a high lift, though for
different reasons. In this case we want to obtain the maximum
possible turbulence at the minimum expenditure of energy, there-
fore we require the highest possible orifice coefficient. For full-load
running, in particular, we want to get the highest possible charging
efficiency, and to achieve this we want to obtain a high velocity in
the valve passage during the earlier part of the suction stroke, and
to make use of the kinetic energy we have acquired during this
period thoroughly to fill up the cylinder towards the end of the
piston's stroke. To this end we require to open the valve rather
gradually at first in relation to the piston's movement, to keep it
as wide open as possible towards the end of the stroke, and to shut
it as quickly as possible after the end. This does not necessitate
the use of an unsymmetrical cam, as may at first sight appear, but
it depends rather upon the angular setting of the cam in relation to
the crankshaft. To illustrate the point:
Fig. 91 shows an ordinary symmetrical constant acceleration valve
lift diagram plotted against crankshaft degrees where 0° represents
the inner centre and 180° the outward centre of the piston.
Fig. 91.—Valve Diagram, Constant Acceleration throughout
Fig. 92 shows the same diagram re-plotted in terms of piston

displacement, while the dotted line represents the relative velocity
of the piston throughout its stroke (assuming in both cases that the
ratio of connecting-rod length to crankthrow is 3·6 : 1).
Fig. 93.—Effect of displacing Valve Opening Diagram in relation to Crankshaft
In fig. 93, a, b, c show the effect of displacing the angle of the

camshaft by ten crankshaft degrees in each case, and illustrates
very clearly how the general form of any given valve opening diagram
varies with the angular relation to the crankshaft.
Fig. 94 shows the change of velocity through the valve throughout
the stroke in the case of diagram fig. 92, and assuming, for sim-
plicity, that the pressure is constant or that the fluid is a liquid
instead of a gas. From this diagram it will be seen that between
the middle and the end of the stroke the velocity falls from 300 feet
per second to nil, while the kinetic energy, due to this change in
velocity, is made use of to pile up a static pressure in the cylinder.
With careful design and with a mean gas velocity of 130 feet per
second, it should be possible to pile up sufficient kinetic energy,
during the earlier portion of the stroke, to overcome the frictional
Fig. 94.—Equivalent Gas Velocity through Inlet Valve in relation to Piston Displacement
resistance of the valves, &c., and to charge the cylinder up to full

atmospheric pressure by the end of the stroke ; it then remains to
close the valve as rapidly as possible after the bottom dead centre
to avoid loss by expulsion during the early part of the compression
stroke. This, then, is the setting for maximum power output, but
it is not the best for fuel economy, for two reasons :
(1) Work is done by the piston in accelerating the air column
during the period when it is travelling at a high velocity, and this is
not returned until the piston reaches, or almost reaches, the bottom
centre, consequently the pumping losses are relatively high, though,
from the point of view of maximum power output, as apart from fuel
efficiency, this is more than compensated for by the increased weight
of the charge retained in the cylinder.
(2) When the. inlet valve closes and the high velocity flow of gas
towards the cylinder is stopped more or less abruptly, a reaction
takes place, with the result that the air flows back through the
carburettor and some fuel is liable to be blown out and wasted.
If, now, it is desirable to sacrifice maximum power for the sake
of better fuel economy, it will be preferable to extend the period of
opening of the inlet valve by about 20°, as shown in figs. 95 and 96,
to allow it to open considerably earlier and to close a trifle later, the
former in order to reduce the pumping losses and the latter to give
more time to fill up the cylinder at the lower velocity. In this case,
Fig. 95.—Valve Opening Diagram with Period extended 20° of Crank Angle
Fig. 96.—Valve Opening Diagram in relation to Piston Displacement
although the opening period of the valve is 20° longer and the actual
effective opening area is considerably greater, yet the maximum
power output will be slightly less.
The above considerations hold good only when the carburettor
is placed, as it always should be in all single-cylinder engines, reason-
ably close to the inlet valve port. When any considerable length of
induction pipe is interposed between the carburettor and the valve
port, pressure oscillations of considerable magnitude will be set up,
and these will tend to surcharge the cylinder at certain speeds and
to starve it at others, while at all times they will tend to increase
the blow back through the carburettor.
When working on reduced loads, by throttling, we are no longer
concerned with trying to fill up the cylinder, and oar aim then becomes
to maintain turbulence as far as possible and to reduce the fluid
pumping losses. So far as the former is concerned, we can only
rely on using the smallest possible valves, upon keeping the orifice
coefficient as high as we can,
and upon ensuring that the
gases have as unobstructed
an entry to the cylinder as
possible after passing the
valve. Another point of im-
portance is the position of
the throttle. If this is close
up to the valve port, so that
Fig 97.—Indicator Diagram, Suction Stroke there is little capacity be-
tween the throttle and the
valve, then it is clear that during the idle strokes, this capacity will
fill up to atmospheric pressure, or very nearly so, in which case the
inlet should open early in the stroke and the suction diagram will be
as shown in fig. 97; if, on the other hand, there is a considerable
capacity between the throttle and the inlet port, then, at the com-
mencement of the outward stroke, the pressure in the cylinder will be
approximately atmospheric while that in the port will be considerably
below atmosphere, with the result that so soon as the inlet valve opens
the pressure in the cylinder will be reduced by gas flowing out through
the inlet valve, and there will be some unnecessary negative work
on the piston, as shown in the diagram, fig. 98. In such a case it will
Fig. 98.—Indicator Diagram, Suction Stroke
be preferable not to open the inlet valve until the gases in the cylinder
have been expanded down to a pressure corresponding to that in
the port; this will give a diagram such as shown in fig, 99, which should
be compared with the previous figure. It is not of course practicable
to obtain a valve timing which will be ideal for all conditions of

load, and the best that can be done is to arrange the timing to suit
the load at which the engine will be running for the majority of its
existence. Generally speaking, for single-cylinder engines it would
appear to be best to use a rather late opening inlet valve and to keep
the throttle as close as possible to the valve ; this will give the best
results in normal working. Apart from the question of negative
work, it is always desirable to reduce the capacity between the
throttle and the inlet valve as far as possible, in order to subject the
carburettor at reduced loads to a pulsating suction, and thus obtain
better pulverization of the fuel, rather than to a continuous suck
at a low velocity. Consideration will show that if the capacity
between the throttle and the inlet valve were infinite the velocity
through the carburettor would be continuous throughout the cycle;
Fig. 99.—Indicator Diagram, Suction Stroke
while, on the other hand, if there were no capacity, then the mean
velocity through the carburettor during the suction stroke would be
just four times as great and the pulverization of the fuel corre-
spondingly better.
The case of the single-cylinder engine is relatively simple as
compared with that when several cylinders draw from one source of
supply. Also it is difficult to treat the problem of valve timing and
distribution separately, for they are so closely interdependent;
together they form an intensely complex problem, and, probably,
the least understood of all problems connected with the modern
internal-combustion engine.
We will, however, assume for the time being that we are dealing
with a homogeneous mixture of gas and air flowing in the induction
pipe, and endeavour to see how best to deal with certain of the more
common cases.
CASE 1. Two cylinders with cranks at 360° and even firing.
2. Two cylinders with cranks at 180° and consecutive firing.
3. Four cylinders with, cranks at 180°.
4. Six cylinders with cranks at 120° fed by two carburettors,
each distributing to a group of three cylinders.
5. Six cylinders with cranks at 120° fed by one carburettor.
So far as the exhaust valve is concerned the conditions are sub-
stantially the same in all cases, and it is the inlet valve timing alone
which need be considered.
CASE 1. This is simply two single-cylinder engines operating
alternately ; there is no overlapping, and the problem is the same
as that of the single-cylinder engine.
CASE 2. This is always a very difficult one to deal with. Probably
the only satisfactory solution is to provide two separate carburettors
and two exhaust pipes and so treat as two separate single-cylinder
engines.
When only one carburettor is fitted from which the two cylinders
draw consecutively, the best method is probably to employ very late
opening inlet valves in order to avoid overlap. It is obvious that if
the first piston sets up a high velocity in the induction system and
relies upon the kinetic energy so acquired to fill up the cylinder at
the end of the stroke, then it is fatal to allow the second inlet valve
to open until the first cylinder is completely filled, for the energy
acquired will be expended simply in forcing gas into the second
cylinder at the commencement of its suction stroke when it is not
required, while the first cylinder will be starved. So long as there
is any appreciable overlapping in the period of opening of the inlet
valves the first cylinder will always be starved while the second will
be surcharged. On the other hand, to avoid overlapping and yet
keep the inlet valves open long enough to allow the cylinders to fill
up is difficult and necessitates a very late opening indeed. Also the
short period introduces difficulty in the case of high-speed engines in
regard to operation. Again, such very late opening as is necessary
to obtain equality between the cylinders will render the suction of
the engine very noisy when running on full load, for this is always an
objectionable feature of very late opening inlet valves. It would
appear that on the whole the best method of dealing with this very
unsatisfactory form of engine is, in the case of comparatively slow-
speed engines, to open the inlet valves very late ; and in the case of
high-speed engines, to employ two altogether separate carburettors
and throttles. In either case it is most desirable to fit two separate
exhaust pipes, for overlap between the exhaust valves cannot possibly
be avoided, and unless two pipes are fitted, cylinder No. 1 will dis-
charge high pressure and highly heated exhaust products into No. 2
just before the completion of the exhaust stroke, thus filling the
clearance space of this cylinder with exhaust gas under pressure, at
the one point in the cycle at which the presence of highly heated gas
is most undesirable. In some instances a fairly uniform power out-
put may be obtained from such an engine because the starving of
No. 1 is balanced by the drowning out with exhaust products of No. 2,
with the result that on full throttle both cylinders give a much reduced
but more or less equal performance, though in such cases the evils
no longer balance one another on reduced loads, when the presence of
an excess of exhaust products is more than usually objectionable.
CASE 3. Four cylinders drawing from a single carburettor.
Except that the flow in the branch pipe from the carburettor is
relatively constant, this case is almost as difficult to deal with as the
last. So far as valve timing is concerned, either all overlap of the
inlet valves must be avoided, with the resultant difficulties of an
unduly short opening period and noise when running on full throttle,
or a certain amount of irregularity, coupled with a reduction in the
maximum power output due to robbery of one cylinder by another,
must be tolerated. In a four-cylinder engine., however, the branch
pipes from the throttle to the several cylinders are generally of con-
siderable length, and in some cases use can be made of the kinetic
energy in these branches to fill any one cylinder despite attempted,
robbery by another, more especially so in the case of very high-speed
engines. So far as throttled conditions are concerned, this case
may be regarded as one in which the capacity between the throttle
and the inlet valves is infinite, and, therefore, in which a late opening
inlet valve is definitely desirable. On the whole, it would appear
that, for this type of engine, it is best to use very late opening and
relatively early closing valves in the case of moderate-speed engines
and those which operate normally at a comparatively low load
factor, because this will tend to give more economical running at
reduced loads; and to use comparatively early opening and late
closing valves for engines which are normally run at very high speeds
or at a high load factor despite the fact that for maximum power at
comparatively low speeds this setting will be inferior to the late
opening and earlier closing.
Probably the best results from every point of view can be obtained
when two independent induction systems are used, one feeding the
inside, and the other the outside pair of cylinders. This arrange-
( E 246) 15
ment eliminates all question of overlap, and has been applied by
the author in the case of several four-cylinder engines designed to
give a very high power output and economy.
The once common practice of permitting overlap between the
inlet and exhaust valves of the same cylinder is certainly not to be
recommended. The arguments for providing overlap in this manner
are (1) to make use of the kinetic energy of the gases in the exhaust
pipe to scavenge the cylinder and so obtain a greater weight of “ live ”
gas in the cylinder when running at full power ; and
(2) To lengthen the period of valve opening, with a view to
reducing the stresses on the valve mechanism at very high speeds.
Fig. 100.— Indicator Diagram at 1500 R.P.M. shows Pressure Variations during Exhaust Stroke
The first is wrong in inception and bad in practice, for, in the

first place, the gases flow out through the exhaust pipe in a series of
pulsations, the pressure ranging usually from about 3 lb. above to
3 lb. below atmosphere, depending upon the length of the pipe, as
shown in the indicator diagram, fig. 100, which is taken from one
cylinder of an engine running at 1500 R.P.M. It is just as likely
that the pressure at the exhaust valve, at the moment when the inlet
valve opens, will be above atmospheric as it is that it will be below,
in which case a reverse process will occur and exhaust gases will
be driven back into the induction pipe. Hence, any advantage
which may be gained at one particular speed of rotation will be
counteracted by a corresponding but larger loss at other speeds.
Again, the valves are seldom far enough apart in the cylinder to
permit of any useful scavenging effect being obtained, fresh gas
merely being drawn out of the inlet port and into the exhaust, and so
lost. On reduced loads the practice of overlapping is particularly
bad, for it must be remembered that at this period the pressure of
the residual exhaust products in the exhaust system is round about
atmospheric, while the pressure in the induction system may be half
an atmosphere or less, with the result that exhaust products are
simply sucked back from the exhaust system into the induction
system, and that under just those conditions when the presence of
exhaust diluent is most detrimental to efficiency. The second argu-
ment need not apply if the valve mechanism be properly designed,
as will be shown later. In any event, care should always be taken
to prevent adjacent cylinders from exhausting into each other. It
is usual nowadays to combine together the exhaust ports of the two
central cylinders and to connect the exhaust manifold to the two
outside and the central pair ; this arrangement is fairly satisfactory,
but it is better still to use either three or four quite separate exhaust
pipes between the valve ports and the manifold, though in practice
this is sometimes inconvenient,
CASE 4. Six cylinders drawing from two carburettors, each feeding
one group of three.
This case is simple, there is no overlap of the inlet valve periods,
and in so far as valve timing is concerned each group may be treated
as three single-cylinder engines.
CASE 5. Six cylinders fed from a single carburettor.
In this case (A) the capacity between the throttle and the inlet
valve may be regarded as infinite ; (B) overlapping of the opening
periods of the several inlet valves cannot, under any circumstances,
be avoided; (C) unless long separate branch pipes be provided to
each cylinder—which is almost impracticable on the grounds of
distribution, confusion of pipe-work, &c.—little or no use can be
made of the kinetic energy of the gases in the induction pipe owing
both to the excessive overlapping and to the constant reversals of
direction of flow in the induction manifold. It will therefore be
impossible fully to charge any of the cylinders, or, indeed, to attain
a final suction pressure in any of them appreciably in excess of the
mean pressure in the induction manifold. Since the capacity
between the throttle and the inlet valves is so large, it will pay—
particularly on light loads—to employ rather late opening inlet
valves in order to reduce to the minimum the negative work in the
cycle. In such a case the late opening of the valves will cause very
little noise at full load because the suction through the carburettor
is fairly continuous in any event. Although with six cylinders
drawing from one source of supply it is practically impossible to
obtain so high a power output as when supplied in groups of three,
yet certain advantages may be taken as compensation. In the first
place, with such an arrangement, there is much less objection to blow
back through the inlet, since any discharge from one cylinder during
the early period of the compression stroke will be taken up by another
cylinder of the group and will not result in a reversal of flow through
the carburettor. It will be worth while, therefore, to allow the
inlet valves to close much later than usual, and also to allow them
to close much more gradually, so that at low speeds an appreciable
proportion of the gas drawn into the cylinders will be discharged
back into the induction manifold, while at very high speeds this will
not occur, since the suction pressure will be lower and, at the same
time, the wire-drawing of the nearly closed valve will be more
effective. The practical result of permitting blow back during the
early period of the compression stroke will be to reduce the effective
compression ratio, leaving the expansion ratio unaffected. The
efficiency, therefore, will not be reduced, but the compression
pressure at full load will fall automatically as the speed is reduced.
Now, since the tendency to detonate depends in practice very
largely upon both the compression pressure and the time element, it
thus becomes possible to effect a balance between compression
pressure and time. At low speeds, when the time is relatively
considerable, the compression pressure will be lower and the tendency
to detonate will be equal or less (according to the actual proportions
chosen) instead of much greater, as the speed is reduced on full
throttle.
It may be argued that, with late closing inlet valves, the useful
torque at low speeds will be considerably reduced, but this is true
only when comparisons are made with an engine of very low com-
pression and, therefore, low efficiency,
In the case of a high compression engine with early or normal
closing inlet valves, full use cannot usually be made of the greater
weight of charge retained in the cylinder on account of the excessive
detonation set up ; it then becomes necessary either to retard the
time of ignition, to set the carburettor to give an over-rich mixture
at low speeds, or partially to close the throttle. In any case the full
torque at low speeds is lost. In effect, the use of late closing inlet
valves as applied to such engines is that a considerably higher ratio
of compression can be used without trouble from detonation and a
substantially higher economy obtained thereby. The actual avail-

able torque at low speeds is little, if any, reduced, while the torque
at high speeds is increased, owing to the longer period of charging.
The cases considered cover practically all the range ; where
greater numbers of cylinders than six are employed they are always
divided into groups, which come under one or other of the categories
we have considered.
To sum up, so far as the exhaust valve is concerned, the problem
of its design and operation is the same for all engines irrespective of
grouping or numbers of cylinders. It should be as small in diameter
as possible ; the lift should in no case be less than one quarter of the
port diameter, and preferably it should be as much as 30 per cent of
the port diameter. In all cases it should be lifted and closed as
rapidly as possible, while, as regards timing, it is a good rule that it
should be at about half lift at the outward centre of the piston and
5 per cent open at the end of the exhaust stroke.
As to the inlet valve, this, too, should be kept small, with a lift
not less than one quarter of the port area, in order to obtain the
maximum of turbulence. Its time of opening and closing must
depend, to some extent, upon the number and grouping of the
cylinders, but, except in the case of six cylinders drawing from one
carburettor, it should always be closed as rapidly as possible, the
primary aim being to keep it nearly wide open at the end of the
suction stroke and to close it as soon as possible after. In the case
of six cylinders drawing from one carburettor, the inlet valve may
be opened and closed much more leisurely.
Cam D e s i g n and Valve Operation.—In designing the cams
for operating either the inlet or exhaust valves, the primary considera-
tions are both to open and to close the valves as rapidly as possible
with the minimum of stress or noise, and at the same time to arrive
at a form of cam which can readily and easily be produced. It is
only too often that a cam is designed to give a specific opening
diagram, and to provide, say, a constant rate of change of accelera-
tion throughout the whole opening period, which, may be ideal on
the drawing-board but almost impossible to reproduce with accuracy.
It must be remembered that a cam profile cannot usually, if ever,
be “ generated ” in the grinding machine, but must be reduced from
a master cam, and that the former must be hand-made—the accuracy
of its profile can be ensured only when the contour is made up of
simple arcs of circles and tangents.
Again, it is always very desirable to avoid any concave surfaces,
since these limit the radius of the grinding wheel which can be used
to produce them, thus imposing a very tiresome limit on the manu-
facture. By a suitable combination of cam and follower the necessity
for concave surfaces can always be avoided.
In the operation of a spring-controlled valve by a cam, the first
movement of the cam imparts a positive acceleration to the valve
until nearly half lift, when the acceleration changes and becomes
negative—the valve is then under the control of the spring, whose
tension must be sufficient to overcome the inertia due to acceleration.
From about half lift to full lift, and from full lift to half closed, the
valve is entirely under the control of the spring. For the first half
of the lift and the latter half of the closing period the spring is
inoperative and the movement of the valve is controlled directly
by the cam. The spring, therefore, does not come into effective
operation until the valve is nearly half open, and ceases to operate
when the valve is about half closed. The rate of acceleration per-
missible while the valve is under spring control is governed by the
pressure and rating of the spring, but during the first and last portions
of the valve's movement the rate of acceleration is governed solely
by the permissible pressure against the flank of the cam. To make
the best use of the spring material the rate of acceleration during
the spring-controlled period should be such as to correspond as
nearly as possible with the rating of the spring—that is to say, the
rate of acceleration should increase steadily as the spring is further
compressed. During the first and latter portions of the valve's
movement the rate of acceleration may generally be much greater,
but should be kept more or less constant.
These considerations indicate that constant acceleration through-
out the whole period is by no means ideal, or even desirable. The
acceleration during the period of cam control may usually be very
high and more or less constant, while the acceleration during spring
control should be as low as possible in order to use light springs, and
should vary uniformly with the rating of the spring. In any case,
of course, the acceleration must be limited to that at which the spring
pressure will always overcome the inertia of the valve, and that by a
margin sufficient to cover any friction of the valve in its guide-
Fig. 101 shows a convenient form of sheet for setting out cam
designs. On this sheet are shown :
1. The acceleration, both positive and negative, during the
opening period.
2. The corresponding velocity curve.
Fig. 101.—Cam Diagrams
3. The corresponding valve movement on a time basis.

4. The valve movement in relation to piston displacement, i.e.
the valve opening diagram.
5. The evolution of the contour of the cam.
Permissible Acceleration.—This must be considered from two
aspects—the highest permissible acceleration while under spring
control and the highest permissible acceleration under direct cam
control. Both, of course, depend largely upon the total recipro-
cating weight of the valve and its gear, which must include half the
weight of the spring,
With regard to the acceleration under spring control—this is
determined by the weight of active spring material and the per-
missible stress in the material. In the author's experience, so
long as the stress in the material is kept down to from 40,000 to
50,000 lb. per square inch, ordinary spring steel coil springs will last
almost indefinitely, even in the highest speed engines. When the
valve is small, i.e. less than 2·0 inches diameter, and is operated more
or less directly from the cam, and when the weight of intervening
gear, such as rockers, tappets, push-rods, etc., is comparatively small,
a maximum acceleration of about 2500 ft. per second per second,
corresponding to a spring pressure of 78 times the reciprocating weight
when the spring is fully compressed, is usually permissible, though
except in excessively high-speed engines it is seldom necessary to
employ so high a rate of acceleration. The acceleration at the point
when the spring first takes up the load must, of course, be lower, in
proportion to the rating of the spring. In the case of moderate-speed
engines there is no need to employ anything like such a high rate of
acceleration when under spring control, and for engines of about 15
to 20 B.H.P, per cylinder running at maximum speeds not exceeding
2000 R.P.M. an acceleration under spring control of 800 to 900 ft.
per second per second will permit of as favourable a valve opening
as can be desired. At the other end of the scale, a limit is fixed for
minimum spring tension; this must always be sufficient, in the case
of the exhaust valves at all events, to resist the vacuum formed in
the cylinder when running throttled. In practice it is found that in
order to prevent the exhaust valves from being sucked open, par-
ticularly when the engine is in a state of vibration, a spring tension
of at least 11 lb. per square inch is required, reckoned on the area
of the head of the valve. In the case, therefore, of a valve the area of
whose head is, say, 3 square inches, a minimum spring tension of
33 lb. will be required when the valve is on its seating. With a
spring of normal rating, the tension, when the valve is fully lifted,
will be at least 50 lb. Now the reciprocating weight of such a valve
and its attendant gear will probably be in the neighbourhood of
1·5 lb., and the maximum permissible rate of acceleration in such a
case will therefore be = 1080 ft, per second per second. This,
however, makes no allowance for friction in the guide, but even after
making a generous allowance
for this factor it will be seen
that the case for all moder-
ate-speed engines, when the
valves are directly operated
and the intervening gear is
not heavy, is easily met by
the provision of a spring of
only just sufficient strength
to prevent the exhaust valve
from being sucked open
when running idle.
The highest permissible
rate of acceleration while
the valve is under direct
cam control depends upon Fig. 102.—Roller Ended Follower
the type of follower used.
This may be either a roller, a curved slipper, or a plain flat-footed or
“mushroom”; examples of each of which are shown in figs. 102,
103 and 104. At first sight, it might
appear that the roller is the most
satisfactory form, but on investigation
it will be found that this is far from
being the case, and for three reasons :
(1) The whole of the load is taken
on the roller pin whose projected area
is necessarily very small, this pin
cannot conveniently be pressure lubri-
cated, and its facilities for obtaining
replenishment of oil are very poor,
hence it is easily overloaded.
(2) Owing to the changes in surface
velocity as the cam revolves and to
the inertia of the roller itself, it
follows that the latter cannot truly
Fig. 103.—Slipper Type Follower
roll, but must skid, and that just at
the period when the pressure on it is at a maximum.
(3) The use of a roller greatly increases the weight of the tappet
gear. For moderate-speed engines, when the loads are comparatively
light, the use of a roller is permissible, but it should never be used in
very high-speed engines for the reasons stated above.
The second type, namely, the curved slipper, is better than the
roller, in so far that it in-
volves no bearing which
may become overloaded and
break down, but it has the
disadvantage that it presents
only a very small area of
rubbing surface against the
cam, and so is liable to
wear. Both the roller and
the slipper “ skid,” but the
latter skids much more
rapidly and presents only
Fig. 104—Mushroom Type Follower
one face, while the former
skids slowly and presents a continual change of face. Against this,
however, must be set the fact that both the radius and the width
of the slipper can be much greater than that of any roller. On
the whole, the roller has the advantage on the score of wear so long
as the pressure is light and the pin bearing is not overloaded, while
the slipper scores when the rate of acceleration, and therefore the
pressure, is high, for though it may wear considerably and therefore
require renewal, it will not break down altogether.
The third type, namely, the flat-footed or “ mushroom ” tappet,
is, in the author's opinion, the most satisfactory of the three, but it,
too, has certain limitations, for it necessitates the use of a cam with a
larger base circle, which cannot always be provided. Followers of this
type should always be offset sideways, so that the sliding of the cam
tends to rotate them. Under these conditions practically the whole
surface of the flat foot is made use of, and the wear is less than with
either of the other two types, while there is no pin bearing to be over-
loaded. It has all the advantages of the roller type in that it con-
stantly presents a new surface in contact with the cam, and all the
advantages of the slipper type, in that it has no bearing to fail, while
the conditions as regards lubrication are ideal. The one practical
objection is that it is usually impossible to employ a low rate of posi-
tive acceleration when, if ever, this is desired; hence it is difficult
to obtain such quiet running as with the other types, though with
careful design the difference is very slight. With flat-footed tappets
it is perfectly safe to employ a very high rate of acceleration, for the

pressure occurs only when the flank and not the tip of the cam is in
contact with the tappet. It is perfectly safe with the latter type,
with cams, say, 5/8 in. wide and a tappet diameter of, say, l¼ in., to apply
an average pressure of 250 lb. during the period of cam control In
the case of a valve and its gear weighing 1·5 lb. with a spring tension
at rest of, say, 40 lb., this will correspond to a rate of acceleration of
about 4500 ft. per second per second. With the roller type it is very
doubtful whether it would be safe to exceed an acceleration of about
2000 ft. per second per second. Since, from the point of view of wear,
it is only the average pressure which need be taken into account, it
follows that there is no particular advantage to be gained by keeping
the acceleration constant during the period of cam control, and
that there is no objection to following the line of least resist-
ance and making the flank of the cam either a tangent or a simple
circular arc.
It is desirable to keep the base circle of any cam as small as
practicable in order to reduce the rubbing velocity between the cam
and its follower, and this applies whether the follower be a roller or a
slipper,
It must be remembered always that the “ effective ” radius of
any cam is the actual radius from the centre of the camshaft to that
of the roller or to the centre of radius of the slipper. Hence it
matters not, so far as the valve motion is concerned, whether the
cam be large and the roller small, or vice versa, except when a flat-
footed follower is used. In this latter case it is necessary to use a
cam of comparatively large diameter, but when flat-footed followers
are used the wearing surfaces are so large and the facilities for
lubrication so good that a high rubbing velocity is much less objec-
tionable.
The author is greatly indebted to one of his assistants, Mr. R. J.
Cousins, for the construction and development of the following
method for arriving readily at the most suitable cam contour, to
comply with any given set of conditions.
When setting out the design of any cam the first question is that
of deciding whether the cam profile, as dictated by the valve opening
requirements, is permissible mechanically, rather than constructing
a cam to conform to some ideal figures for positive and negative
acceleration. This being the case, an analysis was made of the
general form of cam in which the flanks and nose are composed of
circular arcs or straight lines, and a series of graphs prepared, giving
practically on sight the actual acceleration at any point for all
reasonable proportions of cam.
Fig. 105 shows the acceleration on tangent flanks (dotted curve)
and round noses with circular followers, also harmonic cams with
flat or mushroom followers.
Fig. 106 gives the figures for hollow flanks with circular followers.
Fig. 107 deals with round (convex) flanks with circular followers.
Fig. 108 shows various forms of cams, internal and external, and
indicates the graph to be used in each case,
The formula is the same in all cases, viz.:
Acceleration in ft, per sec. per sec. =
where R = radius in inches (see fig. 108),
C = a coefficient from the corresponding graph, depending
upon the form of cam and the angle from the base
circle (for flanks) or apex (for noses),
N = revs. per minute or crankshaft (assuming camshaft runs
at half-engine speed).
A preliminary lay-out of the cam is first made, taking the known

factors (which usually include the approximate base circle diameter,
lift, period of opening, and room available for roller or follower).
The positive acceleration at the beginning and end of the flank
and the negative acceleration (on the springs) at beginning of nose
and apex are then read off, and the form of the curve visualized from
the suitable graph, when it will be obvious at once if the cam is out
of court mechanically, in which case suitable compromises must be
made.
Assuming that a tangent cam has been constructed in the first
instance, a certain amount of adjustment of the positive acceleration
may be made by altering the distance from camshaft centre to the
centre of the roller or slipper, the acceleration varying directly in pro-
portion, but if this would make the roller too large on the one hand or
make the curvature of the roller or slipper too sharp on the other,
the flank may be made curved, concave, or convex as may be neces-
sary, to increase or decrease the positive acceleration.
This will tend to have the opposite effect on the negative accelera-
tion on the nose of the cam, for it will give either more or less time
in which to bring the valve parts to rest from maximum velocity.
In cases where the figures are too high all round, it becomes im-
perative to increase the period to the longest possible and to decrease
Fig. 105.
Fig. 107
Facing p. 220.
the lift to the minimum, at the same time providing ample surface
on the cam and follower to take the heavy loading,
Fig. 108
The negative acceleration on the nose is directly proportional to

the distance from camshaft centre to the centre of curvature, it
varies also (but not directly) as the proportion is altered between
that distance and the radius of curvature measured to the centre of
roller or slipper.
These factors provide a ready means of adjusting the negative
acceleration, but it is limited inasmuch as a long radius of curvature
cannot be used if the cam period is short or the flank convex.
On the other hand, the radius may be shortened down to a figure
very little more than the radius of the follower if the engine speeds
and lift are low. This may make the nose of the cam concentric with
the shaft for a short distance, giving an improved opening diagram.
It should always be remembered that the nose of the cam does not
sustain any pressure at maximum speed because the pressure exerted
by the springs should then balance the inertia of the valve parts,
while, at low speeds, the pressure on this part of the cam must always
be somewhat less than the spring pressure. On the other hand, the
flank of the cam has to take the pressure of the spring, the gas pressure
on the valve (in the case of the exhaust), and also the force necessary
to accelerate the valve parts.
It follows that sharp curvature on the nose of the cam will not
lead to undue wear or surface cracks, but that the curvature of the
cam flank and follower should be as large as possible.
This consideration points to the use of as small a base circle and
as large a roller or slipper as possible for any virtual cam, i.e. for any
particular line of motion plotted at the centre of the follower.
As the flank will usually be a straight line or a long radius curve,
it is affected little if at all by any reduction in the diameter of the
base circle, the nose, as explained, is loaded less and less as the speed
increases and need not therefore be considered (1/16 in. radius will stand
quite well), while the roller or slipper is greatly improved by the
increase in its radius of curvature, and the rubbing velocity is also
reduced.
In all cases of cams and followers formed of circular arcs the
velocity and acceleration of the centre of the follower are the same as
those of a piston having a crank and connecting-rod of lengths R
and L respectively (see fig. 109). Whenever possible the proportions
of the nose of the cam should be such that is less than unity.
This ensures that the negative acceleration will be at a maximum
at the apex and fall off towards the points of junction with the
flanks. Since all ordinary forms of spring give an increasing press-
ure towards the top of the lift, a cam nose so proportioned permits
of the use of a spring which approximately balances the inertia
at all points,
If, on the other hand, is greater than unity the acceleration
increases towards the flanks, and as the spring must be at least
equal to the inertia at any point, it
follows that it is too strong at the
apex and throws an unnecessary stress
on the valve gear,
Flat or “Mushroom” T y p e
Followers.—The cams for use with
these are most conveniently con-
structed of circular arcs, one of small
radius for the nose and two others of
much larger radius placed symmetric-
ally on either side and tangent to
the nose and base circles.
The arcs of the flanks and nose
being continued round to form com-
plete circles will be seen to form cranks
or eccentrics with which the flat-ended
tappet engages in turn. The motion
of the tappet is therefore composed of Fig. 109
portions of simple harmonic motions
of varying amplitude, and the radial velocities and accelerations
about the flank and nose are proportional to the distance from the
camshaft centre to the centre of curvature in each case.
This is a useful feature of this form of cam for it enables one to
determine a relationship between positive and negative accelerations
in the first instance and plot the cam accordingly.
A convenient method of construction is appended (fig. 110).
Construction of Harmonic Cams

(see fig. 110)
Cam profile formed of circular arcs.
Follower made with a flat face to engage with cam and moving
in a straight line normal to that face.
Draw a horizontal line AO of unit length, say 1 in.
Draw BO and CO forming angle AOB, AOC, so that each equals
half the valve period plus clearance. (Clearance may be assumed
to be 12° to 16° total (crankshaft degrees), i.e. 3° to 4° a side actually
on the cam.)
On BO produced mark off OD, making OD : OA :: acceleration
on flank of cam : acceleration on
nose (springs). (This proportion
may be determined at first or
modified after a preliminary lay-
out. Average cases range from
2 : 1 to 3 : 1.)
With D as centre, DA as
radius, describe arc AB.
With 0 as centre, OB as
radius, describe arc BF.
Then as AF : the required
lift:: OB : required true base circle
radius. (Note.—The true base
circle radius is smaller than the
cam profile by an amount equal
Fig. 110
to the radius of the nose.)
Construct a similar figure with true base circle and lift as re-
quired. Then take a suitable radius (say 1/16 in. or more) and
describe an arc with centre A forming the nose of the cam, and
complete the profile by arcs from centres D, O, and H.
The size of the tappet head is found as follows:—
Join AD and draw OG perpendicular to AD,
Then OG is the maximum eccentricity of the point of contact,
and occurs when the tappet is on the junction of the flank and nose
curves (i.e. the point of reversal of acceleration from positive to
negative).
The radius of the tappet head must be slightly greater than OG,
so that the cam may not overrun the edge.
The changes may be rung very easily on the relationship of flank
and nose because with this type of cam and follower very heavy
positive pressures may safely be used without producing localized
wear on the tappet. It will be found that high positive accelera-
tions and long opening periods produce small base circle cams.
Every effort should be made to keep the base circle small, and to
this end the radius of the nose may be reduced to 1/16 in. if necessary
with safety. Another convenient property of these simple harmonic
cams is that the negative acceleration is greatest at the apex and
falls off in a regular manner towards the point of junction with the
flank, so that if the spring pressure at the apex be made to balance

the inertia at that point and the total deflection from free length to
maximum compression be equal to the distance from camshaft
centre to centre of nose, the spring pressure will exactly balance
the inertia at all other points. This renders the determination of
the most suitable spring a very simple matter.
Internal Cams.—These had a considerable vogue at one time on
small single-cylinder engines. When composed of circular arcs and
straight lines they follow the same laws as external cams of the
same proportions, but it should be noted that the actual cam is
larger than the virtual cam or line of motion of the roller centre,
whereas the ordinary external cam is smaller, so that for any par-
ticular case the internal cam has a much higher rubbing velocity.
Moreover, since the cam must embrace the roller or slipper the
latter is necessarily very much limited in size and the rubbing speed
on the pin considerable when a roller is used.
By the use of very good material and workmanship, and particu-
larly by their success in producing excellent surfaces on the pins
and rollers, some manufacturers have succeeded in obtaining very
satisfactory results, but the type is certainly not to be recommended
from either the theoretical or the manufacturing point of view, the
internal grinding alone being sufficient to give the decision in favour
of external cams.
The graphs given in figs. 105, 106, and 107, and the key diagrams in
fig- 108, are worked out for all reasonable proportions, but the formulae
are given below so that extreme cases may be dealt with. True
radial movement of the tappet is assumed in all cases. Where the
tappet takes the form of a lever, the fulcrum must be so placed that
the arc followed by the roller centre approximates to a radial line,
otherwise serious distortion of the valve opening diagram will occur,
and stronger springs will be necessary, owing to the fact that the
acceleration is increased on one side of the nose and decreased on the
other, as compared with the value for a radially moving follower.
The acceleration in all cases corresponds to the second differentia-
tion of the radial displacement in respect to time and for the regular
forms here dealt with is as follows :
Straight line tangent to base circle
Acc. = W2R (1)

(E 246) 16
Round nose, and round or hollow flank
Acc. = W2R (2)
Simple harmonic cam with flat follower

Acc. =W 2 R cos (3)
where R = radius in ft. from shaft centre to roller centre when on
base circle in the case of (1) and the radius from shaft-
centre to centre of curvature in case of (2) and (3),
W = angular velocity in radians per sec.,
= angle moved through from point of contact with base
circle for flank (1), (2), and (3) and, in the case of the
nose, the angle from the apex = 180° (2) and (3),
(see accompanying figures).

