From Ideas To Implementation

HSC Physics Module 2: From Ideas to Implementation
Summary
From Ideas to Implementation: 1. Cathode Rays

Identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience a force
Any moving charged particles (e.g. electrons and protons) in a magnetic field
experience a force. Try placing a bar magnet near a CRT television screen. You
should see a distortion of the image due to the magnetic field acting on the cathode
ray (electrons).
Perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the

occurrence of different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge
tubes
Investigation: Discharge Tubes
Aim: To investigate the effect of different gas pressures passing through a series of
discharge tubes.
Theory: When a high voltage from an induction coil is placed across a discharge
tube, a discharge may occur. Electrons released from the cathode travel toward the
anode, colliding with gas molecules to create different glowing patterns depending on
the air pressure inside the tube.
Equipment:
-Power supply -induction coil
-discharge tubes of various pressures -connecting wires
Method:
1/ Set up the equipment as shown below:
Cathode
Induction coil
(approx. 50000 V) Discharge
tube
Anode
Robert Lee Chin 1
Summary
The negative terminal induction coil was set across the cathode of the first discharge
tube and the positive terminal connected to the bottom plug. Observations were made
on different pressures by moving the top plug along to different tubes.
Results:
Pressure in tube Observations
(mm Hg)
40 - (may be able to observe in dark room)
10 Violet glow appears at the cathode and lighter violet
streamers appear from the anode, extending to the
cathode
6.0 Violet glow at cathode intensifies, and pink streamers
extend from the anode to the cathode
3.0 Violet glow at cathode ↑ in size and the pink streamers
break into striations. There is a dark space between the
striations and the cathode glow
0.14 Cathode glow is less clear, and the dark spaces
between the striations have ↑.
0.03 The entire tube glows a faint purple. A faint green
glow appears at the anode.
Discharge tube at 3.0 mm Hg:

_ 50000 V
+
Crookes‟ dark
space
Faraday‟s dark
Cathode space To vacuum pump Anode
Cathode glow The negative

glow Striated positive
column
From left to right:

1) Cathode glow
2) Crookes‟ dark space
3) The negative glow
4) Faraday‟s dark space
5) Striated positive column
Robert Lee Chin 2

Summary
Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of
charged particles
The Cathode ray tube (CRT) is a variant of the discharge tube. A CRT consists of a
highly evacuated glass tube containing two electrodes. The negative electrode is the
cathode and the positive electrode is the anode. When a high DC voltage is applied
across the CRT, a stream of electrons flows from the cathode to the anode. The
electrons can do this because there is little obstruction from remaining air particles n
the tube.
Because cathode rays are simply a steam of electrons, structures built into the CRT,
e.g. solid objects will block the flow of the cathode rays to the anode. Additional
anodes can be built into the CRT to accelerate the cathode rays to have higher kinetic
energies. Sets of electrodes can be placed in the CRT perpendicular to the beam to
create an electric field that can change the path of the beam. Similarly, external
magnetic fields can be applied to the cathode rays (e.g. using a magnet) - these will
cause a deflection of the beam.
Magnetic deflection of cathode rays:
_ Induction coil +
Cathode ray
Cathode Anode
B
v
Because of the radial nature of the magnetic field from a bar magnet, the force on the
cathode ray will be directed towards the North Pole of the magnet. It does not matter
where the North Pole is, as long as it is facing towards the cathode ray. When the
South Pole is placed near the CRT, the ray will deflect away from the South pole.
End view of CRT:
Robert Lee Chin 3

Summary
_ Induction coil +
Cathode ray
Cathode Anode
F
v
Perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify properties of cathode

rays using discharge tubes:
-containing a Maltese cross
-containing electric plates
-with a fluorescent display screen
-containing a glass wheel
and analyse the information gathered to determine the sign of the charge on
cathode rays
Investigation: The properties of cathode rays in discharge tubes
Aim: To perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify the properties of

discharge tubes containing a Maltese cross; electric plates; fluorescent display screen;
glass wheel
Equipment:
-induction coil
-power supply
-connecting wires
-Crooke‟s tube containing Maltese cross
-Crooke‟s tube containing glass wheel
-Crooke‟s tube containing electric plates
-Crooke‟s tube containing a fluorescent display screen
Safety: Stay clear of the induction coil and bare conductors. The circuit has a high
voltage across it that can cause electric shock. The tube also emits low levels of x-
rays. Sat at least 3m away from the tube if viewing for extended periods
Robert Lee Chin 4

Summary
Method:
Maltese Cross:
1/ Set up equipment as shown below with the Crooke‟s tube containing the
Maltese cross.
Cathode Maltese cross anode
rays
Cathode
_ Induction coil +
2/ Turn on the electricity and observe what happens at the opposite end of the
cathode.
Glass Wheel:
glass paddle wheel.
_ Induction coil
+
Cathode Cathode ray Anode
Glass runners on very slight

incline towards anode
Robert Lee Chin 5

Summary
2/ Ensure the apparatus is set up on a level surface. Turn on the electricity and
observe the effect of the cathode rays on the glass wheel.
Fluorescent screen:
fluorescent screen.
_ Induction coil +
Fluorescent
screen
cathode anode
Cathode ray
2/ Turn on the electricity. Observe what happens to the fluorescent screen.
Electric Plates:
electric plates (and fluorescent screen).
_ Induction coil +
Cathode ray
cathode anode
-ve plate
+ve plate
2/ Turn on the electricity. Observe what happens to the cathode ray.
Robert Lee Chin 6

Summary
Results:
Discharge tube type Observation Property of cathode ray

Maltese cross A shadow of the cross at the CR‟s travel in straight
opposite end of the cathode lines and cast sharp
shadows
Glass paddle wheel The wheel moves along the glass CR‟s possess momentum
runners from the cathode to and can do work (implying
anode they have mass)
Fluorescent screen The CR passes straight through CR‟s cause fluorescence,
to the anode. The entire like UV light waves
fluorescent screen glows
Electric plates The CR is deflected towards the CR‟s are deflected by
positive plate electric fields and are
negatively charged
In addition, the above observations (except for fluorescent screen) also demonstrate
that cathode rays originate from the cathode.
The results show that cathode rays travel in straight lines indicate that cathode rays
must be composed of small particles that are
Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused

debate as to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves
Early CR experiments provided inconsistent evidence as to the nature of CR‟s,

because they showed that CR‟s possessed properties of both waves and particles. It
must be noted that at this time, scientists had no knowledge of the structure of the
atom or the type of radiation in discharge tubes and there were inadequacies in
experimental design.
A timeline of the events leading to the modern CRT is outlined below:
1858- Julius Plücker shows that cathode rays are deflected by a magnetic field
1865- H. Sprengel is able to ↓ the air pressure in discharge tubes. He discovers that
the faraday dark space ↑ and a glow emanates from the cathode on the walls of the
tube
1860- C F Varley suggests that cathode rays are composed of particles
1875- Sir William Crookes performs various experiments with discharge tubes
including the Maltese Cross and glass paddle wheel. He showed that CR‟s:
-are identical, regardless of material used for cathode
-travelled in straight lines
-carried energy (and could do work)
-are deflected by magnetic fields, suggesting CR‟s and magnetism were
related
Robert Lee Chin 7

Summary
1876- Eugene Goldstein proves that CR‟s originate from the cathode. He coins the
term “cathode ray”
1883- Heinrich Hertz finds that CR‟s are NOT deflected by electric fields. He uses
this to argue that CR‟s are EM waves. This observation turns out to be false (the air
pressure in the discharge tubes was not low enough, hence the CR became ionised)
1886- Eugene Goldstein
1890- Arthur Schuster calculates the q/m ratio of the CR particles using magnetic
deflection. His answer was not accurate but showed that the q/m ratio was three orders
of magnitude smaller than even hydrogen, the smallest atom.
1892- Heinrich Hertz shows that CR‟s can penetrate thin metal foil, suggesting they
are EM waves.
1894- J. J. Thompson calculates the velocity of CR‟s to be 1.9 x 105 ms-1- MUCH
lower than the value 3.0 x 108ms-1 for light.
1895- Jean-Baptiste Perrin shows that CR‟s deposit a negative charge where they hit,
suggesting CR‟s are particles.
1897- J. J. Thompson performs his famous experiment to determine the q/m ratio of
CR‟s. By lowering the air pressure inside the discharge tube, he is able to show that
CR‟s are deflected by electric fields and have a negative charge, hence proving that
CR‟s are particles.
Evidence that CR‟s were waves (before Evidence that CR‟s were particles (before
1897) 1897)
Travel in straight lines like light waves Have kinetic energy, momentum and
therefore must have mass
Caused fluorescence, like UV light waves Deposit a negative charge on impact
Can expose photographic film, as light does Have a velocity much lower than light waves
Are not deflected by an electric field (this
was due to inadequate equipment)
Can penetrate thin metal foil
Identify that charged plates produce an electric field
An electric field exists in ANY region in which an electrically charged object

experiences a force. The observation that charged plates exert a force on other
charged objects brought close to them indicates that an electric field is associated with
charged plates.
Robert Lee Chin 8

