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D.O.S: 15/11/2010

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Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mr. Ashish K.G. Saran Sachin Rana

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Rk4901 B35

Reg. no.:-10904976
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To many individuals I am indebted good counsel and assistance in

various ways in this respect one of my sincerest thanks to a
 
 ÿ Sir of Lovely Professional Universityÿ Phagwaraÿ for their kind
cooperation and able guidance.

I owe a deep sense of ineptness of my pureness that has been source of

inspiration in every work of my life.

I deeply express our ineptness and thanks to all my faculty member and
friends for there in valuableÿ guidance which enable me to bring out this
project in a presentable manner.














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Introduction
What is Non Destructive Testing?
Methods of NDT

‰ ·isual
‰ Liquid Penetrant
‰ Magnetic
‰ Ultrasonic
‰ Eddy Current

NDT for Aluminium and copper

References
 
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Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those test methods used to
examine an objectÿ material or system without impairing its future usefulness. The term is
generally applied to nonmedical investigations of material integrity.

Nondestructive testing is used to investigate the material integrity of the test object. A number of
other technologies - for instanceÿ radio astronomyÿ voltage and amperage measurement and
rheometry (flow measurement) - are nondestructive but are not used to evaluate material
properties specifically. Nondestructive testing is concerned in a practical way with the
performance of the test piece - how long may the piece be used and when does it need to be
checked again? Radar and sonar are classified as nondestructive testing when used to inspect
damsÿ for instanceÿ but not when they are used to chart a river bottom.

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Nondestructive testing asks "Is there something wrong with this material?" ·arious performance
and proof testsÿ in contrastÿ ask "Does this component work?" This is the reason that it is not
considered nondestructive testing when an inspector checks a circuit by running electric current
through it. Hydrostatic pressure testing is usually proof testing and intrinsically not
nondestructive testing. Acoustic emission testing used to monitor changes in a pressure vessel's
integrity during hydrostatic testing is nondestructive testing.

Another gray area that invites various interpretations in defining nondestructive testing is that of
future usefulness. Some material investigations involve taking a sample of the inspected part for
testing that is inherently destructive. A noncritical part of a pressure vessel may be scraped or
shaved to get a sample for electron microscopyÿ for example. Although future usefulness of the
vessel is not impaired by the loss of materialÿ the procedure is inherently destructive and the
shaving itself - in one sense the true "test object" - has been removed from service permanently.

The idea of future usefulness is relevant to the quality control practice of sampling. Sampling
(that isÿ the use of less than 100 percent inspection to draw inferences about the unsampled lots)
is nondestructive testing if the tested sample is returned to service. If the steel is tested to verify
the alloy in some bolts that can then be returned to serviceÿ then the test is nondestructive. In
contrastÿ even if spectroscopy used in the chemical testing of many fluids is inherently
nondestructiveÿ the process is destructive if the test samples are discarded after testing.

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‰ ·isual
‰ Liquid Penetrant
‰ Magnetic
 ‰ Ultrasonic
‰ Eddy Current


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The visual inspection is the basic and oldest non-destructive method for detection of surface defects on
productsÿ weldsÿ componentsÿ and for the assessment of the condition of individual parts of various
facilities. The visual inspection should always precede other non-destructive methodÿ because it can
reveal defects that can prevent correct performance or assessment of results of other non-destructive
method. For the purpose of high quality performance of visual inspection it is necessary to know the
construction of the inspected facilityÿ technology of the production of the inspected productÿ types of
defects and their causes of occurrence. The quality of visual inspection is based on long-time experiences
of the worker who performs this inspection.

We can divide the visual inspection into direct and indirect inspection.


   

This inspection can be performed only on placesÿ where the operator can physically get into. The
eyesight of the operator is used during this methodÿ respectively simple aids can be used
(magnifying glassÿ gaugesÿ camera etc.).

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Places that are inaccessible for the eye of the operator are inspected with endoscopes (fixed or
flexible).



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The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene and whiting
first used by railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th century. Today's penetrants are
carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector. To perform
wellÿ a penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics. A penetrant must:

þ spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and
even coverage.
þ be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
þ remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
þ remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and
developing steps.
þ be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
þ not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.