M a s k e d Valves.—It will be evident that as the period required
for the inlet valve opening is shorter than that for the exhaust, the
accelerations will be greater, increasing inversely as the square of
the time. It will also be noted from any ordinary valve diagram that
as the velocity of the valve is zero at beginning and end of its period
the value of the opening is very small for the first and last 20
or 30 degrees. By recessing the valve seat in such a way that the
outer diameter of the valve acts as a piston valve, it is possible to
start the motion earlier and finish it later. While keeping the time
of opening and closing as before (because the valve head must clear
the recess before any appreciable quantity of gas can pass) this
greatly reduces the acceleration and usually permits of the use of
the same cam for inlet and exhaust. It has also a considerable
effect on the valve opening diagram since the end of the diagram,
instead of being attenuated, retains a considerable value and finishes
abruptly.
From the point of view of volumetric efficiency this is the most
useful feature of the recessed or “ masked ” valve, as it is usually
called, because it gives a large opening at bottom dead centre and
closes the valve before the piston has risen sufficiently to pump the
charge back through the valve. In normal cases a mask depth of
about 1/6th to 1/8th of the lift is suitable.
Valve Springs.—These must be considered from four points:
(1) The force at various points in the travel,
(2) The maximum stress in the wire.
(3) The stress range from max. to min.
(4) Periodic vibrations in the spring itself (“ surging ”),
(1) From the displacement and acceleration diagrams a force/lift
graph is drawn as follows:
A number of points are taken on the displacement diagram from
apex to point of reversal (where the nose joins the flank) and are
Fig. 111.
projected down to the acceleration diagram and also horizontally to

a vertical line*
On the horizontal lines are marked off the distances A, B, C, D,
&c., equal to the corresponding vertical ordinates on the acceleration
diagram. These points are joined by a curve which shows the force
necessary to balance the negative acceleration in terms of the lift
(see fig. 111).
Practically all valve springs follow a straight line law, and
therefore the straight line which most nearly corresponds to the
force/lift graph represents the most suitable spring.
If A is the acceleration at any point in ft. per second per second the
force should be F = plus a small allowance for friction. W is
the weight in lb. of the valve, tappet, etc., including half the weight
of the spring. (This latter figure may be assumed and a subsequent
correction made if necessary.) The minimum force must be sufficient
to hold the exhaust valve shut when the throttle is almost closed
and to avoid unnecessary loading on the valve gear, the maximum
should be just high enough to allow a safe margin beyond the highest
engine speed.
(2) The maximum stress in the wire must be well below the
yield point, otherwise permanent set will take place and the free
length will become less, thus reducing the force required to compress
the spring to any given point.
It is not advisable to exceed 30 tons per square inch, and it is
always preferable to keep within 25 tons per square inch
maximum.
(3) The stress range, i.e. the difference between the initial stress
(valve closed) and the maximum stress (valve fully open), should be
kept down in order to avoid fatigue and rapid deterioration of the
metal of the spring. The range should not exceed 12 tons per
square inch according to the quality of the steel and the life expected.
(4) If the mass of the spring itself be too great in relation to its
stiffness (which is proportionate to its rate, i.e. the force in lbs.
required to compress it 1 in. axially) the natural period of oscillation
of the spring becomes large and may even approach the period of
the valve motion. Serious vibrations may then be set up, and the
spring is liable to fatigue and may allow the valve gear to jump
the cam.
The number of free vibrations per minute of the centre of the
spring when the ends are held is :
N = 590
where N = number of vibrations per minute,
R = rate of spring, i.e. lbs., required to compress it 1 in. axially,
and W = the weight of the spring in lbs.
If it is found that N is equal to the revolutions per min. of the
camshaft or is a simple multiple of same (say 2, 3, or 4 times), it is
Fig. 112.—Spring Graph—Stresses

practically certain that the spring will shudder and cease to function
properly.
A vibrating spring appears blurred when the engine is running,
whereas in a spring which is functioning correctly, the central coils
can be seen clearly owing to the fact that they are stationary while
the valve is shut (say two-thirds of the total time) and the eye
retains the impression.
The accompanying graphs will assist in the selection of the gauge
of wire (see stress graph fig. 112 for light gauges and fig. 113 for heavier
gauges) when the force and approximate diameter of spring are
Fig. 114.—Spring Graph—Deflection
known. The deflection per coil (d) may be read off from the de-
flection graph (fig. 114). The total deflection (D) being already
fixed (see figure for force/lift graph) the number of effective coils is
and the total number + 2.
The maximum stress = lb. sq. inch,

where F = maximum force in lb.,
D = mean dia. of coils in inches,
d = dia. of wire in inches;
also the maximum deflection =
VALVES AND VALVE GEAR
Fig. 115.—Spring Graph—Deflection

231
For American (Washburn & Moen) Wire Gauge

232

For American (Washburn & Moen) Wire Gauge
where N = effective number of coils (total minus 2),
and C = the transverse modulus of elasticity = 11,600,000.
The spring thus arrived at should then be considered under
heading (4) before being passed as suitable.
It will be apparent that (3) and (4) are in opposition, for if the
stress range be kept too low, the spring loses stiffness and may
develop slow vibrations in time with the valve gear. There is no
difficulty in practice in satisfying both points even in very high-
speed engines.
If the length of the spring be made such that the coils are almost
crowded when the valve is open the stress due to “ surging ” may
be limited.
CHAPTER IX
PISTON DESIGN
Of the total mechanical losses in any internal-combustion engine
of normal design, piston friction forms by far the largest individual
item; and, of all the independent component parts the piston is prob-
ably the most difficult of design in that it has to fulfil so many and
frequently such contradictory conditions. Broadly speaking, the
main objects to aim at in the design of a piston for the lighter high-
speed types of internal-combustion engine are:—
(1) To reduce friction to the lowest possible limit.
(2) To reduce the weight.
(3) To dissipate heat to the walls of the cylinder.
(4) To prevent the passage of oil into the combustion chamber.
(5) To provide adequate support for the gudgeon pin.
Conditions 1 and 2 are largely interdependent, for the bulk of
the average pressure exerted by the piston against the cylinder walls
is, in any high-speed engine, due to the resolved component of the
inertia forces which, when averaged over the whole cycle, exceeds
the fluid pressure; hence if the weight is reduced the average bearing
pressure is reduced also, and for the same bearing pressure per square
inch, and therefore for the same durability, the area of bearing sur-
face may be reduced nearly in proportion to the weight.
Piston friction is of course dependent also upon the nature and
condition of the lubricating oil adhering to the cylinder walls.
The general question of lubrication and friction has been con-
sidered in relation to bearings, etc., in Chapter V, and it has been
shown that friction is to a large extent proportional to the area of
surface, the viscosity of the lubricant, and, to a much less extent,
to the load. In the case of the piston, however, the conditions
are somewhat different; in the first place, although the rubbing
234
PISTON DESIGN 235
velocity is higher, the average load is low and is, compared with
any of the bearings, small. Under such conditions the area of
surface and the viscosity of the lubricant play a very important part,
With regard to the area of surface, it is clear that only the surface
at right angles to the line of the crankshaft is operative, the surface
at the sides of the piston receiving no thrust at all It is therefore
clearly desirable to remove all inoperative surface in order to reduce,
as far as possible, the area of the oil film in shear. In view of the
very light loading to which a piston is subjected, a relatively small
area of bearing surface suffices, and for a reasonably light piston an
actual bearing surface on either side equal to 50 per cent of the area
of the crown should be ample, provided it is properly disposed;
that is to say, provided it is disposed equally above and below the
gudgeon pin and over a subtended angle of from 90° to 110°. The
author has never heard of any case of a piston seizing from over-
loading of the bearing surfaces. Seventy per cent of piston seizures
are due to insufficient allowance for expansion or to distortion, and
the remaining 30 per cent to complete failures of the oil supply.
As to wear, in the case of cast-iron pistons at any rate, this is mainly
due to the piston rings; it is very unusual to find any serious wear
on the bearing surfaces of a piston or in the cylinder bore below
the travel of the piston rings.
The rate of wear of the cylinder bore is more or less proportional
to the gas pressure behind the rings and in consequence is greatest
at the position of the top piston ring when the piston is just below
top dead centre.
When compared with any other bearing surface in the engine,
the friction of the piston is abnormally high; this is undoubtedly
due primarily to the fact that the oil is partially carbonized and its
viscosity, and therefore its resistance to shear, is greatly increased. It
must be remembered that, at every cycle, most of the oil clinging to
the walls of the cylinder barrel is exposed to the full flame temperature
of the burning gases. It is probable also that the fluid resistance is
greater when the direction of motion is constantly reversed than when
it is continuous, as in the case of a shaft running in bearings. As an
illustration of the effect of the carbonizing of the oil on piston friction,
the author has always observed, when testing engines on electric
dynamometers, that if the supply of fuel be suddenly cut off after
running under load and the engine motored round by means of the
dynamometer the friction torque is at first high, but falls rapidly as
the carbonized oil on the cylinder walls is replaced with fresh clean
oil from the lubricating system. Fig, 117 shows a typical curve of
total friction torque on a time basis carried out under these con-
ditions. The engine in this instance was run under full load at
1200 R.P.M. for a considerable period, until all temperature con-
ditions had become normal; the supplies of circulating water and
fuel were then simultaneously cut off and the engine motored round
at precisely the same speed—the change over from full load running
to motoring being effected without any measurable interval of time
and without any appreciable change in speed. In this particular
Fig. 117.—Curve showing Drop in Friction Torque as contaminated Oil is replaced by fresh Oil
case the friction losses of the bearings and auxiliaries and the fluid
pumping losses had all been ascertained separately, and were found
to be equivalent to a mean pressure of 6·5 lb. per square inch at
1200 R.P.M. Deducting these, the piston friction is as shown in
the curve, fig. 118, from which it will be observed that it falls from the
equivalent of 9·5 lb. per square inch immediately after the fuel is
cut off to 6·5 lb. per square inch after ten minutes, by which time
it may be presumed that practically the whole of the carbonized oil
on the cylinder walls has been replaced by fresh oil-
Influence of Temperature on Piston Friction,—As might
be expected, the friction of the piston is largely dependent upon the
PISTON DESIGN 237
temperature of the lubricant, and since the temperature of the latter
is determined primarily by that of the cylinder walls to which it
clings, it follows that the friction is controlled very largely by the
temperature of the cooling water. In Chapter III, when dealing
with the influence of cylinder temperature upon power and economy,
it was shown that the indicated horse-power of an engine decreases
with increase of temperature, because the reduction in the weight
of charge, far more than outweighs the slight gain due to reduced
heat losses. In practice the brake-horse-power and economy of an
engine generally increase with increase of temperature, because the
Fig. 118—Curve showing Drop in Piston Friction alone from fig. 117
reduced piston friction more than compensates for the reduction in

indicated power. Fig. 119 shows the results of a test on a standard
four-cylinder commercial vehicle engine when motored at a speed
of 900 R.P.M. In this test, after the engine had been run for some
time the water-jackets were thoroughly flushed through with cold
water until the cylinders had been cooled down to atmospheric
temperature. The supply of circulating water was then cut off
and the rise in temperature and the friction torque (expressed in
terms of mean pressure on the engine) were recorded at intervals
of two minutes.
In the case of this engine, the friction of the bearings and
auxiliaries and the fluid pumping losses were determined separately,
and were found to amount to the equivalent of 5·5 lb. per square inch
at 120° F. If this figure be deducted throughout, it will be observed
that the piston friction falls from 10·5 lb. per square inch with a
cylinder temperature of 70° F. to 5·6 lb. per square inch with a
temperature of 150° F. Over this range of temperature the decrease
in indicated mean pressure, in the case of this particular engine,
is about 2 per cent or 2 lb. per square inch, but the drop in piston
friction is equivalent to about 5 lb. per square inch, so that the net
increase in power at the higher temperature would be about 3 lb,
Fig. 119.—Motoring Tests, showing Change of Friction with Temperature at 900 R.P.M.
per square inch or 3 per cent. This agreed fairly closely with actual
results obtained when running under power, when the difference was
found to be nearly 4 per cent. The conditions are not, however,
exactly comparable, because—
(1) When running under power the temperature of the piston
and inner surface of the cylinder walls is higher than that of the
jacket water; this would tend to reduce the difference in piston
friction between hot and cold, because the whole temperature scale
is virtually raised.
(2) When motoring, the oil on the cylinder walls was clean,
consequently the piston friction was lower ; under actual running
PISTON DESIGN 239
conditions the piston friction was no doubt about 30 per cent greater
at all temperatures; this would accentuate the difference, and
probably more than outweighs (1).
Dissipation of Heat.—The heat from the crown of the piston
is disposed of—
(1) Through the rings to the cylinder walls.
(2) Through the bearing surface to the cylinder walls.
(3) To the oil and air below the piston.
There is a great deal of evidence in support of the theory that,
in comparatively small engines at all events, the bulk of the heat
passes to the cylinder walls via the piston rings. The author could
cite numerous experiments in confirmation of this theory, but it is
probably sufficient to state that experiments have shown that, when
all transference of heat by way of the bearing surfaces has been cut
off, the temperature of the piston crown is found to be very little
higher. In any case, it is evident that heat can only be transmitted
rapidly to the cylinder walls through that portion of the skirt or
bearing surface which is being pressed hard against them by the
thrust of the connecting-rod and where the oil film is therefore
both thinnest and in most active movement.
The proportion of heat carried away by the circulation of the
air and oil below the piston cannot be very large and need not be
taken seriously into consideration, except in cases where special
arrangements are made to increase these effects.
It is quite clear that the most important consideration is the
transmission of heat from the centre of the crown to the circum-
ference ; once the heat can be conveyed to the circumference,
experience shows that there is no difficulty in getting rid of it. In
order to facilitate the transmission from the centre to the circum-
ference, it is obvious that the crown should be made as thick as
possible consistent with the weight limitation, and the conductivity
of the material should be as high as possible. During the last few
years the use of aluminium alloys has come into vogue for pistons;
not only is their weight about one-third that of cast iron, but their
conductivity is about five times as great. With such alloys, it is
found that the rate of heat transmission is so high that, even in the
case of cylinders developing over 120 B.H.P., there is no need to
make the crown of the piston any thicker than is needed for strength
alone. Recently all aero-engines, and many others also, have been
fitted with pistons made throughout of aluminium alloys. The
objections to an all-aluminium piston are :—
(1) That owing to the very high rate of expansion with tempera-
ture a large clearance must be allowed; this causes an audible
knock when the thrust is reversed under pressure at the end of the
compression stroke.
(2) Aluminium being a relatively soft material permits of particles
of grit embedding in it, and is therefore liable to cause wear of the
cylinder walls unless the latter have a very hard surface.
(3) Aluminium castings, unless very carefully annealed, are
liable both to grow and to distort, so that yet more clearance must
be allowed on this account,
None of these objections apply when the crown and ring-carrying
portion alone is made of aluminium alloy and the bearing surfaces
of cast iron, while advantage can still be taken of the high con-
ductivity and light weight of aluminium.
P a s s a g e of Oil into the Combustion Chamber.—One
common form of trouble with internal-combustion engines, and more
particularly with those of the high-speed enclosed type, is the passage
of oil into the combustion chamber, where it carbonizes both on the
walls of the chamber and on the crown of the piston, and so gives
rise to detonation and ultimately to pre-ignition, Passage of oil
past the piston rings and so into the combustion chamber is
due to—
(1) The oil is forced up against the rings on the downward stroke
of the piston because the motion of the piston, combined with its
thrust against the cylinder walls, sets up a very considerable hydraulic
pressure and the oil is, so to speak, rolled up against the rings.
(2) The motion of the piston rings in their grooves tends to
pump the oil into the combustion chamber.
In order, as far as possible, to prevent the passage of oil into the
combustion chamber, the following considerations should be taken
into account:—
(1) The setting up of a heavy hydraulic pressure can largely be
prevented by perforating the bearing surface so that the pressure
can relieve itself, and also by freely venting the piston just below
the bottom ring.
(2) As the piston travels downwards the rings are all bearing
against the top faces of the grooves, and the clearance between the
lower sides of the rings and their grooves is filled with oil scraped
from the cylinder walls. As the piston rises again, the rings change
over and bear against the lower face of the groove ; the oil therefore
passes round behind the rings to their upper face and, at the top of the
PISTON DESIGN 241
stroke, when the rings again change sides, some of it is squeezed out.
It will be seen therefore that each ring functions as a valveless oil
pump and tends to deliver oil into the combustion chamber.
In order to reduce this pumping as far as possible—
(1) The rings, with the exception of the scraper ring, should be
made as close a fit as possible in their grooves.
(2) Ample venting should be provided below the scraper ring to
permit of the free escape of any oil scraped off the cylinder walls.
(3) The tendency of the rings to pump oil can further be
checked to a large extent by drilling
holes through the ring groove behind the
ring, thus permitting of the free escape
of any oil as it passes the back of the
ring.
This latter expedient should apply
only in the case of the lowest ring, since
such drilling permits also of the escape
of gas. Fig. 120 shows an arrangement
of rings, &c., which has been found veryFig. 120.—Section of Slipper Piston,
with Scraper Ring vented by
effective in preventing the passage of oil Holes drilled through Groove
into the combustion space.
There is a widespread belief that the passage of oil into the
combustion chamber is dependent primarily upon the pressure or
vacuum in the cylinder, and that, when throttled down, the reduced
pressure in the cylinder during the suction stroke causes oil to be
sucked up past the rings. This belief is founded upon the fact that
when an engine is opened out after running throttled up, smoke
becomes apparent, indicating an excess of oil in the combustion
chamber. Also when an engine has been run with the throttle
nearly closed and the cylinders or valve caps are removed, oil in a
liquid state is then found in the combustion chamber. In spite of
such evidence, however, the theory is quite fallacious, for the actual
quantity of oil passing the rings is found to be a function of the
speed, and of the speed alone, the pumping pressure set up by the
rings being of far too high an order to be influenced appreciably by
any relatively slight differences of pressure in the cylinder. When
an engine is running at or near its full load, the oil passing into the
combustion chamber is burnt along with the fuel; combustion is
nearly complete, so that no smoke is visible from the exhaust.
When running dead light the flame temperature, owing to the large
dilution with exhaust gases and the relatively higher rate of heat
(E246) 17
loss, is insufficient to burn the oil, with the result that it accumu-
lates in the combustion chamber until the throttle is opened; the
quantity is then so large that there is not sufficient oxygen available
for its complete combustion at first, with the result that it is only
partially burnt and issues from the exhaust as blue smoke—that is,
as partially vaporized but unburnt oil.
In any normal high-speed closed-type engine, about 90 per cent of
the lubricating oil consumed is burnt in the cylinder as fuel, a fact
which should always be borne in mind when reckoning the efficiency
of an engine, for the hourly consumption both of fuel and oil should
be taken into account. In most normal engines the proportion of
oil consumed is very small in relation to the fuel and does not
materially affect the consumption of the latter, but in the case of
certain aero-engines, particularly of the rotating cylinder type, the
consumption of oil is so high as materially to reduce the fuel
consumption, and so give rise to a fictitious fuel economy.
The author has carried out a number of tests in order to ascertain
the influence of both pressure and speed on the passage of oil into the
combustion chamber, and has tried the effect of motoring an engine
and collecting the oil passing the piston under the following con-
ditions :—
(1) When the pressure on either side of the piston is atmospheric.
(2) With a continuous vacuum of 20 in. of mercury in the cylinder.
(3) With a continuous air pressure of 45 lb. per square inch above
the piston.
In all three cases the quantity of oil passed per hour was, within
the limits of observation, the same—certainly to within 10 per cent.
In all cases also the quantity of oil passed by the piston varied almost
directly as the speed of rotation.
In fig.121 is shown a special machine used for testing pistons and
rings for—
(1) Friction.
(2) Leakage.
(3) Passage of oil.
It consists of a water-jacketed cylinder mounted on a crank-
case in which different types of pistons, rings, &c., can be fitted.
The piston is reciprocated by means of a crank and connecting-rod,
and, to ensure freedom from vibration, reciprocating balance weights,
operated by eccentrics, are provided. The cylinder is heat-insulated
from the crankcase and the friction of the piston is measured directly
by the temperature rise of the water in the jacket. In order to
PISTON DESIGN 243
ensure uniformity of temperature the water in the jacket is kept

circulating by means of a small propeller driven by a belt from the
crankshaft. The top end of the cylinder is connected to a large
and heavily lagged receiver of sufficient capacity to prevent any
Fig. 121.—Photo of Machine designed for testing Pistons
appreciable variation in pressure, so that the same air is drawn in

and out of the cylinder at every stroke, and errors, due to the circula-
tion of cold air inside the cylinder, are eliminated, or nearly so.
This receiver is, in turn, connected to an air pump so that the pressure
on the piston can be raised or lowered to any desired degree, and the
effect of fluid pressure both on piston friction and the passage of oil
can be observed.
For lubrication, oil is forced under a pressure of 30 lb. per square
inch through the hollow crankshaft, from which it passes out through
the connecting-rod big-end bearing and is thrown on to the cylinder
walls.
For testing gas tightness and leakage of rings the receiver is
removed and a plain cover fitted in its place on the top of the cylinder.
This cover is provided with a small and very light automatic inlet
valve connected to an air-measuring device. With this cover fitted
the piston alternately compresses and expands the air in the cylinder,
Fig, 122.—Test Readings at three different Speeds
the maximum pressure being about 220 lb. per square inch. Any
leakage past the rings is made up by air entering through the inlet
valve, and the quantity of air so required to make up for leakage is
measured by the displacement of water.
The machine is direct connected to a balanced swinging field
electric dynamometer, and can be driven at any speed from 600 to
2500 R.P.M. The total torque required to rotate the machine at
any speed can be measured direct from the arm of the dynamometer,
while the piston friction alone can be determined directly from the
temperature rise of the water in the cylinder jacket.
PISTON DESIGN 245
Owing to losses by radiation, &c., it is not easy to determine
accurately the absolute friction of the piston, but the relative
friction as between two pistons, or any variations in piston
design or rings, can be measured with extreme nicety by com-
paring the curves of temperature rise of the jacket water.
Figs. 122, 123, and 124 show a number of such curves of tempera-
ture and time and also the total friction of the machine as
a whole in terms of lb. per square inch on the piston, with
various types of piston, numbers of rings, &c.
Fig. 123.—Test Readings with 3 different Pistons. Speed 1200 R.P.M. in all cases
In order both to reduce weight and to prevent distortion, it is

clearly very desirable to transmit the pressure as directly as possible
from the crown of the piston to the connecting-rod, and from the
connecting-rod to the bearing surfaces. The customary method of
transmitting the pressure from the crown through the side walls
and ring grooves to the two extreme ends of the gudgeon pin has
nothing to recommend it. It is clearly far better to transmit it
directly from the crown of the piston to the gudgeon pin at points
as near the centre as the width of the connecting-rod small end
bearing will permit.
Fig. 125 shows a design of all-aluminium piston, and represents
probably the lightest possible construction. In this design two
main ribs transmit the load from the crown to the gudgeon pin, and
from the gudgeon pin to the bearing surfaces. Also all unnecessary
bearing surface has been eliminated. This type of piston has come
to be known as the slipper type, and has been widely used, par-
ticularly in very high-speed engines, where its light weight, low
friction loss, and effective oil-resisting properties have rendered
Fig. 124.—Test Readings with different Numbers of Piston Rings.

Speed 1600 R.P.M. in all cases
it of great advantage. The example shown in fig. 125 is the

largest yet made, for this single piston transmits 135 B.H.P. at
1400 R.P.M.
Fig. 126 shows an alternative design in which the slipper or
tearing surfaces are of cast iron. This design has the further
advantage in that the floating gudgeon pin is located "by the sides
of the cast-iron sleeve and requires no other means of endwise
location—always rather a troublesome problem.
Pig. 127 shows yet another design, in which the aluminium alloy
head is connected with the cast-iron cross-head portion by means of
PISTON DESIGN 247
the gudgeon pin, or rather by means of the bushes in which the gudgeon
pin floats. This design has the advantage that it is cheaper and less
fragile than that shown in fig. 126, also that the aluminium head is
free to centre itself in the cylinder. The chief objection to it is that
it necessitates very accurate workmanship.
Piston Knock.—Owing to the large clearance which must be
allowed when all-aluminium pistons are used, it is very difficult to
Fig. 125.—Aluminium Slipper-type Piston

for large High-speed Engine
obtain silent running, for at the end of the compression-stroke the

piston is thrust violently from one side of the cylinder to the other.
The noise is most apparent when an engine is running slowly on a
light load ; under such conditions the piston is cool, and therefore
the clearance is at a maximum, also the other mechanical noises of
the engine are less apparent. Various devices have been experi-
mented with in the endeavour to overcome this troublesome noise.
Some designers have used pistons in which the normal clearance is
very small and the skirts are slit in order to allow some elasticity
and prevent seizures; others, again, have even gone so far as to
introduce springs between the connecting-rod and piston, in order
Fig. 126.—Composite Piston with Aluminium Head and Cast-iron Bearing Surfaces
rigidly attached
to keep the latter bearing at all times against one wall of the cylinder.
Others, again, have adopted the method of fitting the gudgeon pin
out of centre in the piston so that the latter tends to tilt about the
Fig. 127.—Articulated Piston with Aluminium

Head and Cast - iron Bearing Surfaces
interlocked by Gudgeon Pin
gudgeon-pin centre. This latter method appeared promising at

first sight, but on further investigation it was found to be ineffective.
The precise effect of offsetting the gudgeon pin in this manner is
PISTON DESIGN 249
illustrated in fig. 128, which shows the position taken up by the piston
at various points in the cycle.
Fig. 128.—Diagram of Forces on Piston with offset Gudgeon Pin, showing effect on clearance
Fig. 129 shows a method patented by the author and applied to

a slipper-type piston in which the bearing surface is severed from
the crown in order to prevent the direct transmission of heat and so
permit of a smaller clearance being used. This
arrangement proved very successful in reducing
the passage of oil past the piston rings because
of the exceptionally free venting of the oil below
them, but it did not permit of any appreciable
reduction in clearance, for the simple reason
that very little heat is transmitted from the
crown to the bearing surfaces in any case; in
other words, it was found that, at all events in
the case of comparatively small engines, the
Fig. 129.—Split Slipper
temperature of what may be termed the cross- Piston
head portion of the piston was in any case very
little in excess of that of the cylinder walls, so that insulating it
from the crown had little influence on its temperature, and therefore
on its expansion.
None of the methods described above can be said to have solved
the difficulty of piston knock, or even to have gone very far towards
solving it, and the author is inclined to the opinion that where
extreme silence is required it is better to employ cast iron for the
bearing surfaces in all except very small pistons, in which the clear-
ance may be so small that there is little or no knock in any case,
for the noise is dependent upon the absolute, rather than upon
the proportionate, clearance. Experience has shown that with all-
aluminium pistons fitted to a water-cooled engine of average per-
formance it is necessary to allow a clearance on the bearing surfaces of
approximately 0·002 in. per inch of diameter. As a general state-
ment, when the total clearance exceeds from 0·005 in. to 0·006 in.
piston knock becomes audible, that is to say, all-aluminium pistons
up to 3 in. can be made to run silently, depending upon the lubri-
cation and a number of other minor controlling factors; but above
3 in. diameter it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to ensure
silent Tunning.
Piston Rings.—Generally speaking, piston rings do not call for
much comment. With but few exceptions all high-speed internal-
combustion engines employ ordinary plain concentric cast-iron rings
of the Ramsbottom type. Such rings should always be ground both
on the face and sides in order to ensure a close fit in the grooves, and
should preferably be hammered, after being split, in order so to stress
the material as to ensure a uniform pressure against the cylinder walls.
The most important feature to ensure is that they fit truly against
the sides of the grooves, since this determines largely the amount
of oil they will pump. The top gas ring should be allowed a few
thousandths clearance in order to keep it from sticking and, when
the scraper ring groove is perforated, this ring also should be allowed
liberal side clearance. When aluminium pistons are used there is
always a tendency for the edges of the “ lands ” in the piston to
be dragged over by particles of grit and so to lock the rings in their
grooves. This tendency can, however, be prevented by chamfering
slightly the edges of the grooves. This is a small point, but it is one
which should not be overlooked, for its neglect has probably done
more than anything to prejudice "unjustly the use of aluminium for
pistons.
W i d t h of Ring.—All reasoning points to the conclusion that
piston rings should be made as narrow as possible so long as they
are not too fragile to machine or handle. For a given radial thick-
ness, the narrower the ring the less both the friction and the inertia
PISTON DESIGN 251
hence the lower the total pressure against and therefore the wear
on the sides of the ring grooves. There, is, however, some evidence
in support of the theory that an excessively narrow ring causes
increased wear of the cylinder bore due to the comparative ease
with which the oil film breaks down during the period the piston is
at rest on top dead-centre,
Radial T h i c k n e s s . — The radial thickness determines the
spring tension against the cylinder walls. So long as this is above a
certain figure there is no object in increasing the thickness, which
merely involves an increase in friction and wear on the cylinder walls.
There is definite evidence to indicate that, when working, the rings
are pressed out against the cylinder walls by the gas pressure behind
them, and that the pressure in the ring groove is on the average
something less than the mean pressure of the cycle. In fact recent
experiments by the Admiralty Engineering Laboratory, in which
indicator diagrams were actually taken from behind the piston rings,
showed that the pressure behind the top ring followed very closely
that of the gas pressure above the piston, while that behind the second
ring showed a very much delayed diagram, and behind the third
and others a more or less uniform pressure scaling down through the
remaining pack of rings. Experience indicates that in a well-made
ring a spring pressure of from 6 to 7 lb. per square inch is sufficient,
and that any further pressure results merely in extra friction without
any compensating advantage. The spring tension required, however,
depends to some extent upon the amount of clearance between the
“ lands ” of the piston and the cylinder walls. It is customary and
proper to make the clearance of the “ lands ” such that they will
not, under any circumstances, touch the walls of the cylinders. If,
however, the clearance is too great, a considerable area of the side of
the ring may be exposed to the full fluid pressure, and, as a result,
the ring may be pressed so hard against the lower face of the groove
that its spring tension will not overcome the friction against the side
of the groove; under these conditions the ring will become locked
and unable to expand against the cylinder walls, with the result
that severe “ blowing ” will occur,
There is also very strong evidence to show that the top land
should always be as deep as possible, in order to provide adequate
protection for the top piston ring. In the designs of piston illus-
trated previously, the top land is in most instances rather too
shallow, due to the fact that the available height from the gudgeon-
pin centre to the piston crown was, in each case, so restricted as
to render the provision of an adequate protecting land impossible.
C r o s s - h e a d Piston.—All the foregoing remarks refer to the
open or trunk type of piston, and more particularly to that form
of open piston which has come to be known as the slipper type,
a form with which the author has had the most experience.
In the larger sizes of high-speed engine more particularly, the
author prefers to use wherever possible a somewhat different type
which is now gen-
erally known as
the cross - head
piston.
In this design
the two functions
of an open piston
—namely, to act
as a piston proper
and as a cross-
head guide—have
been separated to
a far greater ex-
tent than in the
case of the slipper
type, until it
resembles much
more nearly the
Fig. 130.—Part Section showing Fig. 131.—Section of Piston
Cross-head Piston and Guide usual steam-
engine form.
The piston itself consists of an ordinary flat or concave crown
carrying the piston rings and a plain light tubular stem extending
from the crown of the piston to below the gudgeon pin. The lower
portion of this trunk is surrounded by a steel or cast-iron sleeve,
which embraces and locates the floating gudgeon pin, and constitutes
the only wearing surface. This cross-head sleeve runs in a cylindrical
guide, which is spigoted both into the cylinder and the crank chamber,
or in some cases into the cylinder only, which is prolonged to accom-
modate it, A general arrangement of the piston, cylinder, and cross-
head guide is shown in fig. 130, from which it will be observed that the
crown of the piston serves only to carry the rings and transmit the
pressure down the hollow cylindrical stem to the gudgeon pin. It
does not bear upon the cylinder walls at all, and therefore requires
only just sufficient lubricant to maintain the rings in good condition.
PISTON DESIGN 253
It will also be observed that in this construction the cylinder walls
are cut off from all splash lubrication.
In spite of the fact that this piston is
some 30 per cent heavier than the slipper
type, the total friction is little more than 80
per cent that of the slipper piston and only
about 60 per cent that of a piston of the
ordinary trunk type.
The construction of the piston is shown in
detail in fig. 131, and the photographs repro-
duced in figs. 132 and 133. The cross-head
sleeve is an easy push fit over the lower portion
of the stem, and is held in place by four small
bolts; it is supported by three bearing lands,
one at the middle on the gudgeon-pin centre
line and one at each end.
In ordinary commercial engines this sleeve Fig. 132.— Cross-head Piston
is made of cast iron, but in very high-speed
engines a light high carbon steel sleeve is used. When employing
Fig. 133.—Cross-head Piston dismantled