Summary
Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge, positive
and negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates
Electric charges exert a force on eachother. Like charges repel while opposite charges
attract. Charges act as if surrounded by a “force field”. Point charges are by
definition, the direction a +ve charge would move in the field.
Fields around point charges:
+ve point charge
The strength of the electric field

decreases with ↑ distance from the
+ object. The direction of the field is
defined as pointing radially away from
a positive point charge
-ve point charge
The strength of the electric field

due to a -ve point charge decreases
with ↑ distance from the object.
- The direction of the field is
defined as pointing radially
towards a -ve point
Robert Lee Chin 9

Summary
Repulsion
Attraction
+ + + -
Attraction of –ve point charge Attraction of +ve point charge

and +ve plate and -ve plate
- +
+++++++++++++++++++++ _______________________
The strength of the electric field due to oppositely charged plates is uniform in
strength and direction (except at the edges). The direction of the field is defined as
pointing at right angles from the +ve to the –ve plate. The more field lines, the
stronger the field strength.
+++++++++++++++++++++
_______________________
Field lines between a capacitor
Robert Lee Chin 10

Summary
Describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged parallel
plates
The electric field strength is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The field strength is perpendicular to
the plates and uniform in the region between the plates.
Mathematically,
V
E where,
d
E electric field, in NC -1
V voltage applied to the plates, in volts
d distance between the plate, in metres
Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a

magnetic field
The force acting on a charged, moving particle in a magnetic field is proportional to:
-the size of the charge, q
-the magnetic flux density, B
-the velocity of the charge, v
-the sine of the angle between the field and the velocity of the particle, θ,
(where max. force is at 90˚ and zero force at 0˚)
Mathematically,
F qvBsin where,
F magnetic force,in newtons

q charge,in coulombs
v velcoty of charge,in ms-1
B magnetic flux density, in teslas
the angle between the the magnetic field and the direction of the charge
q B
Robert Lee Chin 11

Summary
V
E
d
Solve problems and analyse information using F qE
F qvB sin θ
To find the force acting on a charge, use the right-hand palm rule. Remember that this
rule applies to positive charges, so the force on a negative charge is in the opposite
direction as per the right-hand palm rule
In a Thompson-type experiment, FMagnetic FElectric i.e. qvB qE .

mv 2
When a particle enters a uniform magnetic field, FMagnetic FCentripetal i.e. qvB
,
r
If the particle enters at 90˚ to the field, it will follow the path of a semicircle before
leaving in the opposite direction. If it enters at: 0˚ <angle< 90˚, it will follow a helical
path with uniform speed.
Example Problems:
1) In a vacuum tube an electron with a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 c travelling at 1.0 x

105m/s enters an electric field of 1NC-1 between two 0.5 cm long horizontally
placed parallel plates. The plates are 1.5cm apart and the electron enters the
gap between the plates at right angles and at a point midway between the
plates. The mass of the electron is 9.0 x 10-31kg. The screen is 0.2m away from
the end of the plates. Calculate:
_ 0.2 m
1.5cm horizontal
+
0.5 cm
a) The force applied to the electron by the electric field between the plates
q 1.6 10 19 C E 1.0NC 1
Since the electron is - vely charged, the forceis directed towardsthe ve plate :
19 19
Fv qE 1.6 10 1.0 1.6 10 N
Robert Lee Chin 12

Summary
b) The acceleration of the electron due to the force produced by the electric
field
The acceleration experienced by the electron is due only to the electric field, directed
vertically towards the positive plate:
19 31
Fv 1.6 10 N m 9.0 10 kg
19
Fv 1.6 10
av 31
1.777... 1011 1.78 1011 ms 2 (3 s.f.) towards the ve plate
m 9.0 10
c) The velocity change that will occur to the electron as a result of the
applied force acting over the full length of the plates
s h 0.05m vh 1.0 10 5 ms 1
The time the electron is between the plates :
sh 0.05
t 5
5.0 10 8 s
v h 1.0 10
The change in velcoity is all directed vertically towardsthe ve plate :

Δv
av Δv a v t (1.78 1011 )(5.0 10 8 ) 8900ms 1 towardsthe ve plate
t
Because the inital vertical velocity was zero, vv 8900ms 1
d) The electron continued on its path toward a screen located 0.2m from the
exit end of the parallel plates. That screen had a horizontal line drawn on
it parallel with the middle of the separation distance of the two plates.
Where on the screen would the electron hit?
The velocity of the electron after passing through the plates is directed towards the
positive plate with the initial velocity added to the change in velocity in the vertical
direction. No further acceleration of the electron occurs after it leaves the plates as
there is no force acting on it.
While the electron is between the plates, it is accelerated towards the positive plate.
The vertical displacement over this time is given by:
t 5.0 10 8 s u v 0ms 1 a v 8900ms 1
1 1
sv uvt avt2 0 (1.78 1011 )(5.0 10 8 ) 2 2.225 10 4 m
2 2
After passing through the plates, the time taken to reach thescreen 0.2 m away, t':
sh 0.2m vh 1.0 105 ms 1
sh 0.2
t' 2.0 10 6 s
vh 1.0 10 5
Robert Lee Chin 13

Summary
The electron‟s vertical displacement after it leaves the plates is:
t' 2.0 10 6 s vv 8900ms 1
6
s'v v v t' 8900 2.0 10 0.0178m
Therefore, the electron will hit the screen a distance of:

s v s'v (2.23 10 4 ) (0.0178) 0.018023...
0.0180m(3 s.f.) towardsthe postive plate below the horizontal line
2) A thin solid conductor with sides PQRS is moving at constant velocity v,

at right angles to a uniform magnetic field B, directed into the page
Which side of the conductor has the greatest concentration of electrons?
Q
P R
S B into page
F
v v
Using the right hand palm rule for negative charges, if the magnetic field is
directed into the page and is perpendicular to a charge moving with uniform speed
down the page, then the magnetic force exerted on the electrons will be directed to
the left. Hence, side P is expected to have the greatest concentration of electrons.
3) The diagram shows two parallel plates with opposite charges. P, Q and R
represent distances from the positive plate.
+
P
Q
R _
Sketch a graph that would best represent the electric field strength, E,
between the plates
The electric field between two parallel oppositely charged plates is uniform in size
and direction.
Robert Lee Chin 14

Summary
Distance
P Q R
Outline Thomson's experiment to

measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron
Thompson was NOT able to calculate the actual charge or mass of the electron
directly because the charge and mass were too minute to measure and he did not have
a method of isolating individual electrons to measure these quantities. He WAS able
to calculate the values needed to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron
and hence, estimate the mass and charge indirectly.
To do this, Thompson had to first prove his hypothesis that the particles were
negatively charged. Heinrich Hertz had already failed to measure any deflection by
electric fields but Thompson reasoned that this was because the air pressure in the
tube was not low enough, causing the cathode ray to ionise.
Thompson set up a CRT in which cathode rays were accelerated through narrow slits
to create a wide beam before passing between a pair of electrically charged plates.
The deflection of the particles was measured using a fluorescent screen at the opposite
end.
Once he determined that the particles must be negatively charged, Thompson altered
the apparatus so that there was a uniform electric field exerting a downward force and
a uniform magnetic field exerting an upward force on the beam. Using his assumption
that the particles were negatively charged, he was able to calculate the force due to the
F
electric field using E .
q
Anode with slits to

cathode create cathode ray
beam -ve plate
Fluorescent
screen
+ve plate
Cathode ray
Deflecting the cathode rays using only a magnetic field, the particles experienced a
force of F qvB. This force was perpendicular to the velocity of the particles, hence
the particles travelled in uniform circular motion whilst in the magnetic field.
Robert Lee Chin 15

