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TABLE OF CONTENT
1) Chapter 1
2) Chapter 2
First Swing
Stability……………………………………………………………………………………..
…................14
3) Chapter 3
Using SVC-----------------------------------------------------------------------------30
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………35
References……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………36
CHAPTER 1
&
Stability
INTRODUCTION
The first electric power system was a dc system built by Edison in 1882. The
subsequent power systems that were constructed in the late 19th century were all
dc systems. However despite the initial popularity of dc systems by the turn of
the 20th century ac systems started to outnumber them. The ac systems were
thought to be superior as ac machines were cheaper than their dc counterparts
and more importantly ac voltages are easily transformable from one level to
other using transformers. The early stability problems of ac systems were
experienced in 1920 when insufficient damping caused spontaneous oscillations
or hunting. These problems were solved using generator damper winding and
the use of turbine-type prime movers.
The stability of a system refers to the ability of a system to return back to its
steady state when subjected to a disturbance. As mentioned before, power is
generated by synchronous generators that operate in synchronism with the rest
of the system. A generator is synchronized with a bus when both of them have
same frequency, voltage and phase sequence. We can thus define the power
system stability as the ability of the power system to return to steady state
without losing synchronism.
2) Frequency Stability
3) Voltage Stability
In this chapter we shall discuss the transient stability aspect of a power system.
2) Transient stability
1) Steady state stability: The steady state stability is the ability of a system to
bring it to a stable condition after a small disturbance. The study of a steady
state stability is basically concerned with the effect of gradual infinitesimal
power changes.
Stability limits:
The stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred in a network
between sources and loads without loss of synchronism.
1) Steady state limit: The steady state limit is the maximum power that can
be transformed without the system becoming unstable when the load is
increased gradually under steady state conditions.
The system experiences a shock by sudden and large power changes and violent
fluctuations of voltage occur. Consequently, individual machines or group of
machines may go out of step. The rapidity of the application of a large
disturbances is responsible for the loss of stability, it may be possible to
maintain stability if the same large load is applied gradually. Thus the transient
stability limit is lower than the steady state limit.
NOTE:- First Swing Stability is also known as Rotor Angle Stability and
Electromechanical Oscillations
The expression for the active power transferred to the system is given by
Where:
X = Xd + Xl
X ―› transfer reactance
Xd ―› synchronous / transient reactance of the machine
Xl ―› reactance of the transmission line
Power – Angle curve: The graphical representation of power Pe and the load
angle δ is called the power angle diagram or power-angle curve.
Transient Stability:
(b) The machine has cylindrical rotor. The direct-axis reactance (Xd) is equal
to the quadrature -axis reactance (Xq).
(e) Direct axis transient reactance (Xd) is used for machine representation.
(f) The shaft input power may be assumed constant for few seconds after
occurrence of a disturbance. This assumption may be valid on the
grounds that the mechanical system involving governors, steam valves
etc. are relatively sluggish in operation as compared to rapidly changing
electrical quantities. With fast acting valves the assumption of constant
input will not be true.
If losses are neglected the difference between the shaft torque and the
electromagnetic torque is equal to the accelerating or decelerating torque.
Ts – Te = Ta
For a generator:
For a motor:
The equation establishing the relationship between the accelerating power and
angular acceleration is called swing equation. It is a non-linear differential
equation of the second order.
M = Ps – Pe = Pa
M = Jω
θ = ωst + δ
Where
Pa → accelerating power
θ → angular position of the rotor with respect to reference axis at any instant t
Swing Curve:
For a R-L type transmission line the time constant (τ) is given by the
ratio of L and R.
τ=
Damping Ratio = =
Now we know that for the quick damped out oscillations the damping ratio
should be high (it means time constant should be less). So to make the damping
ratio high we can make two things
2) Or we can decrease the value of inductance (L) during only the fault
condition.
The real power transmitted over a lossless line is given by (9.4). Now consider
the situation in which the synchronous machine is operating in steady state
delivering a power Pe equal to Pm when there is a fault occurs in the system.