this piston on engines having separate cylinders the guide is
spigoted both into the cylinder and crankcase, and the latter is
provided with a false top as shown in fig. 130 above. The space
between the false top and the base of the cylinder is utilized for the
circulation of air round the cross-head guide, which is ribbed for
cooling. The air enters at one side and passes out to the carburettor
on the other side. A portion of the air is drawn directly round the
cross-head guide, and the remaining portion passes between the guide
and the cylinder through slots provided for
this purpose. On the upward stroke of the
piston the air is drawn through these slots
at a high velocity, and impinges against the
crown and stem of the piston, thus effectu-
ally cooling them. On the downward stroke
this heated air is discharged again into the
chamber surrounding the guides, and thence
into the carburettor. By this means the
piston and cross-head guide are kept cool
and the carburettor air is warmed.
It is found in practice that the heat
abstracted from the piston and cross-head
guide is just sufficient for good distribution
with petrol of high boiling-point and low
Fig. 134.—Cylinder Lubrication volatility. Tests carried out on several of
with Crosshead Piston
the engines built for tanks with thermo-
meters fitted in the induction piping above and below the carbur-
ettor have shown that when running on full load with an atmospheric
temperature of 60° F. the air, after passing round the cross-head
guides and pistons, entered the carburettor at a temperature of 130° F.
On a light load, with consequent reduced air circulation, the
temperature of the air entering the carburettor rose to 150° F., and
the temperature near the top of the induction pipe to 100° F., which
is sufficiently high to check condensation at reduced loads. The free
circulation of air through the upper portion of the crankcase tends
to keep the lower portion cool, so that no oil cooling is required,
The system of cylinder lubrication is shown in fig. 134. The lower
portion of the stem of the piston is provided with a few small holes,
and the cross-head sleeve which surrounds it is also provided with a
ring of small holes so placed that these holes are uncovered above
the guide at the top of each stroke. On the upward stroke of the
piston, air is drawn through slots provided in the flange of the cross-
PISTON DESIGN 255
head guide between the guide and the cylinder, and passes at a high
velocity around the cross-head sleeve; in doing so, it draws a small
proportion of air and oil mist from the holes in the cross-head sleeve,
which are in communication with the crank chamber through cor-
responding holes drilled in the piston stem. The oil issuing from
these holes in the form of a mist is picked up by the rush of air and
sprayed over the cylinder walls while the piston is near the top of
its stroke ; the total quantity of oil drawn out in this manner is
minute, but it is sufficient for the maintenance of the piston rings.
The whole operation is similar to that of a spray carburettor in
which the slots in the cross-head guide correspond to the choke tube,
and the holes in the sleeve to the jets. The control of the quantity
of oil delivered in this manner is governed by the area of the slots
and the size or number of holes provided in the sleeve.
It will be seen that, by this means, the lubrication of the cylinder
walls is continuous, that oil is only supplied to the cylinder walls in
the quantity required by the piston rings, and that oil which has
clung to the walls and become partially carbonized does not find its
way back into the crankcase. The provision in this manner of an
entirely separate system of lubrication to the cylinder allows of the
use of unstinted lubrication to all the other working parts without
the risk of carbonization of the piston or any tendency to smoke;
also, the oil consumption is exceedingly low.
When working with kerosene or high boiling petrols, this type of
piston is particularly suitable, for one of the chief troubles with such
fuels is that they tend to precipitate upon the relatively cool walls
of the cylinder barrel and so to pass down into the crankcase, thus
contaminating the lubricating oil, and cause trouble with the
bearings, With the cross-head type piston, however, any fuel which
may succeed in passing the piston is trapped in the chamber sur-
rounding the cross-head guides, from which it may be drained off
before it can do any harm. The quantity of kerosene which, in
practice, is drained away from this chamber is often surprisingly
great, particularly when working on variable loads, often amounting
to as much as from 4 to 8 per cent of the total fuel consumption of
the engine, or from three to six times the oil consumption,
The advantages of this type of piston may be summarised as
follows :—
(1) The lubrication is under complete control, and is independent
of the crankcase lubrication; consequently the oil consumption,
the tendency to carbonize both the piston and combustion chamber,
and the risk of oiling up the sparking plugs are all reduced to the
minimum.
(2) The piston friction is reduced to little more than half that
which obtains with an ordinary trunk piston.
(3) Owing to the fact that the cross-head and guide are relatively
cool, and that both are maintained at approximately the same
temperature, a very fine running clearance can safely be used, thus
ensuring silent running.
(4) Since the piston itself does not bear upon the cylinder walls,
an ample working clearance can be allowed without any risk of noise.
(5) The wear on the cylinder walls is reduced to a minimum,
since only the piston rings bear against them and there is no side
thrust.
(6) The gudgeon-pin being short, stiff, and free to rotate, and also
being placed in such a position that it receives very little heat from
the piston, does not wear perceptibly.
(7) The bulk of the heat from the crown of the piston and from
the cross-head guide is utilized to warm the air for the carburettor,
and is not transferred to the crankcase.
(8) All the working parts can be lubricated without stint and
without any risk of excess of oil reaching the cylinder walls; also,
the oil remains clean.
(9) In the event of any fuel condensing on the walls of the
cylinder, its subsequent passage into the crankcase can be prevented
absolutely.
(10) The restricted lubrication to the cylinder walls greatly
reduces any tendency of the piston rings to become carbonized or
gummed up.
(11) There is no tendency for the engine to become “ gummed
up ” when cold.
The principal objections to the use of this type of piston are :—
(1) That it increases the height of an engine as compared with
the use of an open-type piston, by an amount equal to about two-
thirds of the piston's stroke.
(2) That it necessitates an engine designed specifically for its
use, and unless separate cylinders are used it introduces difficulties
in the way of alignment between the cross-head guides and the
cylinder bore. These difficulties are not, however, insuperable, as
is illustrated by the engine shown in fig. 135, which shows the applica-
tion of cross-head pistons in the case of the engines manufactured by
Messrs. Peter Brotherhood, Ltd., for tractors and marine work, in
Fig. 135.—General Arrangement of 4¾" x 5½" 30-B.H.P. Brotherhood Tractor Engine Facing p. 256.
PISTON DESIGN 257
Fig. 136.—General Arrangement (Cross Section), 8¼" x 9½" Single Cylinder. Experimental Engine
(E246) 18
which the four cylinders and the upper half of the crankcase are
cast in one piece.
(3) That it increases slightly both the cost and weight of an
engine.
These objections are, in the author's opinion, easily outweighed
by the advantages to be gained, more especially in the case of large
engines, such as that shown in fig. 136, or in the case of engines using
kerosene or petrol with a high final boiling point. In any case their
use makes for a higher mechanical efficiency, silent running, and
reduced cylinder wear and oil consumption.
CHAPTER X
ENGINES FOR ROAD VEHICLES
Before dealing with, specific examples of motor-vehicle engines
it will be well to review briefly the duties which these engines have
to perform and to note along what lines further development is likely
to extend.
Some twenty-five years ago the designers and manufacturers of
motor-vehicle engines had need to concentrate the whole of their
attention upon the one crucial problem of producing engines which.
would run for a reasonable period, under wholly novel conditions,
without serious breakdown. This great problem overshadowed all
others, and the rapidity with which, it was tackled and overcome is
one of the great triumphs of modern mechanical engineering. Within
a space of less than ten years the motor-vehicle engine emerged from
the stage of a fickle and wayward, but very fascinating, toy into a
thoroughly reliable machine. Once its reliability had been estab-
lished, and its charm largely exchanged for utility, the subsequent
developments were mainly in the direction of refinement and in-
creased power.
In order to provide a more uniform turning movement, and to
reduce vibration, and therefore noise, the number of cylinders was
increased from one to four and even to six.
The next developments were in the direction of securing greater
silence in operation ; these took the form of improvements in the
valve gear and the elimination as far as possible not only of vibra-
tion of the engine, as a whole, but also of the vibration of the
individual members of the engine.
At the same time the available speed range has steadily increased.
Since owing to the inherent irregularity of torque in any type of
four-cycle engine the speed range cannot usefully be reduced below
a certain minimum, progress has taken the form of extending the
upper end of the speed range. Developments in this direction have
been much stimulated by the method of basing the taxation, of
259
pleasure vehicles at least, upon the diameter of cylinder used. This
basis of taxation has served well, but would now be more useful if
it were based on the total cylinder capacity.
With the extended use of motor-vehicles for purely utility
purposes, and with the increasing cost of fuel, the most needed
developments at the present time are in the direction of fuel economy,
a direction in which there is still ample scope for improvement.
The motor-vehicle engine of to-day is called upon :—
(1) To be silent under all conditions of operation.
(2) To be self-contained and as automatic as possible.
(3) To have as wide a range of speed as possible.
(4) To accelerate rapidly from any speed; in other words, it
must instantly develop its maximum torque when called upon to
do so, irrespective of engine speed.
(5) To maintain a high torque at low speeds, and to do so without
detonation or “ pinking.”
(6) To be reasonably economical in fuel at all loads, and more
particularly at its average load factor of from 25 per cent to 40 per
cent maximum torque.
The performance of any motor-vehicle engine must be considered
in reference to the vehicle to which it is fitted. We will therefore
examine briefly one specific instance, namely :—
A light pleasure car weighing, fully loaded, including passengers
and equipment, 3500 lb., and fitted with a wind-screen and hood.
We will assume that the transmission gear is of an efficient type,
that the unsprung weight is low, the weight well distributed, and
that the chassis generally is as well designed throughout as the
present state of the art will permit.
Unfortunately, very little accurate data is available as to the
exact power required to propel a motor-vehicle at different speeds
over average roads. Professor Riedler in Germany, and Chase and
James in America, have made and analysed a number of dynamo-
meter tests with the rear wheels of the car resting on rollers, but
these do not always reproduce the conditions exactly. For in-
formation on this point we are compelled to fall back to a large
extent upon tests carried out with accelerometers and upon accumu-
lated experience based upon the known performance of the same
engine, both on the test-bed and on the road—the latter method,
though very unscientific and largely empirical, is probably the most
accurate at the present time. The curve in fig. 137 gives to the
nearest approximation the brake-horse-power required at the engine
ENGINES FOR ROAD VEHICLES 261
flywheel to propel a 3500 lb. 4-seater car at speeds up to 80 miles per

hour. It includes rolling-resistance, windage,, transmission losses
(on direct drive), and all other incidental losses such as wheel slip,
hysteresis losses in the tyres, &c. Though purely empirical it is prob-
ably reasonably correct. For such a car the minimum size of engine
of normal side-valve type which will give reasonable acceleration
and hill-climbing capacity will be one of two-litre cylinder capacity,
while for real comfort a three-litre engine will be preferable.1
We will consider both cases and assume that the engines are of
Fig, 137.—Power required at Engine Flywheel to propel Car of 3500 lb. gross Weight
on the Level at varying Speeds over average Road Surfaces
the normal side-by-side valve type fitted with as efficient a form of

combustion chamber as this type will permit of. Further, we will
assume that the engines are designed with a view to low cost of
production and ease of upkeep, that they have a reasonably low
compression ratio, viz. 4·6 : 1, to render them capable of using
inferior fuel without detonation, and generally that they are of a
thoroughly orthodox type, but as efficient as possible without
resorting to the use of overhead valves or to any features involving
either increased cost of production, or labour in upkeep.
Figs. 138, 139, and 140 show the brake horse-power and general
1
During the eight years which have elapsed since this chapter was prepared great improvements
have been mads, with the result that the two-litre engine of 1930 is fully the equal of the three-litre
engine of 1922.
p e r f o r m a n c e curves
which should be obtain-
able from such engines
of two- and three-litre
cylinder capacity.
Next we will assume
that, in both cases, the
top gear ratio is such
that the maximum speed
on the level is obtained
when the engine is run-
ning at a speed slightly
in excess of that at
which maximum power
is developed—this is al-
ways desirable, both on
the grounds of accelera-
Fig. 138.—Brake Horse-power and Brake Mean Pressure tion, and in order to
of normal Two- and Three-litre Engines reduce the hysteresis
losses due to irregularity
in the turning moment.
We will assume that
three speeds are used
and that the ratios in
the gear box are such
that the second speed
is 70 per cent and the
third 33 per cent of
the top or direct drive.
From a comparison of
the power curves of the
two engines and the
power required on the
level, as shown in fig. 137,
we find that the most
suitable gear ratios for
the direct drive are those
Fig. 139.—Indicated Horse-power, indicated Mean which give a car speed
Pressure, and Mechanical Efficiency
of 20 miles per hour at
1100 R.P.M. in the case of the two-litre, and at 880 R.P.M. in
the case of the three-litre engine. If now we plot the power
curve of the two engines against fig. 137 in the above ratio, as shown
in fig. 141, we find that the two-litre engine will give a maximum
speed on the level of 54·5
miles per hour and the
three-litre of 66 miles per
hour. The margin of
power at any speed over
and above that required
to propel the car on the
level may be termed the
excess power available
for hill-climbing or acceler-
ation.
Figs. 142 and 143 show Fig. 140.—Fuel Consumption at full Torque Pints
the excess - power curves per Indicated and per Brake Horse-power Hour
for the two engines on
the three gears, assuming an efficiency as compared with top
gear of 95 and 97 per cent respectively for the first and second
speeds. Strictly speaking, the relative gear losses will be less in
Fig. 141.—Excess-power Curves for Two- and Three-litre Engines on Top Gear
the case of the larger engine, but the difference is small and hardly
worth taking into consideration. Figs. 142 and 143 show also the
gradient in terms of per cent which the car will climb on each
gear and the speed at which it will climb it without gain or loss
in speed.
From the curves shown in these two figures it will be seen that
Fig. 142.—Hill-climbing Capacity, Two-litre Engine
the maximum gradient which the three-litre engine will climb

without gain or loss of speed on its third or top gear is one of 8 per
cent, on its second speed the maximum gradient is about 13·5 per
cent, and on its bottom speed about 31 per cent. It will be noted
Fig. 143.—Hill-climbing Capacity, Three-litre Engine
that on a gradient of 6·2 per cent the maximum speed will be the
same on either top or second speed, namely, 45 miles per hour.
In the case of the two-litre engine, the maximum gradient which
the car will climb at a uniform speed on top gear is one of 6 per cent,
on second speed 10 per cent, and on bottom speed about 25·5 per
cent. For maximum speed in this case, gear should be changed
from top to second when the gradient exceeds 4·7 per cent, or when
the speed has dropped to 38 miles per hour.
Fig. 144 gives the rate of acceleration of the car with two-litre
engine, from any speed, and on the three gears, assuming that the
Carburation and distribution are such that the engine will respond
instantly and exert its maximum torque immediately the throttle is
opened—a condition, however, which is seldom reached in practice.
The foregoing curves show the general performance of the car as
regards ultimate speed, acceleration, and hill-climbing capacity.
We have next to consider the question of fuel consumption and
the factors which control it. For this purpose we will assume that
the car will be running always on its top gear, and we will examine
Fig. 144.—Acceleration on various Gears, Two-litre Engine
the speed range between 10 and 40 miles per hour, which covers the
range of average speed such a car will maintain. For simplicity we
will assume also that the car is running on a level road, though, in
so far as fuel consumption is concerned, it makes comparatively
little difference whether the road is level or undulating provided the
gradients are well within the limits which the car can negotiate on
top gear and that the average speed is not too low. Although, when
coasting, one does not recover what is lost in climbing, yet this is
very nearly compensated for by the more favourable load factor
when pulling uphill.
Figs. 145 and 146 show the load factor in the case of the three-
and two-litre engines at speeds ranging from 10 to 40 miles per hour,
and the fuel consumption in terms of pints per B.H.P. hour at the
corresponding load factors and speeds. These figures are deduced
from the mean of a large number of test results upon several engines
Fig. 145.—Load Factor and Fuel Consumption in Pints per B.H.P. Hour when running on the
Level at average Speeds of from 10 to 40 Miles per Hour. Three-litre Engine
Fig. 146.—Load Factor and Fuel Consumption in Pints per B.H.P. Hour when running on
Level at average Speeds of from 10 to 40 Miles per Hour. Two-litre Engine
of the size and class under consideration with carefully adjusted

carburettor and ignition settings and a reasonably good distribution
system. In fig. 147 is shown the fuel consumption in terms of miles
per gallon for the two engines at average car speeds ranging from
10 to 40 miles per hour.
With normal Carburation the consumption per mile is about
7 per cent greater with the larger engine at an average speed of
20 M.P.H., but the discrepancy becomes less as the average speed
increases. With perfect Carburation and distribution, &c., the dis-
crepancy will become less, and at the higher mean speeds the larger
engine will show, with the gear ratios selected, an actually greater
fuel economy than the smaller one. In either case the larger engine
will, in fact, make a better showing if the road is hilly or undulating,
for it will then be able to negotiate gradients on top speed which,
in the case of the smaller engine, might necessitate a change of gear.
There is another factor which also exerts a still more powerful
Fig. 147.—Fuel Consumption in Miles per Gallon at average Speeds varying from
10 to 40 Miles per Hour
influence upon fuel economy than Carburation and distribution, and

indeed upon the whole performance of the car, namely, the mechanical
efficiency of the engine. This becomes the more important because
of the very low load factor at which the engine operates. In the
example shown, a fairly high mechanical efficiency has been assumed
such as would be obtainable with light reciprocating parts and care-
ful mechanical design. The average motor-car engine with cast-iron
pistons and often excessive and ill-disposed bearing surfaces will not
show by any means so high a mechanical efficiency.
It is perhaps worth while to consider the case when the car is
travelling on the level at a mean speed of, say, 25 miles per hour
and observe the influence of the mechanical efficiency of the engine
upon fuel consumption. This speed calls for an expenditure of
8 B.H.P. at the flywheel of the engine and corresponds to an engine
speed of 1100 R.P.M. in the case of the three-litre and 1375 R.P.M.
in the case of the two-litre engine : at these speeds the mechanical
efficiency of the two engines has been taken as 90·5 per cent and
88·5 per cent respectively on full torque, but since the internal
friction of the engine is independent of the torque, at 8 B.H.P. the
mechanical efficiency will have fallen to 73·5 per cent and 73 per cent
respectively. If now the mechanical losses were doubled owing to
poor mechanical design, all other conditions remaining the same, the
mechanical efficiency when driving the car on the level at an average
of 8 B.H.P. will become only 58·2 and 58·6 per cent respectively,
and the fuel consumption per B.H.P. hour will have increased from
0·81 and 0·745 to 1·02 and 0·93 pints per H.P. hour at the same
load factor, but in fairness we must allow for the fact that, owing to
the poorer performance as a whole, the load factor will be somewhat
higher. If we take this into account we find that the consumption
at a mean speed of 25 M.P.H. will be approximately 0·97 and 0·89
pint per B.H.P. hour, corresponding to a fuel consumption in terms
of miles per gallon of 25·8 and 28·1 as against 31 and 33·6 for the
three- and two-litre engines respectively. From these figures it will
be seen that the gain in fuel economy to be obtained by a limited and
perfectly possible improvement in mechanical efficiency is a very sub-
stantial one. Further, a gain in mechanical efficiency will influence
not only the fuel economy but also the speed and hill-climbing
capacity of the car throughout its whole working range. From such
considerations we are justified in assuming that of the available
scope for improvement the most important is that of reducing as
far as possible the internal friction losses of the engine, and next in
importance are improvements in Carburation and distribution.
Unlike engines for other purposes, we may regard the pleasure-
car engine as one which will never be called upon to develop high
power, except for very short periods, and we have shown that the
average load factor under normal running conditions is about 30 to
40 per cent in the case of the engines under consideration. Ex-
pressed in other terms, the average power required at the engine
flywheel to propel a touring motor-car under normal conditions at
an average speed of 25-30 miles per hour is approximately 7 H.P. per
ton (unladen), while with even the most reckless driving it is almost
impossible on any English main road to average 15 H.P. per ton,
altogether irrespective of the maximum power of the engine.
In this connection it is interesting to note that from careful
observations of fuel consumption made during the practice runs for
the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy Race in 1922, the average horse-
power developed by the Vauxhall racing cars during their fastest

laps, when they averaged considerably over 60 miles per hour round
a perfectly clear and very hilly course, was certainly less than 50
B.H.P., even assuming that they were using the most economical
carburettor setting. In view of the fact that these engines were
capable of developing well over 120 B.H.P., and that the cars were
naturally driven at the highest possible speed consistent with barely
reasonable safety, it appears rather surprising that so small a pro-
portion of the available power could be utilized. It shows that even
when roads are cleared of all traffic and when the driver is relieved
of all responsibility so far as other road-users are concerned, when
he is both highly skilled and prepared to incur considerable personal
risk, he is still restricted, by road conditions, to utilizing more than
about 40 H.P. per ton.
Most cars at the present day show an unduly high fuel con-
sumption, and this is to be accounted for by
(1) The mechanical efficiency of the engine being usually very
low; in the one application above all others where it should be as
high as possible.
(2) The form of the combustion chamber being generally in-
efficient, due to lack of turbulence,
(3) Defective Carburation and distribution, more particularly the
latter.
Recent development has been confined almost solely to the
addition of various refinements, to the elimination of noise and
general smoothness of operation ; such lines of development are, of
course, very proper, but there is a tendency for the economic fact,
that the efficiency of a vehicle as a whole lies in the number of
ton-miles it will run per gallon, to be overlooked. In too many cases
fuel efficiency appears to have been forgotten entirely in the search
for silence, in the better-class cars, and for low cost of production
in the cheaper varieties. The author uses the word forgotten
advisedly as against forgone, for, as it has been shown in previous
chapters, fuel economy is largely a question of design and can usually
be attained without adding to the cost and without the loss of other
desirable features. The history of engine development has been
much the same in all classes of mechanical engineering—first a
struggle to attain mechanical reliability, during which stage the
engine is a fascinating toy ; this is generally followed by a period of
intense rivalry in detail refinement to the neglect of other con-
siderations ; finally the inexorable laws of economy insist that
attention shall be concentrated on what is really the final test, namely,
the amount of work an engine will do on a given quantity of fuel
and on a given weight and cost of material. In the case of the motor
vehicle we are probably passing from the second to the third stage
of development and are beginning to realize the absurdity of. for
example, loading the engine at all times with a heavy burden of
frictional losses often merely for the sake of getting it to run a little
slower and a little quieter when idling. As in the case of all new
developments which fall into the hands of a lay public, fashion plays
Fig. 148.—14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine
a predominant part, and fashion to-day calls for refinement in detail to

the neglect of all other considerations. Ultimately utility will call for
economy in operation, and the attention of designers will be concen-
trated upon reducing mechanical losses and improving distribution.
T h e 14-H.P. Vauxhall E n g i n e . — T h e 14-H.P. Vauxhall
engine illustrated in figs., 148, 149, 150, and 151 has been designed
by Mr. C. E. King, Chief Engineer of the Vauxhall Company, to
whose kindness the author is indebted for leave to publish the
following particulars:—
It may be regarded as a typical example of a modern pleasure-
car engine of the best type, designed to meet as far as possible the
dictates of fashion, and at the same time to show a performance
both as regards power and fuel economy considerably above the
usual average of engines of its class. It has four cylinders each of
75-mm. bore by 130-mm. stroke, giving a total cylinder capacity of
approximately 2·3 litres, and is designed to drive a five-seated open
touring car weighing complete with passengers and usual equipment
about 3200 lb. It develops a maximum of 43·5 B.H.P. at a speed of
2600-2700 R.P.M.
Particular care has been taken to reduce, as far as possible, the
internal friction losses, and also to obtain an efficient form of corn-
Fig. 149.—14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine
bustion chamber, with the result that the power output and efficiency
are both very considerably greater than that of the average side-
valve engine, particularly so at reduced loads. The details of the
design are shown in figs. 150 and 151, from which it will be seen that
the four cylinders are cast in one block separate from the crankcase
and with a common detachable aluminium cylinder head, the com-
bustion chamber of which is as shown in fig. 150.
The crankshaft is carried in three white-metal lined bearings
and is drilled for forced lubrication to all main and crankpin bear-
ings. The pistons are of aluminium of the slipper type, but having
a complete ring formed at the base of the slippers. The gudgeon
pins float freely, both in the connecting-rods and pistons, and are
located endwise by means of circlips and washers. The total re-
ciprocating weight of each line is 1·75 lb., while the rotating weight
of the connecting-rod big end is also 1·75 lb. The inlet valves have
a port diameter of 1·4 inches with a lift of 0·35 inch, and the
exhaust valves a port diameter of 1·31 inches with the same lift.
All valves are operated by means of push rods having curved slippers.
Fig. 150.—Arrangement of Cross-section, 14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine
The crankshaft has a diameter of 1·75 inches throughout, the

widths of the several bearings being :
MAIN JOURNALS
Forward end 2·4 inches.
Centre 2·1 „
Flywheel 2·65 „
Connecting-rod 1·75 „
The ratio, therefore, of the piston area to the projected crankpin
area is as 2·22 : 1, so that the load factor on the crankpin bearing
is a very light one.
Fig. 151.—Arrangement of Longitudinal Section of 14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine. 75 x 130 mm.
The general performance of this engine, with a compression ratio

of 5·1 : 1 and with wide-open throttle over a speed range from 750
to 2750 R.P.M., is shown in fig. 152, from which it will be seen that
a brake mean pressure of 108 lb. per square inch is obtained at a
(E 246) 19
Fig. 152.—14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine. Gas Velocity, Brake Horse-power, Brake

Mean Pressure, and Fuel Consumption Curves
Fig. 153.—14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine. Fuel Consumption various per cent of full Load
speed of 1750 R.P.M. corresponding to a gas velocity through the

inlet valves of about 120 ft. per second, the gas velocity through the
induction pipe at this speed being about 175 ft. per second; this
relatively high velocity is maintained in the induction pipe in order
to keep the liquid particles of fuel in suspension even at reduced loads.
Fig. 153 shows the fuel consumption at a speed of 1600 R.P.M.
when the power is controlled by throttling, from which it will be
seen that even at 50 per cent full-load torque the consumption is
less than 0·7 pint per B.H.P. hour.
Fig. 154.—14-H.P. Vauxhall Engine. Indicated Mean Pressure and Mechanical Efficiency
No data is available as to the mechanical efficiency of this engine,

but it can be estimated fairly accurately from the general design
and checked back from the measured fuel consumption at reduced
loads. From such deductions it would appear that the mechanical
efficiency and indicated M.E.P. are as shown in fig. 154, from which
it will be seen that the indicated mean pressure reaches a maximum
when the gas velocity through the inlet valves is about 150 ft. per
second. The indicated fuel consumption would probably reach its
minimum at or about this speed, but, unfortunately, it is clear from
the throttle curve that the carburettor was set to give an over-rich
mixture at full throttle, so that there is no real evidence available.
The engine drives the car through a three-speed gear-box giving
ratios which correspond with road speeds of 6·25, 12·5, and 21 miles
per hour at 1000 R.P.M. Its maximum speed on the level is a little
short of 60 M.P.H., corresponding to an engine speed, without wheel
slip, of 2850 R.P.M., and its consumption averages 30 miles per
gallon at an average speed of 25 M.P.H. and 29 miles per gallon
at 30 M.P.H.
Sleeve-valve Engines.—For motor-car engines where the
need for silence is great and at the same time where, owing to
the low average power factor, the heat flow is small, the use of
sleeve valves in place of the ordinary poppet valves appears very
attractive. Such valves have the following advantages :—
(1) Their action is, or should be, noiseless.
(2) Their employment permits of the use of the best possible
form of combustion chamber with the sparking plug centrally
situated, hence the indicated efficiency should be high and the
tendency to detonate at a minimum.
(3) They require less attention than poppet valves and cannot
readily be thrown out of tune by misuse.
The objections are :
(1) That the heat flow to the cooling water is necessarily some-
what restricted, though this is not of much moment in the case of
motor-car engines, more especially when a single sleeve is used.
(2) Unless the sleeve be given an abnormally long stroke the
effective port area is necessarily restricted.
(3) The sleeve or sleeves, having a large rubbing surface, neces-
sarily entail a higher friction loss, more particularly when a long
stroke is used.
(4) It is possible only to operate the sleeve from one side unless
the whole of the operating mechanism be duplicated, which involves
excessive mechanical complication and introduces grave difficulties
in the way of mechanical synchronization.
In a four-cycle engine the sequence of operation is such as cannot
be fulfilled by a plain reciprocating sleeve, hence it is necessary either
to employ two concentric reciprocating sleeves, as in the Daimler
Knight engine, or a single sleeve with a combined reciprocating and
rotary motion, as in the Burt engine. A plain rotating sleeve is
unsatisfactory, since a reciprocating motion of some sort is essential
to prevent scoring of the sleeve and cylinder wall. It is essential
also that the whole of the inner surface of the sleeve shall, at every
cycle, be scraped either by the piston or the fixed cylinder head,
in order to prevent the formation of shoulders due to wear or carbon
deposits, which would prove fatal to their operation.
The use of two concentric and reciprocating sleeves has the
advantage that their mechanical operation is somewhat simpler, but
it is very difficult to see what further advantage they can possess.
The chief fault of the sleeve-valve engine, namely, the difficulty of
disposing of the heat from the piston, is greatly accentuated when
Fig. 155
two sleeves are used, as also the friction loss, which is no small item
and a particularly objectionable one where the load factor is light,
as in a motor-car engine.
In fig. 155 is shown diagrammatically the operation of a double-
sleeve engine, from which it will be seen that the sleeves are actuated
from a half-speed crankshaft connected by short rods to points at
the side of each sleeve.
Figs. 156-159 show various alternative methods adopted by Burt
for operating a single-sleeve valve. The method shown in fig. 156
is that used in the Picard Pictet cars and is, in the author's opinion,
attractive from a mechanical point of view, but it is necessarily
somewhat costly. In this arrangement two half - speed crank-
shafts are employed and the sleeve is operated from the centre of
Fig. 156.
a coupling-rod connecting these shafts. It will be seen that one

end of the coupling-rod is connected directly to one crankpin
and the other to a second crankpin, but through the medium of a
sliding block with a small amount of end play. The sliding block
allows for any slight errors in synchronism as between the two
half-speed shafts.
Fig. 157 shows a similar method of operation in which only one
half-speed shaft is used. This is said to work well in practice, but is
clearly inferior mechanically to that shown in fig. 156.
Another very attractive form is that shown in fig. 158, in
which a ball-and-socket joint is used. This form has the
advantage of being considerably lighter and more compact;
Fig. 157
also it is probably the least expensive and the most accessible.

Fig. 159 shows an earlier form used in the Argyll cars, in
which a reciprocating plunger is used in place of the ball
socket. As in the forms 156, 157, and 159, this necessitates
the use of a pin in the sleeve, and therefore both increases
the radius of operation and the effective weight of the
sleeve.
The author is greatly indebted to Mr. Burt for the following
information and particulars as to the determination of port areas, &c.,
when a single sleeve is employed.
Calculation of Ports.—The special shape of port is adopted to

give a maximum area of opening with the minimum of sleeve travel.
Fig. 160 shows typical ports a being the ideal shape, b the same port
Fig. 158.
with corners rounded off to avoid interference when sleeve-valve

port is passing down between two cylinder ports. The straight
flank port c is usually adopted, as it is a better manufacturing pro-
position, although slightly smaller in area than type b, for a given
valve-shaft stroke.
It is necessary to fix the following particulars before calculating
single-sleeve valve ports :—
ENGINES FOR ROAD VEHICLES 28l
A = Arrangement and number of ports.

D = Outside diameter of sleeve valve in inches.
C = Distance from axis of sleeve valve to axis of pivot-pin or
ball-and-socket coupling in inches.
T = Throw of sleeve crank in inches.
V = Engine timing.
Fig. 159.
The greater the number of ports the smaller the sleeve - valve
crankthrow for a given area of valve opening, thereby reducing the
over-all dimensions of valve-driving mechanism and height of engine,
but complicating the coring of water-passages in the cylinder cast-
ings and increasing the port cutting time. The fewer the number
of ports for a similar area the greater the valve crankthrow and
over-all dimensions, hut the coring is simplified with an attendant
reduction of port cutting time.
The maximum inlet opening areas obtainable with various port
Fig. 160.—Angular Travel
settings are given in fig. 161, while fig. 162 illustrates in proportion
several settings. It will be noticed that a “ double purpose ” port—
that is, one which acts alternately as inlet and exhaust—is included in
Fig. 161.—Maximum Inlet Valve Opening. Various Port Settings
each setting. This is advisable where maximum openings are desired;

two single ports with a wall between would obviously use up more of
the sleeve-valve circumference than a single “ double purpose ” port.
The sleeve valve is usually centrifugally cast of good quality

grey iron, and for engines up to 2¾-in. diameter bore is made ·1 in.
thick, while for engines of 4¼-in. diameter bore ·125 in. thick is quite
satisfactory. D can readily be obtained by adding twice the sleeve-
valve wall thickness to the cylinder bore diameter, while C, which
should be kept as small as possible, is generally ·575D when the
ball-and-socket type of drive is used.
The throw of sleeve crank T is obtained from the number of
ports in the cylinder, as given by the setting adopted, and the
dimensions D and C.
Fig. 162.—Various Port Settings
This gives the maximum throw possible with this type of actua-
tion and may be reduced within limits according to the type of
engine under consideration. Maximum throws for various settings
and engine bore diameters are given graphically in fig. 163.
The valve timing V has now to be settled, and in common with
poppet valves it varies according to the type of engine.
The actual calculation of ports will be best understood by taking
an example. Assume a high-speed engine of 68-mm. bore, the
desired maximum opening area of the inlet ports being 1·0 sq. in.
approximately, so that we have
A =2 inlet x 2 exhaust, for it will be seen from fig. 161 that this
setting gives the required area.
D = 68 mm, + ·2 in. = say 2·9-in. diameter.
C=·575 x 2·9 = 1·66 in., say 1·65 in.
T= 1·8 x 2·9 = ·74 in., say ·7 in.

(2 x 4) - 1
a = Angular travel of sleeve valve (see fig. 160).
sin when T is central = = ·42424 or 25° 6';
= 25° 6' x 2 = 50° 12'.
When T is offset sin a =
Referring to fig. 164:
H = Horizontal travel = 50° 12' x 3·1416 x 2·9
= 1·275",
360
L = Length of port = H - cover = 1·275" - · 05" = 1·225".
Fig. 163.—Maximum Sleeve-valve Crankthrow. Various Port Settings
Minimum cover = ·04". This is usually arranged so as to

bring L to an even figure.
W = Minimum space between ports (this does not apply to
alternate ports as shown in setting d, fig. 162) = H + cover
= 1·275" + ·05" = 1·325".
h =Height of ports = T + (T sin ) = ·7 + (·7 sin 22½° ) = ·97".
4 ports at 1·225" long = 4·9"
2 spaces at 1·325 „ = 2·65"
2 spaces at ·775 „ = 1·55"
Circumference of sleeve valve = 9·1".

li = Inlet port tail =
= ·6375- ·7 sin 7½° x = ·6375 - ·08 = ·5575".

le = Exh. port tail = T sin
= ·6375 + ·7 sin 15° x = ·6375, ·1595 = ·797".
With straight-sided ports the flank angle can be solved as follows

(see fig, 164):—
Fig. 164.
AC= h - 2r,
r = corner radius usually 1/8", AB =
AD and EB =r,
BC = L - ( l + 2r), z = 90°
Flank angle = X = z
In fig. 165 the crankshaft timing diagram for the example worked
Fig. 165.—Timing Diagrams

is shown at a, while the same timing transferred to the valveshaft is
indicated at b, the crankshaft being at TDC, while the valveshaft
crankpin is at BDC. It is obvious that with this valveshaft setting
Fig. 166.—Valve opening Diagram. 68-mm. Bore Engine : C=1·65", T=·7"
a relatively large opening to exhaust would be obtained owing to the

greater height of exhaust port. To overcome this, and in order to
make the machining of ports a simpler operation, inlet and exhaust
Fig. 167.—Four-cylinder Burt Single-sleeve Valve Engine
ports are made of equal height. This is made possible by the setting
of valveshaft crankpin in advance of its BDC and in relation to the
crankshaft until the angles x and y are equal. The amount of offset
is found by and the result for the example taken is shown in

fig. 165 at c; the corresponding port-opening diagram being as
shown in fig. 166.
Fig. 167 shows an example of a small four-cylinder motor-
car engine of 68-mm. bore and 103 mm. in which single-sleeve valves
actuated by the ball-and-socket mechanism are employed; while
Fig. 168 Fig. 169

Barr & Stroud Engine with Burt Single Valve
figs. 168 and 169 show a remarkably neat design of motor-cycle

engine built by Messrs. Barr & Stroud, and incorporating the same
features.
R a c i n g Cars.—The practice of motor-car and cycle racing has
been one of the most valuable stimulants to the design of efficient
internal-combustion engines, for the racing engine operates under
conditions of severity such as are met with in no other field, with
the result that weaknesses which would develop in the course of
years under ordinary conditions of service are shown up in as many
minutes. The rapid progress which the high-speed internal-com-
bustion engine has made during recent years is due to the stimulus
of motor racing, and that to an extent which few people fully
realize,
In the production of a racing engine the designer has full liberty
to employ every means known to him to obtain the highest possible
power output regardless of any other consideration, except that
during more recent years it has become the practice to limit the
cylinder capacity of racing engines, a restriction which has proved
of undoubted benefit.
There is a popular impression that because the racing engine
no longer resembles the actual article used in touring cars its
value, from an educational point of view, has been lost; this,
however, is a sheer fallacy : the racing engine operates on the same
cycle and under the same conditions, except that they are much
more severe, as the ordinary touring-car engine, and the lessons
learnt from its behaviour are just as applicable to the intelligent
designer as though the engines were identical.
From an educational point of view it is probably desirable
that the racing engine should differ from the touring model, for by
its difference—
(1) Higher speeds and therefore more strenuous conditions of test
are obtained.
(2) The racing engine of to-day is providing lessons for the future
also, and not only for the immediate present.
Again, there is a popular but wholly mistaken belief that the
racing motor-car engine, though powerful, is not “ efficient,” and that
since fuel economy does not enter into consideration such engines
teach us nothing about this important question. For an engine to
be powerful it must be efficient in every respect—that is to say, it
must convert the highest possible percentage of the heat energy
available from the combustion of every pound of air into useful work
at the flywheel. If, as may sometimes be the case, the air is super-
saturated with fuel, that is the carburettor's not the engine's fault,
for with good Carburation the racing engine will show the highest
possible thermal efficiency reckoned on the fuel also,
The engine illustrated in figs. 170-177 is one of several constructed
by Messrs. Vauxhall Motors Ltd. for their racing cars for the 1922
season. It is of three-litres capacity, and develops, the author believes,
(E246)
20
289
Fig. 170.—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing Engine

290


291
the highest power output ever yet obtained from an engine of this size.
The main features aimed at in the design of this engine were :
(1) To obtain the maximum possible thermal efficiency, with a

view to getting the utmost possible power output from the avail-
able air.
(2) To ensure the maximum of structural rigidity.

