Experiment 1: Errors, Uncertainties, and Measurements

Laboratory Report

Robin Ang, Pamela de Leon, Manette Dejelo, Margaret Liwanag

Department of Sports Science

College of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Santo Tomas
España Street, Manila Philippines

Abstract the dispersion of the values attributed to a

All measurements of quantities that
can assume a continuous range of values
consist of two parts: the reported value
itself and the uncertainty of the
measurement.
Measurements are subject to error
which leads to the uncertainty of the result.
Error does not only mean just outright
mistakes. Gross errors sometimes happen
and usually yield results that are sufficiently
unexpected.
Accuracy is the goal we aim for in
scientific measurements.
1. Introduction
The purpose of measurement is to
provide information about a quantity. No
measurement is exact. When a quantity is
measured, the result depends on the
measuring system, the measurement
procedure, the skill of the person, and the
environment.
measured quantity (Webster). The
uncertainty shows the incomplete
knowledge of the quantity. All
measurements are subjected to uncertainty,
and a measured value is only complete if it
is associated by a statement of the
uncertainty given. The measuring system
may provide measured values that are not
far from the true value.
There are two types of measurement
error, systematic and random. A systematic
error is a component of error that remains
constant or depends in a specific manner on
some other quantity. Readings will
consistently be either too high or too low,
thus, repeated trials will not reduce
systematic error. On the other hand, a
random error is associated with the fact
that when a measurement is repeated, it will
provide a different value. It is random since
the next measured value cannot be predicted
from the previous values. The effect of
random error can be reduced through
repeated experimental trials, since there is
an equal probability of them being high or
low each time a reading is taken.