Summary
Thompson then equated the magnetic force equation with centripetal force
mv 2 q v
experienced by the particles, FC , to determine the relationship: .
r m Br
Thompson equated the centripetal force and magnetic force…
Velocity of cathode ray
Force due to
X
magnetic field B into page
Path of electron
The magnetic field strength, B, and radius, r, of the particles‟ path could be accurately
measured so the only other quantity required was the velocity of the particles. By
adjusting the apparatus such that the particles passed though both magnetic and
electric fields in the same region without deflection (i.e. the forces were equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign), he could equate the magnetic and electrostatic force
E
i.e. qvB Eq . Rearranging this into v he could determine the velocity of the
B
particles (he could calculate E and B from the geometry of the coils and plates) and
hence, determine the charge-to-mass ratio of all cathode ray particles.
Once the charge-to-mass ratio of the particles was known, the charge and mass could
be estimated by comparing it to the charge-to-mass ratio of the smallest known atom
q
at that time, hydrogen. The ratio was found to be 1.76 x 1011 C kg-1, regardless of
m
the cathode material or the voltage used to accelerate the beam.
Thompson’s apparatus to determine electron q/m ratio:
Robert Lee Chin 16

Summary
-ve plate
Fluorescent
B screen
+ve plate
Magnetic coils
Cathode ray
passes through
without deflection
Outline the role of:

-electrodes in the electron gun
-the deflection plates or coils
-the fluorescent screen
in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV displays and oscilloscopes
There are two main types of cathode ray tubes (CRT‟s):
-CRT‟s where the electron beam is deflected by electric plates. This is primarily used
for oscilloscopes which require high-speed to follow rapidly changing waveforms
-CRT‟s where the beam is deflected by magnetic coils. This is used in TV‟s, computer
monitors and radar.
The basic components of all CRT‟s are:
1) The electron gun, consisting of a source of electrons (a heated metal filament), a

mechanism for controlling the beam intensity and one or more accelerating
anodes.
2) A deflection system, consisting of electric plates that produce electric fields or
magnetic coils that produce magnetic fields
3) A fluorescent screen, which converts the electron beam into visible light.
4) A sealed, vacuum glass tube which connects all the components
The electron gun consists of a filament that is the source of electrons, a negatively
charge metal cathode, a beam intensity control and a series of metal anode cylinders,.
The cathode helps focus the electrons into a beam. The beam passes through several
anodes. The first is called the grid which has a negative charge relative to the cathode.
This controls the beam intensity by controlling the number of electrons emitted. Next
is a series of anodes with progressively higher positive voltages relative to the
cathode. These use electric fields to focus the beam further so that is appears as a dot
on the screen and accelerate the beam to have greater kinetic energy.
Robert Lee Chin 17

Summary
The deflection system of a CRO consists of two sets of parallel electric plates. The Y-
set controls the vertical deflection while the X-set controls the horizontal deflection.
The X-set has a DC voltage applied to it so that it produces a constant horizontal
motion across the screen before returning to its starting position and repeating the
motion. The Y-set has an AC current with varying voltages (e.g. 50 Hz setting would
make the spot move up-and-down 50 times per second). When the two sets of plates
are combined, they produce a visual representation of the oscillating voltages. The
waveform trace uses a time-scale that slows down these oscillations so they can be
observed and analysed.
The deflection system of a TV consists of two sets of magnetic “steering” coils. EThe
beam moves in a „raster scan‟ (across and down the screen, one line at a time).
The fluorescent screen at the end is coated with a phosphor that converts the kinetic
energy of the electrons into visible light. For a TV the electron beam „traces‟ across
and down the screen at 50 or 100Hz to produce the picture.
To produce colour TV there are 3 electron guns with a separate deflection system for
each electron beam. The beams are steered into separate spots of fluorescent
chemicals which glow red, blue or green which combine to form all other colours.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
Y-set X-set
Cathode Grid Anodes Electric Electric
(-ve) (+ve) plates plates
Filament
Fluorescent
screen
TV Cathode Ray Tube:
Cathode Grid Anodes Magnetic

(-ve) (+ve) coils
Filament
Fluorescent
screen
Robert Lee Chin 18

Summary
From ideas to implementation: 2. The photoelectric effect

and black body radiation
Perform an investigation to demonstrate the production and reception of
radio waves
Investigation: Producing and receiving radio waves
Aim: To perform an experiment that will demonstrate the production and reception of
radio waves.
Equipment:
-AM/FM personal stereo radio
-a car with a bonnet open to expose the coil
-an adult/responsible fried with a car licence to assist
Method:
1/ Lift bonnet and locate ignition coil.
2/ Turn on radio to receive AM. Tune it off any stations.
3/ Have your assistant turn on the ignition of the car. You should hear clicks on
the AM radio produced by the coil as it sparks. This should sound like a low-
frequency continuous buzz when the car is idling.
4/ Have your assistant press on the accelerator slightly while the car is in neutral.
Take not of the frequency of sparking that occurs compared to when the car is
idling.
Results:
The source of the radio waves in this investigation is the sparks produced by the spark
plug in the car engine. When a spark jumped the gap, a radio wave was produced. The
AM radio antenna is analogous to the second detecting ring in Hertz‟s experiment.
As the car was accelerated, the frequency of clicks produced by the radio was directly
proportional to the sparks produced at the spark plug. When the car was decelerated,
the number of clicks decreased in direct proportion to the sparks.
Outline qualitatively Hertz's experiments in measuring the speed of radio

waves and how they relate to light waves
By the 1880‟s, the theory of EMR had been around for 20 years, but nobody had
actually proved such waves existed. Heinrich Hertz performed his famous experiment
in 1887 to see if EMR could be produced and received.
A transmitter consisted of a high voltage induction coil aligned parallel to a receiving

loop (RL). When the induction coil was switched on, accelerating charges produced a
spark across the gap. This spark generated low frequency EMR waves which were
Robert Lee Chin 19

Summary
focused by a metal parabolic sheet and reflected to a receiving parabolic sheet 1.5m
away. The receiving parabolic reflector focussed the EMR, inducing a voltage in the
RL and causing a spark to jump the gap. The radio waves themselves were detected
using a pair of antennas connected to the wire loops
When Hertz repeated the experiment with the transmitter and RL aligned
perpendicular to each other, he found no spark was generated in the receiving loop.
Placing a wire grid in between the transmitter and receiver also produced the same
effect. This proved that the waves could be polarised and were transverse in nature.
Hertz also tested whether radio waves could travel through solids. When he placed
non-conductors (e.g. wood, plastic, glass) between the loops, EMR was produced but
when he placed conductors (metal) between the loops, no EMR was produced. This
showed that radio waves could be refracted.
Simplified diagram of Hertz’s experiment:
Receiving
Loop
Metal parabolic sheet
Radio waves reflected

to receiving loop
Metal parabolic sheet
Spark gap
Capacitor
High Voltage
Induction Coil
Switch
Battery
To measure the speed of the radio waves, Hertz used oscillating (high-frequency AC)
circuits using combinations of capacitors and inductors. He reflected the waves off a
metal sheet and measured the wavelength of the standing waves produced by
superposition. He knew the frequency of the waves from the size of the capacitors and
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Summary
circuit inductance. When he put these values into the general wave equation, v f
he calculated a value close to 3.0 x 108 m/s.
How do the radio waves Hertz produced relate to light waves?

-radio waves can be generated by accelerating charges
-radio waves travel in straight lines
-radio waves can be refracted
-radio waves can be reflected
-radio waves travel at 3.0 x 108 m/s, so do light waves
-radio waves can be polarised and are transverse in nature
-radio waves produce interference patterns, so can light waves
Describe Hertz's observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and

the photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate
The spark gap in the receiving loop had a voltage induced in it by the EMR from the
transmitter. This causes a spark to jump the gap in the receiving loop. This spark was
an electrical disturbance.
What Hertz failed to investigate…

When he made the gap in the receiving loop larger, sparks could still be generated
when the EMR from the transmitter shone directly at the receiver. This is because the
UV component of transmitter spark was removing free electrons from the surface of
the metal conductor, allowing the spark (discharge) to occur across a wider gap. We
now know this as the photoelectric effect.
What Hertz failed to investigate…The Photoelectric Effect:
e-
e-
e-
The spark can occur
over a wider gap.
UV component of spark
removes electrons from metal
surface.
Robert Lee Chin 21