Opening up of the circuit breakers in the faulted section subsequently clears the
fault. The circuit breakers take about 5/6 cycles to open and the subsequent
post-fault transient last for another few cycles. The input power, on the other
hand, is supplied by a prime mover that is usually driven by a steam turbine.
The time constant of the turbine mass system is of the order of few seconds,
while the electrical system time constant is in milliseconds. Therefore, for all
practical purpose, the mechanical power is remains constant during this period
when the electrical transients occur. The transient stability study therefore
concentrates on the ability of the power system to recover from the fault and
deliver the constant power Pm with a possible new load angle δ .
Consider the power angle curve shown in Fig. 9.3. Suppose the system of Fig.
9.1 is operating in the steady state delivering a power of Pm at an angle of δ0
when due to malfunction of the line, circuit breakers open reducing the real
power transferred to zero. Since Pm remains constant, the accelerating power Pa
becomes equal to Pm . The difference in the power gives rise to the rate of
change of stored kinetic energy in the rotor masses. Thus the rotor will
accelerate under the constant influence of non-zero accelerating power and
hence the load angle will increase. Now suppose the circuit breaker re-closes at
an angle δc. The power will then revert back to the normal operating curve. At
that point, the electrical power will be more than the mechanical power and the
accelerating power will be negative. This will cause the machine decelerate.
However, due to the inertia of the rotor masses, the load angle will still keep on
increasing. The increase in this angle may eventually stop and the rotor may
start decelerating, otherwise the system will lose synchronism.
Note that
Now consider the case when the line is reclosed at δc such that the area of
acceleration is larger than the area of deceleration, i.e., A1 > A2 . The
generator load angle will then cross the point δm , beyond which the
electrical power will be less than the mechanical power forcing the
accelerating power to be positive. The generator will therefore start
accelerating before is slows down completely and will eventually become
unstable. If, on the other hand, A1 < A2 , i.e., the decelerating area is larger
than the accelerating area, the machine will decelerate completely before
accelerating again. The rotor inertia will force the subsequent acceleration
and deceleration areas to be smaller than the first ones and the machine
will eventually attain the steady state. If the two areas are equal, i.e., A1 =
A2 , then the accelerating area is equal to decelerating area and this is
defines the boundary of the stability limit. The clearing angle δc
for this mode is called the Critical Clearing Angle and is denoted by δcr. We
then get from Fig.3 by substituting δc = δcr
Since the critical clearing angle depends on the equality of the areas, this is
called the equal area criterion.
Example 9.3:
Consider the system of Example 9.1. Let us assume that the system is operating with
Pm = Pe = 0.9 per unit when a circuit breaker opens inadvertently isolating the generator
from the infinite bus. During this period the real power transferred becomes zero. From
Example 9.1 we have calculated δ0 = 23.96 ° = 0.4182 rad and the maximum power
transferred as
per unit
From (9.15) the accelerating area is computed as by note that Pe = 0 during this time.
This is then given by
To calculate the decelerating area we note that δm = π - 0.4182 = 2.7234 rad. This area
is computed by noting that Pe = 2.2164 sin(δ ) during this time. Therefore
CHAPTER 2
against catastrophic outages. The transmission networks are now under more
stress than ever before to avoid the capital cost involved in reinforcement and
environmental objections. These trends have resulted in the need to operate a
system closer to the stability limits, and thus the system becomes more
vulnerable to disturbances. Power utilities increasingly face the threat of
transient and dynamic stability problems. Utility engineers perform a huge
number of off-line transient stability simulations to determine the operating
security limits. These limits are then used in the energy management system at
the control centre for on-line dynamic security monitoring.