(3) To avoid crankshaft torsional vibration at any speed of which
the engine was capable.
(4) To obtain the highest possible mechanical efficiency.
(5) To obtain a high volumetric efficiency.
(6) To provide a form of connecting-rod big-end bearing which
Fig. 174.—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing Engine : Auxiliary Drive
should be capable of withstanding continuous running at a mean

speed of well over 4000 R.P.M.
The steps taken to meet these conditions were :—
(1) In order to obtain the highest possible thermal efficiency the
combustion chamber was made of the shallow pent-roof type with
the sparking fitted centrally in the cylinder head. The maximum
distance from the sparking plug points to the farthest point in the
combustion chamber is only 1·9 inches. In addition to the central
plug, provision was made for the fitting of two other plugs, one on
either side, to be operated synchronously from a single low-tension
contact breaker. These additional plugs were intended rather as
a standby in case of failure of the central plug; they were, in fact,
never used.
(2) In order to ensure the maximum of structural rigidity the
crankcase is made as deep as possible and of a barrel shape, with the
maximum cross-section at the centre; the cylinder water-jackets
were cast in one piece and rigidly attached to form an additional
Fig. 175.—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing Engine: Cylinder Heads and Valves
girder, while through bolts extend from the cylinder block to the
very bottom of the crankcase, thus forming a structure of extreme
rigidity both as regards torsion and bending.
(3) With a view to eliminating torsional vibration, the flywheel
is mounted in the centre of the crankshaft so that the maximum
length subject to torsion is reduced to about 8 inches. The shaft
is, in fact, made in the form of two entirely separate two-throw
cranks, each provided with flanges between which the flywheel is
bolted. This arrangement, although very unorthodox, proved most
successful, no trace of torsional vibration being observed at any
speed at which the engine could be run.
(4) With a view to obtaining the highest possible mechanical
efficiency, pistons of the slipper type are employed and the cylinder
liners are maintained at a high temperature in order to lower the
viscosity of the lubricant adhering to them. This latter is accom-
Fig. 176—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing Engine: Crankcase
plished by isolating the lower part of the liners from the main water
circulation, so that the cooling water surrounding them is left prac-
tically stagnant. For the rest, the use of ball and roller bearings
wherever possible contributed to reducing the friction losses to the
Fig. 177.—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing Engine: one of the Camshafts
lowest possible limit and at the same time obviated the necessity
for any form of oil cooling—always a troublesome problem.
(5) In order to obtain a high volumetric efficiency the induction
system was divided so as to avoid any overlapping of the suction
strokes. The central pair of cylinders were fed from one carburettor
and the outer pair from a second and entirely independent car-
burettor. In this manner use could be made of the kinetic energy
of the gases flowing in the induction pipes thoroughly to fill the
cylinders without any risk of one cylinder robbing another, as must
inevitably occur when all four cylinders draw from any one in-
duction manifold, owing to the overlapping of the opening period
of the inlet valves.
The engine has four cylinders, each of 85 mm, bore and 132 mm.
stroke, and was designed with a view to running continuously at from
4000 to 4500 R.P.M. with short periods up to 5000 R.P.M. In order
both to provide structural rigidity and to enclose the central flywheel
the crank chamber is of barrel shape and is mounted in the chassis
by trunnions attached to the sides. The cylinder block consists of
an aluminium casting forming the water-jacket into which loose steel
liners are fitted, with rubber rings to ensure water-tightness. The
cylinder heads are cast in pairs in hard bronze and call for no parti-
cular comment. The valves, of which there are four in number to
each cylinder, are comparatively small with a high lift, and the valve
gear generally is designed to operate at a speed of 5000 R.P.M.
The inlet valves are heavily masked, and by this means it is possible
to employ a comparatively low rate of acceleration and therefore
to use very light and lightly stressed valve springs. The two cam-
shafts are carried in aluminium housings supported from the main
cylinder block at their centre and at either end. They run in plain
bearings with cast-iron floating bushes. The cams themselves are
of very small diameter in order to reduce to the minimum the rubbing
velocity; they are of the plain tangent flank form. The cam
followers are of the plain curved slipper type, with a short straight
push rod interposed between the follower and the valve itself. The
camshafts are driven by means of a chain of spur gears, the inter-
mediate pinions of which are carried in separate spider housings to
permit of the meshing being correctly adjusted,
(6) Experience with bearings, both in actual engines and under
separate tests, had shown that, even under the most favourable
conditions as to lubrication, plain white-metal lined bearings could
not be relied upon for the connecting-rod big-ends, because no matter
how much oil be circulated through the bearings, nor how thoroughly
it be cooled, there was little hope of getting rid of the heat
generated by friction at a rate sufficient to keep the temperature
of the bearing material within safe limits. Further, in order to
reduce vibration and ensure structural rigidity, it was essential
to keep the cylinder centres as close together as possible, and this
limited the permissible width of bearing surface both on the crank-
pins and main crankshaft journals.
In view of these considerations it was apparent that if a con-
tinuous mean speed of over 4000 R.P.M. was to be maintained
some form of crankpin bearing other than a plain white-metal
lining would have to be employed. The choice lay between (a) the
use of a floating bush between the crankpin and connecting-rod,
under forced lubrication, and (b) a roller bearing. Both these
would necessitate the use of some form of built-up crankshaft with
case-hardened crankpins, since neither the floating bush nor the
roller race could be split, nor could the weight of a split big-end
bearing be tolerated. Of the two alternatives the floating bush
would require continuous lubrication under pressure, while the
roller bearing could be used with splash lubrication. Since for the
same and other additional reasons, it was essential to employ ball
or roller bearings for the main journals, the provision of continuous
lubrication under pressure to the crankpins became a very difficult
problem, and it was decided therefore to adopt the second alterna-
tive and employ roller bearings. The method of building up the
crankshaft was another problem, and after much consideration it
was decided to employ a completely built-up crank, consisting of
plain parallel pins on to which the crank-cheeks were shrunk as in
marine and large gas-engine practice.
The crankshafts throughout were made from plain mild steel
with the pins case-hardened. For the connecting-rod big-end
bearing, it was decided to use a double row of short rollers located
in a one-piece bronze cage, while the hardened eye of the con-
necting-rod itself formed the outer race. This is further stiffened
by means of two circular webs. Like the crankshafts, the connecting-
rods are of plain low-carbon case-hardened steel.
Lubrication.—Two oil pumps of the oscillating valveless plunger
type are provided, both of which are operated from one of the idle
wheels of the gear train. One pump draws oil from the oil sump
and delivers it to an oil gallery running the full length of the crank-
case, provided with four jets playing oil on to each of the crank-
throws. The second pump delivers oil under a pressure of about
25 lb. per square inch to the camshafts, the oil being distributed
through the hollow fulcrum pins of the valve rockers ; from the
camshaft casings, the oil drains back by gravity to the crankcase.
Cooling.—The cooling water is circulated by means of a centri-
fugal pump running at one-half engine speed. From the pump the
water passes around the upper end of the cylinder liners, the lower
parts of which are partitioned off in order to maintain the water
more or less stagnant, and so to permit of the bearing portion of the
liners attaining rapidly a fairly high temperature. From the upper
deck of the cylinder block the water passes to the cylinder heads in
parallel, and so returns to the radiator. In order both to cool the
crankcase and slightly to heat the air on its way to the carburettors,
the air supply to the engine is drawn through the upper part of the
crankcase and around the exposed lower ends of the cylinder liners.
The compression ratio used is 5·8 : 1. It had originally been
proposed to employ a much higher compression ratio, and to run
on a special fuel mixture, but owing to the difficulty of providing
an efficient form of combustion chamber with any higher compression
ratio, and at the same time avoid any risk of the pistons striking
the valves should these accidentally stick in the full open position,
it was considered safer to employ a lower ratio, at which, owing to
the short-flame travel from the sparking plug, ordinary good quality
petrol can be used without detonation.
In general, though the engine is designed throughout to run at
very high speeds, it contains no extremes either of design or material.
The whole of the crankshaft, the connecting-rods, and the gudgeon
pins are of straight low-carbon mild steel. Neither the connecting-
rods nor the pistons are particularly light. The cams are of the
plain tangent flank form, free from any concave surfaces, the accelera-
tion of the valve gear is low, and the valve springs are very lightly
stressed. In short, the engines were designed throughout with a
view to reliability both in manufacture and in running, and an
ample margin of safety provided for.
The performance of one of these engines which underwent pro-
longed testing on the test-bench is shown in fig. 178, from which it
will be seen that a maximum of 129 B.H.P. is reached at a speed of
4500 R.P.M., the brake and indicated mean pressures at this speed
being 124 and 159 lb, per square inch respectively, and the mechanical
efficiency 78 per cent. It will be observed also that the highest
indicated mean pressure was obtained at a speed of about 3700
R.P.M., showing that the combination of induction pipe design and
valve setting was such as to give maximum over-all efficiency at this
speed. With a combustion efficiency of 34·75 per cent this corre-
sponds to a volumetric efficiency at N.T.P. of 80·3 per cent, a figure
which is in very close agreement with that obtained from the author's
variable compression engine under similar conditions as to tempera-

ture, and at a speed of 1750 R.P.M., which is the most efficient
speed for this particular engine. This figure also is in very close
agreement with readings taken of the compression pressure when
motoring, which at 4000 R.P.M. was found to be 139 lb, per square
inch, indicating that the cylinders were filled up to very nearly full
atmospheric pressure at this speed. The mechanical efficiency was
arrived at from a very large number of tests by Morse's method on
pairs of cylinders separately, on individual cylinders, and by motor-
ing tests. The three methods showed exceptionally close agreement
over the whole range of speed.
The performance of the engines is almost exactly what might

be anticipated from an analysis of the general design based on the
data given in the preceding chapters, and, since it conforms so
closely, it may be of interest and perhaps of some use to engine
designers to recapitulate such data in so far as it applies to these
particular engines. It may also, the author hopes, help to dispel
the still prevalent superstition that some mystery enshrouds the
performance of racing motor-car engines, whose behaviour is, in
fact, perfectly normal in every respect.
The leading dimensions of these engines are as follows :—
Bore 85 mm. =3·34 inches.
Stroke 132 mm.=5·2 „
Compression 5·8 : 1.
Area of piston 8·75 square inches.
Swept volume of cylinder 45·5 cubic inches.
Weight of reciprocating parts (per cylinder) 1·7 Lb.
(per sq. in. of piston area) 0·195 lb. per sq. in.
Number of valves 4—2 inlet, 2 exhaust.
Diameter of valve ports (inlet) =1·34 inches.
(exhaust) =1·30 „
Lift of all valves =0·354 „
Effective area through inlet valves =2·55 sq. in.
(Inlet valves masked 0·050 inches of travel.)
Ratio piston area to effective inlet port area =3·44 : 1.
The chart, fig. 179, curve A, shows the mean gas velocity through
the inlet valves at speeds varying up to 4500 R.P.M., and curve B
shows the volumetric efficiency which corresponds with these mean
gas velocities allowing for the latent heat of evaporation of the fuel,
assuming that the minimum of preheating were used and that
there were no undue wiredrawing in the induction pipe or car-
burettors, both of which conditions apply in this case. Curve B
is arrived at by calculations such as those given in Chapter II, by
deduction from various test results, and finally by direct air measure-
ments taken on various engines with similar combustion chambers
and similar gas velocities through the inlet valves. The falling off
in volumetric efficiency at the lower speeds is due merely to the

late closing of the inlet valves, which results in the rejection of some
of the combustible mixture during the early part of the compression
stroke ; while the falling off again at very high speeds is due to
wiredrawing or insufficient valve area. With a combustion chamber
of the form used giving the maximum of turbulence, and with
central ignition, the efficiency reckoned on the air consumption will,
at high speeds, be approximately 69 per cent of the air-cycle efficiency
for the compression ratio (vide Chapter IV).
The air-cycle efficiency corresponding to a compression ratio of
5·8 : 1 is 50·5 per cent, so that the combustion efficiency will be
34·8 per cent at the highest speeds, when turbulence
is at a maximum and direct heat loss at a minimum. As the speed
is reduced turbulence becomes less, owing to the lower entering gas
velocity, and the direct heat loss, though of comparatively small
consequence, will also increase, with the result that combustion
efficiency may be expected to vary approximately as the curve C,
tig, 179. The values given in this curve are taken from those found
on the author's variable compression engine under almost exactly
similar conditions.
From the curves B and C and the known heat of combustion per
standard cubic inch of mixture, as given in Chapters I and II, the
indicated mean effective pressure can be arrived at directly by
multiplying together the volumetric efficiency, the heat of com-
bustion per standard cubic inch (47·8 ft.-lb. in this instance) x 12
x the combustion efficiency ; thus at 3000 R.P.M. the indicated
mean pressure will be 0·807 x 47·8 x 12 x 0·343 = 159 lb. per square
inch. Similarly at speeds from 1500 to 4500 we find that the
theoretical indicated mean effective pressure should be—
Volumetric Combustion Indicated mean Observed I.ME.P.

R.P.M. Efficiency Efficiency Pressure lb. per sq. in.
per cent. per cent. lb. per sq. in.
1500 75·0 31·0 133·4 138·5

2000 77·6 32·6 145·1 148·0
2500 79·7 33·9 155·0 156·0
3000 80·7 34·3 159·0 161·0
3500 80·7 34·6 160·4 162·5
4000 79·9 34·7 159·2 162·2
4500 78·5 34·8 156·9 159·0
5000 77·0 34·8 153·7 …
From the above it will be seen that the agreement between the
estimated and the observed figures is so close as to prove that the
engine is behaving normally in every respect; it is, in fact, so close
as to indicate a certain share of coincidence, for neither calculation
nor measurement could be exact to within closer limits than I per
cent, leaving scope for a variation of 3 lb, per square inch between
the observed and the calculated figures, assuming that all the
premises on which the latter were based were strictly accurate.
No tests were made above 4500 R.P.M, or below 1500.
The losses in any internal-combustion engine may be divided
up into—(1) Piston friction. (2) Fluid pumping losses. (3) Bearing
friction and auxiliary drives.
Of these piston friction constitutes always by far the largest
proportion, and all more recent tests appear to indicate that for a
piston of more or less normal design and proportions, and for normal
conditions as to lubrication and jacket temperature, the piston
friction in terms of lb. per square inch on the piston head may be
arrived at with a fair degree of approximation by the empirical
formula—
Mean fluid pressure including compression 2 Mean inertia pressure

4 3 +2·0.
10
From such a formula we find that the piston friction expressed

in terms of mean pressure on the piston at every fourth stroke
(i.e. expressed on equal terms to the useful mean pressure) should be—
Piston Friction
Speed R.P.M. {lb. per sq. in. M.E.P.)
1500 7·7
2000 8·6
2500 10·0
3000 114
3500 13·1
4000 15·1
4500 17·3
The fluid pumping losses are dependent, assuming a normal

valve setting, as in this case, and no other serious obstruction to the
flow of gas into or out of the cylinders, upon the mean gas velocity
through the valves and more particularly through the inlet valves.
Fig. 180 shows the observed fluid pumping losses at different gas
velocities: from this curve, and that of gas velocity given in fig. 179,
we find that the fluid pumping losses in this particular engine again
expressed in terms of mean pressure should amount to—
Fluid Pumping
Speed R.P.M. Losses.
(lb. per sq. in.)
1500 2·0
2000 2·3
2500 2·9
3000 4·0
3500 5·4
4000 6·9
4500 8·6 Fig. 180.—Mean Pressure of Suction Loop for different Gas
Velocities with Normal Valve Setting and Poppet Valves.
Finally, there remains the friction of the bearings and the power
absorbed by the auxiliary drives: these latter consist of a long train
of gears to operate the overhead camshafts, the camshafts them-
selves in plain floating bearings, a large water circulating pump,
two oil pumps, a small air-compressor for fuel supply, and the
ignition gear. No direct measurement was taken of the power
absorbed by these auxiliaries, and in the absence of actual data we
must fall back on analogy from tests on other engines more or less
similarly equipped. From such an analogy it may be assumed that
the loss due to all these sources will range in more or less a straight
line from the equivalent of 3 lb. per square inch at 1500 R.P.M. to
about 5 lb. at 4500 R.P.M.
From the above it will be seen that the total of fluid and frictional
losses may be estimated at—
Total Losses.
Speed R.P.M. (lb. per sq. in. M.E.P.) Observed Losses.
estimated.
1500 12·7 10·9

2000 14·2 12·6
2500 16·5 15·2
3000 19·3 18·6
3500 22·7 22·7
4000 26·6 28·8
4500 30·9 35·0
Fig. 181 shows in full lines the estimated friction losses as arrived
at in the above tables, and in dotted line, the observed losses as
arrived at by motoring and by tests with the ignition cut off from
various cylinders. It will be observed that while the general slope
of the curve of mechanical and other losses does not agree very
closely with the estimated curve, yet the mean value throughout
the whole range of speed is in very fair agreement.
A number of readings of fuel consumption using the petrol re-
ferred to—as sample A in Chapter 1—were taken at different speeds
and loads, using in all cases an economical carburettor setting :
that is to say, about 10 per cent weak as against the 20 per cent rich
mixture employed for the attainment of the utmost possible power
output. The fuel consumption readings therefore were taken with
Fig. 181.—Estimated and observed Fluid and Friction Losses
the carburettor so adjusted as to reduce the maximum power by

about 6 per cent. These tests gave the results shown in figs. 182 and
183, in terms of pints per hour per indicated and per brake horse-
power. This particular petrol has a corrected calorific value (in-
cluding the latent heat of evaporation of the liquid) of 18150 B.T.U.s
per pint.
It will be seen that at 3000 R.P.M. the fuel consumption on full
load is only 0·45 pint per B.H.P. and 0·395 pint per I.H. P. hour,
corresponding to a brake thermal efficiency of 31·2 per cent and an
indicated thermal efficiency of 35·4 per cent, a figure actually slightly
in excess of the computed combustion efficiency, while at 66 per
cent full load torque the observed fuel consumption at about
this speed was only 0·48 pint per B.H.P. hour, a figure unequalled
even at full load by any touring-car engine. These figures should
Fig. 182.—Three-litre Vauxhall Racing Engine

Curve showing Consumption on Throttle at 2770 R.P.M., and most Economical
Mixture Strength. Fuel, Petrol. Oil, “ Shell,” L.R.O.
Fig. 183.—Three-litre Vauxhall Racing Engine

Curve showing Variation in Fuel Consumption with Speed. Most Economical Mixture
in all cases. Fuel, Petrol, Oil, “Shell,” L.R.O.
go far to dispel the theory that a racing-car engine is essentially

extravagant in fuel. The readings of fuel consumption when the
(E 246) 21
load was reduced by throttling down to one-third full load torque
are rather striking.
Thus at 2770 R.P.M. the fuel consumption on petrol was found
to be—
B.H.P. Fuel Consumption.
(Pints per B.H.P. hour.)
80 0·455
70 0·465
60 0·480
50 0·505
40 0·535
30 0·565
20 0·610
At 1950 R.P.M. the fuel consumption was—

B.H.P. Fuel Consumption.
(Pints per B.H.P. hour.)
60 0·470
50 0·480
40 0·495
30 0·525
20 0·570
15 0·605
It will be noted that when developing 20 B.H.P. at 1950 the

gross consumption is only 20 x 0·570 = 11·4 pints per hour. With
the gear ratio used 1950 R.P.M. corresponds to a road speed of
48·5 M.P.H., a speed which calls for an expenditure of just about
20 B.H.P, reckoned at the engine shaft, so that the consumption
in miles per gallon with an economical carburettor setting even at
this high mean speed should be 48·5 x = about 33·9 miles per
gallon.
A brake thermal efficiency of 31·2 per cent is, the author believes,
the highest ever yet achieved by any engine running on petrol.
Incidentally it is worthy of note that the indicated thermal efficiency
reckoned from the fuel consumption, when using a weak mixture,
corresponds very closely with the calculated combustion efficiency,
showing that there can be practically no loss of unburnt fuel by
irregular distribution or indeed from any other cause. It is interest-
ing also to note that the fuel consumption per I.H.P. hour is exactly
the same as that obtained in the single cylinder variable compression
engine (described in Chapter 1) when running on the same fuel, at
the same compression ratio, and at the same gas velocity through
Fig. 184.—Vauxhall Three-litre Racing-car

307
the valves, but the brake thermal efficiency of the racing engine is
considerably greater owing to the higher mechanical efficiency of
the latter.
The author has dealt at considerable length with this particular
engine, because the results obtained from it serve admirably to
emphasize that a racing-car engine is nothing more or less than a
highly efficient internal-combustion engine designed throughout on
purely scientific lines, and whose behaviour is, from a thermo-
dynamic point of view, perfectly normal in every respect.
Fig. 184 shows a photograph of one of the racing-cars fitted with
the engine described above. Fully equipped, as shown in the photo-
graph, the car weighs with driver and mechanic 2700 lb.; in
this condition and with a gear ratio giving 25 miles per hour at
1000 R.P.M. it is capable of a maximum speed on the level of 115
miles per hour, corresponding to an engine speed exclusive of wheel
slip of 4600 R.P.M., the actual engine speed being probably about
4800 R.P.M.
It is interesting to note that one of these cars after nearly eight
years' use, and when fitted with a super-charger, won a number of
competitions against much more modern racing cars, and in 1929
established a new record for the annual Shelsley Walsh hill climb
for cars of unlimited size or power.
CHAPTER XI
AERO-ENGINES
Of all the applications of the Internal-combustion Engine, it is to
aircraft in particular that high efficiency in its widest sense is most
essential. The aero-engine must be efficient not only in relation to
the fuel it consumes, but in every possible respect, including the
material of which it is constructed, and it is therefore primarily to
the aero-engine that most of the considerations in the preceding
chapters have been directed.
Although it is only a very few years since the first power-driven
aeroplane succeeded in leaving the ground, yet in this very short
space of time the aero-engine has passed through several phases of
its development.
In its earliest stages of development the one controlling factor
was weight, then, as the aeroplane improved and longer flights were
contemplated, the weight, not of the engine itself, but with fuel,
oil, etc., for a protracted flight became the primary consideration,
and extreme lightness of the engine alone, began to give way to
some extent before economy in fuel and oil consumption, and
reliability.
The Great War broke out during a very early stage in the develop-
ment of aircraft, but the importance of the airship and aeroplane
for military and naval purposes became so obvious that development
was stimulated to an extent which has probably never before occurred
in any branch of engineering.
The beginning of the war found Germany, alone of all the nations
concerned, with any form of considered policy in regard to the type
and line of development to be pursued. France possessed com-
paratively, a very large number of aeroplanes propelled by every
conceivable type of engine, including air-cooled, water-cooled, fixed
radial and rotating radial, four-, six-, eight-, and twelve-cylinder
stationary types, in fact a heterogeneous collection representing
examples of every conceivable type, but apparently without any
309
policy as to which types to perpetuate for immediate military
purposes. Our own country possessed very few aeroplanes at all,
and still less experience. Such few engines as we did possess were
propelled for the most part by a miscellaneous collection of French
and German engines, a few by the R. A.F. Vee-type air-cooled engines,
and one or two other more or less experimental English-designed
engines of the straight-line six or Vee type. America, by watching
the trend of events for over two years as a neutral, had ample oppor-
tunity to frame a policy, and decided, on entering the war, on the
development of a twelve-cylinder Vee-type engine, embodying the
proved features of the best Vee-type engines in use at the time.
Though eventually a very satisfactory engine, its development,
despite the fact that she had unlimited experience placed at her
disposal, took too long, and the engine did not appear in time to
play any appreciable part in hostilities, almost all the American
aeroplanes in actual service during the war being equipped with
engines of European design.
Germany, from the start, decided to restrict development almost
entirely to the six-cylinder straight-line water-cooled engine, on the
grounds that this type of engine, though heavy, would give the
maximum of reliability and fuel economy and permit of the largest
production with limited manufacturing resources. Her policy was
probably right, even as events turned out, and would certainly have
been right had the war proved, as she undoubtedly expected, to be
of short duration.
We in England had, before the war, given so little attention to
aviation that we had no experience upon which bo frame a policy
of any kind at the start, hence we were forced to adopt the only
course possible and purchase or produce every engine we could lay
our hands on, regardless of type, until we had gained the necessary
knowledge and experience to enable us to proceed independently,
Despite this heavy handicap it is not a little to the credit of
British engineers and scientists that, by the Armistice, we had the
largest production, and had ourselves evolved probably the most
efficient designs, both of engines and aircraft, of any of the
countries concerned.
The progress of the war very soon indicated that several entirely
different types of aircraft would be needed; for example:
(1) A very fast, but small and light fighting machine, capable of
rapid manoeuvring and of climbing to high altitudes, but not required
for long sustained flight.
AERO-ENGINES 311
(2) An observation aeroplane for spotting for artillery and
generally reconnaissance work, to be capable of attaining high
altitudes, and of long-sustained flight, but not necessarily very fast.
(3) A large bombing machine capable of carrying heavy loads
and of flying great distances without replenishment.
The first type required an engine of high power at any altitude,
light weight, and short over-all length. Economy of fuel and oil
was, however, of secondary importance, since such machines were
not normally expected to carry out long flights.
The second type required an engine of high power at high altitudes
only and high fuel economy. Since such machines always climbed
to a high altitude before crossing the enemy's lines, and could there-
fore afford to climb slowly, the power output at or near the ground
was of little importance, provided it was sufficient for safety in
taking off.
The third type required an engine of the highest possible economy,
both in fuel and oil, and a very high power output at or near ground
level in order to enable it to take off with the heaviest possible load.
Since such machines were used almost entirely by night, performance
at very high altitudes was not required. If capable of leaving the
ground at all at the start, they would, by the time they had reached
their objective, have attained a sufficient altitude to ensure reason-
able security against anti-aircraft fire from the ground.
For all these purposes Germany decided to compromise with a
single type of six-cylinder straight-line engine of between 160 and
300 B.H.P., a typical example of which is shown in fig. 185, though
towards the closing stages, finding that she was being outclassed
by the Allies, who were employing specialized engines for each class
of machine, she began to show signs of departing from this policy.
For the first class of machine the lightest and shortest possible
engine was required, and this undoubtedly would have been met by
the air-cooled fixed radial had any country succeeded in producing
a really successful example of this type and of sufficient power. No
such example was produced before the Armistice, although all the
allied countries made strenuous attempts to do so. Machines of
this class were therefore fitted either with air-cooled rotating engines
or with water-cooled eight-cylinder Vee type.
For the second class, namely, the reconnaissance machine, the
eight- and twelve-cylinder Vee type and the six-cylinder straight
line were used. The latter was, however, never held in particular
favour by the Allies, despite its inherent reliability.
For the heavy bombing machines, the Allies used the same
engines as for reconnaissance work, for it was not until the last
stages of the war that the military importance of this class of machine
was appreciated, when several engines of from 500 to 800 H.P. of
the twelve-cylinder Vee type were developed for the purpose.
The requirements of aerial transport in peace time call for an
engine of considerable power, capable of getting off with heavy loads,
but not required to climb to very high altitudes, nor to cover very
great distances without replenishment of fuel. In the former
respect the conditions are somewhat similar to those obtaining in
Fig. 185.—Typical Modern Six-cylinder German Aero-engine (1918)
the case of bombing machines, except that the need for economy in
fuel and oil is not so insistent.
Both for bombing machines and, more particularly for com-
mercial transport, reliability is of great importance, and, since the
machines are heavily loaded and fly in a relatively dense atmosphere,
the load factor on the engine is very much higher than in other
types of aircraft, so that the engines are operating under much more
strenuous conditions. Finally, we must consider the seaplane or
flying boat, in which a very high power output is required moment-
arily when getting off from the water.
It is popularly supposed that an aeroplane engine operates
AERO-ENGINES 313
normally at or near its full load, but this is very far from being the
case, for it must be remembered that at an altitude of about 20,000 ft.
the density of the atmosphere is but little more than half that at
ground level, so that, even though the throttle be wide open, the
weight of charge taken into the cylinder is only about half the normal,
and the conditions are very much akin to throttling down to half
torque on the ground, for both the pressures and the heat flow are
reduced to nearly one half. It is only when leaving the ground and
climbing for the first few thousand feet that the load factor is at
all high.
An average modern single-seater fighting machine (1920) will climb
10,000 ft. in about seven minutes, that is to say, within seven minutes
of leaving the ground the machine is in air at an absolute pressure
of only 10·6 lb. per square inch, and the indicated horse-power is
only 72 per cent of that developed at ground level, so that the power
output is very rapidly reduced, even though the throttle be kept
wide open- It is only in the heavy bombing machine and in aerial
transport that the engine is called upon to work “ all out ” at low
altitudes, and therefore under severe conditions as regards pressures
and heat flow.
Discussion still rages as to the lightest form of aircraft engine
consistent with sound mechanical design; and the dimensional
theory has been used and abused to an unwarranted extent. The
dimensional theory is applicable only when all dimensions are
strictly proportional, which they can never be. According to such
a theory the lightest possible engine will be the type with an infinite
number of pistons connected to a minimum number of cranks.
This holds good only so long as small pistons, cylinders, &c., can be
made proportionately as thin as larger ones, which is out of the
question in the sizes in view, and also all the auxiliary structure and
mechanism can be reduced in proportion.
The nearest practical approach to this theoretically ideal form
is the air-cooled radial engine with seven or nine cylinders disposed
radially round a single crank, or double the number round two
cranks. It does not pay to increase the number of cylinders beyond
nine, because they then crowd too closely round the crankcase,
necessitating a larger crankcase and longer connecting-rods for the
same stroke. Though very attractive on paper, this form of engine
has certain inherent defects.
(1) The loading on the single crankpin is excessive, and necessi-
tates very special treatment. Moreover, this loading being due
almost entirely to centrifugal and reciprocating forces, does not ease
off appreciably as the density of the air is reduced.
(2) The distribution of fuel and air in uniform proportions to an
odd number of cylinders disposed radially is no easy problem.
(3) The valve gear is troublesome, and being so widely scattered
it is practically impossible to enclose or lubricate it.
Apart from its light weight, the fixed radial engine has several
important advantages which go far to balance its inherent defects.
(1) It lends itself admirably to air cooling, since every cylinder
has equal advantages, and all have their combustion heads pro-
jecting well into the slip stream from the propeller.
(2) It is very short, and therefore particularly attractive from the
point of view of rapid manoeuvring.
(3) Its general shape and ease of attachment to the fuselage of
an aeroplane are points very much in its favour.
During the war numerous attempts were made to produce such
an engine, but without much success, owing to the defects named
above, but since the Armistice at least two successful engines of this
type have been produced, notably the Bristol Jupiter engine of
380 B.H.P. and the Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar of 350 B.H.P.
The difficulties as regards crankpin loading and distribution can
both be obviated by the employment of a fixed crankshaft with the
cylinders rotating round it, and by feeding the fuel and air through
the crankcase as in the Gnome, Le Rhone, Bentley, and other engines.
This form was widely used before and during the earlier stages of
the war, particularly by France, For relatively small powers up
to about 200 B.H.P. it is satisfactory, but the windage resistance
becomes very serious and the gyroscopic effect due to the large
rotating mass very troublesome, when the size is increased beyond
this limit. A compromise between these two types wherein both
the cylinders and crankshaft rotate in opposite directions has been
suggested, and several engines have actually been built, notably one
by Siemens and Halske in Germany, and an experimental engine
of about 250 B.H.P. by Messrs, Ruston and Hornsby, built to the
designs of Mr. A. E. L. Chorlton.
After the single-crank radial the next stage is the fan type, such
as the well-known Napier Lion, in which three pistons operate on
each crank, and the Maltese cross type with four cylinders per
crank. It is usual to make both these types with blocks of four
cylinders, making twelve or sixteen in all, though some few examples
have been built with six-throw cranks, making eighteen and twenty-
AERO-ENGINES 315
four cylinders respectively. Figs. 186 and" 187 show the Napier
Lion engine, an example of this type which has proved particularly
successful.
The next type is that in which two pistons are coupled to each
crank, generally known as the Vee-type engine. This type has
usually either four or six cranks, and therefore eight or twelve
cylinders. To the Vee-type class belong most of the successful
engines used by the Allies during the war, and probably also at the
present day, though more recent developments have brought both
the single-crank radial and the straight-line into prominence. The
Fig. 186.—Napier Lion Engine
Rolls-Royce Eagle and Falcon engines, the Hispano Suiza,