Summary
Identify Plank‟s hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls
of a black body cavity is quantised
Experiments show that radiation emitted from a hot object has a range of
wavelengths. A black body (BB) cavity is a hypothetical model used by scientists to
measure the types of EMR emitted from different materials at a given temperature. A
black body cavity ensures that ALL radiation is absorbed and none is reflected.
The wavelength at which peak emission (spectral radiancy) occurs ↑ with

temperature. This is why at lower temperatures you can feel heat (infrared) from a hot
object but see no light. As the temperature ↑, the object glows red (i.e. red light),
because the peak wavelength emitted is shorter. The total amount of energy emitted is
given by the area under the curve.
Classical physics predicted that the energy absorbed or emitted by a BB should ↑

continuously as the wave frequency ↑. But this would mean that the amount of energy
would be infinite! Experimental data suggested that something was limiting the
emission at shorter wavelengths.
Comparison of experimental black body data and Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
6000 K
Rayleigh-Jeans
Law
Intensity of
radiation
emitted
3000 K
UV 1000 IR 2000 3000

Visible
Wavelength (mm)
Planck's hypothesis to explain this was that energy could ONLY be emitted or
absorbed in small discrete amounts called “quanta” (later identified as photons).
The size of each quantum of energy depends on the frequency of light emitted.
Robert Lee Chin 22

Summary
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information and use
available evidence to assess Einstein's contribution to quantum theory and its
relation to black body radiation
In 1905, Einstein wrote a paper named "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light”. In this paper he adopted a particle model of
light, using Plank‟s explanation of blackbody radiation and applied it to explain the
photoelectric effect.
The main features of this model of light included:

-energy is not evenly distributed along the wavefront, but is concentrated in small
„packets‟ called photons
-The energy of a photon is given by the Plank relationship E = hf
-a single photon could give all or none of its energy to ONE electron. Any excess
energy gives the electron kinetic energy.
-The intensity of light was related to the number of photons, NOT the kinetic energy
-Photons below this threshold frequency do not have enough energy to cause
photoemission; therefore no electrons will be emitted no matter the intensity.
Plank developed quantum theory as a „mathematical trick‟ to explain blackbody

radiation (he actually supported classical wave theory of light). It was Einstein who
combined Plank‟s quantum theory AND the classical wave theory of light to develop
a totally new, particle model of light. This was a revolutionary, crucial step in the
development of modern physics. Debate still rages whether it was Einstein or Plank
who should be credited as the founder of Quantum theory.
Identify Einstein's contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body
radiation
Einstein used Plank‟s assumption that electromagnetic oscillators within atoms were
responsible for emitting and absorbing EMR of particular frequencies. He proposed
that light was not evenly distributed on the wavefront but rather concentrated in small
„packets‟ of energy called “photons”. A photon is the smallest amount of radiation
energy possible at a particular frequency.
If a photon interacted with matter it could transfer ALL or none of its energy, but
never part of it. The intensity of light was related to the number of photons, NOT the
kinetic energy as classical physics hypothesised. The amount of energy carried by a
photon is proportional to its frequency.
In terms of BB radiation, this meant that the radiation was emitted as photons. The
shorter the peak wavelength, the greater the total energy emitted/absorbed for a given
temperature. The material the blackbody is made of makes no difference.
In addition, Einstein showed the dual nature of light: light could have the properties of
both a particle and a wave at the same time.
Robert Lee Chin 23

Summary
Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy
and frequency
Each photon carries a specific amount of energy that is proportional to its frequency.
All photons of light with the same frequency have exactly the same amount of energy.
All photons, regardless of their frequency, have zero rest mass and travel at the speed
of light, 3.0 x 108 m/s, in a vacuum.
Light is a stream of wave packets called “photons”. The energy of each

“photon” is proportional to its frequency- each of the photons above has
EXACTLY the same amount of energy
Identify data sources gather, and present information to summarise the use
of the photoelectric effect in photocells
Photocells are devices that use the photoelectric effect to detect EMR or convert EM
energy such as sunlight, into electrical energy. The two main types of photocells are
photoresistors and photovoltaic cells.
Photoresistors (aka photoconductors) are resistors made from semiconductor materials

with high resistance e.g. germanium. When light hits the semiconductor material,
photons transfer their energy to valence electrons. If the light is of a high enough
frequency, then the valence electrons are excited to the conduction band. The
resulting free electron and its „hole‟ conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
There are two types of photoresistors: intrinsic and extrinsic.
How a photoresistor conducts current:
No light/ light of too low frequency

- no current flows = valence electrons
= „holes‟
= free electrons
_ + = high-resistance semiconductor
Robert Lee Chin 24

Summary
light
„hole‟ current e- current
_ +
Intrinsic photoresistors have ONLY electrons in the valence band available for
conduction. If the photon hitting an intrinsic photoresistor has too low frequency i.e.
not enough kinetic energy, no current flows- this limits its usefulness.
Extrinsic photoresistors are „doped‟ with other atoms that ↑ the starting number of
electrons in the conduction band or ↓ the „energy gap‟ between valence and
conduction bands. This means lower energy photons (and hence lower frequency
light) are enough to trigger a current.
Applications of photoresistors:
Security devices- burglar; fire; smoke alarms
Consumer appliances- light switches, light meters, clocks, cameras
Industry- radiation detectors, counting devices
The main advantage of photoresistors is that they act as light sensitive switches.
Photovoltaic devices convert sunlight into electrical energy. Most rely on the use of a
semiconductor p-n junction. In a p-type semiconductor, the „holes‟ are the majority
charge carriers (electrons are minority carriers) and in n-type, free electrons are the
majority carriers („holes‟ are the minority carriers)
Electrons can flow from bottom to top across the boundary easily. They can only flow
from top to bottom through the external circuit.
When light hits the top of the solar cell, some of the electrons in the n-layer silicon are
freed due to the photoelectric effect. These flow out through the external circuit,
returning to the cell via the p-layer silicon.
Applications of Photovoltaic cells:

Domestic- electricity in remote areas, solar lights, calculators, watches
Industry- Earth orbiting Satellites
Advantages of the device are that it uses light, a renewable resource, to produce
energy. Countries such as Germany and Spain have some of the world‟s largest
photovoltaic power plants
Robert Lee Chin 25

Summary
Effectiveness of the cell can be improved by varying the stopping voltage to
compensate for different frequencies of light hitting the cell.
Limitations of the device are that it is frequency dependant. The photocurrent depends
on the intensity of light- if the light photons do not have enough energy, no
photoemission occurs. Current cells only have 10-20% energy efficiency- the
maximum recorded efficiency is 40%. The semiconductor material used has a fairly
high resistance, meaning energy losses. Other limitations include installation costs.
Solar cells in housing will only save money in areas that receive consistently high
amounts of sunlight after many years of use. In power girds, the DC current must be
converted to AC, resulting in energy losses.
Identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed of light

and wavelength: E hf and c f
The energy of a photon is given by:
E hf , where:
E the energy of the photon in joules or electron volts

34
h 6.63 10 Js Plank' s constant
f the frequencyof the wavein Hertz (s -1 )
The speed of light is given by:
c f , where:
c the speed of light 3.0 108 ms 1

the wavelength of the wave(m)
f the frequencyof the wavein Hertz ( s -1 )
hc
Combining the two equations: E
The maximum kinetic energy of a photon is given by:

E KMax hf Where
work function of the metal hf o
And f o is the threshold frequency
Diagram showing the relationship between EKMAX, frequency, threshold frequency (fo)
and work function for different metals:
Robert Lee Chin 26