Definition:
A power system is said to be first-swing stable if the post-halt angle, in the
centre of inertia (COI) reference frame, of all severely disturbed machines
(SDM) initially increases (or decreases) until a peak value is reached where the
angle starts returning to the stable equilibrium point. Existence of peak angle,
and hence zero speed, of all SDMs guarantees the first swing stability of the
system. On the other hand, the system is considered to be first swing unstable if
the post-fault angle of at least one of the machines in the system increases (or
decreases) monotonically and eventually becomes unbounded (exceeds 180" in
the CO1 reference frame). The first swing stability of a machine can also be
checked by observing the variation of machine speed and accelerating
power Pa in the post-fault period. A stable machine reaches the peak angle (or
zero speed) in the post-fault period while its accelerating power, and hence
acceleration, is still negative:
Note that the accelerating power Pa and acceleration have the same sign and
they are related through the machine inertia constant. A machine is considered
to be unstable if its angle continues to increase ( > 0) when its accelerating
power changes sign (or crosses the
Zero value):
It may be mentioned here that the above criteria are valid for a machine that has
a tendency to run out of step by acceleration. For a decelerating machine, the
above criteria are to be modified by adding a negative sign to the left-hand side
of eqns by comparing the criterion for the stable and critical situations, the
negated machine accelerating power at zero speed may be considered as an
index for the degree of stability of the machine. Similarly, by comparing the
criterion for the unstable and critical situations, the machine speed at zero
accelerating power may be considered as an index for the degree of instability
of the machine. Thus determination of the degree of stability/ instability of a
machine requires the machine speeds and accelerating powers in the post-fault
period.
Therefore, when the fault is cleared (after roughly 0.1 s) the power system has
to be restored to sufficiently small angle deviations between the generator rotors
again. After the first swing we require damping of the oscillations.
Rotor Angle Stability
(Electromechanical Oscillations)
In the second phase the unbalance between mechanical input and electrical
output of each generator are causing a change of generator mechanical speed.
The individual rate of change in speed is decided by the power deviation and the
rotor inertia. When generators are changing speed with different rates will the
rotor angles of each generator start to deviate from the predisturbance value.
This causes a change in power flows in the grid causing further imbalance for
each generator.
In the third phase protection and control are coming into play. Any faults are
disconnected - usually after a short time delay (associated with the problems of
breaking high currents). The fault disconnection causes a new transient.
Controls are trying to restore the grid to steady state conditions again. They
operate with different speeds depending on what they control. The voltage
regulators tries to restore voltage and turbine governors adjust mechanical input
to generators so we return to balance between consumption and production
again.
These transitions are oscillatory in its nature and very lightly damped. The
phenomenon is usually called Rotor Angle Stability or Electromechanical
Power Oscillations. Of particular interest is the so-called first swing stability,
which indicates that the generators do not swing too far from each other on the
1st-oscillation.
Rotor angle oscillations can also arise in the grid without any obvious reason.
High power flows over weak transmission lines, fast and powerful voltage
regulators and other types of controls may cause standing oscillations in the
grid. Close located generators tend to attach to each other and the system can
end up with machine groups oscillating towards each other with very low
frequency (down to 0.1-0.2 Hz). The tie lines can then become heavily loaded if
many generators oscillate towards another group.
capacity and as a second option try to inject or extract active power into or out
from the electrical grid that oscillates.
The procedure for determining the SM for various faults clearing times (both for
stable and unstable situations) is described in the following sections.
Stable situation
Fig. 5 shows the variation of machine angle and speed for a stable situation. It
can be noticed in the Figure that the machine angle δ increases in the early part
of the post-fault period until it reaches the peak value δp, at time tp. While the
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY HAMIRPUR (H.P.) Page 19
First Swing Stability
machine speed ω decreases in the post-fault period and crosses the zero value
(or changes sign) at the same time tp because ω is the time derivative of δ .
Existence of peak angle or zero speed guarantees the first swing stability of the
machine.