and the R.A.F. were among the most successful examples of this
type used during the war, while the Rolls-Royce Condor of 550
B.H.P., the Liberty of 400 B.H.P., and the 600 H.P. Fiat represent
excellent examples of more modern development.
Finally, we have the plain straight-line six-cylinder engine with
one piston operating each crank ; a type which has been vehemently
condemned by the supporters of the dimensional theory, but which
was used practically throughout by the Germans, and to a consider-
able extent by the Allies also, e.g. the Siddeley Puma and the Beard-
more, both of which engines did admirable work and competed very
favourably with the other types.
Controversy as to the lightest type of engine will probably
continue to rage indefinitely, since so many conflicting and often
indeterminate factors have to be taken into account, viz. re-
liability, fuel and oil consumption, &c. On the grounds of re-
liability there can be no doubt but that for equal excellence of
design and workmanship the advantage lies with the straight-line
six-cylinder, since the load factor on its bearings is considerably the
Fig. 187.—Napier Lion Engine, End View
lightest, the stresses are for the most part simple and direct, and can
be dealt with by simple and direct means; also the auxiliary gear,
upon which the reliability of the engine so largely depends, is reduced
to the minimum. On the score of fuel efficiency it has again, for
equal excellence of design and workmanship, all the advantage,
having only two carburettors and an inherently good form of dis-
tribution, the losses due to defective Carburation and distribution
can, with a given amount of superintendence, be kept lower than
with any other type.
Finally, since the load factor on its bearings is the lowest, less oil
AERO-ENGINES 317
need be circulated for cooling purposes, and consequently less is
thrown on the cylinder walls and consumed. On all these counts,
therefore, the straight-line six has advantages which go far to com-
pensate for the extra material in the crankshaft and crank chamber
as compared with other types. It is, of course, impossible to evaluate
the factor of reliability and to equate it in terms of weight, though,
clearly, reliability is always worth some pounds in initial weight.
Again, in comparing the weights of various engines the efficiency
of the propeller is sometimes overlooked. One of the essential
requirements of any aero-engine is that it shall turn the propeller
at its most efficient speed, and this, in the case of large and heavily
loaded machines, is a comparatively low one. Hence the engine
must either turn at a relatively low speed, 1200-1400 R.P.M.,
or must be geared down, if a high over-all efficiency is required,
Experience has shown that the weight of reduction gearing very
nearly balances the increased weight of engine required to develop
the same power at the lower speed, while here again the factor of
reliability looms largely, since reduction gears, at the best of times,
are a source of weakness, the more so as the ratio of reduction is
increased. If we require the highest over-all efficiency, from the fuel
burnt to the thrust of the propeller, and assume a reasonable
duration of flight, we find that the over-all weight of the power
unit, together with its fuel or oil, becomes, in practice, virtually
a function of the piston speed, and this almost irrespective of
number or disposition of cylinders or of the use or otherwise of re-
duction gearing.
Air- or Water-Cooling.—Here again a great deal of controversy
rages as to which is the more desirable. The water-cooled engine
starts with the heavy handicap of a radiator and water connections,
involving considerable additional weight, and, what perhaps is even
more serious for military purposes, much greater vulnerability; but
against these defects must be offset a very large advantage on the
score of reliability, and the ability, owing to the lower cylinder
temperature, both to consume less oil, to employ a higher com-
pression, and therefore to obtain a lower fuel consumption. It
is not proposed to deal, at any length, with the pros and cons of air-
versus water-cooling, but it is probably sufficient to point out that
the radial engine, by reason of the disposition of the cylinders and its
relation to the slip stream from the propeller, offers the most ideal
case for air-cooling, and, the author is tempted to think, the only
case for it.
The great virtue in water-cooling appears to lie not so much in
the fact that the mean temperature of the cylinder can be kept
fairly low, though this, of course, is of advantage, but rather
in the fact that water boils at a comparatively low tempera-
ture, and has a very high latent heat, so that in the event of
local overheating due to any cause, the water will boil locally,
and the heat abstraction will be intensified to an enormous
extent. Thus in a water-cooled engine we may safely assume that
under no circumstances whatever (except bad design involving
steam-locks) can any part of the outside surface of the cylinder wall
exceed a temperature of 212° at ground level,
In the air-cooled engine we have no such advantage. Although
by very careful design, &c., the mean temperature of the cylinder
may be kept down to perfectly safe limits, we have nothing but the
conductivity of the metal to ensure against the development of
hot spots., such as are liable to be brought about by slight leakage,
by detonation, or by slight distortion, with consequent increase of
local friction or leakage.
At the best of times, the conductivity of any metal is but a
poor substitute for the latent heat of evaporation of water, and
it can compare only when the metal walls are made excessively
thick, which is impracticable on the ground of weight. While,
therefore, the air-cooled cylinder may be kept cool enough to run
very satisfactorily so long as everything is in perfect condition, it
has not, and probably never can have, anything like the factor of
safety of the water-cooled cylinder.
For military purposes, and more especially for fighting
machines, the advantages on the score of reduced vulnerability,
freedom from freezing, and reduced weight, are all very important
ones and may outweigh the disadvantages of air-cooling, but
it is, in the author's opinion, very doubtful whether air-cooling
will oust water-cooling for commercial or long-distance military
flight.
A great deal of extraordinarily valuable research work on the
subject of air-cooling was carried out during and since the war by
the late Major G. Norman and Professor A. H. Gibson at the Royal
Aircraft Establishment, and some remarkably fine results were
obtained with experimental cylinders, having thin but well-ribbed
steel barrels with very thick aluminium cylinder heads cast on to
them, and with steel valve seats cast in,
By the use of very thick aluminium, which is an excellent con-
AERO-ENGINES 319
ductor, the heat can be spread fairly uniformly over the cylinder
head and out to the deep and thick radiator flanges, with the result
that under normal working conditions local over-heating can be
avoided and results obtained, comparable with those of a water-
cooled cylinder.
The lack of recuperative power, which in the author's opinion
is the weakness of the air-cooled
engine, applies also, though to a
lesser extent, to those water-cooled
engines in which there is a double
metal wall through which the heat
has to pass before reaching the
cooling water.
In fig. 194 is shown a part-
sectioned cylinder block of the
Hispano Suiza water-cooled engine,
in which it will be seen that a com-
posite construction is used con-
sisting of a complete aluminium
cylinder into which is screwed a
steel thimble forming both the
liner and cylinder head, and that
the valves seat directly on to this
steel thimble. This form has
many important advantages from
a constructional point of view,
but it is open to the objection
that the heat has to pass through
two separate thicknesses of metal,
in contact only by screwing,
before reaching the cooling water.
Given good fitting this suffices Fig. 188.—Cylinder Construction used in
the 260 H.P. Mercedes Engine
for the normal rate of heat flow,
but it has a very much reduced margin of safety for dealing with
excessive rates of flow such as occur when detonation is set up, &c.
Cylinder Construction.—In an aircraft engine it is necessary
always to provide some form of composite cylinder construction,
because the limitations of weight deny the use of the normal
construction in which the outer jacket is cast in one with the
cylinder liner and of the same material. Resort must, therefore,
be had to composite built-up forms, and much diversity of
opinion prevails as to the relative merits and demerits of the
different forms in use.
Fig. 188 shows the cylinder construction used in the 260 B.H.P.
German Mercedes engines such as were fitted to the large Gotha
bombing planes used during the war for long-distance bombing raids.
This engine proved to be quite exceptionally reliable.
Fig. 189.—Austro-Daimler Cylinder
In this case a high-carbon steel barrel is screwed into a pressed

or cast-steel head, the bottom edge of which is spun over one of the
flanges of the barrel and welded to it in order to ensure against any
possible leakage down the thread. A light built-up sheet-steel
jacket is then welded over all. This form of construction has proved
a very reliable one, provided always that the welding has been
skilfully accomplished. It is open to the objection that it requires
a good deal of specialized plant and special skill in welding, especially
AERO-ENGINES 321
in dealing with the sparking plug losses and the water connections,
Given, however, the requisite skill and plant, it is certainly a very
satisfactory method. The long and very well-cooled guides for the
exhaust valves are an excellent feature and deserve special notice.
Fig. 189 shows the form of construction used in the early Austro-
Daimler, and later in the 120 and 160 B.H.P. Beardmore six-cylinder
engines. In this design the cylinder barrel and head are cast in one
piece in cast iron, but the inlet valve is fitted in a separate detachable
housing held in place by an annular locking nut. The lower end of
the cylinder barrel is screwed externally to receive a steel flange for
the holding-down bolts.
The water-jacket is of electro-deposited copper ; this is formed
in place on a wax matrix, which is subsequently melted out. Much
experience and great precautions are needed to ensure a uniform
deposition of copper and thorough adhesion to the cast iron. In
this case also, once the plant is available and the necessary experi-
ence has been gained the method is very satisfactory,
Fig. 190 shows the form adopted by the Maybach Company in
Germany for their 300 B.H.P. six-cylinder engines used in the later
Zeppelin airships and, during the latter phases of the war, in many
of the larger aeroplanes,
In one form of this construction the cylinder head, together with
the whole of the water-jacket, is of cast iron, and a high-carbon
steel barrel is screwed and sweated, but not welded, into the head,
the lower end of the jacket being sealed by means of a rubber ring.
In another form, only the cylinder head and the upper portion of the
jacket are of cast iron, the jacket of the barrel being a very light
seamless steel tube also screwed to the cylinder head in the same
manner as the liner,
The construction shown in fig, 191 is that used by the Benz Com-
pany for all their aero-engines. In this case the whole of the cylinder
barrel, cylinder head, and holding - down flange are cast in
one piece in cast iron over which a light pressed steel jacket is
electrically welded direct on to the cast iron. The welding of such
a thin steel jacket to a relatively thick cast-iron body is no easy
problem, but it has been met satisfactorily by this company. Atten-
tion should be called to the use in these engines of a special support
from the crown of the piston to the gudgeon-pin in order to transmit
the load as directly as possible to the connecting-rod.
The construction shown in fig. 192 is that adopted by Messrs.
Rolls-Royce, and subsequently employed in the Liberty and several
( E 246 ) 22
other engines. In this case the cylinder barrel and head are forged
in one piece, and the inlet and exhaust valve elbows are screwed
and welded into place, the whole body being subsequently covered
by a light pressed steel jacket, welded over all.
Fig. 190.—Zeppelin Airship Engine Cylinder Fig. 191.—Benz Cylinder

(Maybach)
Fig. 193 shows the cylinder construction used in the earlier Sun-
beam engines, in which complete blocks of cylinders were cast in
iron together with their cylinder heads and the upper portion of the
water-jackets; to save weight the whole of the sides of the casting
below the valve outlets were removed and replaced by light sheet
AERO-ENGINES 323
metal plates. In some of the later Sunbeam engines such as the

200 B.H.P. Arab engine, the complete cylinder block was cast in
aluminium with thin steel liners shrunk in.
Fig. 194 shows the construction of the Hispano Suiza cylinder
block already referred to, in which a complete steel thimble, forming
Fig. 192.—Rolls-Royce Cylinder Fig. 193.—Sunbeam Cylinder
both the cylinder liner and valve seats, is screwed directly into an
aluminium cylinder block.
In the Siddeley Puma engine shown later in fig. 204, blocks of
three-cylinder heads, together with the upper portion of the water-
jacket, are cast in aluminium with pressed-in bronze valve seats.
Into these are screwed, for a short length only, thin steel cylinder
barrels. The lower portions of these exposed steel liners are
enclosed by means of light and very thin die-cast aluminium jackets
which are bolted direct to the cylinder head casting, while the lower
joints consist of rubber-packed stuffing glands.
The form of construction shown in the previous chapter in
connection with the three-litre Vauxhall racing-car engine, has been
used in several experimental aero-engines, and has been adopted
Fig. 194.—Hispano Suiza Cylinder Fig. 195.—Clerget Cylinder
by Messrs. Beardmore in the large 750 B.H.P. six-cylinder aero-

engine built by that firm.
It has in the author's opinion much to recommend it, not the
least being its extreme simplicity and ease of manufacture.
Turning now to air-cooled engines the problem becomes some-
what different, since weight is no longer the sole consideration, high
conductivity being at least equally, if not more important. In
engines with rotating cylinders the cooling conditions are very
favourable, and in such engines it is usual to employ plain steel
AERO-ENGINES 325
cylinders machined throughout from a single forging as shown in

fig. 195, which is the form employed in the Clerget rotating engine,
and fig. 196, which shows a section of the Gnome single valve engine.
Fig. 197 shows a section of the Le Rhone cylinder. In this case
the whole of the cylinder and head is machined from a single piece
of steel, but a very thin cast iron liner about 1 mm. in thickness is
Fig. 196—Gnome Cylinder Fig. 197.—Le Rhone Cylinder
pressed in. This construction is curious, and the author has never
been able to discover for what reason it has been adopted.
In the B.R. 1 and B.R. 2 rotating cylinder engines, fig. 198, the
cylinder barrel consists of a hard steel liner surrounded by a thin
and light ribbed aluminium jacket. The cylinder heads in this
engine are detachable and are of steel, also a curious construction.
In the case of fixed cylinder engines the problem of cooling
becomes more difficult and resort had to be made to more compli-
cated constructions.
Fig. 199 shows an experimental R.A.E. cylinder for fixed cylinder
air-cooled engines. This consists of a thick aluminium casting with
deep ribs and with steel valve seats cast in position. A thin steel
liner is shrunk in as shown in the photo of the sectioned cylinder.
Fig. 198.—9 Cylinder B.R. Rotating Engine
This proved satisfactory for a time, but contact between the liner
and cylinder body gradually failed, resulting in overheating of the
liner. As explained previously, this form of cylinder construction
was subsequently abandoned in favour of one consisting of an
aluminium cylinder head cast on to a plain ribbed steel barrel.
In the Bristol Jupiter engine shown in fig. 200 the whole
of the cylinder barrel and head are of steel, but a cast aluminium
poultice containing the inlet and exhaust valve elbows and heavily
AERO-ENGINES 327
ribbed, is attached to the flat steel head. This form is simple to

manufacture, and has the advantage that if contact between the
cylinder head and aluminium poultice is impaired by warping, it
can be restored by scraping the surfaces.
As stated previously, no satisfactory fixed radial air-cooled
engine of adequate size was developed during the period of the war
despite the most strenuous efforts in this direction. Since the war,
Fig. 199.—Experimental R.A.E. Air-cooled Cylinder
however, two such engines have been developed, namely, the Bristol
Jupiter and the Siddeley Jaguar, figs. 199-203.
The former is a single crank nine-cylinder engine developing a
normal power output of 380 B.H.P. at 1575 R.P.M. The cylinders
are of 5·75-inch bore with a stroke of 7·5 inch. The normal com-
pression ratio of this engine is 5 : 1, and it will run continuously for
long periods at a brake mean pressure of 109 lb. per square inch with
a consumption of 0·535 lb. of petrol and 0·048 lb. of oil per B.H.P.
hour, making a gross consumption of 0583 lb. per B.H.P. hour.
The weight of the complete engine is 729 lb. or 1·92 lb. per horse-
power. With fuel and oil for a run of six hours the gross weight
(exclusive of tanks) is 2075 lb. or 5·46 lb. per horse-power.
Fig. 200.—400 H.P Bristol Jupiter Engine
In this engine a single master connecting-rod is used to which

all the remaining eight pistons are connected by means of articulated
rods, the pins for which are carried by a pair of flanges on the split
master connecting-rod. A plain white metal-lined bearing is used
for the master rod, and beyond lavishing the utmost care in the
fitting and lubrication of this bearing, no special design precautions
AERO-ENGINES 329
are taken to deal with the very heavy loading, due to the combined
centrifugal and inertia pressures from the nine pistons and rods all
operating on a single pin.
One of the greatest difficulties encountered with air-cooled
engines is that of dealing with the expansion of the cylinder and the
resulting increase in the valve motion clearances when hot. In the
case of the Bristol Jupiter engine this has been dealt with most
Fig. 201.—400 H.P. Bristol Jupiter Radial Engine
effectively by means of a very ingenious compensating device

developed by Mr. Raymond Morgan. Briefly, this consists in the
provision of a movable fulcrum pin for the overhead valve rockers
which is controlled by a fixed rod attached at one end to the crank-
case, and at the other to a hinged cradle carrying the valve rockers.
This control rod being subject to the same temperature conditions
as the operating rods maintains the same relative length, with the
result that as the hot cylinder expands it tends to draw the cradle
down, and so to retain the same tappet clearance at all cylinder
temperatures. These control rods can be seen on the forward end
of the engine (see fig. 201).
The Siddeley Jaguar shown in figs. 202 and 203 is a fourteen-
Fig. 202.—Siddeley Jaguar Engine
cylinder two-crank radial, and develops a normal power output of

350 B.H.P. at a speed of 1500 R.P.M.; the cylinders are five-inch
bore and five-and-a-half-inch stroke.
As in the case of the Bristol Jupiter this engine also has been
developed since the Armistice, though in both cases the earlier
AERO-ENGINES 331
stages of development were in progress during the war. The manu-

facturers give the fuel and oil consumption of this engine as 0·525
and 0·027 lb. per B.H.P. hour respectively, a gross consumption of
0·552 lb. per B.H.P. hour. The weight of the engine alone is given
as 710 lb. or 2·03 lb. per horse-power. The gross weight with fuel
and oil for six hours' flight (exclusive of tanks), works out at 1870 lb.
or 5·35 lb. per horse-power. In this engine, the cylinder barrels
are of steel as in the Jupiter, but the cylinder heads are aluminium
Fig. 203.—Siddeley Jaguar Engine
castings screwed on to the steel barrels. Ignition is by high tension

coil and battery, and a small dynamo is provided for charging the
accumulator.
The engine shown in figs. 204 and 205 was known during the war as
the Siddeley Puma, and is a development of the B.H.P. engine
designed by Messrs. Beardmore and Major Halford of the R.A.F.
It has six cylinders each of 145 mm. bore and 190 mm. stroke with
a normal power output of 240 B.H.P. at a speed of 1400 R.P.M.
With a compression ratio of 5 : 1 the fuel consumption is 0·5 lb. and
Fig. 204.—Siddeley Puma Engine

AERO-ENGINES 333
the oil consumption 0·03 lb. per B.H.P. hour, a gross consumption of
0·53 lb. per B.H.P. hour. The weight of the engine complete with
radiator and cooling system is 781 lb. or 3·25 lb. per horse-power.
The gross weight with fuel and oil for six hours (exclusive of
Fig. 205.—Siddeley Puma Engine
tanks) amounts to 1443 lb. or 6·01 lb. per horse-power. This engine
is essentially a plain and straightforward piece of design, simple
alike in manufacture and in handling.
The engine shown in figs. 186 and 187, also in the sectional draw-
ings figs. 206 and 207, is the Napier Lion. It has twelve cylinders
each of five-and-a-half-inch bore and five-and-one-eighth-inch
stroke arranged in three groups of four cylinders operating on
Fig. 207.—Section of Napier Lion Engine
a plain four-throw crank. It develops 450 B.H.P. at its normal

crankshaft speed of 2000 R.P.M. Its weight complete with radiator,
cooling system and speed reduction gearing is only 1134 lb. or
AERO-ENGINES 335
2·52 lb. per horse-power. Its fuel and oil consumption per B.H.P.
hour are given as 0·495 and 0·022 lb. respectively.
The gross weight of the engine complete with all necessary gear
and fuel and oil for six hours' flight is 2534 lb. or 5·63 lb. per horse-
power.
In fig. 208 is shown the 350 B.H.P. Rolls-Royce Eagle engine, a
twelve-cylinder Vee type, having cylinders of four-and-a-half-inch
bore and six-and-a-half stroke, with a normal crankshaft speed of
1800 R.P.M. This engine, which was developed by Messrs. Rolls-
Royce during the war, proved to be undoubtedly the most satis-
Fig. 208.—Rolls-Royce Eagle
factory and reliable engine in the hands of the Allies, and was of
great value, not only on account of its magnificent performance, but
perhaps even more because of its encouraging effect on the moral
of the Allied pilots. Official records compiled in France during
the war show that the average number of hours flown by these
engines between overhauls was 103·2, or very nearly double
that of any other aero-engine used in the British service. This
engine, also, is of interest because it is at once probably the
most complicated and quite the most reliable engine yet built for
aircraft.
Its weight complete with epicycle speed reduction gear, radiator
Fig. 209.—600 H.P. Fiat Engine

(E246)
AERO-ENGINES
23
337
Fig. 210. —1000 H.P. Napier Cub Engine

cooling system, &e., is 1177 lb. or 3·37 lb. per horse-power. The
fuel and oil consumption are given as 0·50 and 0·028 lb. per B.H.P.
hour respectively, so that the weight complete for a six-hour flight
is 2287 lb. or approximately 6·5 lb. per horse-power.
In fig. 209 is shown the 600 B.H.P. Fiat twelve-cylinder Vee
engine, which also may be taken as a fairly typical example of the
Fig. 211. —1000 H.P. Napier Cub Engine
type of engine developed by the Allies during the latter phases of

the war. In figs. 210 and 211 are shown photos of the 1000 H.P.
Napier Cub engine, probably the largest engine which has yet flown
successfully.
The engine shown in fig. 212 is the 500 B.H.P. Benz engine; it
is of particular interest because it marks the departure from the
apparently settled German policy to adhere to the straight line six-
AERO-ENGINES 339
cylinder engine for military purposes. During the closing phase of

the war, the Germans evidently began to find that their policy could
not be adhered to in face of the very large engines which were
Fig. 212.—500 H.P. Benz Engine
being developed by the Allies, and this and a few other similar
engines in course of development during 1918 bear evidence
that they contemplated paying the Allies the compliment of
following their lead.
A e r o - e n g i n e s for High Altitudes.—As a broad general-
ization the means of retaining the power output of aero-engines
at high altitudes may be divided into two groups, one in which
the power output is maintained by maintaining, or nearly main-
taining, ground level density of the charge in the induction system,
and the other, in which the density in the induction system is
not so maintained, but the relative power output at the lower
densities is increased by increasing the expansion ratio and so
getting more useful work from a given weight of charge. In other
words, the former system aims at operating with an artificially dense
atmosphere at high altitudes, and the other caters for an artificially
attenuated atmosphere near the ground, advantage being taken of
the lower density to employ a greater expansion ratio and to obtain
thereby an increase in thermal efficiency. The former system affords
a means of maintaining the power output at any altitude at present
attainable, though at some cost in efficiency. The latter provides
only for a limited maintenance of power ; but, on the other hand,
it affords a considerable gain in fuel economy.
In addition to these two general systems there are also certain
possible compromises between the two, which will be considered
later.
With regard to the first method, that of increasing artificially the
density in the induction system, this can best be accomplished by
the use of a turbo-blower driven either mechanically from the main
engine, by a separate engine, or by means of an exhaust driven turbine.
Such a system has the advantage that the full ground level torque
can be maintained at almost any height, for the limit is set solely
by the mechanical strength of the engine and by its capacity for
getting rid of the heat generated in a highly attenuated atmosphere,
It necessitates, however, the use of a variable pitch propeller.
It is possible to obtain, at high altitudes, an actual power out-
put in excess of that developed at ground level, for it is obvious
that if the weight of air per cycle be maintained, the torque
also will be maintained, and since the external resistance to the
rotation of the propeller diminishes, the engine will run at a higher
speed and therefore develop a higher power output, even after
deducting the power required to drive the turbo-blower. Under
such conditions, however, the flow of heat to the cylinder jackets,
&c., is increased, while the capacity of the radiator or cooling fins
is reduced, at all events while climbing, owing to the reduced density
of the surrounding air, and, though the lower air temperature tends
to balance this to a limited extent, it is necessary to provide a much
AERO-ENGINES 341
larger radiator. At first glance this system of direct supercharging

appears to afford the simplest and easiest solution of the problem,
but on closer examination it will be found to present many diffi-
culties.
In the first place, the efficiency of the best turbo-blowers, though
relatively high, is actually only about 55 per cent to 60 per cent, so
that the power absorbed by them is a very considerable item, espe-
cially when considered in terms of fuel consumption. In the second
place, such blowers, whether driven mechanically or otherwise, must
necessarily run at a very high speed, generally from 20,000 to 30,000
R.P.M., and this, in itself, introduces very serious mechanical
difficulties.
Fig. 213.—Arrangement of Turbo-compressor Supercharger
While the earlier experiments with supercharging were, for the

most part, carried out with mechanically-driven blowers, opinion in
this country appeared at one time to be veering in favour of exhaust-
driven blowers such as those shown in figs, 213, 214, and 215, partly
because of the many difficulties encountered in the actual mechan-
ical drive, and partly because the exhaust-driven turbo-compressor
can the more readily be adapted to meet the varying conditions
as regards atmospheric density, since its speed is not directly
dependent upon that of the main engine. So far as purely me-
chanical problems are concerned, it is doubtful whether it is easier
to operate an exhaust-driven turbine at, say, 30,000 R.P.M. in
an atmosphere of exhaust products at a temperature about 1100°-
1200° F. than it is to drive a clean and cool air blower by suitable
gearing at the same speed. The over-all efficiency of a combined
exhaust turbine and blower cannot very well be determined, but at
best it must be low, for, on purely mechanical grounds, it cannot
operate at a very high temperature or at a sufficiently high speed,
with the result that a serious proportion of the work done in
compressing the air must
appear as back pressure
on the pistons of the
main engine. Further, the
resistance to the free flow
of the exhaust products
results, even at the best
efficiencies so far attained,
in the retention in the
combustion chamber of
hot residual products at
a pressure considerably
in excess of that of the
entering charge (actually
the best results so far ob-
tained show an increased
Fig. 214.—Turbo-compressor for Supercharging back pressure of about
Aircraft Engine
3 lb. per square inch
above the air pressure). Also the very serious problem of cooling the
air after compression is still further aggravated by the addition, by
Fig. 215.—Rotor for Turbo-compressor for Supercharging Engine
conduction, of some heat from the exhaust turbine. At the best of

times the removal of a large amount of relatively low temperature
heat is a troublesome problem, involving large radiating surfaces
AERO-ENGINES 343
and therefore increased weight and head resistance. The exhaust-
driven blower has, however, one outstanding advantage over the
mechanically driven, namely, that the variation in the impeller
speed at different densities is effected automatically. With regard
to mechanical driving, the chief difficulties which arise are those
due to cyclical changes in the angular velocity of the tail end of the
crankshaft, from which the blower is usually driven; to sudden
changes in the mean speed of the crankshaft, due to throttling down
or opening up suddenly; and to faulty alignment, due to the blower
not being built as an integral part of the crankcase. Most of these
difficulties can probably be overcome by the provision of suitable
dampers, flexible couplings, &c.
When, as in some of the large German machines, the blower is
driven by means of a separate engine devoted to that one task alone,
most of the mechanical difficulties disappear, and although at first
sight it may seem very cumbersome, costly, and heavy to use a
separate engine, yet there is a good deal to be said in favour of it, at
all events in the case of large installations.
Direct supercharging is probably the only possible means of
obtaining any really large increase in power at high altitudes, and,
as such, it is extraordinarily valuable; but, however it be applied, it is
neither simple nor easy. For very high altitudes, it is probably quite
as important to apply supercharging to the aviator as to the engine;
and when supercharging is employed, the possibility of enclosing
both the pilot and the engine in a light pressure tight casing is
worth considering seriously, for both are equally in need of oxygen.
The alternative method of increasing the output of aero-engines
at high altitudes, by increasing the compression-expansion ratio,
aims more particularly at an increase in fuel economy rather than
in power, for the weight of charge taken into the cylinder per cycle
is not increased, but, on the other hand, more useful work is obtained
from a given weight of air, since it is expanded further. This gives
an increase both in power output and fuel economy, though the
increase in the former is comparatively small as compared with
that obtainable by supercharging. There are, however, a good
many advantages in connection with this system. With ordinary
fuels, the limit of compression and expansion is set by the tendency
of the fuel to detonate and ultimately to pre-ignite. This depends
mainly upon the chemical constitution of the fuel, but it depends also,
as has been explained, upon the maximum flame temperature, the
pressure of compression, upon the form of combustion chamber,
and the position of the ignition plug therein. For a fuel of any
given chemical constitution the tendency to detonate will become
less as the altitude is increased, for both the temperature and
pressure of compression will be reduced, as also the maximum
flame temperature, which will be reduced in sympathy. It is found
that, while the ordinary aviation petrol will tend to detonate at any
compression ratio in excess of about 5 : 1 at ground-level density, at
about 12,000 feet a compression ratio of 7 : 1 may be used with, at
least, equal freedom from detonation. Actual experiments on a vari-
able compression engine have proved that increasing the ratio of
compression or expansion from 5 : 1 to 7 : 1 increases the indicated
thermal efficiency from 32 per cent to 37·5 per cent, a gain of 16·5
per cent, which corresponds very closely indeed with the theoretical
figure predicted by Tizard and Pye, When running with a ratio of
7 : 1 the heat stresses are somewhat reduced, and although the
maximum pressure on the pistons is higher, both the pressure and
temperature of the gases leaving the exhaust valves are substan-
tially lower—a very important consideration from the point of view
of reliability.
The principal difficulty in the way of employing a very high
compression engine for high-altitude work lies in operating such an
engine at or near ground level. This is so serious a difficulty that,
unless some heroic means be adopted, it becomes almost impossible
to leave the ground at all. There are several possible ways of
attacking the problem. Among these are:
(1) By throttling when at ground level, in order to reduce both
the pressure of compression and the maximum flame temperature,
the latter because of the greater relative proportion of inert exhaust
products to fresh charge, and because of the reduced density
generally.
(2) By holding the inlet valve open during a portion of the
compression stroke, so that while the expansion is retained, the
compression temperature and pressure are reduced.
(3) By adding inert exhaust products, in order both to reduce
the maximum flame temperature and the maximum pressure.
(4) By using a special fuel mixture at or near ground level.
With the exception of the last named, all these methods have
the disadvantage that they reduce the available power at or near
ground level, even when compared with a normal engine having a
compression ratio of 5 : 1.
The method of throttling a high compression engine at or near
AERO-ENGINES 345
ground level is very undesirable—not only is it dangerous, but if
anything approaching a 7 : 1 compression ratio is used with ordinary
aviation petrol, the power output available is not nearly sufficient.
The curves, fig. 216, show the maximum indicated mean pressure
obtainable with, in this case, a somewhat inferior aviation petrol
detonating normally a compression ratio of 4·85 : 1. The compression
ratio was gradually raised and the throttle closed just sufficiently
Fig. 216.—Curves showing 1 M.E.P. and Compression Pressure with

varying Compression and Throttling
to avoid detonation. It will be seen that at a compression ratio of

7 : 1 the available indicated mean pressure is only 85 lb. per square
inch, corresponding in this case to a brake mean pressure of 70 lb.
per square inch. This probably would not nearly suffice to raise the
machine from the ground.
By the use of variable closing inlet valves in order to vary the
compression ratio, somewhat better results can be obtained for
various reasons, but even so, the weight of charge is considerably
reduced and an extra mechanical complication is added. The
method has, however, some substantial indirect advantages, and, as
compared with throttling, it is much safer and yields a somewhat
greater power output at or near ground level.
By the addition of cooled exhaust gases, detonation can be
suppressed and the maximum pressures reduced, at the least expense
in power output of any of the three methods yet considered, but
for a compression ratio of 7 : 1 the quantity of exhaust products
required is so large that they have an adverse influence on the thermal
Fig. 217.—The Geared Bristol " J u p i t e r " Aero Engine
efficiency as well as on the power output. Also it appears essential

that they shall be thoroughly cooled before admission to the car-
burettors or induction system, and this in itself is sometimes rather
troublesome. It is, however, in all probability the best of the three
methods considered.
By suitable treatment of the fuel, such as by the addition of
toluene, &c., detonation can be eliminated entirely and the full
power obtained at ground level, provided that the engine can with-
AERO-ENGINES 347
stand the excessive pressures involved. At first sight this might
appear the simplest and best method, but on investigation it is
very doubtful whether it is really practicable, because to withstand
the very high maximum pressures involved by the use of a com-
pression ratio of 7 : 1 the whole of the engine, and especially the
reciprocating parts, must be strengthened and the weight increased
Fig. 218.—Rear View of the Bristol “ Jupiter ” Engine
very considerably. The use, however, of a fuel of lower flame

temperature and higher latent heat, so that neither the tempera-
ture nor the maximum, pressure are increased appreciably, such,
for example, as an alcohol-acetone mixture, would appear very
hopeful.
Since this chapter was prepared—in 1922—great progress has been
made, but it has been restricted almost entirely to detail improve-
ment. The three engines described in this chapter, namely, the
Napier Lion, the Bristol Jupiter, and the Siddeley Jaguar, are still
in manufacture, and are still the favourite engines both in the British
Air Service and for commercial transport. There has, however, been
considerable development work in the way of small engines for light
aircraft of which the most notable is the four-cylinder air-cooled
Cirrus engine as fitted in the well-known de Havilland Moth. So far,
however, as the larger and more powerful engines are concerned,
one firm only, namely, Rolls-Royce, have developed a new type,
while the other three makers mentioned above have contented
Fig. 219.—The Geared Bristol “Jupiter”
themselves with detail improvements to a type of engine which, so

far as its general design is concerned, has remained substantially
the same for ten years. By dint of painstaking development work
in regard to detail design, the performance of these engines has,
during this period, been increased by about 40 per cent, and their
reliability, as judged by the period between overhauls, by some-
thing like 300 per cent. This has been attained, not by any radical
changes, but solely by minute attention to detail and application of
the progress which has been made in metallurgy, and in the technique
of manufacture.
AERO-ENGINES 349
Since progress has resulted in the ability to run at higher crank-
shaft speeds, the need for a reducing gear has become all the more
insistent, and to-day even radial engines are being so fitted. The
greatly increased reliability of air-cooled engines has, to a large
extent, robbed the water-cooled engine of any advantage it once
held on this score, while the reduced vulnerability and freedom from
"plumbing" are strong arguments in favour of the air-cooled
engine. Where very high speeds are required the water-cooled engine,
however, still reigns supreme, on account of its low head resistance,
and it appears to be gaining a new lease of life from the employment
Fig. 220.—“Jupiter” Engine—Reduction Gear
of evaporative or steam cooling, in which the radiator becomes a

steam condenser. Since the temperature difference between it and
the surrounding air is greater, a considerably smaller radiator will
suffice; moreover, since the pressure in the cooling system is main-
tained very slightly below atmospheric pressure it follows that the
system is much less vulnerable.
The use of exhaust-driven superchargers has, as the author
anticipated, proved disappointing, but gear-driven blowers of the
high-speed centrifugal type are coming into extensive use. Such
blowers are usually of the single-stage type fitted between the car-
burettors and the cylinders and geared to run at from ten to twelve
times engine speed. Under such conditions, ground-level density
can be maintained in the induction system and ground-level power
developed up to an altitude of from 8000 to 12,000 ft. In air-
cooled cylinder construction the use of forged Duralumin or Y-alloy
cylinder heads screwed and shrunk on to a steel barrel has replaced
the early cast-iron or steel cylinders, while in water-cooled engines
there is a tendency to avoid welding as far as possible in the cylinder
Fig. 221.—“Jupiter” Engine Cylinder and Engine Head
construction, to employ cast aluminium “ block ” cylinder heads

with the valve seats screwed and shrunk into place and separate
steel liners with aluminium water jackets.
Fig. 222.—Crankshaft parts of the Bristol “Jupiter” Engine
The 1929 Bristol “ Jupiter ” engine, photos of which are shown

in figs. 217, 218, and 219, will be seen to differ but little in external ap-
pearance from the 1921 version shown in figs. 200 and 201, but while
AERO-ENGINES 351
the cylinder dimensions are unaltered, the power output has been
increased from 380 B.H.P. at 1575 to 525 B.H.P. at 2000 R.P.M.
In view of the high speed, a 2 : 1 reduction gear of the concentric
bevel type, as shown in fig. 220, has been added, and the total weight,
Fig. 223.—Rolls Royce “F” Engine”
including that of the reduction gear, is only 880 lb. or 1·68 lb. per
horse-power. The same engine without reduction gear and running
at 1700 E.P.M. develops 480 B.H.P. with a total weight of 720 lb.
or 1·56 lb. per horse-power.. The principal changes which have
brought about this large increase in performance are:—
(1) The flat poultice-type
cylinder head with vertical
valves has been changed for
an all-aluminium pent-roof
head with inclined valves,
thus giving better cooling,
better volumetric efficiency,
and better thermal efficiency,
and allowing of a somewhat
higher compression ratio
being employed. To this
change therefore is due the
higher mean effective pres-
sure. Fig. 221 shows the
latest cylinder and head
construction.
(2) The one-piece crank-
Fig. 224.—Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine
shaft with split big - end
bearing has been exchanged
for a built - up crankshaft
allowing of an unsplit big-end
eye for the connecting-rod,
and making possible the use
of a floating bush big-end
bearing, a change which has
made possible the large in-
crease in speed from 1575 to
2000 R.P.M. Fig. 222 shows
the latest design of crankshaft
and connecting-rod assembly.
For high altitude work a
gear-driven centrifugal fan is
disposed in the rear-end cover
of the crankcase, and driven
through concentric gearing in
which are incorporated slipping
clutches to deal with velocity
Fig. 225.—Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine
changes due to acceleration,
or torsional vibration. The
capacity of this supercharger is such as to provide nearly ground-
level density at an altitude of 12,000 ft.
Fig. 226.—Longitudinal Section of Rolls-Royce Supercharged “ F ” Engine
Facing p. 352.
AERO-ENGINES 353
Apart from the above-mentioned changes other improvements

which have been incorporated are:
(1) The use of a solid-forged in place of a cast aluminium alloy
crankcase.
Fig. 227.—Cross Section of Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine
(2) A general re-arrangement of the auxiliary drives at the rear-

end of the crankcase to allow of accommodating the supercharger
when required and generally to facilitate mounting in the latest
types of aircraft.
In figs. 223, 224, 225, 226, 227 and 228 are shown photos and
sectional drawings of the latest Rolls-Royce “ F ” type engine as used
(E 246) 24
in the most recent day bombing and fighting machines. A larger but
generally similar version of this engine was fitted to the seaplane
Fig. 228.—Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine—Auxiliary Driving Gear
which won the Schneider Trophy in 1929 at a mean speed of 328·6

miles per hour, and the world's speed record of 357·7 miles per hour.
The “ F ” engine has twelve cylinders each of 5-in. bore by 5½--in.
AERO-ENGINES 355
Fig. 229
stroke, and is fitted with or without a gear-driven supercharger of

the centrifugal type. As a normally aspirated engine used with a
compression ratio of 6·0 : 1, it develops a maximum of 540 B.H.P.
at 2500 R.P.M. of the crankshaft. The power, M.E.P., and consump-
tion curves of the unsupercharged engine are shown in fig. 229. The
“ dry ” weight of the engine is 865 lb. without, and 900 lb. with, the
supercharger.
Cylinder Construction,—The six-cylinder heads of each block,
together with the water jackets of the cylinder barrels are cast in
a single piece in aluminium alloy; the valve scats, four per cylinder,
are of bronze screwed into the aluminium head. The cylinder
barrels themselves are separate thin open-ended steel tubes flanged
and spigoted to the crankchamber and held in position by a series
of long bolts running from well down in the crankchamber to the
top of the cylinder head casting. They are thus clamped between
the head and the crankcase. The joints between the cylinder barrels
and the head are sealed by means of soft aluminium washers, while
rubber rings are employed to seal the open end of the water jackets,
The long through bolts already referred to pass through the water
jacket, but are surrounded by aluminium tubes expanded into
place. The complete cylinder block assembly is shown in fig. 230.
Crankchamber.—The crankchamber calls for no particular
comment, beyond reference to the excellence of its design—though
perhaps somewhat shallow it is very well ribbed and its torsional
rigidity is enhanced greatly by the addition of horizontal bolts pass-
ing from side to side and through the lower bearing caps; these
serve the dual purpose of tying the crankcase well below the gash
formed by the crankshaft bearings and, at the same time, they nip
the sides of the bearing caps and so prevent any tendency of the
latter to “ work ”. The bearing caps themselves are Duralumin
forgings and the bearings mild steel shells lined with a very thin
facing of white-metal.
Connecting-rods.—It will be seen that the connecting-rods are
not articulated as in the Napier and most radial engines. One rod
of each pair is forked, and bears directly on each crankpin; the
second runs on the outside of the first. In the case of the forked rod
the big-end bearing is of the so-called marine type, that is to say,
the end of the connecting-rod is flat—though relieved in the centre
—and separate blocks are fitted for the two halves of each bearing
—a design which avoids any concentration of load immediately
under the shank of the rod. This assembly is shown in detail in
fig, 231.
Pistons.—The pistons which are machined from the solid are of
forged aluminium alloy with three gas rings above the gudgeon pin
and a single scraper ring near the bottom of the skirt.
AERO-ENGINES
Fig. 230.—Rolls Royce “F” Engine—Aluminium Cylinder Casting