Summary
Metal 1 Metal 2 Metal 3
EKMAX
fo
Frequency
-Work function
Note: The gradient of all slopes is h, Plank‟s constant
Solve problems and analyse information using E hf and c f
Example Problems:
1) Compare the amount of quantum energy carried by a photon of:
i) infra-red radiation (λ = 5.45x10-6m)
5.45 10 6 m c 3.0 108 ms 1

h 6.63 10 34
Js
c 34 (3.0 108 ) 20
E h (6.63 10 ) 6
3.65 10 J
(5.45 10 )
ii) UV radiation (λ = 5.45x10-9m)
5.45 10 9 m c 3.0 108 ms 1

h 6.63 10 34
Js
c 34 (3.0 108 ) 17
E h (6.63 10 ) 9
3.65 10 J
(5.45 10 )
UV radiation produces 103 times more energy per quanta than infra-red radiation.
2) To cause emissions of an electron from the surface of a metal requires the

electron to gain a minimum of 2.38x10-20J of energy.
a) Find the frequency and wavelength of the photon of EMR which

carries the “threshold” amount of energy
Robert Lee Chin 27

Summary
20 34
E 2.38 10 J h 6.63 10 Js c 3.0 108 ms 1
20
E 2.38 10
f 34
3.5897... 1013 3.59 1013 Hz
h 6.63 10
c 3.0 108
13
8.356 10 6 m
f 3.59 10
b) What happens if the electron is struck by a photon with a longer

wavelength than this?
The electron will not gain enough energy to overcome the “threshold” amount of
energy required to be emitted from the metal surface
c) What will happen if the electron was struck by a photon of a higher

frequency than calculated in (a)?
The electron will overcome the “threshold” amount of energy and be emitted from the
metal surface with kinetic energy equal to the difference between the amount of
kinetic energy given to the electron and the “threshold” energy.
3) An electron was emitted from a metal surface after being struck by a photon
of EMR. The electron left the surface with energy of 6.22x10-17J. It firstly had
to “use” 9.28x10-19J of energy to escape the metal surface. All of this energy
was gained by interaction with a single photon. Find the frequency and
wavelength of the photon.
E K max 6.22 10 17 J 9.28 10 19 J h 6.63 10 34 Js c 3.0 108 ms 1
17 19 17 17
hf E K max 6.22 10 9.28 10 6.3128 10 6.31 10 J (3s. f .)
17
6.31 10
f 34
9.51734... 1016 9.52 1016 Hz (3s. f .)
6.63 10
c 3.0 108
3.15126... 109 3.15 10 9 m (3s. f .)
f 9.52 1016
Process information to discuss Einstein and Planck's differing views about

whether science research is removed from social and political forces
Max Planck and Einstein lived in the same time period and were both born in
Germany. They shared some science and political views but had vastly different
opinions on others. This was shown through the actions they took, especially during
the world wars.
Planck was nationalistic and well respected in his native Germany. He supported
Germany‟s role in WW1 by signing a document (the Manifesto of the 93 Intellectuals)
that defended Germany‟s actions in the war and by undertaking research to support
the war effort. During WW2, Planck supported Hitler‟s anti-Semitism and played a
major role in Germany‟s scientific research. In fact, he played a major role in
excluding Einstein from German scientific culture. Later, he came to realise there
Robert Lee Chin 28

Summary
were dilemmas created whenever his scientific research conflicted with social and
political forces.
Einstein left Germany at a young age, becoming a Swiss citizen. He opposed

Nationalism and was a pacifist. During WW1 he signed an anti-war manifesto
concerning Germany‟s role in the war. Shortly before WW2, he left to America due to
his Jewish heritage and he became a symbol of the Jewish Internationalism that
Hitler‟s Germany sought to eradicate. His moral issues concerning Germany‟s
mentality during WW2 were reflected in his resignation from the Prussian Science
academy. In 1939, he warned US president Roosevelt about the threat of a Nazi
atomic bomb which led to America being the first country to develop and use the
atomic bomb. Einstein believed that scientific research extended beyond national
boundaries and that it should be done for the benefit of the entire world. After WW2,
he lobbied to stop any more nuclear devices being used as weapons. In 1952, he was
offered the presidency of Israel but turned it down; continuing his scientific research
which he believed would be of greater benefit to the world.
Despite their differing views, Planck and Einstein were friends and colleagues. In
1929, Plank himself awarded Einstein the Max Planck medal for his outstanding
contribution to theoretical physics. After WW2, Einstein fought to have the rights of
German scientists returned and Planck supported Einstein‟s appointment to the
research institute in Berlin.
Data sources:
http://www.hscphysics.edu.au/resource/PlanckEinstein.pdf
http://www.xtimeline.com/timeline/Planck-vs-Einstein
3. Transistors
Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move
freely
The basic model of the atom states that the electrons orbit in different energy levels-
no two electrons can occupy the same energy level. Isolated atoms have single energy
levels but when two or more atoms come together, the energy levels split (e.g. 1000
atoms would produce 1000 energy levels). This means electrons can be shared
between atoms. When billions of atoms are involved, the energy levels form a
continuous energy band.
In solids, atoms form a lattice structure by arranging themselves in a regular array. In

metals, the positive nuclei form the lattice structure while the electrons are
delocalised. When a voltage is applied, an electric field causes all the electrons to
flow in one direction- this is an electrical current. Metals are good conductors.
Robert Lee Chin 29

Summary
Electrical conduction in a solid array:
In a conductor, delocalised
electrons can „jump‟ from one
energy level to the next easily
Perform an investigation to model the difference between conductors,

insulators and semiconductors in terms of band structures
Investigation: Modelling the band structure of conductors, semiconductors and

insulators
Aim: To model the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in

terms of band structures
Materials required: This activity requires the help of other people- the more the
better. You will also need a tennis ball. Each person represents an atom while the ball
represents the electron being conducted.
Method:
Conductor:
1/ Have all stand in a line, about 1 metre apart, with one person on the end
holding the ball
2/ Pass the ball from one person to the next in one direction.
The distance apart

represents the
different energy
bands
1m
Robert Lee Chin 30

Summary
The ball is easily transferred from one person to the next. This is analogous to a small
difference between the valence band and conduction band. The conduction band is
easily achieved.
Semiconductor
1/ Have all stand in a straight line, about 5 metres apart, with one person on the
end holding the ball
2/ Throw the ball from one person to the next in one direction. Do not allow the
ball to drop.
5m
Getting the ball to the other end without dropping is more difficult. This is analogous
to a greater energy difference between valence and conduction bands. In
semiconductors, the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands is greater
than in conductors.
Insulators:
1/ Find an open space such as an oval or park.
2/ Have all stand in a straight line, about 50 metres apart, with one person on the
end holding the ball
3/ Attempt to throw the ball from one person to the next in one direction. Do not
allow the ball to drop- this should be very difficult to do.
50 m
The energy gap between the valence and conduction band is very large. It is not
impossible to conduct a current, but it requires a huge amount of energy.
Results:
-Electrons can drift freely from atom to atom in conductors i.e. conduction band is
easily achieved
-Electrons can „jump‟ into the conduction band, but only if given sufficient energy.
There are few free electrons
Robert Lee Chin 31

Summary
-Electrons almost never conduct in insulators- the energy gap is too great.
Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors

in terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance
Band structure theory
There are two bands electrons can occupy in the band structure theory. The valence
band is the highest energy level electrons can occupy in their normal state i.e. at 0K,
without additional energy or an electric field. In the conduction band, electrons are
delocalised and can form a current under the influence of an electric field. In between
these bands is a „forbidden energy gap‟- electrons cannot exist here. The energy gap
exists because the energy levels are quantisised. An important feature of the band
theory is the Fermi level- the highest level electrons can occupy at 0K.
Band structure of a conductor:
Conduction band
Fermi level
Valence band
(mostly unfilled)
In a conductor, the valence and conduction bands overlap. The valence band is mostly
unfilled, hence electrons can easily move to the conduction band simply in the
presence of an electric field. Each atom contributes an electron for conduction. Sice
resistance is the inverse of conductivity, conductors have low electrical resistance.
The Fermi level is at the top of the overlap region.
Band structure of a semiconductor:
Conduction band
Fermi level Energy gap
Valence band
Robert Lee Chin 32

Summary
In semiconductors, there is a small energy gap between valence and conduction
bands. Normally, they have high electrical resistance. Under the right conditions such
as applying thermal energy, (Note: Most semiconductors have enough thermal energy
to conduct at room temperature.) valence electrons can gain enough energy to „jump‟
to the conduction band. This ↓ resistance of the material. At low temperatures, the
valence band is filled and the semiconductor acts as an insulator.
The Fermi level lies in between the valence and conduction bands.
Band structure of a insulator:
Conduction band
Energy gap
Fermi level
Valence band
In insulators, the valence band is full of bound electrons and there is a large energy
gap. This makes it difficult for electrons to „jump‟ to the conduction band, hence
insulators have high electrical resistance.
Perform an investigation to model the behavior of semiconductors including

the creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has lost the electron
and the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions when an
electric field is applied across the semiconductor
Investigation: Modeling hole conduction in a semiconductor
Aim: To perform an investigation that models the movement of a hole current when a
potential is placed across a semiconductor.
Materials:
-At least 5 other people (the more, the better)
-The same number of plastic chairs to sit on
-An open space or room large enough to place the chairs comfortably side-by-side
Method:
1/ Line the seats up side by side and have one person sit in each chair
Robert Lee Chin 33