Measurement uncertainty is a non-

negative parameter characterizing
 Accuracy refers to how closely the
measured value of a quantity corresponds to
its true value. Precision expresses the
degree of reproducibility, or arrangement
between repeated measurements.
In this experiment, the group should
be able to achieve the following objectives:
(1) to study errors and how they propagate
in simple experiment, (2) to determine the
average deviation of a set of experimental
values, (3) to determine the mean of a set of
experimental values as well as set of average
deviation of the mean, (4) to familiarize the
students with the vernier caliper, micrometer
caliper, and foot rule, (5) to compare the
accuracy of these measuring devices, (6) and
to determine the density of an object given
its mass and dimensions.
2. Theory
Significant figures are very essential
in Science. Each recorded measurement has
a certain number of significant digits.
Calculations done on these measurements
must follow the rules for significant digits.
The significance of a digit has to do with
whether it represents a true measurement or
not. Any digit that is actually measured or
estimated will be considered significant.
Placeholders, or digits that have not been
measured are not considered significant.
There are rules in determining the
significance of a digit. First, digits from 1-9
are always significant. Second, zeroes
between two other significant digits are
always significant. Also, one or more
additional zeroes to the right of both the
decimal place and another significant digit
are significant. Lastly, zeroes used solely for
spacing the decimal point are not significant.
In propagation of errors, when
measuring some quantities, it is evident that
somehow it is recorded with uncertainties.
In calculating the uncertainty, it must
propagate to the uncertainty of the value.
Assume we measure two values A and B,
using some apparatus. We know these
values are uncertain. By physical reasoning,
testing, repeated measurements, or
manufacturer’s specifications, we estimate
the magnitude of their uncertainties. u{A} is
the absolute error in A, and u{B} is the
absolute error in B. The relative errors are
u{A}/A and u{B}/B.
Least count of any precision
instrument is defined as the least distance
travelled by it. For a micrometer it is
measured in the following manner. Least
count (L.C) of a screw gauge = Pitch/
Number of circular scale division. Pitch and
Number of circular scale divisions are the
two factors determining the least count of
Micrometer.
The Vernier principle is the
measurement of a continuous variable,
example a length, results in a decimal
fraction.   Some digits are read off the
labeling of the scale, but the last fractional
digit must be estimated. The main scale
divides the unit interval in ten equal parts,
the vernier scale uses a division into nine
parts or a multiple thereof. Both scales
together will give us a tenfold increase in
resolution.
 An ordinary vernier caliper has
jaws you can place around an object, and on
the other side jaws made to fit inside an
object. These secondary jaws are for
measuring the inside diameter of an object.
Also, a stiff bar extends from the caliper as
you open it that can be used to measure
depth. Preparation to take the measurement,
loosen the locking screw and move the
slider to check if the vernier scale works
properly. Before measuring, do make sure
the caliper reads 0 when fully closed. If the
reading is not 0, adjust the caliper’s jaws
until you get a 0 reading. If you can’t adjust
the caliper, you will have to remember to
add to subtract the correct offset from your
final reading. Clean the measuring surfaces
of vernier caliper and the object, then you
can take the measurement.
Close the jaws lightly on the item
which you want to measure. If you are
measuring something round, be sure the axis
of the part is perpendicular to the caliper.
Namely, make sure you are measuring the
full diameter. An ordinary caliper has jaws
you can place around an object, and on the
other side jaws made to fit inside an object.
These secondary jaws are for measuring the
inside diameter of an object. Also, a stiff bar
extends from the caliper as you open it that
can be used to measure depth.
In reading the measured value, read
the centimeter mark on the fixed scale to the
left of the 0-mark on the vernier scale. Then
find the millimeter mark on the fixed scale
that is just to the left of the 0-mark on the
vernier scale. Look along the ten marks on
the vernier scale and the millimeter marks
on the adjacent fixed scale, until you find
the two that most nearly line up. To get the
correct reading, simply add this found digit
to your previous reading.
3. Methodology
In measuring the diameter of the
sphere provided, the group was given three
measuring devices. The Vernier caliper was
used as an extremely precise measuring
instrument. Also, the Micrometer caliper
was used to measure thickness very
accurately, and the Foot rule was used as a
rigid measure one foot in length.
To determine the average deviation
and mean of a set of experimental values as
well as the diameter of the sphere, the group
was given the three measuring tools to study
the measurement and its errors. First, the
group determined the least count of the
vernier caliper, micrometer caliper and the
foot rule then we made ten measurements
for the diameter of the sphere using the foot
rule. After completing the ten
measurements, the group then calculated the
mean diameter of the sphere by adding all
the independent measurements and divided
it to 10. Next, the group calculated the
deviation (d) of each measurement of
diameter from the mean diameter. After
getting the deviation of each measurement,
the group calculated for the average
deviation (a.d.). The average deviation is the
sum of the deviations (d) divided by the
number (n) of observations.
Σd
a . d .=
n
After getting the average deviation
(a.d.) the group then computed for the
average deviation of the mean diameter
(A.D.) having the equation: Table 1. Diameter of Sphere using the Foot Rule

Trial Foot Rule

a .d .
A . D.= 1 1.800 cm 0.050 cm
√n
2 1.700 cm 0.050 cm

Having the results for the average 3 1.800 cm 0.750 cm

4 1.900 cm 0.150 cm
deviation of the mean diameter, the group
5 1.850 cm 0.100 cm
computed for the % error making A.D. as
6 1.700 cm 0.050 cm
the error and the mean diameter as the 7 1.750 cm 0.000 cm
standard value. 8 1.750 cm 0.000 cm
9 1.600 cm 0.150 cm
|accepted value−experimental value| x 100 10 1.650 cm 0.100 cm
% error=
accepted value Mean Diam. 1.750 cm
a.d. 0.140 cm
Next step is that the group computed A.D. 0.044 cm
for the volume of the sphere; r is the mean Vol. 3.207 cm3
radius. Mass 27.93 g
Exp. Val. 8.709 g/cm3
4 Acc. Val. 7.860 g/cm3
V = πr 3
3 % Error 10.802 %