All penetrant materials do not perform the same and are not designed to perform the same.
Penetrant manufactures have developed different formulations to address a variety of inspection
applications. Some applications call for the detection of the smallest defects possible and have
smooth surfaces where the penetrant is easy to remove. In other applicationsÿ the rejectable
defect size may be larger and a penetrant formulated to find larger flaws can be used. The
penetrants that are used to detect the smallest defect will also produce the largest amount of
irrelevant indications.

Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and government specifications by their
physical characteristics and their performance. Aerospace Material Specification (AMS) 2644ÿ
Inspection Materialÿ Penetrantÿ is now the primary specification used in the USA to control
penetrant materials. Historicallyÿ Military Standard 25135ÿ Inspection Materialsÿ Penetrantsÿ has
been the primary document for specifying penetrants but this document is slowly being phased
out and replaced by AMS 2644. Other specifications such as ASTM 1417ÿ Standard Practice for
Liquid Penetrant Examinationsÿ may also contain information on the classification of penetrant
materials but they are generally referred back to MIL-I-25135 or AMS 2644.

Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:

þ Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants

þ Type 2 - ·isible Penetrants

Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
·isible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background.
Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is drawn
to the glow of the fluorescing indication. Howeverÿ visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and
an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. ·isible penetrants are also less vulnerable to
contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reduce the strength of a fluorescent
indicationi
 

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This NDT method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material and then
dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid). Surface and near-surface flaws
disrupt the flow of the magnetic field within the part and force some of the field to leak out at the surface.
Iron particles are attracted and concentrated at sites of the magnetic flux leakages. This produces a visible
indication of defect on the surface of the material. The images above demonstrate a component before
and after inspection using dry magnetic particles.

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In ultrasonic testingÿ high-frequency sound waves are transmitted into a material to detect imperfections
or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse
echoÿ whereby sound is introduced into a test object and reflections (echoes) from internal imperfections
or the part's geometrical surfaces are returned to a receiver. Below is an example of shear wave weld
inspection. Notice the indication extending to the upper limits of the screen. This indication is produced
by sound reflected from a defect within the weld.



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There are a number of electromagnetic testing methods but the focus here will be on eddy current testing.
In eddy current testingÿ electrical currents (eddy currents) are generated in a conductive material by a
changing magnetic field. The strength of these eddy currents can be measured. Material defects cause
interruptions in the flow of the eddy currents which alert the inspector to the presence of a defect or other
change in the material. Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of a materialÿ which makes it possible to sort some materials based on these properties. The
technician in the image is inspecting an aircraft wing for defects.



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This invention relates to a method of non-destructively testing aluminum-to-copper welds andÿ

more particularlyÿ to a method of performing such testing by acoustic emission techniques.

When aluminum and copper parts are flash butt welded togetherÿ small quantities of relatively
brittle copper-aluminum intermetallic compounds are usually formed at the joint interface. The
quality of the weld depends to a large extent upon the thickness and dispersion of this deposit of
intermetallic compounds. If this deposit is in the form of a continuous and relatively thick layerÿ
the joint will be embrittled to such an extent that it may not be reliable under actual working
conditions.

Heretoforeÿ such joints have typically been tested by subjecting representative samples to a
destructive bend testÿ referred to hereinafter as a 90°-180° bend test. In this bend testÿ a sampleÿ
in the form of a bar comprising copper and aluminum sections joined together by such a weldÿ is
first bent at the weld joint until one section is angularly displaced by 90° from the other and is
then reversely bent until said one section is at 180° to its previously-displaced position. If the
sample can withstand such bending without significant debonding at the weld joint (e.g.ÿ less
than 30% debonding)ÿ the weld is considered to have passed the test. But if significant debonding
(i.e.ÿ 30 percent or more) does occurÿ a failure is indicated.

This bend test reveals much information on the thickness and distribution of the intermetallic
compounds at the interface. Alsoÿ extensive testing has given a good correlation between bond
test sampling and the reliability of similar welds throughout the anticipated lifetime of identical
bars made in the same way as the tested bar.
But the destructive nature of the 90°-180° bend test is a definite disadvantage. The test specimen
is rendered unusable by such testÿ and any bar that is to be actually used in a working
environment cannot be subjected to an actual bend test.

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6 http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/articles/66882.aspx
6 www.ndt.net/
6 www.ndt-ed.org/GeneralResources/IntroToNDT/Intro_to_NDT.ppt
6 www.ndt-ed.org/.../IntroToNDT/GenIntroNDT.htm