Summary
2/ Ask a person at the far right end to stand up from the chair and move away
towards the right. This person represents an electron in the conductor band.
The empty seat represents the positive hole.
3/ Ask the person next to the vacant seat to fill the seat and so on. Observe the
position of the hole as each person moves to the next seat.
Results:
The people (electrons) move to the right:
And the empty seat (the positive ‘hole’) moves to the left:
It is observed that as the electrons move in one direction, the hole current moves in
the opposite direction.
Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognize

that both electrons and holes help to carry current
Normally, we imagine electrical current as a flow of electrons. In semiconductors,
when an electron in the valence band „jumps‟ to the conduction band, it leaves a
Robert Lee Chin 34

Summary
„hole‟ in an almost complete valence band. Because electrons have a negative charge,
we associate a positive charge to the hole.
An electron ‘jumps to the conduction band, leaving behind a hole:
_ +
An adjacent electron fills the ‘hole’:
_ +
Electrons move to the right…
_ +
And the ‘hole’ moves to the left…
_ +
An electron from a nearby atom can fill this hole. This creates another hole, and so
on. When a voltage is applied across the semiconductor, electrons „jump‟ up to the
conduction band and move towards the positive potential. The „holes‟ these free
electrons leave in the valence band travel towards the negative terminal. This apparent
flow of positive charge can be considered of as genuine „conventional current‟.
Robert Lee Chin 35

Summary
Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift
from atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators
In a conductor, there are high numbers of free electrons in the conductor band. Every
atom contributes valence electrons for conduction. (This is about 1022 electrons/cm3 ).
Semiconductors have far fewer free electrons available for conduction than
conductors. ↑ the temperature of semiconductors can contribute enough thermal
energy to induce some electrons to move to the conduction band. (This is about 1015
electrons/cm3).
N-type semiconductors have about 100x more electrons available for conduction than
pure semiconductors. P-type has less than pure semiconductors, but are still better
conductors because of the positive „hole‟ current.
Insulators have almost no free elections available for conduction. They almost never
conduct an electrical current.
Gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how

shortcomings in available communication technology lead to an increased
knowledge of the properties of materials with particular reference to the
invention of the transistor
Following their invention, CRT‟s began to be used in circuits. These devices were
called thermionic valves. For over 50 years, people relied on valves for
communication technologies such as the telephone industry, radios and hearing aids.
However, valves were: slow; unreliable; bulky; expensive.
Pre 1939- Germanium crystals used as rectifiers for radio but were inconsistent and
misunderstood
1939- Russel Ohl produced 99.8% pure Si crystals which worked like diodes,
allowing current flow in only one direction
1940- Ohl noticed that a cracked Si crystal produced a current when light shone on it
(forerunner of photovoltaic cell). He found that different levels of purity on either side
of the crack produced a thin barrier of negative charge on one side. This only allowed
electrons to travel in one direction & gave Bell Labs the idea that crystals could
replace thermionic devices.
1947- Bardeen and Brattain observed that output voltage was greater than input
voltage in a germanium crystal. This gave way to the first solid state amplifier/point
transistor.
1948- Shockley developed the idea of a triode-like semiconductor device. Aka

“junction transistor”, consisting of a 3-layer sandwich of doped semiconductor (either
n-p-n or p-n-p). The middle layer was analogous to a tap- as the voltage in this layer
was adjusted up or down, it could turn a proportionally larger current through the
entire junction, on/off at will.
Robert Lee Chin 36

Summary
1949-1950- Teal and Sparks developed techniques to produce a single sandwiched
crystal of „doped‟ semiconductor (n-p junction). The first junction transistor was
born!
1951-Sparks improved the junction transistor, making the middle layer thinner and the
transistor more efficient.
Concise version
Scientists from the major U.S. phone company “Bell Telephone” began researching
new materials to replace valves. In 1947, scientists invented the first transistor, based
on Germanium. It was called the “point-contact” transistor & could amplify current.
This had its own shortcomings which led to ↑ knowledge of properties of materials.
When it was found that differently doped semiconductors (n-and p-type) created a
thin layer of potential difference when brought together, acting as a diode and that
germanium could amplify current, the idea of a junction transistor consisting of a 3-
layer sandwich of p-n-p or n-p-n semiconductor material was developed. It was found
this a small variable voltage between the base and emitter layers turned a larger
voltage between the base and emitter on and off. Also, it was found that the larger
current flowing from emitter to collector was directly proportional to the smaller
current between the emitter and base- both a switch AND an amplifier. The “junction
transistor” was invented in the 1950‟s once scientists developed a technique for
producing very pure germanium.
Germanium transistors still had a limitation- they stopped working at high

temperatures, so silicon was required. In 1954, the first working silicon transistor was
invented. The history of the transistor demonstrates how shortcomings in available
technology led to↑ knowledge in the properties of materials.
E B C
n p n
*The current between
Emitter and collector is
proportional to the
current introduced into
the base material
_ _
+ +
Small voltage Larger voltage
Robert Lee Chin 37

Summary
Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of

ability to produce other materials of suitable purity
When the first transistors were built in the 1950‟s, the only semiconductor that could
be made pure enough to act as a transistor was germanium. The problem with
germanium was that it stopped working when the temperature was too high due to
resistance. Silicon was a better choice material because:
-by weight, it is the 2nd most abundant element on Earth

-it retained its semiconductor properties at higher temperatures (compared to
Germanium)
-it can withstand higher electrical currents before overheating
-it forms an oxide coating which can be „doped‟ and made into flat sheets
-it has a very uniform crystal structure when very pure
The problem was that it was very difficult to make silicon crystals pure enough to act
as semiconductors.
Describe how „doping‟ a semiconductor can change its electrical properties
Doping is the process is the process of adding impurity elements into a semiconductor
crystal lattice to alter its electrical properties. Semiconductor materials are group IV
solids including germanium and silicon.
There are types of doped semiconductors: n-type semiconductors and p-type

semiconductors. Doped semiconductors are also known as extrinsic semiconductors
(as opposed to intrinsic [pure] semiconductors). These doping agents are added in the
ratio of about one part per million.
N-type semiconductor lattice structure:
Extra valence
electron
Group V „doping‟
impurity
N-type semiconductors (n stands for negative) are doped with group V elements (e.g.
arsenic, antimony, phosphorus). This means there is an extra valence electron
available for conduction. They can be considered as a lattice of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of mobile negative electrons.
Robert Lee Chin 38

Summary
P-type semiconductor lattice structure:
Extra hole in
lattice
Group III „doping‟

impurity
P-type semiconductors (p stands for positive) are doped with group 3 atoms (e.g.
boron, aluminum). This means there is an extra „hole‟ in the valence band to conduct
a positive „hole‟ current. They can be considered to a lattice of negative ions
surrounded by a sea of positive holes.
Note that for both n- and p-type semiconductors, the net charge is considered to be
zero. The doping material must also fit into the semiconductor lattice so as not to
distort it and impede electron flow.
Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative

number of negative charge carriers and positive holes
N-type semiconductors have an extra electron level, just below the conduction band.
This level is also known as the donor level. They only require a small jolt of energy to
access the conduction band. This leaves „holes‟ in the extra energy level which are
also capable of carrying charge. The electrons (negative charge) are the majority
charge carriers while the „holes‟ are the minority charge carriers.
Band structure of N-type semiconductor:
Conduction band
Fermi level
Energy gap Extra electron
„donor‟ level
Valence band
Robert Lee Chin 39

Summary
P-type semiconductors have an extra „hole‟ level just above the valence band. These
holes can easily accept electrons from the valence layer, hence it is also called the
acceptor level. The „holes‟ are the majority charge carriers while the electrons are the
minority charge carriers
Band structure of p-type semiconductor:
Conduction band
Extra hole
Energy gap „acceptor‟ level
Fermi level
Valence band
Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss
why solid state devices replaced thermionic devices
Thermionic devices are essentially CRTs. Thermionic devices such as valves consist
of a vacuum tube with a cathode and at least one other electrode. When the cathode is
heated sufficiently, electrons are spontaneously emitted. This is termed “thermionic
emission”. The main types of thermionic valves are the diode and triode.
The diode consists of a cathode and anode in an evacuated tube. It acts as a rectifier of
AC current. If an alternating potential difference is applied across a diode, a current
only occurs the anode has a positive potential compared to the cathode.
Diode valve and solid state diode:
Evacuated tube
Anode Cathode e-
-
e p n
_
+ _ +
Robert Lee Chin 40

Summary
Triode valves have 3 electrodes: a cathode, an anode and a control grid in between. A
small change in voltage between the grid and the cathode amplified the current
between cathode and anode. The triode amplifies small voltages. Triodes were used in
radios to drive loudspeakers. Even more complex valves such as tetrodes (4
electrodes) and pentodes (5 electrodes) were also used as amplifiers.
Triodes were eventually replaced by the junction transistor, consisting of p-n-p or n-p-
n semiconductor material. The two n-layers are called the emitter and the collector.
The middle p-layer is called the base. Small variations in the current between emitter
and base results in a proportionally larger current between the emitter and collector
i.e. it amplifies current.
Triode valve and n-p-n transistor:
Grid
Anode Cathode E B C
n p n
_ _ _ _
+ + + +
Small V Larger V
Why did solid state devices replace thermionic devices?