The sphere was weighed using the Table 2. Diameter of Sphere using a Vernier Caliper
electronic gram balance and the density of
Trial Vernier Caliper
the sphere was calculated using the values 1 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
we obtained in computing the volume of the 2 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
sphere and its mean radius. Our mean radius 3 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
is 0.875 cm. 4 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
5 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
mean diameter 6 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
mean radius=
2 7 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
8 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
9 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
10 1.900 cm 0.000 cm
4. Results and Discussion Mean Diam. 1.900 cm
a.d. 0.000 cm
Tables 1, 2, and 3 show the diameter A.D. 0.000 cm
of a sphere in centimeters, using a foot rule, Vol. 3.780 cm3
Mass 27.93 g
vernier caliper, and a micrometer caliper. Exp. Val. 7.389 g/cm3
Ten trials were made in order to get the Acc. Val. 7.860 g/cm3
% Error 5.992 %
precise measurements of the sphere using Table 3. Diameter of Sphere using a Micrometer
Caliper
the different instruments.
Trial Micrometer Caliper
 1 1.841 cm 0.028 cm Table 4 shows the width of the
2 1.925 cm 0.056 cm thumb of the four group members in inches
3 1.815 cm 0.054 cm using a foot rule.
4 1.805 cm 0.064 cm
5 1.800 cm 0.069 cm
Table 4. Width of thumb (in)
6 1.905 cm 0.036 cm
7 1.901 cm 0.032 cm Member 1 2 3 4
8 1.900 cm 0.031 cm Width of
13/16 in 11/16 in 11/16 in 12/16 in
9 1.900 cm 0.031 cm thumb (in)
10 1.902 cm 0.033 cm
Mean Diam. 1.869 cm Member 1 has the widest thumb in
a.d. 0.043 cm the group, followed by member 4, and then
A.D. 0.014 cm members 2 and 3.
Vol. 3.654 cm3
Mass 27.93 g
Exp. Val. 7.644 g/cm3 5. Conclusion
Acc. Val. 7.860 g/cm3
% Error 2.748 %
Random error is always present in
measurement and it refers to the statistical
The instruments used gave precise
fluctuations in the measured data due to the
measurements, but not exact measurements.
precision limitations of the measurement
Precision evokes how close the
device while systematic errors are caused by
measurements are to each other. Accuracy
the imperfect calibration of measurement
shows how close the measurements are to
instruments or imperfect methods of
the true value.
observation, or interference of the
environment with the measurement process,
The instrument with the least percent
and always affect the results of an
error is the micrometer caliper. It has the
experiment in a predictable direction.
most precise and accurate values in
comparison with the accepted value. The
Using the foot rule, vernier caliper
micrometer caliper happens to measure
and micrometer caliper, respectively, the
0.001 cm. The vernier caliper and the foot
researchers got an average deviation of
rule were precise measurements. The vernier
0.140cm, 0.000cm and 0.043cm.
caliper measures 0.005 cm.
After 10 trials of measuring the
The probable sources of % error may
metal sphere using the foot rule, vernier
be the uncalibrated instruments used or the
caliper and micrometer caliper, the
consistent misreading of an instrument, the
researchers got the mean of 1.750cm,
measurement procedure, the environment, or
1.900cm and 1.869cm respectively; and the
the person himself.
average of the mean were 0.44cm, 0.000cm
and .014cm respectively.
 From comparing the results of the
experimental measurements done with the
sample metal sphere using the foot rule,
vernier caliper and micrometer caliper, it
can be concluded that the micrometer gives
the least % error for density having only
2.748% error.
The density of the sample metal
sphere given was 8.709g/m3 using the foot
rule and 7.389g/m3 using the vernier caliper
while using the micrometer caliper it was
7.644g/cm3.
6. Applications
1) Which among the three measuring
devices give you the least % error? Is
the accuracy of a measurement
affected by the least count of the
measuring device?
Among the three measuring devices used,
the micrometer caliper gave the least percent
error. Upon calculation it only showed
2.748% error compared the foot rule that
gave 10.802% and the vernier caliper giving
5.992%. All measuring equipments have a
least count which is the smallest quantity
that can be measured accurately using that
instrument. The least count indicates the
degree of accuracy of measurement that can
be achieved by the measuring instrument.
Thus, the least count of an instrument is
indirectly proportional to the accuracy of the
instrument.
2) What do you mean by error? What
are the types of errors? What are the
errors you encountered in this
experiment?
An error is a deviation from accuracy or
correctness and from standard or accepted
value. Measurement errors may be classified
as either random or systematic, depending
on how the measurement was obtained.
Random error is always present in
measurements. It is the statistical
fluctuations in the measured data due to the
precision limitations of the measurement
device. Systematic errors are caused by
imperfect calibration of measurement
instruments or imperfect methods of
observation, or interference of the
environment with the measurement process,
and always affect the results of an
experiment in a predictable direction.
One does not always get the same result in
making a series of measurements. This one
is unavoidable because there will always be
some uncertainty in the measurements and
there is no perfect measurement. This is an
example of random error the group
encountered in the experiment. Another
error encountered is the inadequate
calibration of the vernier caliper and
micrometer caliper which resulted to a
systematic error.
3) Sketch a) vernier caliper that reads without this data. Which results will
5.08cm b) a micrometer caliper that you prefer?
reads 2.55mm.  The group consisting of 5 students
4) A student weigh himself using a obtaining the results : 14.34g, 14.32g,
bathroom scale calibrated in 14.33g,14.30g and 14.23g
kilograms. He reported his weight in
pounds. What are the percentage Mean: (14.34g + 14.32g + 14.33g + 14.30g
errors in his reported weight if he uses + 14.23g)/5
this conversion: 1kg – 2.2 pounds ? = 14.314 g
The standard kilogram is equal to
2.2046 pounds. Average Deviation (ad):
14.34g - 0.026 cm
Suppose the student weighed 65 kg. With 14.33g - 0.016 cm
his reported weight using the conversion 1 14.32g - 0.006 cm
kg=2.2 lbs, he weighed 143 lbs. But with the 14.30g - 0.014 cm
standard kilogram equal to 2.2046 pounds, 14.23g - 0.034 cm
his weight would be 143.2990000 lbs.
Hence, in calculation of percentage error =(0.026cm + 0.016cm + 0.006cm + 0.014
given the formula, cm + 0.034 cm)/5