The well known 'equal area criterion' of the system is shown in Fig. 6. The locus
of the power angle curve, from 0 to t,,, is
Here δ0 and δc are the pre-fault and fault clearing angles, respectively. The
stability criterion A, = A, is satisfied when the locus reaches the point c. At c (in
Fig. 3), the machine angle reaches the peak value δp and the corresponding time
is tu (in Fig. 2). The intercept cd (in Fig. 3) represents the decelerating power
(or negative accelerating power) of the machine at tp. The decelerating power at
zero speed pushes the machine towards the post fault stable equilibrium point δs
As described in Section 2, the decelerating power or intercept cd may be
considered as the degree of stability of the machine. Thus the SM of the
machine is:
When tcl , l (and hence: δcl )increases, a,, approaches to the unstable
equilibrium point δu, and the SM (or intercept,ea') decreases. When tcl = tcr, δp
coincides with δu, and the SM becomes zero. If tcl<<tcrthe peak angle δp may
occur before reaching the maximum decelerating power point (intercept xy at
δ=180/2 in Fig. 6). In this case, the system is considered as 'too stable' and the
SM is not determined from eqn. 8 because it may provide a wrong
apprehension. That is the SM may increase with the increase of tcl.
Unstable situation
When the machine speed may increase even in the early part
of the post-fault period as shown in Fig. 4 for tcl = tb ( = 0.32s). In this case, the
zero accelerating power point is crossed before the fault clearing time and the
system is considered as 'too unstable'. For such a situation, the minimum speed
in the post-fault period is the same as the speed at fault clearing time and the
corresponding IM can be considered as
Multimachine Stability
• Oscillations in s Two Area System
result in the breaking of one more additional string, resulting in a chain reaction
in which more strings may break forcing a system collapse. In a similar way, in
an interconnected electric power network, the tripping of a transmission line
may cause a catastrophic failure in which a large number of generators are lost
forcing a blackout in a large area.
Fig. 8
Modern power systems are interconnected and operate close to their transient
and steady state stability limits. In large interconnected systems, it is common to
find a natural response of a group of closely coupled machines oscillating
against other groups of machines. These oscillations have a frequency range of
0.1 Hz to 0.8 Hz. The lowest frequency mode involves all generators of the
system. This oscillation groups the system into two parts - with generators in
one part oscillating against those of the the other part. The higher frequency
modes are usually localized with small groups oscillating against each other.
Unfortunately, the inter-area oscillation can be initiated by a small disturbance
in any part of the system. These small frequency oscillations fall under the
category of dynamic stability and are analysed in linear domain through the
liberalisation of the entire interconnected systems model.
Consider the simple power system shown in Fig. 9 in which two machines are
operating. Let us assume that starting with the initial angles δ1 and δ2 with
respect to some reference at nominal frequency, machine 1 accelerates while
machine 2 decelerates from this nominal frequency. We then have
(9.1)
(9.2)
Where δ12 = δ1 - δ2 .
Now since the system is lossless, (9.2) will also imply that Pm1 = - Pm2 . This
means that in the steady state, the power generated at machine 1 is absorbed
through machine 2. Combining (9.1) and (9.2) we get
………………(9.3)
(9.4)
(9.5)
Thus the overall acceleration of the machine group will depend on the overall
balance between power generated and consumed. Usually there are governors
on the generators to reduce generated power if the system frequency increases.
CHAPTER 3
Improvement of FSS
using
FACTS Devices
The ideal shunt compensator is an ideal current source. We call this an ideal
shunt compensator because we assume that it only supplies reactive power and
no real power to the system. It is needless to say that this assumption is not
valid for practical systems. However, for an introduction, the assumption is
more than adequate. We shall investigate the behavior of the compensator when
connected in the middle of a transmission line. This is shown in Fig. 10.1,
where the shunt compensator, represented by an ideal current source, is placed
in the middle of a lossless transmission line. We shall demonstrate that such a
configuration improves the four points that are mentioned above.
Fig. 11 (a) is for an uncompensated system (b) for the compensated system.