Thermionic Solid State
much larger in size Much smaller- Modern integrated circuits
can have millions of components in a
chip less than 5mm square
Require a large energy source use small amounts of electricity
require time to “warm-up” before Work instantly with no heating required
working
Inefficient- produces waste heat Very efficient (higher operating speed)
with no waste heat
Relatively expensive Cheap to produce
Unreliable- needs constant maintenance Reliable- rarely needs maintenance
Inherently fragile- they require an Simpler construction
evacuated glass tube to work
Robert Lee Chin 41

Summary
Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise

the effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells
The photovoltaic cell consists of a layer of n-type semiconductor on TOP and a layer
of p-type UNDERNEATH
= „holes‟
= free electrons
= n-layer semiconductor
= p-layer semiconductor
Free electrons are the majority charge carrier in the n-layer…
And holes are the majority charge carriers in the p-layer…
Normally, these are considered to have neutral charge. When they are brought
together, free electrons from the n-layer diffuse into the p-layer to fill these holes.
This creates a neutral boundary in the form of an electric field between the two layers.
The top of the p-layer has a net negative charge and the bottom of the n-layer has a
net negative charge.
The electric field allows electrons to flow from p-to n-layer across the boundary and
from n- to p- layer across the external circuit easily. It provides the voltage for the
cell- electrons are forced to move through the external circuit.
Memory Aid:
Across the boundary, electrons move from P to N
- Across P to N (APN)
Through the circuit, electrons move from N to P

-Through N to P (TNP)
Robert Lee Chin 42

Summary
Electrons from the n-layer fill the holes in the p-layer. The top part of the n-layer
becomes positively charged and the top of the p-layer becomes negatively charged:
Electric field creates a neutral

boundary. Electrons can flow
easily from p- to n-layer across
this boundary
When light shines on the metal surface, photons transfer their energy to the electrons
in the n-layer, exciting them into the conduction band. These photoelectrons flow
through the external circuit (a current is formed) towards the +vely charged p-layer.
Photons of light transfer energy to electrons in the n-layer. These photoelectrons

travel towards the p-layer via the external circuit:
Light
Electrons from the neutral boundary flow into the n-layer to fill the holes left by the
photoelectrons:
Current flow
Electron flow
This results in the formation of more holes in the p-layer.
Robert Lee Chin 43

Summary
Electrons from the external circuit flow back to the p-layer to fill these holes, then
into the n-type to replace the photoelectrons:
Current flow
Electron flow
The process is repeated while light is shining on the cell.
Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available
evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with
particular reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors
The transistor was originally invented in 1947 by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley (at
Bell laboratories, America) to replace vacuum tube technology, but it took the
development of the microchip for its full potential to be realised
By the early 1950‟s, the transistor had already begun replacing vacuum tube
technology in electronics such as telephone systems, hearing aids and radios. The
development of the integrated circuit, aka the “silicon chip” (a miniaturised circuit
consisting of millions of transistors built into a silicon “chip”) in 1958 heralded the
beginning of a plethora of electronic devices.
The microprocessor, an integrated circuit that processes data, appeared in the early
1970‟s, setting the stage for cheap, fast computers capable of handling vast amount of
data.
The transistor has made continual changes to the very way society lives such as
communications, travel, business, entertainment and shopping. Think computers,
mobile phones, televisions, radio, calculators, watches, microwaves, ships, planes,
satellites…- the list is endless.
Nations that have embraced technologies braced on transistors have flourished. The
transistor has radically reshaped the world because of low cost, reliability, flexibility
and ability to be mass produced.
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_transistor
http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/transist.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/index.html
Excel HSC: Physics (pg. 120)
Robert Lee Chin 44

Summary
4. Superconductivity
Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure.
X-rays had been recently discovered to have a wavelength about the same size as the
spacing between atoms in crystal structures.
The Braggs used x-ray diffraction to determine crystal structure. X-rays were beamed
at the target material, where they bounced off the planes of the crystal lattice. The
diffraction patterns from the reflected rays were caught on photographic film. The
pattern of dots formed indicates the arrangement of atoms (i.e. angular, spatial
distribution and dimensions).
X-ray Photographic film

Beam sensitive to x-rays
Crystal
Their research provided direct evidence for the specific atomic arrangement in
crystals (which had been postulated by scientists for centuries) as well as a method for
analysing crystal structures which has proved useful in many other areas of science.
For example, it has allowed the analysis of DNA and has led to a ↑ understanding of
metal conductivity, which has been crucial in the development of the transistor and
microchip.
Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure
Crystals are composed of an orderly 3-dimensional arrangement of atoms. Every

crystal structure has a fundamental group of atoms called a unit cell. The two main
types are molecular arrays and infinite arrays. Metallic crystals are a type of infinite
array.
Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by

the lattice.
The free electron model regards metal crystals as a rigid lattice of positive nuclei
surrounded by a mobile „sea‟ of electrons which are free to move under the influence
of an electric field.
Drift velocity
If a potential difference is applied to a metal wire, electrons will move towards the
positive potential. Individual electrons move at enormous speeds ≈ 106m/s but they
are constantly colliding with other electrons and impurity atoms in the lattice.
Robert Lee Chin 45

Summary
There is a general, net movement forwards called the drift velocity ≈ 10-5m/s.
Although the drift velocity is small, the speed of the influence of the current is the
speed of light!
Drift velocity
e-
_ +
Electric field
Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and

scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations
Impurities in the positive nuclei lattice i.e. substitution of smaller or larger ions and
lattice imperfections caused by missing or additional atoms distorts the lattice shape,
hindering the flow of electrons.
Vibrations of the positive nuclei lattice results in ↑ collisions with electrons, scattering
them throughout the lattice. ↑ Temperature of the metal ↑ the vibrations of the lattice.
Thus, there are more collisions with the electrons, causing scattering and ↑ resistance.
The dimensions of the crystal i.e. the thinner the wire, the less electrons can flow, ↑
resistance.
Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature,

of a population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance.
In 1911, Dutch physicist Heike Onnes cools mercury to 4.2K (-278.8C) and finds its
electrical resistance drops to zero. The temperature at which a material becomes
superconductive is the critical temperature; Tc. Superconductivity is dependent on
both Tc and the intensity of the magnetic field.
Superconductors are divided into type I and type II according to how the „Meissner
effect‟ is broken down.
In Type I superconductors, the Meissner effect breaks down abruptly once an applied
magnetic field reaches a critical level i.e. they have only one critical temperature.
Type I superconductors are pure elements (e.g. tin, mercury) with regular lattice
structures. They have low Tc, 0-30K, and require liquid helium as a coolant.
Type II superconductors are distinguished by a gradual breakdown of the Meissner

effect due to an increasing magnetic field. Most are metal alloys or ceramics. Type II
superconductors have a high enough Tc to use liquid nitrogen as a coolant. They can
conduct higher currents than type I, so are suitable for electromagnets in applications
such as MRI‟s and particle accelerators.
Robert Lee Chin 46

Summary
Resistance vs. Temperature for a type I superconductor:
Resistance
Tc
Temperature
Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a

superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it is
superconducting
In 1933, W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconductor below Tc

„expels‟ all magnetic fields from its interior. When a magnet is brought near the
superconductor, its magnetic field induces electric currents near the surface of the
superconductor. These surface currents produce their own magnetic fields which
exactly cancel out any applied magnetic field. No resistance means the magnet is
permanently repelled i.e. magnetic levitation. However, the Meissner effect only
works for small applied magnetic fields- intense magnetic fields do penetrate the
material, destroying superconductivity.
Superconductors are diamagnetic materials- they are attracted towards regions of

weak magnetic field. Ferromagnetic (and paramagnetic) materials are attracted
towards regions of strong magnetic field.
Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and

compounds that have been identified as exhibiting the property of
superconductivity and the critical temperatures
Material Type Critical temperature, Tc (K)