% error=|accepted value-experimental value|x100 =0.019 cm

Accepted value
Average Deviation of the Mean (A.D.):
% error=|143.2990000 lbs -143 lbs |x100
a .d .
143.2990000 lbs A . D.=
√n
% error= 0.2086546 0.19
¿
√5
Hence, the 0.209% is the percent error.
=0.004 cm

5) In an experiment on determination of  Ommitting 14.23

mass of a sample, your group
consisting of 5 students obtained the Mean: (14.34g + 14.32g + 14.33g + 14.30g)/4
following results: 14.34g, 14.32g, = 14.323 g
14.33g,14.30g and 14.23g. Find the
mean, a.d. and A.D. Suppose that your Average Deviation (ad):
group is required to make only four 14.34g - 0.017 cm
determinations for the mass of the 14.33g - 0.007 cm
sample. If you are the leader of the 14.32g - 0.023 cm
group, which data will you omit? 14.30g - 0.043 cm
Recalculate the mean, a.d. and A.D.
0.017 cm+0.007 cm+0.023 cm+0.043 cm
4
=0.023 cm
Average Deviation of the Mean (A.D. :

a .d .
A . D.=
√n

=0.023 cm
√4

=0.016 cm

*The preferred result is the second one it has

more precise values.

7. References

[1] Dealing with error and

uncertainty in measured values.
Retrieved on November 25, 2010
from
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext
/pre/mm2.html

[2] Melissinos and Napolitano. 2003.

Experiments in modern physics.
Academic Press, USA: Elsevier
Science.

[3] Tsokos. Physics for the IB

DIPLOMA. Cambridge: University
Press.