Both these curves are drawn assuming that the base power is V2/X . Let us
assume that the uncompensated system is operating on steady state delivering
an electrical power equal to Pm with a load angle of δ0 when a three-phase fault
occurs that forces the real power to zero. To obtain the critical clearing angle for
the uncompensated system is δcr , we equate the accelerating area A1 with the
10.11
Let us now consider that the midpoint shunt compensated system is working
with the same mechanical power input Pm. The operating angle in this case is δ1
and the maximum power that can be transferred in this case is 2 per unit. Let the
fault be cleared at the same clearing angle δcr as before. Then equating areas A3
and A4 in Fig. 10.6 (b) we get δ2, where
by injecting (or absorbing) reactive power, they are also capable of improving
the transient stability and damping of a power system. The stability or
damping can be improved by increasing (decreasing) the power transfer
capability when the machine angle increases (decreases) and this can be
achieved by operating the shunt FACTS devices in capacitive (inductive)
mode
Continuous and discontinuous types of control are very commonly used for
shunt FACTS devices to improve the transient stability and damping of a
power system. The continuous control may not utilize the full capability of the
device. On the other hand, the discontinuous control operates the device at its
full rating to provide the maximum benefit. The continuous control is found to
be very effective in improving the dynamic stability problem caused by small
disturbances. However, to improve the transient stability, much larger control
action is needed and it is suggested that the discontinuous control (also called
bang-bang control, or BBC) should be used for this purpose. In BBC, the mode
of operation of the device is changed (from full capacitive to full inductive or
vice versa) at some discrete points. Usually the machine speed signal is used to
change the mode of operation, but any signal that is dynamically related to
machine speed can also be used. References used some locally measured
signals to estimate the ma- chine angle and speed of a simple radial system.
However, the same techniques may not be applied to a general multi-machine
system.
The BBC maximizes the power transfer capability or decelerating area by
operating the shunt FACTS devices at full capacitive rating. However, it is
found in this study that, the speed based BBC is unable to utilize the entire
decelerating area in improving the first swing stability limit. In fact, the use of
last portion of decelerating area causes chattering action and that may
eventually lead to instability. Such a situation occurs when the fault clearing
time tc approaches the actual critical clearing time tcr .
Fig.10.A SMIB system with a shunt FACTS device: (a )single line diagram
A. SVC
A SVC can be modelled by a variable shunt susceptance BSVC as shown in Fig.
11(a) . For a given BSVC , the transfer reactance X12 in Fig. 11(b) can be written
as
The power-angle curve of the system with a SVC is shown in Fig. 12(a). When
a fault occurs, Pe suddenly decreases from point a to b point and thus the
machine starts accelerating along b-c where both ω and Pa are positive. At
fault clearing, Pe suddenly increases and the area a-b-c-d-a represents the
accelerating area Aa
If the SVC operates in capacitive mode (at fault clearing), Pe increases to point
e where ω>0 and Pa<0. Thus the machine starts decelerating but its angle
continues increasing along e-f until reaches a maximum value δm at point f ,
for a stable situation. The area represents the decelerating area e-f-g-d-e
and it must be the same as Aa. The unused decelerating area f-h-g-f is a
measure of stability margin (SM). Note that both and SM can be increased by
raising the power curve as much as possible and which can be
achieved by operating the SVC at its full capacitive rating.
Fig.12.P- δ curves for various operating conditions of SVC: (a) areas when the
angle increases and (b) areas when the angle decreases.
-------------1
-------------2
-------------3
The P- δ curve of the system with a STATCOM is shown in Fig. 14. For
capacitive mode of operation(ISTAT>0) , the P- δ curve is not only raised but also
shifted toward right (see Fig. 13) and that provides more decelerating area and
hence higher stability limit. Similar to SVC, the control strategy of STATCOM
that maximizes the rst swing stability limit and improves damping in subsequent
swings can be considered as:
Conclusion
When the fault is cleared (after roughly 0.1 s) the power system
has to be restored to sufficiently small angle deviations between
the generator rotors again. After the first swing we require
damping of the oscillations.
In the first phase, the electrical properties are very quickly
adjusting to the new situation.
Refrences
1. J.J. Ford, G. Ledwi ch, Z.Y. Dong: Efficient and robust model predictive
control for first swing transient stability of power systems using flexible
AC transmission systems devices). IEEE 26th September 2007.
4. M.H. Haque: ‘Novel method of finding the first swing stability margin of
a power system from time domain simulation’, IEE Pvoc.-Genev.
Transm. Distrib., Vol. 143, No. 5, Septembev 1996.