Mercury Metal 4.2
Lead Metal 7.2
Tin Metal 3.7
Aluminium Metal 1.1
Titanium Metal 0.53
Uranium Metal 0.8
Technetium Metal 11.2
Nb3Ge Alloy 23
NbN Alloy 16.0
HgBa2CuO4 Ceramic oxide 98.0
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 Ceramic oxide 135
Robert Lee Chin 47

Summary
Discuss the BCS theory of superconductivity
In a superconductor below its critical temperature, single electrons do not carry

electrical current, but paired electrons do. As an electron passes through the lattice, it
distorts it, causing a slight concentration of positive charge that result in phonons
(“packets” of lattice vibration energy).
Energy from phonons causes the electrons to pair up into “Cooper pairs”. The electron
pairs act a coherent unit and travel through the lattice structure with zero resistance.
They are constantly breaking and reforming but can be considered to be permanently
paired.
Above Tc, thermal vibrations of the lattice break up the cooper pairs faster than they
can form and normal resistance returns.
+ +
“Cooper pair”
+
+ +
Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to their

use
Advantages
The advantages of superconductors are related to their ability to minimise energy
losses due to resistance and allow the generation of intense magnetic fields.
Relatively narrow wires made from superconductor material could carry huge currents
with energy losses due to resistance. There are environmental benefits due to higher
efficiency in all electrical situations (power generation, transmission, distribution,
usage) and less pollution due to emissions from burning of fossil fuels in power
plants.
Superconducting cables would allow renewable energy sources to be built far away
from the population and transported with minimal energy losses. They would also
↓infrastructure costs and interruptions due to ↑power demands in urban areas.
Limitations
Superconductors have a critical current density. The current produces a magnetic field
around the conductor. When this reaches a critical limit, superconductivity ceases.
This limits the current that can flow through a particular superconductor. Critical
Robert Lee Chin 48

Summary
current density is temperature dependent- the lower the temperature below Tc, the
higher the critical current density current.
Superconductors also have a critical magnetic field. When an applied magnetic field
is too strong, superconductivity ceases. This limits their use in levitation applications
e.g. Maglev.
Superconducting metals must be cooled with liquid helium- this is expensive and
helium is a finite resource. Superconducting ceramics can be cooled using liquid
nitrogen but are brittle, difficult to produce and make into wires and can be
chemically unstable.
We lack the technology to insert superconducting cables into existing infrastructure

pathways and pipes.
Process information to discuss the possible applications of superconductivity

and the effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors
and the transmission of electricity through power grids.
Medical Applications
Superconductors are used to generate large magnetic fields for use in MRIs and
SQUIDS. MRI‟s are used as a non-evasive method of early diagnosis of diseases. It is
more detailed than ultrasound and x-rays, providing 3-D images of the body. SQUIDS
(superconducting quantum interference device) held against the head detect tiny
magnetic fields in the brain.
Electrical Power
Superconducting motors and generators could be made one-tenth the weight of
conventional devices with the same power output.
Superconducting transmission lines would ↓ energy losses due to resistance, thus

saving huge amounts of power. Power plants could be built far away from populated
areas with no energy losses.
Superconducting transformers and inductors would ↓ energy losses when stepping

voltages up and down.
AC current is not stationery, so cannot be stored. SMES (Superconducting magnetic

energy storage) devices allow excess energy to be stored or drawn at will. This could
overcome irregular demands for electricity, thus increasing efficiency. It could also
make large-scale solar production viable- environmental savings would be enormous
SMES system consists of large rings of superconductor material where current circles,
without energy loss until needed. The rings are kept below ground, surrounded by a
vacuum tank and a layer of liquid helium.
Robert Lee Chin 49

Summary
SMES device:
Substation
Superconducting coil
Liquid Helium
Vacuum tank
Electronics
The capacity of microprocessors is limited by resistive heating effects. Using
superconductors would ↑ capacity and speed over 250 times.
A Josephson junction consists of a insulating layer sandwiched between two

superconducting wires – it could speed up the processing speed of transistors in
computers significantly. Superconducting films would result in more densely packed
microchips in supercomputers.
Scientific research
Particle accelerators in high-energy physics experiments are dependent on
superconducting magnets.
Industrial Applications
Superconducting magnets are used to remove impurities in food and raw materials
such as clay and slurry. Geophysicists use SQUIDS to measure the magnetism of
rocks.
Robert Lee Chin 50

Summary
Gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the

effect of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a Maglev train
There are two magnetic levitation systems currently operating: one in Germany;
another in Japan. The German system is known as the Transrapid and uses
electromagnetic suspension technology (EMS). The Japanese uses electrodynamics
suspension (EDS).
The magnetic levitation system has the advantages of high-speed (up to 500km/h),
reliability, safety, low noise, minimum maintenance and low environmental impact
(uses electricity).
EMS (Germany) EDS (Japan)

Uses conventional electromagnets Uses superconducting electromagnets on
integrated onto the sides of the train. No the train, cooled using liquid helium.
refrigeration issues
Levitates using attraction (paramagnetic Levitates using repulsion (diamagnetic
basis) of electromagnets and iron rails. basis) of superconducting electromagnets
Works at all speeds. and „figure 8‟ levitation coils on the
guide way. Levitation only works at a
minimum 30km/h
Inherently instable. The distance between Is stable and does not require monitoring.
electromagnets and guide way must be Distance between train and guide way is
constantly monitored (10mm) by about 10cm
computer.
Less intense magnetic fields than EDS People with pacemakers or magnetic
storage data cannot travel on EDS.
Magnetic shielding must be used to
prevent this
Both trains use an onboard linear (AC) motor to provide propulsion. Propulsion coils
on either side of the guide ways that act as electromagnets. The propulsion coils are
magnetised when an AC current passes through them, alternately attracting and
repelling the train. This has the advantage of a minimum number of moving parts.
Recently, EMS utilising high temperature superconductors using liquid nitrogen have
been successfully demonstrated.
*EMS (Germany) uses magnetic ATTRACTION
*EDS (Japan) uses magnetic REPULSION
Robert Lee Chin 51

Summary
Perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation
Investigation: magnetic levitation
Equipment:
-2 bar magnets
-Short piece of transparent plastic tubing, with a diameter slightly larger than the cross
section diameter of the bar magnets
Method:
1/ Place one bar magnet in the tube (either Pole facing upwards):
2/ Place the same pole of the other magnet into the pole i.e. North-North or
South-South Pole:
Results:
The bar magnet on top should be repelled by the lower magnet and will appear to
levitate within the tube.
Robert Lee Chin 52

From Ideas To Implementation

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HSC Physics Module 2: From Ideas to Implementation

From Ideas to Implementation: 1. Cathode Rays

Perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the

Investigation: Discharge Tubes

Discharge tube at 3.0 mm Hg:

Cathode glow The negative

From left to right:

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Magnetic deflection of cathode rays:

End view of CRT:

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Perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify properties of cathode

Investigation: The properties of cathode rays in discharge tubes

Aim: To perform an investigation to demonstrate and identify the properties of

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Cathode Cathode ray Anode

Glass runners on very slight

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2/ Turn on the electricity. Observe what happens to the fluorescent screen.

2/ Turn on the electricity. Observe what happens to the cathode ray.

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Discharge tube type Observation Property of cathode ray

Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused

Early CR experiments provided inconsistent evidence as to the nature of CR‟s,

A timeline of the events leading to the modern CRT is outlined below:

1860- C F Varley suggests that cathode rays are composed of particles

Robert Lee Chin 7

Can penetrate thin metal foil

Identify that charged plates produce an electric field

An electric field exists in ANY region in which an electrically charged object

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Fields around point charges:

+ve point charge

The strength of the electric field

-ve point charge

The strength of the electric field

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Attraction of –ve point charge Attraction of +ve point charge

Field lines between a capacitor

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Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a

F magnetic force,in newtons

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In a Thompson-type experiment, FMagnetic FElectric i.e. qvB qE .

1) In a vacuum tube an electron with a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 c travelling at 1.0 x

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The change in velcoity is all directed vertically towardsthe ve plate :

Because the inital vertical velocity was zero, vv 8900ms 1

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Therefore, the electron will hit the screen a distance of:

2) A thin solid conductor with sides PQRS is moving at constant velocity v,

Which side of the conductor has the greatest concentration of electrons?

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Outline Thomson's experiment to

Anode with slits to

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Thompson equated the centripetal force and magnetic force…

Velocity of cathode ray

Thompson’s apparatus to determine electron q/m ratio:

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Outline the role of:

There are two main types of cathode ray tubes (CRT‟s):