357
Crankshaft.—The crankshaft calls for no particular comment
except that it is a model of good proportions and of design generally.
Reduction Gear. —The reduction gear is particularly interesting
and is again a fine example of the designer's skill. It will be seen
that the driving pinion is carried entirely independently of the
crankshaft, and is thus insulated from the slight deflections in the
latter. The drive from the crank to this pinion is taken through a
Fig. 231.—Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine—Connecting-rod details
short floating cardan shaft which engages with the forward end of
the pinion by means of splines and with the crankshaft by means of
a toothed ring. By this means the correct alignment between the
pinion and the driven member can be maintained entirely inde-
pendent of the crankshaft, see fig. 232.
The camshafts and auxiliary mechanism are all driven from a
single bevel wheel at the rear end of the crankshaft. Here again
this wheel is not mounted on the crank itself but is supported in a
separate bearing. As in the case of the driving pinion it engages
with the crankshaft through the medium of a separate shaft drive,
but in this case the shaft is made of small diameter in order to be
AERO-ENGINES
Crankshaft Main Bearing Main Reduction-gear Box

Fig. 232.—Rolla-Royce “ F ” Engine
359
flexible torsionally. The outer end of this shaft is connected through
a friction damper clutch to a hollow sleeve which limits the rotation
of the flexible shaft to a predetermined amount before the sleeve
Fig. 233.—Rolls-Royce “ F ” Engine—Supercharging Parts
takes up the drive. By this means all the auxiliary mechanism is

insulated from any twitching of the rear end of the crank. This is
a most desirable feature at any time, and becomes all the more so
when a gear-driven supercharger is combined with the rest of the
auxiliary mechanism.
AERO-ENGINES 361
The super charger when fitted to the F-type engine is of the

single-stage centrifugal type driven through a three-star back gearing
with slipping clutches arranged in each of the larger pinions to deal
with rapid acceleration. In this engine, as in most modern English
engines, the supercharger is placed between the carburettors and the
cylinders, thus avoiding the necessity for putting pressure on the
carburettor with all the balancing problems which this involves.
The gear ratio between the crankshaft and the impellor is either
1 : 6·9 for moderate pressure giving normal ground-level power up
to 3000 feet, or 1 : 10 for full supercharge, giving normal power up
to 11,500 feet. Fig. 233 shows details of the supercharger itself and
of its driving mechanism.
CHAPTER XII
HIGH-SPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS
Although the conditions applying to an engine for tanks are some-
what specialized owing to the peculiar nature of the service required
of them, yet, apart from certain features, the following examples may
be taken as fairly typical of the class of large high-speed heavy-duty
engine developed during the War. Unlike most other heavy trans-
port duties, the engines for tanks were called upon to run for com-
paratively long periods under very heavy loads, the average load
factor when travelling across rough country being over 80 per cent
as compared with the 35-45 per cent load factor of ordinary motor
lorry engines ; again, the engines ran always at their governed speed,
which ranged from 1200 to 1350 R.P.M. and averaged about 1250
R.P.M., corresponding to a normal piston speed of 1560 ft. per
minute, or about double the average piston speed of motor lorry
engines.
Owing to the very large amount of dust and mud imported into
the tank by the creeping tracks, the engine was always smothered in
dirt or dust, and for this reason it was very desirable totally to
enclose the crankcase and to eliminate breathers or any other form
of ventilation. Further, they were required to use inferior fuel, and
in many cases received only the most scant and unskilled attention.
Owing to the severe gradients which the tanks were capable of
negotiating, the engine was frequently required to operate at an
angle of over 35° to the horizontal, as shown in the photographs,
figs. 234 and 235, which show a tank climbing out of a deep trench,
while fig. 236 shows some of the other duties expected of a tank.
Further, it was laid down by the authorities that under no circum-
stances should the engines show smoke from the exhaust. These
two conditions necessitated the adoption of special measures both
as regards the lubrication and the piston design-
By reason of the low priority under which tanks and their equip-
ment were constructed until the very last phase of the War, only the
363
cheapest and most easily worked materials could be used. The allow-
ance of aluminium available was so small that is sufficed only for the
Fig. 234.—Tank at about Maximum Climbing Angle
Fig. 235.—Tank Climbing with Assistance of Unditching Gear
pistons and induction pipes, while the use of high tensile steel was
entirely banned.
HIGH-SPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS 365
The standard 150 H.P. type is shown in the photos, figs. 237-
240, and 255, and in the drawings, fig. 241. Six separate cylinders
Fig. 236.—Tank crossing wide River
Fig. 237.—150 H.P. Tank Engine, Carburettor Side
are employed, each of 5 5/8 in. bore and 7½ in. stroke; the water jackets
are arranged with large openings at the sides, which are covered
with screwed-on sheet steel doors. This form of construction, in
addition to facilitating the foundry work, allows of the cylinder
centres being brought very close together, thus reducing both the
over-all length, which was very limited, and the bending moment
on the crankcase, due to the two opposing couples formed by each
group of three pistons.
The cooling water is delivered to the bottom of the water jacket
on the side remote from the valves, and the outlet is arranged
between the two sparking plug bosses on the opposite side of the
Fig. 238.—150 H.P. Tank Engine, Exhaust Side
cylinder, the object being to ensure a rapid circulation of water

round the sparking plugs.
Provision is made in the cylinder heads for fitting compressed-
air starting valves, although this system of starting the engines was
never employed.
So far as the exhaust valves are concerned, there is nothing very
special to record. Care was taken to ensure the best possible cooling
of these by providing a wide seating with an ample supply of water
all round, and by using a valve stem of large diameter to conduct
the heat away. The valve is cooled by carrying the water as close
as possible up to the head of the valve, and also by the use of a
valve guide of phosphor bronze, which is an excellent conductor of
heat. There is one feature, however, in connection with the exhaust-
valves which perhaps calls for comment—that is, they are of 3 per
cent nickel steel, case-hardened all over. The object of this treat-
ment was twofold:
(1) Although, of course, the head of the valve does not remain
Fig. 239.—150 H.P. Tank Engine, Flywheel End
hard, the carbonized surface resists pitting, with the result that the
seating lasts much longer, and grinding-in is seldom necessary.
(2) The case-hardened stem renders possible the use of a phosphor-
bronze valve guide without risk of tearing or seizing.
The connecting-rods are mild-steel stampings of normal design.
The only point for comment is in the length of the rods, which are
16 in. between centres, giving an 1/r ratio of 4·26 : 1. The principal
reason for the employment of these long rods lies in the fact that it
was anticipated that a four-cylinder unit of this engine would be
required at a later date, as indeed proved to be the case, and the
shorter rods which it would have been possible to employ on a six-
Fig. 240.—150 H.P. Tank Engine, Magneto End
cylinder engine would have been a great disadvantage, in a tour-

cylinder engine, on account of the secondary disturbing forces.
The top half of the crankcase, or column, is an iron casting of an
average thickness of 3/8-in. The general design is clearly shown in
the general arrangement drawings, fig. 241, and the function of
the false top to the crankcase has already been explained in the
chapter dealing with piston design, &c. Inspection doors are fitted
(E246)
25
Fig. 241—General Arrangement of 150 H.P. Engine, Longitudinal and Cross Sections
on both sides of the column, and the construction is such that it is
possible to remove the connecting-rods, &c., through the inspection
doors (fig. 242).
The crankshaft is mounted on seven plain bearings carried in
the cast-iron bed-plate; the bearing caps are mild-steel stampings;
and the white-metal-lined “ brasses ” are located in the bearing caps
Fig. 242.—Connecting-rod, Dismantling Diagram
in order to allow of the removal of both halves of the journal bearings,

should this be found necessary, without disturbing either the bed-
plate or the crankshaft. Fig. 243 shows the arrangement of the
lubrication connections to the journal bearings, and it will be seen
that the oil pipe is attached directly to an extension piece cast
integrally with the top half of the bearing brass. The extension
piece passes through a hole drilled in the steel bearing cap, thus
serving to locate the bearing shell. This method of construction
has the advantage that there is less tendency for oil to leak round
between the bearing shell and its housing, and so insulate the brasses.
The bearings thus dispose of their heat the more readily.
The crankshaft is a mild-steel forging, the principal dimensions
of which are given in the table at the end of this
description. Owing to the restrictions as regards
the length of the engine, the available area of
bearing surface was severely limited, and the diffi-
culty of providing adequate bearing areas was
still further increased by its being necessary to
employ material for the crankshaft of very low
surface hardness and having therefore very poor
wearing properties. In apportioning the bearing
surface between the connecting-rod and journal
bearings in the original design, a higher load
factor was allowed on the journal bearings and
particularly the centre bearing, since this factor
could be reduced, if found necessary, by the addi-
tion of balance weights.
The arrangement for the oil supply to the big
ends is orthodox.
The arrangement of expanded-in tube in the
crank-pin as shown did not prove altogether satis- Fig.Journal
243.—Crankshaft
Detail
factory in service, for it was found that there
was a tendency for the annular space to become choked in course
of time.
The tube was therefore discarded and replaced by the usual
arrangement of two end plugs retained in position by a single
through bolt.
The flywheel is an iron casting 26 in. in diameter, and is bolted
to a flange formed solid with the crankshaft. A Lanchester vibra-
tion damper is attached to the forward end of the crankshaft in
order to damp out any torsional vibration.
In order to allow of the engine operating satisfactorily when
tilted through large angles, the lubrication is on the “ dry base ”
system ; that is to say, the oil supply is not carried in the bed-
plate, but in a separate oil tank. Three oil pumps of the valveless
plunger type are fitted, all three of which are driven from a single
crank-pin, which in turn is driven by the intermediate timing gear
wheel. The general arrangement of the oil pumps and their driving
gear is shown in fig. 244. The centre pump circulates the oil through
the various bearings, and the two scavenge pumps collect and return
the used oil to the external oil tank. Each of the scavenge pumps
is connected up to one of the small oil sumps which are provided at
each end of the bedplate. The lubrication pipework is shown in
fig. 245, which also illustrates the oil relief valve at the flywheel end
of the main oil lead. In the original design, the scavenge pump
suction pipes were arranged externally on the grounds of accessibility
of the pipe joints, but in the Mark V Tanks, in which these engines
were principally used, the joints were not accessible when the engine
Fig. 244.—Oil Pump Arrangement
was mounted in position. Later engines were therefore fitted with

the suction pipes inside the bedplate.
Owing to restriction in width, it was necessary to place all the
auxiliaries at the ends of the engine. The auxiliaries to be provided
for were as follows : Two magnetos, three oil pumps, two governors,
water-circulating pump, and air-pressure pump. The arrangement
of the various auxiliary drives will be seen from the illustration, and
fig. 246 shows these diagrammatically. In the original design two
governors were provided, one to limit the maximum speed of the
engine, and the other to open the carburettor throttles directly the
HIGHSPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS 373
engine speed fell below 400 R.P.M. The object of the second
governor was to prevent accidental stoppage of the engine. It was,
however, found to be unnecessary, and only the high-speed governor
was retained.
Fig. 245.—Oil Pipe Arrangement
Fig. 246.—Auxiliary Drive Diagram
Fig. 247 shows the arrangement of the water-pump drive. The

pumps were designed and made by the Pulsometer Engineering Co,,
and their performance is shown in the curve, fig. 248.
The intermediate timing gear wheel is mounted on ball bearings
carried in a cast-iron spider bolted up to the front wall of the column;
a form of construction which facilitates the correct meshing of the
timing gear. All three oil pumps are driven by a small disc crank
keyed to the hub of the intermediate wheel.
Fig. 247.—Water Pump Drive Arrangement
Fig. 249 shows the general arrangement of the governor; it is a

miniature of that used by Messrs, Mirrless, Bickerton & Day, Ltd.,
for their large Diesel engines.
Fig. 248.—Performance Curves of Water Circulating Pump
Two 55-mm. vertical Zenith carburettors are fitted, the whole of

the air supply to which is taken from the chambers surrounding the
cross-head guides; the method of warming the air supply to the
carburettors has already been described in connection with the piston
construction. A hand-adjusted cold-air valve is fitted between the
two carburettors for use in very hot weather.
All engines were required to pass the following tests before
acceptance :
(1) A full-load test of two hours' duration, during which the power
Fig. 249.—Vertical Governor Arrangement
must not fall below 150 B.H.P. at 1200 R.P.M. During this test the
fuel and oil consumption was not to exceed 0·7 pint (petrol) and 0·02
pint (oil) per B.H.P. hour.
(2) The above test to be followed by a run of ten minutes at 1600
R.P.M. and not less than 150 B.H.P.
(3) Governor tests.
(4) A low-speed torque test, when each engine was required to
develop not less than 55 B.H.P, at 400 R.P.M,
(5) The first engine by each maker and thereafter one in every
Fig. 250.—Performance Curves, 150 H.P. Engine
fifty, as selected by the Inspector, were submitted to the following

additional tests:—
(a) A continuous full-load run of fifty hours, during which the
Fig. 251.—Mechanical Efficiency and Friction Losses, 150 H.P. Engine
conditions as to power, fuel and oil consumption were identical with

those of the ordinary two-hour full-load test (1).
(6) A tilting test, the engine to be mounted on a tilting table and
tilted through an angle of 35° first in one direction and then in the
other. When tilted at this angle the engine was required to be run
Fig, 252.—Mechanical Loss Curves, 150 H.P. Engine
for ten minutes at about 400 R.P.M. and no load; after this period
the throttle was to be thrown wide open, when the engine must open
Fig. 253.—Efficiency Curves, 150 H.P. Engine
up firing regularly on all six cylinders without showing any smoke

and without any oil leaking out of the base chamber (see fig, 264).
The useful life of a fighting tank was at first so short that an
endurance between overhauls of 100 hours was considered ample,
but, as might be expected, the engines in actual practice were called
upon for an endurance of very much more than the 100 hours originally
specified, and at least four instances were reported of engines having
run 1400 hours at full speed without requiring or receiving any over-
haul beyond the ordinary routine adjustments. Moreover being
of a convenient size and speed, they were used very largely for driving
Fig. 254.—Power and Consumption 150 H . P . Engine
electric generators for supplying light and power to large camps,

field workshops, &c., in, which service their hours of running were
naturally very much longer.
The preceding curves (figs. 250-253) give in full the average per-
formance of these engines. Fig. 250 shows the indicated and brake
horse-power, also the brake mean pressure developed at speeds
ranging from 400 R.P.M. up to 1600 R.P.M. The brake horse-power
and torque curves are the mean of a large number of tests carried
out by the different engine-makers, and may be taken as fair average
results. Fig. 254 shows the results obtained from a particularly good
example after the conclusion of its 50-hour full-power test. Fig. 252
shows the mechanical losses, which were determined in detail and
with considerable accuracy by means of a swinging field dynamometer.
All engines on completion of their official full-power run were motored
for a short period to determine their mechanical efficiency, and the
Fig. 255.—Sectional Model of 150 H.P. Engine
total mechanical losses were found to agree very closely with the sum
of the several detail losses shown in the above curve. Further, in a
few instances, tests for mechanical efficiency were carried out by the
method employed by Morse, of cutting out one cylinder at a time
while the engine is running on full load. These tests also showed
very close agreement. All the test sheets show that the mechanical
efficiency, as arrived at by the motoring test, was remarkably uniform
over a wide range of engines, a variation of 1 per cent in the mechani-
cal efficiency figure being very exceptional,
Tig. 253 shows the thermal efficiency and the efficiency relative to
the air standard; two efficiency curves are shown—(1) based on the
fuel burnt, and (2) based on the fuel supplied. The efficiency based
on the fuel supplied is calculated directly from the known fuel con-
Fig. 256.—Throttle Curve, 150 H.P. Engine
sumption. The efficiency based on the fuel burnt is arrived at by

calculating back from the mean pressure actually obtained in the
cylinder, and the difference between these two curves represents
the loss due to imperfect Carburation and distribution.
Fig. 254 shows the power and consumption at full throttle and
varying engine speeds.
Fig. 256 shows the fuel consumption at varying loads when running
on the governor at speeds ranging between 1200 and 1300 R.P.M.
Fig. 257 shows in detail the cam formation and valve timing,
HIGH-SPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS 38l
Fig. 257.—Cam Details
The following table taken from a sample test-sheet gives the heat
distribution:—
CALIBRATION TEST, 150 H.P. TANK ENGINE

Duration of test.—Ten hours.
Fuel.—Shell spirit (specific gravity 0·725).
Lower heating value of fuel, 18,600 B.Th.U.s per lb.
Air standard efficiency.—44·4 %.
Mechanical efficiency.—87 %.
MEAN RESULTS OF LAST EIGHT HOURS OF TEST.

Brake horse-power 162·9
Fuel (lb./b.h.p.-hour) 0·554
Brake thermal efficiency 24·7 %
Indicated horse-power 187·0
Indicated thermal efficiency 28·4 %
Relative efficiency (per cent of air standard) 64·0 %
Heat loss to jackets (B.Th.U.s per hour) 418,000
Heat to indicated work 28·4 %
Heat to cooling water 24·9 %
Heat to exhaust, radiation, etc. 46·7 %
Fig. 258.—Interior of Mark V Two-star Tank
Fig. 258 shows the installation of the engine in the Mark V two-
star tank, while fig. 259 gives an exterior view. (In this model the
larger 225 H.P. engine was used.)
Fig. 259.—No. 106, Mark V Two-star Tank
The leading dimensions of these engines and general data are

given in the following tables :—
Number and arrangement of cylinders Six, vertical, separate.
Bore 5·625 in.
Stroke 7·500 in.
Stroke/bore ratio 1·323 : 1.
Area of one piston 24·85 sq. in.
Total piston area of engine 149·10 sq. in.
Swept volume of one cylinder 186·40 cu. in.
Total swept volume of engine 1118·40 cu. in.
Volume of clearance space 55·90 cu. in.
Compression ratio 4·34 : 1.
Normal b.h.p. and speed 165 b.h.p. at 1200 r.p.m.
Piston speed 1500 ft./min. (25·0 ft./sec).
Indicated mean pressure 110·6 lb. sq. in. (187·5 i.h.p.).
Mechanical efficiency 88%.
Brake mean pressure 97·3 lb. sq. in.
Fuel consumption 0·636 pint/b.h.p.hr. (s.g. 0·730).
0·580 lb./b.h.p.hr. (18,600
B.T.U./lb.).
Brake thermal efficiency 23·6 %.
Indicated thermal efficiency 26·8%.
Air standard efficiency 44·40 %.
Relative efficiency 62·0 % (fuel burnt).
60·4 % (fuel supplied).
GAS VELOCITY, VALVE AREAS, ETC.

Gas Velocity {ft. per sec.)—
Choke tube 353·0.
Carburettor body 168·8.
Vertical induction pipe 165·2.
Induction manifold 156·3.
Inlet port 109·6.
Inlet valve 168·3 (e). 130·8 (t.).
Exhaust valve 148·25.
Exhaust port 140·3
Exhaust branch pipes 140·3.
Exhaust manifold 126·6.
Cross Sectional Area (sq. in.)—
Choke tube 1·760.
Carburettor body 3·680.
Vertical induction pipe 3·760.
Induction manifold 3·976.
Inlet port 5·672.
Inlet valve 3·690 (e). 4·750 (t).
Exhaust valve 1·190.
Exhaust port 4·430.
Exhaust branch pipes 4·430.
Exhaust manifold 4·910.
Diameter (in.)—
Choke tube 1·496 in. (38 mm.).
Carburettor body 2·165 in. (55 mm.).
Vertical induction pipe 2·1875 in.
Induction manifold 2·250 in.
Inlet port 2·6875 in.
Exhaust port 2·375 in.
Exhaust branch pipes 2·375 in.
Exhaust manifold 2·500 in.
Weight of piston, complete with rings and
gudgeon-pin, etc. 7·25 lb.
Weight per sq. in. piston area 0·292 lb.
Weight of connecting-rod, complete with
bearings, etc. 10·70 lb.
Total reciprocating weight per cylinder 10·82 lb.
Weight per sq, in. piston area 0·435 lb.
Length of connecting-rod 16·00 in.
Ratio connecting-rod/crank throw 4·27 : 1 .
Inertia pressure, top centre 82·2 lb./sq. in. piston area.
Inertia pressure, bottom centre 51·0 lb./sq. in. piston area.
Inertia pressure, mean 33·3 lb./sq. in. piston area.
Weight of rotating mass of connecting-rod 7·13 lb.
Total centrifugal pressure 1094 lb.
Centrifugal pressure, lb. per sq. in. piston
area 44·4 lb./sq, in.
Mean average fluid pressure, including
compression 43·0 lb./sq. in.
Total loading from all sources, lb./sq. in.
piston area 109·5 lb./sq. in.
Diameter of crank-pin 2·875 in.
Rubbing velocity 15·04 ft./sec.
Width of big-end bearing 2·25 in. (effective).
Projected area of big-end bearing 6·47 sq. in. (effective).
Ratio piston area/projected area of big-end
bearing 3·84 : 1.
Mean average pressure on big-end bearing 421 lb./sq. in.
Load factor on big-end bearing 6330 lb. ft./sec.
Inlet Valve (one per cylinder)—
Outside diameter 2·875 in.
Port diameter 2·6875 in.
Width of seating 0·0937 in.
Angle of seating 45°.
Radius under valve head 1·9375 in.
Diameter of valve stem 0·4995 in. in guide ; 0·4985 in
below guide.
Lift of valve (total) 0·5625 in.
Life of valve (effective) 0·4375 in.
Length of valve guide 4·375 in.
Clearance, valve stem in guide 0·0005 in.
Over-all length of valve 8·375 in.
No. of springs per valve Two.
Free length of spring (a) 5·875 in. (b) 5·8125 in.
Length of spring in position, no lift (a) 4·000 in. (b) 3·8125 in.
Mean diameter of coils (a) 1·703 in. (b) 1·120 in.
Gauge of wire (a) No. 6 B.W.G., 0·203 in. diam.
(b) No. 11 B.W.G., 0·120 in. diam.
Valve tappet clearance, cold 0·002 in.
Valve bare, 0·8120 lb.
Weight of valve, complete with 1·6234 lb. Two springs, 0·6718 lb.
spring, etc. Spring cap, etc.,
0·1406 lb.
Weight of spring, bare 0·6718 lb. per pair.
Valve leaves seat 29° early.
Inlet valve opens (deg. on crank)
Valve opens 8° late.
Valve closes 25° late.
Inlet valve closes (deg. on crank)
Valve back on seat 59° late.
Material for valve 3% nickel steel stamping, case-
hardened.
Outside diameter 2·6875 in.

Port diameter 2·375 in.
Width of seating 0·156 in.
Angle of seating 45°.
Radius under valve head 0·875 in.
Diameter of valve stem 0·5595 in. in guide ; 0·5475 in.
below guide.
Lift of valve 0·5625 in.
Length of valve guide 7·125 in. (effective).
Clearance, valve stem in guide 0·003 in.
(E246) 26
Over-all length of valve 12·8125 in.
No. of springs per valve Two.
Free length of spring (a) 5·875 in. (b) 5·8125 in.
Length of spring in position, no lift(a) 4·000 in. (b) 3·8125 in.
Mean diameter of coils (a) 1·703 in. (b) 1·120 in.
(a) No. 6 B.W.G., 0·203 in. diam.
Gauge of wire
(b) No. 11 B.W.G., 0·120 in. diam.
Valve tappet clearance, cold 0·010 in.
Valve bare, 1·281 lb.
Weight of valve, complete with 2·0934 lb. Two springs, 0·6718 lb.
spring, etc. Spring cap, etc.,
0·1406 lb.
Weight of spring, bare 0·6718 per pair.
Exhaust valve opens, degrees on crank 53° early.
Exhaust valve closes, degrees on crank 9° late.
Material for valve 3% nickel steel stamping, case-
hardened.
Connecting-rod—
Length between centres 16·00 in.
Ratio connecting-rod/crank throw 4·27 : 1.
Little-end bearing, type Chilled phosphor-bronze bush fixed in
rod.
Little-end bearing, diameter 1·250 in.
Little-end bearing, length 1·625 in.
Little-end bearing, projected area 2·032 sq. in.
Big-end bearing, type Bronze shell, lined white metal.
Big-end bearing, diameter 2·875 in.
Big-end bearing, length 2·6875 in.
Big-end bearing, projected area 6·47 sq. in. (effective).
Ratio piston area/projected area of
big-end bearing 3·84 : 1.
Number of big-end bolts Four.
Full diameter 0·500 in.
Diameter at bottom of threads 0·4375 in.
Total cross sectional area at bottom
of threads 0·602 sq. in.
Total load on bolts, at 1200 r.p.m. 2659 lb.
Total load on bolts, at 1600 r.p.m. 4795 lb.
Stress per sq. in., at 1200 r.p.m. 4490 lb./sq. in.
Stress per sq. in., at 1600 r.p.m. 7965 lb./sq. in.
Crankshaft—
Length of complete shaft 66·00 in.
Cylinder centres 7·250 in.
Cylinder centres (centre pair) 8·000 in.
Outside diameter of crank-pin 2·875 in.
Inside diameter of crank-pin 1·4375 in.
Length of crank-pin 2·750 in.
Outside diameter of journals 2·875 in.
Inside diameter of journals Solid.
Number of journal bearings Seven.
Length, flywheel-end bearing 4·000 in.
Length, forward-end bearing 2·875 in.
Length, centre bearing 2·875 in.
Length, intermediate bearing 2·125 in.
Width of crank webs 3·500 in.
Thickness of crank webs 1·1875 in.
Radius at ends of journal and crank-
pins 0·250 in.
Diameter of drilled oil-ways in shaft 0·250 in.
Weight of complete shaft 182 lb., includes thrust race pinion,
starting clutch, nuts, etc. (no
balance weights).
Material Mild-steel forging.
It will be interesting and perhaps helpful to review the defects

which revealed themselves in these engines. With over 4000 engines
in service it is possible to discriminate between mere accidents and
epidemic troubles.
Combustion Chamber.—The design of the combustion chamber,
though excellent from the point of view of turbulence, and therefore
of power output and efficiency, proved, as in the light of present
knowledge might have been expected, rather bad from the point of
view of detonation, despite the comparatively low compression ratio.
Originally it was intended to operate the tanks only on aero-spirit,
but later they were required to use the lowest grade of war spirit—
an American fuel consisting almost entirely of the heavier fractions of
the paraffin series. With this fuel detonation became severe when
the engines were pulled down to a low speed with wide-open throttle.
Pistons.—The first few engines were fitted with sand-cast pistons
in 88 per cent aluminium and 12 per cent copper alloy. These
castings sometimes gave trouble owing to porosity of the metal at
the point where the hollow trunk joins the head of the piston. Many
pistons were rejected on this score, but a number in which the
porosity did not appear on the surface and therefore was not detected
by inspection were fitted to engines, and some of these broke away
at this point, but since the connecting-rod was not released by such
failures little or no further damage resulted therefrom. This defect
was remedied completely by employing pistons cast in metal dies in
all subsequent engines,
Cross-head Guides.—These were at first made of bronze lined
with white metal, and proved quite satisfactory. Owing to the
scarcity, or alleged scarcity, of bronze, the use of this material was
eventually forbidden by the authorities, and cast iron was therefore
substituted. The cast-iron guides gave a good deal of trouble
owing to distortion after machining, and to meet this, since there
was no time for “ ageing ” or annealing, it became necessary to allow
rather a large working clearance, which gave rise to noise. Later
the same copper-aluminium alloy used for the pistons was em-
ployed also for the guides, and this proved extremely satisfactory—
quite equal to the white-metal-lined guides as regards wear, and
better in so far as, since the clearance increased with temperature,
it was safe to work with a very close fit.
E x h a u s t Pipes.—The exhaust manifolds and pipes radiated so
much heat that it was found necessary, for the comfort of the tank
crew, to jacket them with an air jacket through which a circulation
of cold air was induced by means of a fan driven from the engine.
Crankshafts.—Owing in part to the small bearing area neces-
sitated by the limits on the over-all length of the engine, and in part
to the use of dead soft steel, the wear in the journals, and in par-
ticular the centre journal, was rather severe. So far as the actual
fighting tanks were concerned, this was of little consequence, because
the crankshaft easily outlasted the rest of the machine; but in the
case of the tanks used for training, which ran all day and every day,
and of electric-generating sets, this wear became troublesome, for it
was generally necessary to regrind the crankshaft and fit new
bearings after from 500 to 700 hours' running at full speed and 80
per cent load factor. It was therefore decided to fit balance weights
on all engines destined for other than fighting tanks, a procedure
which reduced the rate of wear to less than one-third, but which, by
lowering the natural periodic speed of the shaft and by increasing
the intensity of the oscillations, threw a heavy duty on the torsional
vibration damper.
Apart from wear, the soft mild-steel crankshafts were very
reliable indeed, and, out of over 4000 engines, no single instance of
broken crankshaft was reported*
Vibration Dampers.—These were at first identical with those
fitted to the Daimler engines. So long as the crankshafts were un-
balanced, the duty on these dampers was very light indeed, and they
gave no trouble. But so soon as balance weights were fitted and the
dampers were called upon to function, the thin plates used in them
soon cut away through the castellations and the damper wore out
completely in about 50 hours' running. As the result of this ex-
perience the dampers were re-designed by Messrs, Gardner & Sons;
two thick cast-iron plates with good substantial castellated bosses
being fitted in place of the rest of thin steel plates : these proved
perfectly satisfactory, the wear, even after 1200 hours' running
with balance weights, being reported as almost negligible.
L u b r i c a t i o n S y s t e m . — As explained previously — two
scavenging pumps exhausted the oil, one from either end of the
necessarily very shallow bedplate, and delivered it to a filter tank
placed some 3 feet above the level of the crankshaft. A third
force pump drew oil from the filter tank and delivered it to all the
crankshaft bearings. All three pumps were operated from a single
crank at the forward end of the engine, and had the same stroke;
but the scavenging pumps were of slightly larger bore, and so could
exhaust more rapidly than the force pump could deliver. It was
found, however, that under certain conditions when the forward
part of the engine was tilted up at the extreme angle the suction
pump drawing from the after end failed to keep pace, with the result
that oil gradually accumulated in the after end of the crankcase till
it eventually ran out of the flywheel bearing. This was found to be
due to the fact that while the force pump had a positive head of
about 3 feet in its favour the scavenge pump had, under extreme
conditions, a suction head of about 3 feet, while the length of suction
pipe of about 5 feet was subject to a pulsating flow. Under these
conditions the volumetric efficiency of the force pump exceeded that
of the scavenge pump by more than the difference in volumetric
capacity. This difficulty was cured completely by the provision
of an air vessel on the suction side of the scavenge pump, thus
maintaining a uniform flow in the suction pipe.
Again, it was found that, when the engine stopped in a certain
position, oil could leak back from the filter tank through the bearings
into the crankcase, sufficient in time to flood the latter. This
occurred only when the machine was left standing for several days
in very hot weather. To obviate this defect a cock was fitted in the
oil pipe leading to the force pump, and, in order to render it impossible
to start the engine with the oil supply cut off, this cock was combined
with the magneto earthing switch.
Apart from these two minor difficulties, which were easily over-
come, the lubrication system worked well; and although the scavenge
pumps were considerably above the highest oil level, and under
normal conditions their suction inlets also were above, yet they
never failed to pick up the oil at once so soon as the engine was
tilted and one or other of the suction inlets was drowned,
Valve Spring Caps.—In order to economize machining opera-
tions the valve spring caps were pressed out from sheet steel, and
with a view to reinforcing the conical portion and prevent any risk
of its being drawn over the taper wedges a
steel wire ring was embodied in the pressing,
as shown in fig. 260. In practice these
pressed spring caps used to fail after a period
ranging from 200 to 600 hours, the failure
invariably occurring at the junction between
the conical portion and the flat retaining face,
as shown. The failure was due in part to
fatigue and in part to the fact that, in spite
of all precautions, the pressing was generally
sharply nicked at this point. Though no
doubt with a little more care in manufacture
satisfactory pressings could have been made,
it was decided, in view of the urgency, to
employ spring caps turned from steel bar,
Fig. 260.
which proved quite satisfactory.
Valve Gear.—With a view to eliminating noise and wear in the
valve gear the base circle of the cams was ground slightly eccentric
in order to permit of a large working clearance at the time when it
was essential that the valves should be closed, and gradually to take
up this clearance preparatory to opening. This method is very
satisfactory as a rule, but it is liable to abuse. In practice it was at
first found very difficult to prevent the mechanics in charge from
adjusting the clearance regardless of the position of the cam, with
the result that the valves were lifted slightly from their seats long
before the correct opening period. So far as the inlet valves were
concerned no trouble arose, but a few cases of burnt-out exhaust
valves were found to be due to this cause. The difficulty was
eventually overcome by the issue of very full instructions for the
adjustment of valve clearances and by rigorous inspection. Once the
correct adjustment was fully understood, trouble with valves became
almost unknown, and there is little doubt but that the immunity
from trouble and the quiet running obtained were largely due to the
use of cams with eccentric base circles. Apart from these troubles,
of which all but the tendency to detonate and the heat radiated
from the exhaust were quickly and easily overcome, these engines
behaved very well. The system of hermetically sealing the crank-
case and drawing all the air through the false top proved most
effective in keeping the crankcase cool and the working parts clean.
The cross-head type pistons proved thoroughly effective both in

eliminating the usual troubles with large aluminium pistons, in
preventing smoke, and in yielding a very high mechanical efficiency.
With the steady growth in size and armament of tanks it became
necessary to provide still larger engines, and another six-cylinder
engine of the same general type but embodying all the experience
gained with the 150 H.P. engine was next designed and produced.
This engine is shown in the drawings and photos: figs. 261, 262,
263, 264, 265. Although about 800 of these engines were com-
pleted, yet owing to delays in tank production none of them saw
any active fighting. Sufficient experience was, however, gained both
Fig. 261.—225 H.P. Engine, Carburettor Side
on the test-bed and subsequently in tanks to prove that these

larger engines were a very great improvement over the earlier type.
Rated normally at 225 B.H.P., they had a bore and stroke of 6¾"
and 7½" respectively and developed 260 B.H.P. at 1200 R.P.M.
In order to obviate the defects of the 150 H.P. engines the
following modifications were made :—
The combustion chamber was made in the form of a compact
rectangular chamber with the ignition plugs placed as nearly as
possible in the centre, as shown in fig. 265. This resulted in complete
immunity from detonation under all conditions, so much so that
the engines could be loaded down to two or three hundred R.P.M.
with wide-open throttle without the least trace of detonation even
on the lowest grade of American petrol, and this despite the fact
that the cylinders were larger and the compression ratio as high as
in the 150 H.P. engines.
The valves were duplicated and placed horizontally with the
inlets on one side and the exhaust on the other. This arrangement
Fig. 262.-225 H.P. Engine. Flywheel End
of valves permitted of the exhaust ports being turned up vertically

so that short straight exhaust pipes could be taken direct through
the roof of the tank to a manifold fitted outside. Thus the length
of exhaust pipe inside the tank was reduced to the very minimum,
while all bends, &c., were avoided. The inlet valves were fitted in
separate cages which could easily be removed without disturbing
any of the pipe work, and the exhaust valves could then be
HIGH-SPEED HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES FOR TANKS
Fig. 263. —225 H.P. Tank Engines in course of erection at Messrs. Gardner's Works
393
withdrawn through the openings left by the removal of the inlet
valves.
Die-cast pistons were used from the very start, and no single
instance of piston failure was ever reported. There being no rigid
restrictions as regards length, more liberal bearing surfaces could
Fig. 264.—225 H.P. Engine, mounted for Tilting Test
be and were provided, particularly as regards the crankshaft centre

bearing. Balance weights and Messrs. Gardner's revised design of
torsional vibration damper were fitted in all cases.
The crankshafts were made from 0·35 carbon steel, and under
these circumstances proved practically immune from wear. The
Fig. 265.—225 H.P. Tank Engine, Sectional Elevation

other defects which manifested themselves in the first batches of
150 H.P. engines were, of course, obviated by adopting the expedients
explained above.
Although these larger engines never saw actual fighting service,
yet they were submitted to very severe tests both in tanks and on
the test-bed, the latter including full-power runs of 200 hours'
duration. As may be supposed, with the experience of the smaller
engines available before the design was commenced, these engines
were an improvement on the 150 H.P. type in almost every
respect. A very large number of them have since been converted
to run on gas, and are now in use in electric-power stations in various
parts of the country. Unfortunately, however, their compression
ratio is too low for efficient running on town or producer gas.
CHAPTER XIII
HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
During recent years much attention has been devoted to the
problem of so-called high-speed Diesel engines, that is to say, engines
using relatively heavy and high boiling fuels such as cannot be
vaporized outside the cylinder, and have therefore to be injected
into the cylinder in the liquid form, and which depend for ignition
on the temperature of compression.
The low fuel cost coupled with the very high thermal efficiency
obtainable throughout the whole range of load renders such an
engine very attractive in fields where fuel cost is a major item and
where the mess and smell inseparable from these heavy petroleum
products are not a serious nuisance. In certain applications also,
e.g. marine and aircraft, the great reduction in fire risk resulting
from the use of a fuel of high flash point is a further very important
consideration in favour of the heavy-oil engine.
Ever since the Diesel engine first appeared attempts have been
made in various countries to produce a high-speed version, that is
an engine operating at piston speeds in excess of, say, 1500 ft. per
minute, but until comparatively recently these have met with little
success. It was not until the Royal Aircraft Establishment, under
the ægis of the Air Ministry, tackled the problem that any really
substantial advance was made. To the Royal Aircraft Establish-
ment is due the credit for having first shown the world, some eight
years ago, that a really high-speed heavy-oil engine could be produced
which would not only run at a piston speed of well over 2000 ft.
per minute, but that even at this high piston speed, a higher brake
mean pressure and a higher overall efficiency could be obtained than
had ever been recorded previously by any slow-running Diesel
engine of any size or type. Although during the ensuing eight years
intensive development work has been carried out both on the Con-
tinent and in America, yet the results obtained by the Air Ministry
some eight years ago have yet to be surpassed.
397
Modern developments in the way of high-speed Diesel engines
have tended to depart widely from the slow-speed type and to
follow much more closely the petrol engine, not only in mechanical
design, but also as to the thermo-dynamic cycle on which they
operate, that is to say, the idea of working on a constant pressure
cycle, never strictly adhered to even in the slow-speed, has in the
high-speed engine, gone entirely by the board, and in its place is
substituted a cycle resembling much more nearly the constant volume
cycle of the petrol engine. The constant pressure cycle or even any
near approximation to it can be employed only in relatively slow-
speed engines, and then only when the fuel is injected by means of
blast air, since this method alone combines the requisite degree of
pulverization, of penetration, and of turbulence. It is not, however,
a desirable cycle for small high-speed engines, for its overall efficiency
is relatively low, and its principal advantage, namely a lower maxi-
mum pressure, is of little import when applied to a small piston.
Moreover, even the air injection engine may, owing to slight de-
rangement, develop occasionally very high maximum pressures, and
must in consequence be made robust enough to deal safely with
them should they occur.
In any type of Diesel engine, whether of high or low speed, the
major problem is that of bringing the fuel and air within the cylinder
in contact with one another, and at the same time of maintaining
a high relative speed between the fuel particles and the air in order
constantly to sweep away the products of combustion as they are
formed, and to replace them with fresh air. The jet or jets of fuel
must penetrate far enough through the dense atmosphere in the
combustion chamber to reach the most outlying air, and at the same
time the spray must be fine enough to spread out on all sides. This
condition can be accomplished fairly readily when high-pressure
blast air is used for injecting the fuel, since the air stream then serves
both to pulverize the fuel and, by creating additional and violent
turbulence, to distribute the finely pulverized fuel more or less
uniformly throughout the combustion chamber. With so-called
solid injection, i.e. without the aid of air blast, the problem is far
more difficult and the conditions conflicting. On the one hand, in
order to reach the outlying air, we must have a fairly “ hard ” or
penetrating jet; on the other hand, to give adequate dispersion of
the particles of fuel, we require a “ soft ” or pulverizing jet. Thus
solid injection starts with the disadvantage of having two apparently
irreconcilable conditions to fulfil and it is in the attempts to fulfil
HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 399
or circumvent these conditions that so much ingenuity has of late
been displayed. No complete reconciliation has yet been found,
but compromises have been attained which render the solid
injection at least as efficient as the air injection engine, and
thus render possible the light high-speed self-contained heavy-oil
engine.
As stated previously, the thermo-dynamic cycle adopted in the
high-speed Diesel engine as it is being developed to-day (1929) re-
sembles much more nearly that of the petrol engine than of the
conventional Diesel engine.
Before proceeding further, it is interesting to compare the two
cycles.
(1) In the petrol engine, the whole of the fuel and air are inter-
mixed very thoroughly not only before ignition but even before
admission to the cylinder.
In the Diesel engine, air only is admitted to the cylinder during
the suction stroke, and the fuel is injected at or just before the end
of compression, hence the process of intermixture and of ignition
are co-existent.
(2) In the petrol engine, ignition is brought about by the passage
of a spark across the electrodes of the ignition plug; this leaves
behind it a minute thread or nucleus of flame which spreads slowly
at first, but with rapidly increasing velocity, to the envelope of mix-
ture immediately surrounding it.
Under the conditions of indiscriminate turbulence which exist
in any practical engine, the flame once fully established is torn and
spread throughout the cylinder with the result that the whole
cylinder contents are inflamed with a rapidity many times in excess
of that which would occur under stagnant conditions. The com-
bustion process with spark ignition may be regarded as taking place
in two distinct stages, first the building up of a self-propagating
nucleus of flame, and second the spread of that flame throughout
the working fluid. The first phase occupies an appreciable interval
of time, more or less independent of engine speed, during which
there is no perceptible rise of pressure. The actual time occupied
by the building up of this flame nucleus depends upon:
(a) The chemical nature of the fuel.
(b) The mixture strength and therefore the flame temperature
itself.
(c) The temperature of the combustible mixture at the time of
passage of the spark and therefore that of the surrounding envelope.
(d) The pressure of the combustible mixture at the time of
ignition, for this controls the intimacy between the inflamed and
uninflamed particles.
The second phase, namely the spread of flame throughout the
main body of the combustible mixture depends upon:
(a) The shape and form of the combustion chamber.
(b) The degree and nature of the turbulence whose function it
is to spread the flame rapidly from zone to zone.
This second phase is a mechanical one pure and simple, and since
turbulence increases pro rata with increase of speed, it follows that
the time occupied by this stage varies with the speed of the engine
and decreases as the engine speed is increased.
In the petrol engine then we may consider the combustion pro-
cess as taking place in two distinct phases, the first of which may
be termed the delay period occupied by the building up of a sub-
stantial nucleus of flame; during this period there is no perceptible
rise of pressure. Under any given set of conditions as to fuel, mix-
ture strength, compression pressure, and temperature, this delay
period occupies a substantially constant period of time irrespective
of engine speed; therefore, as the speed increases the ignition timing
must be advanced to compensate for the “ delay ”.
The second phase, that of rapid pressure rise is determined by
mechanical design and turbulence; under any given set of conditions
its period is constant in terms of crankangle but not of time. The
author prefers to express this stage in terms of increase of pressure
in pounds per square inch per 0° of crankangle. The two periods
of course merge into one another, and as explained in Chapter IV
it is the manner in which they merge which determines primarily
the roughness or smoothness of running.
If the speed of a petrol engine be doubled, the delay period in
terms of crankangle will be doubled, or nearly so, but the period of
pressure rise will remain the same. Thus fig. 266 shows typical
diagrams on a time basis from a petrol engine running at 1000
R.P.M. (above) and 2000 R.P.M. (below). In these diagrams the
compression expansion line (when ignition is shut off) is shown
dotted. It will be seen that as between the upper and lower dia-
grams the angular movement from the passage of the spark until
any appreciable rise of pressure occurs is approximately doubled,
being of the order of 10° and 20° respectively, while the pressure
rise occupied approximately 10° crankshaft degrees in each case
and amounts in this instance to 35 lb. per square inch per 0° of
crank-angle. The completion of Stage II marks the end of the
combustion process so far as the petrol engine is concerned.
In the case of the Diesel engine with solid injection a stream of
liquid fuel is injected into highly compressed and highly heated air.
In this case the combustion process may be regarded as taking
place in three distinct phases.
(1) A delay period, during which fuel is admitted but either no
ignition takes place or the ignition is restricted to some very
CRANK ANGLE
Fig. 266.—Diagrams showing increase of “ Delay ” Period with increase of Speed
localized nucleus. It seems probable that ignition first starts from

some nuclear point so soon as only a minute portion of the injected
fuel has had time to vaporize and to mix with sufficient oxygen to
form a readily combustible mixture, and that from this nucleus the
flame spreads at first in much the same manner as in a spark-ignited
petrol/air mixture during the first phase. As in the case of the
petrol engine the delay period appears to be constant in time and
to depend upon:—
(1) The nature of the fuel.
(2) The temperature and pressure of the highly compressed air.
(E246) 27
(3) The fineness of pulverization, not so much, of the fuel stream
as a whole, but rather of the finest particles, for clearly an infinitesi-
mal proportion of the total fuel charge will suffice to provide for this
initial nucleus of flame.
Except for (3) the conditions as regards this first delay period
are substantially the same for the petrol as for the Diesel engine,
and in both cases the period of delay is constant in terms of time but
not of crankangle. The building up of the nucleus is, however, much
more rapid owing to the higher pressure and temperature of the
cylinder contents.
The second phase consists, as in the petrol engine, of the me-
chanical spread of flame from the initial nucleus to the main body
of the combustion chamber. Here again the conditions are similar
to that of the petrol engine in that the rate of spread of flame and
therefore the rate of pressure rise is dependent on turbulence and
is constant in terms of crankangle rather than of time- As in the
case of the petrol engine this phase can be speeded up to any desired
extent by varying the turbulence. There is, however, this essential
difference that whereas in the petrol engine the whole of the fuel
necessary to complete combustion is already present in the cylinder,
in the Diesel engine only a proportion and in some cases a small
proportion is present during phases (1) and (2), hence the pressure
though its rate of rise is of the same order as that of a petrol engine
with similar conditions as to turbulence, does not reach to any-
thing like the high maximum which it would do were sufficient fuel
present in the cylinder to combine with the whole of the oxygen,
Clearly also phase (2) is influenced strongly by the amount of fuel
present in the cylinder and the manner of its distribution through-
out the air, for the mixture is no longer homogeneous as in the petrol
engine, and the spread of flame during this period can take place
only throughout those zones where a correctly proportioned fuel/air
mixture exists at the time. The actual pressure attained at the
completion of phase (2) depends upon:
(1) The extent of the delay period, which, in turn, depends upon
the engine speed.
(2) Upon the rate of injection of the fuel which determines the
amount of fuel available in the cylinder at this period,
(3) Upon both the temperature and pressure of the highly com-
pressed air, and
(4) Upon the fineness of pulverization and the uniformity of
distribution at this early stage in the proceedings.
Once the flame has spread through the combustion chamber,

the increase in pressure and temperature is so great and the rate of
combustion so accelerated in consequence, that the remainder of
the fuel burns as it enters from the injector nozzle, thus bringing
about a further rise of pressure or the maintenance of constant pres-
sure depending upon the rate at which fuel is being delivered by
the supply pump. During this, the third phase, the burning is under
direct mechanical control, and the pressure can be varied at will
by varying the rate of injection.
Fig. 267 shows a diagrammatic indicator diagram in which the
three stages are shown as quite distinct, while fig. 268 shows an actual
LBS PER SQ INCH
CRANK ANGLE
Fig. 267.—Diagram showing three phases of combustion process in
Compression Ignition Engine
card taken from a small high-speed Diesel engine of 5½-in. bore by

7-in. stroke running at 1500 R.P.M., from which the three phases
above referred to can be identified though they are of course merged
together to some extent.
Consideration of the above suggests that since:
(1) The delay period is constant in time while the rate of injec-
tion is proportional to crankangle; the higher the engine speed,
the greater the proportion of fuel that will be admitted during this
period, hence the greater the quantity available for phase (2) and
the higher the maximum pressure. From this it would appear, as
experience indeed indicates, that under any given set of conditions
as to rate of injection, temperature, &c., the higher the speed the
higher the maximum pressure involved if the same efficiency is to
be maintained. It would appear also that in order to keep down the
maximum pressure it is desirable to inject the fuel not at a constant
rate, but rather gradually at first, so that not too much shall enter
during the delay period.
It used to be, and to a large extent still is argued, that the com-
bustion process in a compression ignition engine, including the
vaporization of the liquid particles, the subsequent admixture of
this vapour with sufficient air for combustion, and finally the com-
bustion of the air/vapour mixture thus formed must necessarily
take so long a period of time as to render the high-speed compression
ignition engine either entirely impracticable or at least so inefficient
as to be of very little service. Such arguments appear to be entirely
CRANK ANGLE
Fig. 268
unfounded; not only have they been refuted by practical results, but
they appear also to bo based on entirely false premises. Except that
a very minute quantity of vapour must be present to provide the
initial nucleus of flame, there does not appear the slightest ground
for supposing that the rest of the fuel must be vaporized completely
before combustion can take place; on the contrary, it appears far
more probable that combustion actually takes place from the sur-
face of the liquid droplet and that it is fed with fresh oxygen and
the burnt products scoured away by the rapid passage of this droplet
through the air. The really essential condition for high speed being
sufficient relative motion between the drops of fuel and the air—
a condition which can be met either by rapid movement of the fuel
or of the air, or both (provided, of course, their direction is not the
same).
It does appear, however, that for any given fuel the relative
proportion of the delay period must increase as the engine speed is
raised, that the extent of this period in relation to the rate of injec-
tion determines the maximum pressure and that therefore the
higher the speed, the higher the maximum pressure. In other words,
the higher the speed, the greater the departure from the constant
pressure and the nearer the approach to the constant volume cycle.
A large number of experiments have been carried out at the
author's laboratory during the last eight years with a view to investi-
gating these several stages in the combustion process. For this
Fig. 269
purpose a number of sleeve-valve engines have been used because

with this type of valve gear
(1) Both the degree and the nature of turbulence can be varied
at will by means of guide vanes in the entry ports. Thus by admit-
ting the air tangentially an almost perfectly organized rotary swirl
can be obtained—by admitting the air at various angles and at
varying velocities, almost any degree of general rough and tumble
turbulence can be produced at will; further by the use of external
guide vanes the conditions as to turbulence can be varied while
running and their effect observed by merely altering the position
or angle of the vanes.
(2) The use of a sleeve valve allows complete freedom of man-
oeuvre as regards the shape and proportion of the combustion chamber.
(3) An anemometer can be fitted within the combustion
chamber as shown in fig. 269 whereby the speed of rotation of
the air can be measured and recorded while the engine is running,
if not under its own power, at least when motored at normal
speed.
(4) For measurements of pressure rise, the latest type of Farn-
boro electrical indicator shown in fig. 270 has been used throughout
Fig. 270.—Dobbie-Mclnnes Indicator
all the experiments and a special adaptation of this indicator has

been made whereby the timing and pressure in the fuel injection
system can also be observed and recorded at the same time. A
sectional drawing of the special indicator valve evolved for this
purpose is shown in fig. 271, and a typical diagram obtained there-
from in fig. 272.
(5) For measurements of indiscriminate turbulence, means have
been provided for blowing through the inlet ports at certain pre-
determined air velocities, and the direction of the air currents ex-
plored by means of a pitot tube and air-speed indicator.
The general gist of all the experiments has shown that:
(1) As regards Phase 1—In a Diesel engine the delay period

depends, as would be expected, primarily upon the nature of the
fuel, and what in a petrol engine would be considered as its tendency
to detonate, the lower the ignition temperature of the fuel, and
therefore the greater the difference between its self-ignition tem-
perature and that of the surrounding air the shorter the delay period.
This period can be further shortened by the addition of small quan-
tities of pro-detonating dopes; such, for example, as amyl nitrate,
which when added to petrol will increase greatly the tendency to
detonate. In this respect the requirements are the exact converse
of those for petrol
LBS PER SQ INCH
PRESSURE
CRANK ANGLE
ROTATION–––––>
Fig. 271 Fig. 272
(2) The delay period can be shortened by employing a higher

compression ratio, thus both increasing the temperature difference
between the highly compressed air and the self-ignition temperature
of the fuel, and also the density and therefore the intimacy of the
two. Increase of compression, however, is not altogether a satis-
factory method, for while it reduces the delay and therefore also
the rise of pressure above that of compression, yet this is almost
completely compensated for by the higher initial compression pres-
sure, while the slightly higher efficiency due to the increased ex-
pansion ratio is almost, if not completely, counterbalanced by
increased friction and heat losses,
(3) The delay period can also be shortened a trifle by pre-heating
the air or by running at a higher cylinder temperature, or both, but
only, of course, at some expense in volumetric efficiency.
(4) The delay period appears—but here the evidence is much
less definite—to depend also to some extent upon the degree of pul-
verization of the fuel. It is probable that it depends only on the
degree of pulverisation of some infinitesimal proportion of the fuel,
and since almost every form of fuel spray contains at least a small
fringe of finely atomized particles, it is exceedingly difficult to de-
termine this point by experiment.
As regards Stage 2, namely, the spread of inflammation from
the initial flame nucleus through the air, and such of the fuel as has
been admitted during the delay period, this depends solely on the
nature and degree of turbulence—the more violent and the more
indiscriminate the turbulence, the more rapid the spread of inflam-
mation, and, therefore, of the rate of pressure rise. In this respect,
the conditions are exactly on all fours with those which obtain in a
petrol engine. Just as in a petrol engine, it has been found that the
rate of pressure rise follows the degree of indiscriminate turbulence
as this is increased or diminished by means of the guide vanes re-
ferred to above. Also, as in a petrol engine, organized turbulence
has, during this stage, little or no influence, since it merely carries
the flame along with the procession instead of disseminating it through
the mob. In order to spread the flame throughout the mass, and so
raise the temperature in preparation for Phase 3, a high degree of
indiscriminate turbulence is essential, and it is unfortunate that
this requirement involves a rate of pressure rise considerably beyond
that consistent with smooth running. Since this high turbulence
and consequent rapid rate of pressure rise appears to be essential,
the ensuing roughness of running can probably best be minimized,
either by reducing as far as possible the delay period, or by employ-
ing at first a relatively slow rate of injection, or both, in order that
the minimum quantity of fuel shall be present in the cylinder during
this period of rapid pressure rise. Here certainly there is scope for
much further investigation.
As regards the third phase, namely that in which the fuel burns
from the surface of the liquid droplets as they enter from the fuel
injector. This is the only one in which one has direct mechanical
control over the rate of burning, and therefore over the pressure.
It should be the aim of every designer so to arrange his conditions
that Stage 3 shall be the main theme and shall form the bulk of the
combustion process; Stages I and 2 being merely the prologue,
This stage becomes possible only when the temperature and pres-
sure have been raised by Stage 2 to beyond a certain minimum,
For Stage 3 the all-essential condition is that there shall be rapid
relative motion between the droplets of liquid fuel and the air for
combustion, so that each individual droplet shall travel like a rocket,
leaving behind it its trail of combustion products, and shall pro-
ceed onwards to fresh fields of adventure, thus to search out and
combine with as large a proportion as possible of the oxygen in the
combustion space. This condition can be met only by securing rapid
relative motion between the fuel and the air—such rapid motion
can be obtained in various ways:
(1) By the use of very high injection pressures, thus giving to
the fuel itself a high initial velocity. This method is, however, some-
what handicapped, since the speed at which a liquid jet can issue
from an orifice is limited; for beyond a certain point increase of
pressure results merely in breaking
up the droplets rather than in
increasing their velocity; moreover,
the initial velocity gained by high
initial pressure is soon dissipated.
It is open also to the practical
objection that very high pressures
in conjunction with a somewhat Fig. 273
elastic medium such as fuel oil add
greatly to the problem of timing and metering. The general
principle of this system is illustrated in fig. 273.
(2) By the use of a so-called pre-combustion chamber which
consists of a small chamber separated from the main combustion
space and communicating through a number of small holes. Fuel
is injected into this small antechamber where Stages 1 and 2
develop; during Stage 2 the rapid rise of pressure projects the
remaining unburnt fuel along with highly heated air, and some
products of combustion, into the main combustion chamber at a
velocity far in excess of that which can be obtained by any purely
mechanical injection of the liquid fuel. This method has certain
obvious advantages, unlike (1) the engine speed is not limited by
the speed of the injected liquid, nor is there the same difficulty in
distributing the liquid particles throughout the air, since any number
of holes can be provided in the pepper castor interposed between
the pre-combustion chamber and the main chamber, whereas the
number of jets for liquid fuel is strictly limited by mechanical con-
siderations. On the other hand, the loss of heat entailed by passing
the products through a number of small holes at so high a tern-
perature and velocity is very great, and curtails very seriously the
efficiency and power output. This principle is shown diagrammati-
cally in fig. 274.
(3) By producing organized unidirectional flow of the air itself
and then projecting the fuel across the air stream. In this manner
the highly heated air sweeps past each drop of fuel as it enters,
carrying away the products of combustion as they are formed, and
continually bringing up fresh or only partially contaminated air to
the attack. Since the velocity of the air can in any case be enor-
mously greater than that of the liquid fuel, and is at all times pro-
portional to the engine speed, further, since it can be maintained
almost constant throughout the combustion process, this system
Fig. 274 Fig. 275
is, in the author's opinion, much the more promising of the three;
moreover, it has some very important practical advantages which
will be dealt with later. This principle is shown diagrammatically
in fig, 275.
In the case of Stage 3 the problem is very closely related to that
of Carburation in the average petrol engine; in both cases the aim
is to distribute the particles of liquid fuel uniformly throughout the
air, the chief difference being that in one case they evaporate and
in the other they burn from the surface; but this difference does not
affect the mechanical problem, which remains much the same in
either case,
The three systems referred to above correspond in effect with
three systems of carburation, namely:
(1) By projecting a spray of liquid petrol under pressure into the
air—a method which has been tried from time to time, but never
adopted on any considerable scale.
(2) By the use of a “ diffuser ” jet as in the Claudel type of car-
burettor—this corresponds to the pre-combustion chamber system
and
(3) By concentrating all the air at a high velocity past the fuel
jet by means of a choke tube as in most ordinary carburettors, this
corresponds with the last system described, namely, that of air
swirl or unidirectional flow.
Yet a fourth principle, and one which does not fall strictly into
any of the above categories, is that known as the Aero system. In
this system practically the whole of the air for combustion is com-
pressed into a chamber, usually in the piston, and communicating
with the rest of the cylinder through a narrow restricted neck. The
fuel injector is so placed that the jet of liquid is aimed at the centre
of this narrow neck as shown in fig. 276.
Fuel injection starts slightly before top
dead-centre and is continued relatively
slowly. Stages 1 and 2 of the combustion
process are enacted more or less inside
the chamber, where the indiscriminate
turbulence is very intense, but since the
fuel injection is timed rather later and
is spread over a fairly long period, very
little fuel has actually been injected
before the piston starts to descend, when Fig. 276
the highly compressed air within the
chamber commences to rush out through the neck. Stage 3 is
therefore enacted outside the chamber under conditions of intense
air flow, for during this stage air is rushing helter skelter out of
the chamber, and in so doing meets the injected fuel, which is
approaching to meet it. The combustion process therefore, during
Stage 3 resembles that of the last system described, but with this
essential difference, that in the Aero system Stage 3 can occur only
while the piston is descending fairly rapidly, that is, relatively very
late, hence the expansion ratio is curtailed, and both the power
output and efficiency somewhat limited in consequence. In the
Aero system it is difficult to determine just where combustion
takes place, but it probably oscillates rapidly about the open neck
of the bulb; the bulb itself is quite uncooled, and since it does not
attain a high temperature, it is quite clear that the bulk of the com-
bustion process must take place outside it and beyond the neck;
on the other hand, as the pressure rises, even though the piston be
descending, there must be reversals, probably rapidly alternating
reversals, of flow between the bulb and the cylinder, so that some
combustion even during Stage 3 must take place within the bulb.
And now to compare again the conditions as between a petrol
engine and a high-speed solid-injection Diesel engine. Stages 1 and
2 are common to both, with the exception that in the case of the
petrol engine the whole combustion process is consummated in
Stage 2, while the equivalent of Stage 3 is anti-dated, and is enacted
not in the cylinder, but in the carburettor.
In the petrol engine we need indiscriminate turbulence in the
combustion chamber and processional flow in the carburettor, in
the Diesel engine we need both within the combustion chamber itself,
and since the conditions are conflicting, we have to make the best
compromise we can.
In the petrol engine, under all ordinary circumstances, the whole
of the oxygen is consumed, hence the flame temperature is almost
constant at any mixture strength or throttle opening. Since the
flame temperature governs the efficiency it follows that in a petrol
engine the true indicated thermal efficiency reckoned on the air
consumption, as described in Chapter IV, is almost constant, irre-
spective of mixture strength or throttle opening, provided, of course,
that the degree of turbulence and time of ignition are appropriate
in all cases. In the Diesel engine under no circumstances is the
whole of the oxygen consumed, since it is, in practice, impossible to
bring the whole of it into contact with the injected fuel. As the
load is reduced, less and less of the available oxygen is consumed,
hence the mean flame temperature is diminished, and the efficiency
rises. Even at full load, it is extremely difficult to consume more
than about 75 per cent of the oxygen present in the combustion
chamber, so that at all loads the flame temperature is lower and the
efficiency on that account somewhat higher than in a petrol engine
of equal expansion ratio.
In a petrol engine we aim to work at the highest possible com-
pression ratio consistent with freedom from detonation or auto-
ignition under any circumstances. In the Diesel engine we aim to
work at the lowest compression ratio which will ensure auto-ignition
under all circumstances. In the case of the petrol engine and with
the average fuel available on the market we are compelled, except
in the case of very small cylinders, to limit the compression ratio
to about 6·0 : 1. In the case of the Diesel engine, to ensure auto-
ignition without undue delay under the most adverse circumstances
we are compelled to work with a ratio of about 12·0 : 1 despite the
fact that the heavier petroleum products have a lower self-ignition
temperature than petrol. Between these two limits lies a wide
neutral zone unattainable by either type of engine except by the
use of anti-detonating dopes on the one hand or pro-detonating
dopes or hot plates, &c., on the other hand; all of which expedients
bring in their trail evils greater than those which they are designed
to overcome,
For light high-speed Diesel engines, the use of air-blast injection
may be ruled out as almost impracticable on the grounds of cost,
complication and weight, and one has to fall back on solid injection,
of which three general systems are in vogue.
(1) In which the fuel pump delivers to a small elastic reservoir
in which a more or less constant pressure is maintained and the
timing and to some extent the metering of the fuel is accomplished
by mechanical operation of the fuel-injection valve.
(2) In which the fuel valve is spring loaded, but “ automatic ”
i.e. without any direct mechanical control. In this case we have to
rely on the fuel pump for both timing and metering. In certain cir-
cumstances this system can be employed without any fuel valve at
all, but merely an open jet as in a carburettor.
(3) So-called spring injection, which is really only a variant of
(1). In this system the plunger of the fuel pump is itself spring loaded,
and in readiness to deliver the fuel at the moment when the fuel
valve is lifted mechanically. System 3 in effect, differs only from
(1) in that the pump body itself is utilized as the elastic reservoir.
In the case of System 2, which is by far the simplest and most
generally used, we have to depend entirely on the pump both for
metering and for timing to within very narrow limits, in practice to
within about 5 per cent as to metering and as to timing to within
about 1 crankshaft degree or ½° of pump shaft. Such close limits
can be obtained either by simple design coupled with superlative
workmanship or by more complex design and indifferent workman-
ship, and the choice must lie with the resources available. In either
case the desired result can be achieved, and the above degree of
accuracy as to timing and metering can be maintained.
In all fuel-injection systems the essential features are correct
metering and an abrupt cut off at the completion of delivery in order
to avoid dribbling at the fuel orifice, and therefore the formation
of a carbon crater around the orifice. In the case of slow-speed engines
it is common practice to employ a very abrupt cam acting direct
on the plunger of the pump itself, and timed to give injection at the
correct moment, the stroke of the plunger being varied by suitable
mechanical means. For obvious mechanical reasons such a system
is not practicable in the case of a high-speed engine, nor is it a de-
sirable one in any case. Almost all the successful fuel pumps for high-
speed engines operate on the following general principle. The
plunger is given a relatively long stroke either by means of an
eccentric or of a cam with nearly constant acceleration, i.e. a har-
monic motion. Of this long stroke a portion only is utilized, namely
that during which the plunger is travelling at its highest velocity,
this portion being picked out either by the use of a “ flash ” or piston
valve, or by poppet valves. In all cases the time of commencement
of injection is maintained constant, and the metering and period of
delivery is controlled by the time of release, which is varied accord-
ing to the load,
In the original experiments at the Royal Aircraft Establishment,
referred to at the beginning of this chapter, the fuel was supplied
under a pressure of some 6000 lb. per square inch by means of an
ordinary plunger pump, and was stored under this pressure in a
small steel receiver. The fuel valve, consisting of a heavily spring
loaded needle valve, was timed and opened mechanically by means
of a cam and the fuel delivered to the cylinder through a number
of fine jets each directed to various portions of the combustion
chamber. This system worked admirably from a functional point of
view, but introduced some rather grave mechanical difficulties,
chief of which were the operation of the fuel valve in so short a
period of time, and under so intense a spring loading, and the ac-
commodation on the cylinder head of the somewhat massive me-
chanism involved. The experiments, however, served admirably
to demonstrate that the operation of a high-speed engine was not
only possible but remarkably efficient. The results obtained at the
R.A.E. in 1922, namely a brake mean pressure of 120 lb. per square
inch at a piston speed of 2000 ft. per minute and a minimum con-
sumption of 0·36 lb. per B.H.P. hour at this high speed, have never
been surpassed. The pioneer work of the Air Ministry was quickly
followed up by Messrs. Beardmore under the guidance of Mr. A. E.
L. Chorlton, who decided to abandon the mechanically operated
fuel valve in favour of an automatic spring-loaded valve operated
by the fuel pressure as is customary in the case of solid injection
engines. In the Beardmore engine, one fuel pump running at engine
speed (instead of half engine speed as is more usual) serves alter-
nately two cylinders. Each fuel pump is driven by an eccentric and
has a long stroke, only the centre portion of which is made use of.
The timing and duration of delivery is determined by means of a
“ flash ” valve—a quick-moving piston valve which passes over a
port serving alternately as suction or release; thus pressure is created
and delivery takes place only during the period while the flash valve
is passing and so obstructing this port. The fuel valve itself is of the
ordinary differential-area spring-loaded type, and the fuel finally
issues through a number of directed jets as in the R.A.E. experi-
mental engine.
In Germany the Robert Bosch Co., of magneto fame, have de-
veloped and have undertaken the commercial manufacture of an
exceedingly neat fuel pump of the same general type as the Beard-
more; though functionally exactly the same, it differs from the
latter in that the pump runs at half engine speed (for four cycle
engines) hence a separate pump is needed for each individual cylinder,
also the flash valve is made integral with and forms the top portion
of each plunger.
Since the pump operates at half engine speed, and since the
period of delivery is necessarily very short—of the order of 20° to 25°
crankshaft degrees only, on full load, it follows that operation by
a crank or eccentric would necessitate a very long stroke, hence a
cam is used in place of an eccentric giving a total plunger movement
of rather more than double that actually utilized for fuel delivery,
Fig. 277 illustrates the general design and details of the Bosch
pump. It will be seen that the flash valve is flat on its upper sur-
face, but the lower edge forms a spiral; the period of delivery is
varied by rotating the whole plunger, flash valve included, by means
of a rack and pinion; since the top of the flash valve is flat, its rota-
tion does not affect the time of start of delivery, but the spiral lower
edge determines the period and quantity delivered.
The whole pump is extremely neat, simple, and compact, and in
the author's experience behaves admirably, but it will readily be
appreciated that its accuracy both of metering, and of timing, and
its consistency, all depend on a standard of workmanship and a
degree of hardness requiring very special manufacturing facilities
and highly skilled craftsmanship. With such a design of pump there
is practically no scope for adjustment either for wear or even for the
slightest manufacturing error. That, in fact, it behaves so well is
due to the superlative workmanship and material embodied in it.
The Bosch pump may, in fact, be taken as an almost classic instance
where superb workmanship and material permit the use of a simple
design such as would be impracticable -unless made to limits far
closer than those adopted or attainable by most of the highest class
makers.
The fuel pump designed by the author, and illustrated in fig, 278,
is an example of more complex design for which indifferent work-
manship will suffice. In this pump the plunger has a long stroke,
and may be operated either by a cam or, in the case of sleeve-valve
Fig. 277.—Bosch. Fuel Pump
engines, directly from the beam operating the sleeve drive. Two
cam-operated poppet valves are provided, one serving as the suc-
tion valve only, and the other serving both as a “ spill ” or release
valve and, if desired, as an additional suction valve. The operation
of the pump is as follows. During the outward stroke of the plunger
one or both valves are open and functioning as inlet valves. To-
wards the latter part of the outward stroke the spill valve closes,
but the suction valve remains open throughout, and until nearly
half way up the delivery stroke, when it is closed mechanically;
since the second valve has already closed, the only outlet remaining
is through the fuel valve and into the cylinder. Thus the closing of
the suction valve determines the start of injection, and from then on
injection continues until the second or “ spill ” valve is opened by
means of a second cam; thereafter and during the remainder of the
delivery stroke of the plunger, fuel is returned to the suction side
of the pump. The closing of the suction valve determines the time
of commencement of injection and is set by adjusting the tappet
clearance as in any ordinary poppet valve gear; in the event of any
Fig. 278
derangement or wear, it can be readjusted with the same ease. The

period of injection and therefore the metering is controlled by inter-
posing between the valve and its tappet either a plain sliding or a
rotating scroll wedge, movement of which varies the clearance and
so forms the sole control of the engine; means are provided on this
valve also, whereby the tappet clearance can readily be adjusted to
ensure equality as between any number of pumps or cylinders,
Fig, 279 and 279a show the valve-timing diagram for this pump.
Since the pump plunger does not over-run any ports and since the fuel
is under pressure only during the short delivery period, it follows that
quite a slack fit will suffice, since the sealing length is very long.
Again, in the event of leakage, the valves can readily be ground in,
28a
(E246)
and in the event of wear, the timing, &c., can be restored by means
of tappet adjustment, hence the successful operation of the pump
does not depend upon great accuracy of workmanship or fitting, or
upon very accurate cam timing, &c. From a functional point of view,
the three types of pump referred to are all practically identical, except
Fig. 279.—Pump-timing Diagram
in so far that the release of fuel at the end of the delivery stroke
is much less abrupt in the Bosch pump (fig. 280) than in either of
the others. Fig. 272 shows a typical indicator diagram taken from
the author's pump. It will be noted that the characteristics of the
two pumps are very similar, but that the quick-opening poppet type
spill valve of large area gives a much more rapid “ cut off ” than
does the flash valve of the Bosch pump,
Of the various methods of distributing the fuel within the com-
bustion chamber the author has
had most personal experience
with that in which an orderly
rotational air swirl is employed,
which method he favours for
the reasons stated previously,
In order, however, to attain a
sufficiently high rotational speed
it appears necessary, in a four-
cycle engine, to employ a sleeve
valve which allows of the in-
coming air being admitted tan-
gentially to the cylinder without
any wire-drawing or loss of
valve area, and it is necessary,
also still further to intensify
the rotational speed by com-
pressing the whole of the cyl-
inder contents into a combustion
space about half the diameter
of the cylinder so that at the
same peripheral speed the rota-
tional speed is doubled or rather
more than doubled. Indis-
criminate turbulence is super-
imposed upon the orderly rota-
tional swirl at the last moment
by the sudden ejection of the
air entrapped between the
piston and the flat portion of
the cylinder head. Thus setting
up a vortex ring. Fig. 281
shows the form of combustion
chamber thus arrived at.
It has been found that the
best results are obtained when
the rotational speed of the air
within the combustion chamber,
as measured by means of an
internal anemometer, is from 9
to 10 times the crankshaft Fig. 279a.—Pump-timing Diagram
E246
speed, i.e. when the whole mass of the air within the chamber
makes one revolution in from 36° to 40° of the crankshaft, which
corresponds with the full-load combustion
period. With the use of a sleeve valve it
is a very easy matter to adjust the speed
of the air swirl by deflectors placed just
outside the air inlet ports, and once these
are set at the requisite angle the ratio of
air rotation to crankshaft rotation remains
practically constant at all engine speeds
and under all conditions, since, of course,
the entering air velocity increases pro rata
with the crankshaft speed. Once the
desired angle of entry has been determined
CRANK ANGLE
by experiment on the first sample cylinder,
ROTATION––––––> the air inlet passages are thereafter cored
Fig. 280 in the casting to the requisite angle and no
further adjustment is required. Fig. 282
shows the results of a series of experiments on a cylinder of 5½-in.
bore 7-in. stroke, running at a constant crankshaft speed of 1300
Fig. 281
R.P.M., in which by means of external deflectors the rotational

speed of the air was varied from four times to twelve times the
crankshaft speed. It will be seen that as the rotational speed of the

air is increased with no other change whatsoever, so the power out-
put and efficiency increase, until a maximum is attained at, in this
case, between nine and ten times crankshaft speed.
On the other hand, as the rotational speed is increased, so also
is the loss of heat during compression owing to the more violent
scrubbing of the air against the cylinder walls; the direct result of
this is that the delay period Stage 1 is increased, and in consequence
both the maximum pressure and the general roughness of running
BRAKE HORSE POWER
POUNDS PER BHP. HOUR.
INTENSITY OF SWIRL
AIR RPM.
CRANK RPM.
Fig. 282
are increased also. To some extent this can be counteracted by the

use of a higher ratio of compression or a later injection timing, but
to a limited extent only. It is necessary, therefore, to effect a com-
promise between smooth running and efficiency in exactly the same
manner as one has to do in a petrol engine by adjusting the degree
of turbulence. When working on this system the fuel is injected
through a plain single-hole orifice of relatively large diameter, and
without any valve or moving part other than the provision of a light
non-return valve somewhere between the pump and the injector
orifice merely to prevent air being forced back into the fuel system.
In practice it is found preferable, for additional security, to employ
two ball valves in series and as far apart as possible, one close up to
the injection orifice and the other close to the fuel pump, leaving
the whole oil capacity of the pipe line between the two. In this case,
should the first valve leak or fail to seat properly, the whole of the
fuel in the pipe line would have to be driven back past the second
valve before any air could reach the pump. The fuel stream is pro-
jected vertically downwards near the extreme outside edge of the
combustion chamber, and no attempt whatever is made to pulverize
it; a plain parallel hole of between 1 and 2 diameters long being
used. A comparatively low oil pressure is required ranging from
1500 to 3000 lb. per square inch, according to speed, sufficient merely
to propel the oil stream to nearly the bottom of the chamber; since
there is no loaded valve, it follows that the pressure is controlled
entirely by the resistance of the actual nozzle the size of which is
selected merely to give the necessary penetration. With such a
nozzle the fuel jet consists for some distance of an apparently solid
core of liquid surrounded by an envelope of fine particles.
With such a system the progress of events during the combus-
tion period is intended to be and probably is substantially as follows.
Since, however, no means are known whereby the actual movements
within the combustion chamber can be observed while running,
one is compelled to fall back on speculation, but aided by a large
amount of circumstantial evidence,
At the time of injection, the air within the combustion chamber is
rotating at a very high speed. Into the outer edge of this whirlpool
of dense air there is injected at right angles to the air flow a jet of
liquid of which a portion, probably only a small portion, is in a finely
divided state. Since the entering fuel has no tangential velocity and
since, owing to centrifugal force, the pressure and velocity of the air
are greatest at the outside edge, it follows that the main fuel stream
will be deflected towards the centre while the finer particles will
make almost straight for the centre, which is also the zone of highest
temperature, and is relatively quiescent so far as mechanical move-
ment is concerned. Here then the initial nucleus of flame is formed
so soon as a few of the finer particles have reached this hot and
peaceful zone, and have found the correct proportion of air for
combustion. It is in this zone therefore that Stage 1 of the com-
bustion process is enacted. Meanwhile, more fuel has been entering
from the injector, some of which has found its way towards the
centre, and an envelope of combustible mixture is being formed
round the initial nucleus; to this envelope the flame spreads with
great rapidity, thus raising the temperature and pressure of the
central core and so reversing temporarily the pressure difference
between the centre and outside. The flaming mass, now well estab-
listed and spreading rapidly, due to the indiscriminate turbulence
which has reached its maximum intensity at about this time, ex-
tends radially outwards until it meets the entering fuel. This com-
pletes Stage 2. By this time the general temperature and pressure
POUNDS PER B.H.P. HOUR
BRAKE HORSE POWER

Fig. 283
conditions have risen so high that the fuel probably ignites as it

issues from the jet. It then burns from the surface of the main core
of liquid as it enters, fed by the high velocity rush of air past it, which
carries off the products of combustion and continually replenishes
with fresh oxygen. This process continues until the end of the
POUNDS PER B.H.P. HOUR
BRAKE H O R S E P O W E R
Fig. 284
injection. During this period, Stage 3, the rate of pressure rise can
be controlled by the rate of fuel injection. By careful analysis of
indicator diagrams and by other indirect means it would appear
that from 20 to 30 per cent of the total available oxygen has
been consumed before the fuel starts burning direct from the jet;
there is still therefore some 70 to 80 per cent of oxygen available
of which nearly the whole is swept past the entering fuel by the
rapid rotation of the air. This, then, is the progress of events, so
far as it is possible to determine, from analysis of indicator dia-
grams, from markings on the piston, and in the combustion chamber,
INCH.
SQ
LBS PER
CRANK ANGLE
Fig. 285
and from its logical reaction to changes in the rate of swirl, rate of
fuel injection, position of fuel injector, &c.
With such a method it is possible to utilize nearly 80 per cent of
LBS PER SQ INCH.
CRANK ANGLE
Fig. 286
the total oxygen available in the cylinder, thus realizing an indicated

mean pressure of from 135 to 145 lb. per square inch, and that at
any speed at which the engine is mechanically capable of running.
Since the whole process with the exception of Stage 1 speeds itself
up automatically as the engine speed is increased, it follows that

mechanical limitations and breathing capacity alone determine the
speed. Experiments, employing this system, have been carried out
on a number of experimental high-speed engines of from one to six
cylinders, ranging from a small four-cylinder engine of 3½-in. bore
and stroke, running at a normal speed of 2500 R.P.M., to a large
single-cylinder of 12-in. bore by 16-in. stroke, running at a normal
Fig. 287.—Brotherhood-Ricardo Six-Cylinder Engine
speed of 750 R.P.M. and developing 175 B.H.P. In fig. 283 is shown
a graph of the performance of an experimental single-cylinder engine
of 5½-in. bore and 7-in. stroke, running at a normal speed of 1300
R P.M., and developing up to 33 B.H.P. at this speed. This engine
is completely self-contained, and drives all its own auxiliary gear,
so that the performance is absolutely net. The maximum B.M.E.P.
at 1300 R.P.M. is 119 lb. per square inch, corresponding to an indi-
cated mean pressure of 141 lb, per square inch. The minimum
consumption per brake horse-power hour is 0·354 lb. of commercial
Shell Diesel oil of specific gravity 0·875. This particular engine is
fitted with adjustable deflectors to control the rate of air swirl, and
the figures given are taken with a rotational swirl of 14,000 R.P.M.,
or about eleven times that of the crankshaft speed.
Fig. 284 shows a similar graph of performance of another single-
cylinder experimental engine of the same dimensions but designed
for higher speeds, the normal crankshaft speed being 2200 R.P.M.,
corresponding to a piston speed of 2570 ft. per minute, at which
Fig. 288.—R100-2 Engine and Dynamo on Combination Bedplate
speed the engine develops a maximum of 50 brake horse-power.

Owing in part to the higher speed, and in part to other factors, the
mechanical efficiency of this engine is not so high as the former, and
though the brake mean pressure and fuel consumption are not so
good, viz. a maximum of 108 lb. per square inch, and a minimum
consumption of 0·385 lb. per B.H.P. hour at 2200 R.P.M., yet the
indicated figures for both engines are almost exactly the same.
Figs. 285 and 286 show comparative indicator diagrams taken
from the former engine at 1300 R.P.M., and from the latter at 2200
R.P.M., from which it will be seen that the influence of speed has
little apparent effect on the indicator card. Figs. 287, 288, and 289
HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
427
Fig. 289.—R101-2 Engine Dynamo Unit and Power Station Switchboard

Fig. 290.—Arrangement of 7½" x 12" Brotherhood-Ricardo High Speed Diesel Engine

Cross Section
Fig. 291.—Longitudinail Arragement of 7 ½' x 12'' “ Brotherhood-Ricardo ” High Speed Diesel Engine
Facing p. 428.
show photos and details of a moderately high-speed engine designed
for rough commercial work, and manufactured in this country by
Messrs. Peter Brotherhood, Ltd., and in Holland by Messrs.
Thomassen. It is made with any number of cylinders from two to
eight, and is intended to run at a normal speed of 900 R.P.M. The
dimensions of the cylinders are 7½-in. bore 12-in. stroke, and the
power rating at maximum economy is 50 B.H.P. per cylinder corre-
sponding to an indicated mean pressure of 110 lb. per square inch.
The fuel consumption at full load and normal speed and with a
maximum pressure of 730-750 lb. per square inch ranges from 0·37
to 0·385 lb. per B.H.P. hour depending on the number of cylinders,
the larger the number the higher the mechanical efficiency and the
lower the fuel consumption. The normal piston speed is 1800 ft.
per minute, but several engines are in regular service running at
1000 B.P.M., corresponding to a piston speed of 2000 ft. The sectional
drawings, figs, 290 and 291 show clearly all the mechanical details.
The single sleeve is operated by means of an overhanging beam driven
by a lay shaft running at half engine speed. This gives to the sleeve
an elliptical motion with the major axis vertical. By employing an
elliptical motion of this nature, it becomes possible to use a consider-
able number of relatively high and narrow inlet ports—actually
five in number—a form and arrangement of ports which is best
suited to provide a tangential entry for the air. The fulcrum end
of the operating beam is carried by a swinging bell crank, from the
second arm of which the fuel pump plunger is operated directly.
This provides a long stroke such as is needed when the plunger is
not cam operated, it also has the advantage that the shock due to
the sudden application of pressure at the time of injection is taken
by the heavy mass of the sleeve and its driving mechanism and so
is not transmitted to the gearing. The fuel pump is of the type
already described with two mechanically operated valves. In the
earlier engines these valves were operated from a rotating camshaft,
which formed also the fulcrum shaft for the bell cranks and sleeve
driving mechanism. This camshaft is now, however, being dis-
placed in favour of rocking cams attached directly to the bell cranks,
an alteration which has tended towards increased rigidity and sim-
plicity.
The fuel injector is shown in fig. 292. It will be seen to consist of
a hollow steel stem in one end of which is the actual fuel orifice—
a plain 1/32 in. hole—and in the other end one of the ball check
valves. In order to keep down the clearance and at the same time
to avoid drilling a long hole of small diameter, the intervening space
between the ball valve and the actual orifice is filled in with a fluted
steel plug. The top portion of the injector together with the fuel
pipe union and a priming cock is formed as a separate piece.
The crankshaft is of the built-up type, with case-hardened pins
and journals. The webs are shrunk on to the journals, but the pins
are detachable, and held in place by means of clamp bolts, in the
manner used in several aero engines. This allows of the use of float-
ing bearings for the connecting-rods,
and also renders dismantling of the
crank quite easy, for any crankpin
can be withdrawn and replaced
through the inspection doors in a
comparatively few minutes merely
by removing the adjacent main
bearing cap, and slacking off the
two clamping bolts.
The bedplate is water - cooled
along each side and also under the
centre crankshaft journal, and a
hairpin tube oil cooler is inserted
the full length of one of the bed-
plate water jackets. One end of
Fig. 292. the bedplate is divided off into a
separate compartment to form the
main oil tank containing some fifteen gallons of lubricating oil. In
this compartment are fitted two rotary oil pumps, one of which
draws oil from the crank pits and delivers it through an Auto-Klean
filter into the main tank, the second pump draws from the tank and
delivers the oil under a pressure of about 12 to 15 lb. per square
inch through the oil cooler and thence to all the important bearings,
The control of the engine is by means of a large centrifugal
governor of orthodox type, which operates directly all the spill
valve wedges. An over-riding hand control is, of course, fitted for
use at starting or in any emergency. The remainder of the engine
follows quite orthodox high-speed engine practice and calls for no
particular comment.
The author desires to thank the proprietors of "The Automobile Engineer" and Messrs. L.
Gardner & Sons for permission to use several of the illustrations in this volume.
INDEX
Acceleration of valves, 216. Benz aero-engine, 338.

Aero system, 411. Cylinder construction of, 321.
Admiralty Engineering Laboratory, 251. Benzene, 58, 60, 70.
Aero-engines, 308. Benzol, 3, 7.
Thermal efficiency of, 125. Latent heat of, 55.
War-time development of, 309. Big-end, 172.
Aero-engines for high altitudes, 339. Boiling point of fuels, 18.
Air- versus water-cooling in aero-engines, 317, Bosch fuel pump, 415.
349. Bristol Jupiter aero-engine, 327; geared,
Aircraft, carburettors for, 148. 346.
Aircraft fuels, 26-29, British aero-engines, 310, 314, 347.
Alcohol fuels, 7-8, 28, 70. Brotherhood tractor engine, 256.
Development of, 3. Ricardo engine, 425, 428.
Latent heat of, 55, 60. E.R. rotary aero-engine, 325.
Alloys, relative wear of various, 134.
Altitude controls for aircraft carburettors, Calender's theory, “ anti-knocks ”, 48.
148. Calorific value of fuel, 18-21, 123.
Aluminium castings, studs in, 159. Cam design and valve operation, 213, 219.
Aluminium connecting rods, 174. Cam details of high-speed tank engines,
Aluminium cylinder, 350, 356. 381.
Aluminium pistons, objections to, 88. Cams, harmonic, construction of, 223.
Slipper type, 246. Cams, internal, 225.
Wear of, 88. Camshaft drives, 185, 187, 358.
Aluminium versus cast-iron crankcases, 158. Carborundum, action of, on bearings, 134.
American aero-engines, 310. Carburation, 138, 208, 410.
Animal oils, 138, Carburettor design, 138 et seq.
“ Anti-knocks ”, 47, 53. Carburettors on aircraft, altitude controls for,
Argyll, early cars, 279. 148.
Asiatic Petroleum Co., 10, 28. Cast iron versus aluminium crankcases, 158.
Austro-Daimler aero-engine, cylinder con- Centrifugal casting of sleeve valves, 283.
construction of, 320. Chain auxiliary drives, 185.
Auxiliary drives, design of, 185, 302, 373. Claudel carburettor, 37, 143, 410.
Aviation in the War, 309. Clerget aero-engine, cylinder construction of,
321.
Balance weights, 167. Combustion of fuels, 39-64.
Ball and roller bearings, 31, 181. Combustion, incomplete causes of, 53.
Crankshaft, 118. Combustion, chemistry of, 49, 411.
Barr & Stroud engine, 287. Heat lost during, 73.
Beardmore aero-engine, cylinder construction Temperature of, 63.
of, 324, 331. Combustion chamber defects in tank engines,
Bearing surface of piston, 235. 387.
Bearings, connecting rod, 173. Combustion chamber, efficiency of, 95, 121.
Friction of, 129, 296, 302. Passage of oil into, 234, 240.
Limiting load factor of, 135. Shape of, 99.
Lubrication of, 129 et seq. Commercial vehicle, crankshaft for heavy,
Maximum pressures on, 135. 169.
Oscillating, 136. Compression, temperature, 57-62.
Wear of, 133. Compression ignition engine, 403.
431
432 INDEX
Compression ratios, detonation and, 8-12, Efficiency, Fuel and, 21-26.
31. Thermal, 69, 111.
Fuels and, 11, 345. Volumetric, 70, 93, 301.
Connecting rods, aluminium, advantages of, Egerton's theory, 48.
175-6, 356. Electro-deposited copper water-jackets, 321.
Design of, 171, 175. Energy of combustion, 64.
Tanks , 367. Engine, formula for thermal efficiency of, 124.
Constant level splash system, 197. Engine knocking, 250.
Cooling-water losses, 75. Engine testing, 121.
“ Correct ” petrol mixture diagram, 69, 139. Ethyl alcohol, 58, 77, 124.
Cost of manufacture as influencing design, Ethyl fluid, 52,
155. Evaporation, latent heat of, 12-16.
Cousins, R. J., 219. Exhaust pipes, defects in, 388.
Crankcase, design of, 157, 161, 353. Exhaust stroke, heat lost during, 74.
Crank-chamber, 356. Exhaust valve, 154, 216.
Crankpin bearing, 170. Diameter of, 213.
Crankpin loading, 314. Lift and timing of, 200,
Crankshafts, 118, 166, 379, 394. Water-cooled, 366.
Aircraft, 166.
Ball-bearings for, 182. Fan drives, 189.
Carbon steel, 166. Fiat 600 H.P. aero-engine, 338.
One-piece, 352. Filtering lubricating oil, 195.
Tanks, 370. Fluid pressure as affecting piston friction,
Vauxhall, 196. 129.
Vibration, 167. Four-cycle high-speed engine, heat distri-
Wear of, 171. bution in, 73.
Crankshaft defects in high-speed tank en- Four-cylinder engines, 161.
gines, 388. Friction in bearings, 129.
Crosshead piston, 252. Friction of pistons, 235.
Guide defects, 387. Frictional losses in engines, 302.
Cyclohexane, 28. Fuel valves, 413.
Cylinder block, design of, 159. For Diesel engines, 398.
Cylinder capacity and horse-power, 94, 96. Pumps, 415, 429.
Cylinder design, 41, 159. 319. Fuels, 3 et seq.
Cylinder head, design, 116, 321, 350. Aircraft, 26-29.
Detachable, 160. Boiling points of, 18.
Cylinder jacket temperature, influence of, 84. Compression ratios for various, 34.
Cylinder liners, material for, 162. Consumption of, 267, 302.
Cylinder lubrication, 235, 254. Detonation of, 7—12.
Cylinder and piston, distortion of, 245. Efficiency of, 21-26.
Cylinders for aero-engines, design of, 319, Heat values of, 16.
356. Injection of, 429.
Latent heat of, 12-16.
Daimler sleeve-valve engines, 197. Maximum power output, 26.
de Havilland Moth, 348. Pulverized, 398.
Delay period, 401-8. Range of burning, 45-49.
Detonation, 7-12, 39-64. Requirements of, 8.
Elimination of, 346. Researches on, 29-37.
Fuel and, 43, 45, 346. Volatile liquid, 5.
Sparking plug position and, 111. Volatility of, 16.
Diesel engine, high speed, 397 et seq. Thermal efficiency, 2.
Crankshaft, 430. World resources limited, 3,
Dobbie Mclnnes “ Farnboro “ electric in-
dicator, 107, 406. Gardner tank engines, 393.
Duralumin, 349. Gas-engine and petrol engine compared,
Dynamo, 426, 399, 412.
Drives, 189. Gases, velocity, power and efficiency of, 39
et seq.
Efficiency, Cylinder dimension and, 94. German aero-engines, 309, 321.
Combustion chamber, 95. Gnome aero-engine, cylinder construction of,
Definition of, 95. 325.
INDEX 433
Governor, vertical, 375. Magneto drives, 185.
Grit in bearings, 196. Manifold design, 154.
Gudgeon pin, 175, 246, 248, 256. Manufacturing costs as influencing design,
153 et seq.
Harmonic cams, construction of, 223. Mark V tanks, 372, 383.
Heat, dissipation from piston, 239. Masked valves, 226.
Distribution in four-cycle high-speed en- Materials, selection of, 156.
gines, 73. Maximum power output from fuels, 26.
Losses, 73, 74, 80, 98, 245. Maybach aero-engine, cylinder construction
Heat value of mixture, 21. of, 321.
Heptane, 5, 44. Mean pressure, 89.
High altitudes, aero-engines for, 339. Mechanical design of engines, 153.
High-speed Diesel engines, 397. Mechanical details, 181 et seq.
High-speed four-cycle engine, distribution Mechanical efficiency of motor engines, 269.
of heat in, 73. Mercedes aero-engine, cylinder construction
High tension magneto, 149. of, 320.
Hispano-Suiza aero-engine, cylinder con- Metallic anti-knocks, 47.
struction of, 319, 322. Micrometer, 35.
Hoffman bearing, 182. Mineral oils, 137.
Horse-power, brake, 262, Mixture, heat value of, 21.
Hydrogen gas, 79, Motors, history of, 259.
Engines, 260 et seq.
Ignition, 42, 46, 149. Fuel consumption, 266.
Ignition plug, position of, 98. Hill-climbing capacity, 264.
Ignition, timing, 105. Load factor, 264-5.
Induction air, 82. Lubrication and cooling, 297.
Inlet valve, 101, 119. Tests for power, 260.
Lift and timing of, 201, 212. Mushroom type follower, 217, 223.
Intercoolers, 82. Tappet, 218.
Internal cams, 225.
Internal combustion engines in war, 1-3, Napier aero-engines, Cub, 338.
see War, Lion, 315, 333.
Internal energy curve, 64. National Physical Laboratory, 1.
Internal losses, 302.
Oil filters, 195.
Jackets, cylinder, heat lost to, 84. Centrifugal, 196.
Oil-pump, 186, 193.
Knocking caused by piston, 247. Oil relief valves, 195.
Oils used for lubrication of engines, 129,
Lanchester engine vibration damper, 170. 137.
Latent heat of fuels, 12-16. Circulation of, 192.
Alcohol, 55, 60. Filtration of, 195, 199.
Benzol, 55. Passing pistons, 234, 240.
Le Rhone aero-engine, cylinder construction Oscillating bearings, 136.
of, 325.
Liners for cylinders, 164. Paraffin as fuel, 5.
Loads on bearings, 132, 135, 181. Performance of road vehicles, 260.
Loss of efficiency, sources of, 302. Petrol, 3, 5-7.
Lubricating oils, types of, 129, 137. Latent heat, 55.
Viscosity, 88, 129, 234, Tables, 77-8, 124.
Lubrication, 129. Petrol-engine and gas-engine compared, 399.
Bearing wear and, 129. Picard-Pictet sleeve valve engine, 278.
Constant level splash system, 197. Pier and Bjerrum, 64.
Pumps, 193. Piston, 234.
Rate of circulation, 192. Aero-engines, 356.
Tanks, 371. Die-cast, 394.
Systems of, 190. Friction, 87, 129, 235, 256, 302.
Lubrication, forced, advantage of, 136, Knock, 247.
Lubrication system of high-speed tank en- Lubrication of, 244.
gines, 88, 363. Seizure, 235.
Lubrication by pressure, 191. Testing, 242.
434 INDEX
Piston defects in high-speed tank engines, Sunbeam aero-engine, cylinder construction
387. of, 322.
Piston, heat dissipation from, 239. Supercharging, 80, 121, 308, 341, 361.
Piston-ring, design, 250. “ Surging ” of valve springs, 227.
Drilled grooves, 241.
Friction of, 240. Tangent cam, 220.
Radial thickness, 251. Tanks, cams, 381.
Width, 250. Combustion chamber, 387.
Pistons, aluminium, wear of, 88, 246, Consumption, 379.
Power alcohol, development of, 3. High speed engines for, 88, 161, 363.
Power required for road vehicles, 260. Lubrication, 389.
Pre-combustion chamber, 409, Pistons, cross-head guides, 387.
Pressure lubrication, 191. Tests, 382.
Pressures, calculation of, 69, Tappets, valve, 218.
Pressures on bearings, maximum, 135. Temperatures of combustion, 68.
Propeller efficiency, influence of, on trend of Compression, 57-62.
aero-engine design, 317. Cycle, estimation of, 57, 76.
Pulsometer Engineering Co., 373. Cylinder jackets, 34.
Pulverized fuel, 398, 402. Temperatures and piston friction, 236.
Pump drives, 185, Testing pistons, machine for, 342.
Pumping losses, 206, 303, Tests made on fuels, 29-38.
Pumps, lubrication, types, 193. Thermal efficiency, 69, 111.
Pump-timing diagram, 418. Fuels and, 21-26.
Timing of valves, 200,
Racing cars, 287, Toluene values of fuels, 10, 11, 44.
Radial engines, 326 et seq. Torque, 213, 236
R.A.E, aero-engine cylinder, 326. Triumph ball-bearing crankshaft, 183.
Range of burning, 53, Turbo-blower, use of, in aero-engines, 340,
Reduction gear, 317, 349, 358. 349.
Reliability not a function of number of Turbo-compressor supercharger, 341, 361.
working parts, 154. Turbulence, 96, 102, 108, 113, 200, 301,
Remy high-tension coil, 34. 399.
Rolls-Royce aero-engines, cylinder con- Turbulent head, 109, 114.
struction of, 321. Tyzard and Pye, 64, 344.
Eagle aero-engine, 335.
“ F ” engine, 353, 357. V-type engines, 310, 311, 315.
Royal Aircraft Establishment, 318, 397, 414. Valve acceleration, 202.
Valve disposition and power output, 119.
Seizing of pistons, 235. Valve springs, 214-226.
“ Shock-absorber “ head, 116. Caps for, 389.
Siddeley aero-engines, Jaguar, 327, 330. Valves, constant acceleration, 203, 214.
Puma, 323, 332, Acceleration of, 216.
Side-valve engine, 105. Follower, 217, 227.
Silent pistons, 230. Inlet, 101, 119.
Skefko self-aligning ball-bearing, 185. Masked, 226.
Sleeve valves, 106, 276, 405. Number of, 179.
Advantages of, 197. Sleeve, 106, 276, 405.
Burt engine, 286. Timing, 200.
Calculation of ports, 280. Valves and valve gear, 101, 177, 200.
Slipper piston, 241, 246. For high-speed tank engines, 390.
Split, 249. Variable-compress ion engines, 33, 91.
Slipper type follower, 217. Vauxhall, car engine, 270-6.
Spark, intensity of, 150. Crankshaft, 170.
Sparking plugs, 151. Cylinder construction, 324.
Position of, 45, 99, 104, 111. Racing-car engines, 269, 299, 305.
Spring injection, 413. Vegetable oils, 138.
Springs, valve, 214, 226. Vehicle engines, requirements of, 260.
Caps for, 389. Vibration, connecting rods, 171.
Spur-geared auxiliary drives, 188. Crankshaft, 167.
Starting from cold, influence of fuel on, 147, Dampers, 388.
191. Flat surfaces causing, 157.
INDEX 435
Vibration, Lanchester damper, 170. Water-jackets, electro-deposited copper, 321.
Racing-car engines, 288. Water pump drive, 373.
Springs, 227. Water- versus air-cooling in aero-engines,
Viscosity of lubricant, 234. 317, 349.
Volatility of fuels, 16-18. Wear of bearings and shafts, 133.
Tests 29. Wear of cylinder, 235.
Volumetric efficiency, 70, 93, 301. White-metal bearings, action of, 132 et seq.,
173, 296.
War, 1-3.
The development of aero-engines during, Zenith carburettor, 140, 146.
309, 335. Zeppelin engine, 321.

The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine by Sir Harry Ricardo

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THE HIGH-SPEED

HARRY R. RICARDO, F.R.S.

BLACKIE & SON LIMITED

PREFACE TO NEW EDITION

The present volume is a revised and somewhat extended edition

BLACKIE & SON LIMITED

high-powered installation, and it is in units of high power output

In addition to these three leading groups there are also present

Fuel. Formula. Boiling Point Specific Gravity

Hexane … … … … C 6 H 14 156 0·663

Those of the naphthene series are :

Fuel. Formula. Boiling Point Specific Gravity

Cyclohexane … … … C 6 H 12 178 0·780

and those of the aromatic series :

Fuel. Formula. Boiling Point Specific Gravity

Benzene … … … … C6H6 176 0·884

Although, in most examples of commercial petrol, the members

A 26·0 35·0 39·0 0·782

It is evident from the above that the specific gravity as a

as ether, carbon disulphide (at a low compression ratio), also the

Fig. 1.—Curve showing Compression Ratio at which Detonation occurs

Aromatic Free Petrol … … 4·85 0

Alcohol Group, &c.

For example, a highly volatile fuel entering the cylinder at

Total Energy Relative Power,

Latent Heat of Air-to-fuel Ratio Fall in Temperature

extent with other fuels—namely, that the power output increases

Fig. 2.—Observed Volumetric Efficiency on Petrol and Alcohol at different

lower than from petrol or other volatile hydrocarbons at the same

Rise or Fall of Temp. Fall in Temperature

Aromatic Free Petrol … … + 18 32·4

Alcohol Group, &c.

Calorific (lower) Calorific (lower) Latent Heat

Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,080 137,000 19,200 136,200 133·0

The heat value of the “ correct ” mixture is usually termed the

Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,200 136,200 15·05 1·053 48·5

(1) (2) (3)

Aromatic Free Petrol … … 19,200 136,200 0·415* 0·462* 31·9*

Alcohol Group, &c.

Minimum Consumption at Highest Useful

Aromatic Free Petrol … … … 0·422 0·471

Alcohol Group, &c.

proportion of the liquid fuel is deposited on the walls of the induc-

Fuels for Aircraft.—For all commercial purposes other than

Aromatic Free Petrol … … 48·5 133·0 131·3* 130·0

Although xylene comes first on the list, it is not a practicable

introduction of water in solution with the fuel, a very substantial

Boiling Range. Total Energy

Range of Boiling °C.

Relative Thermal Efficiency

5·85 138·5 800·0 33·0 131·3 139·0

Fig. 4.—Variable Compression Engine, Sectional Side Elevation

In practice, it was found that the use of two sparking plugs on

of the maximum torque of the engine—a light open-scale spring

Fig. 7.—Fuel-measuring Device

several readings is, of course, considerably higher. The load is con-

two conical-ended chambers connected together at either end by

Fig. 8.—General Lay-out of Testing Apparatus

Fig. 10.—Cross Sectional Arrangement of Single-sleeve-valve

ignition timing adjusted to give maximum power, the highest useful

Fig. 11.—Single-sleeve-valve Research-unit Type—E.l·5

This ratio corresponds to an air standard efficiency of 53·5 per cent.

found to lie on a reasonably smooth curve, except that the 5·5-in.