Table of Contents

1.Introduction

2. Literature survey

3.Formation of the Problem

4.System specification

5.Design of solution

6.Implementation

7.Results and Discussions

8.System testing

9.Conclusion and future scope

10.References
INTELLIGENT AMBULANCE FOR CITY TRAFFIC AND GSM TO SENT THE
STATUS OF THE PATIENT TO THE HOSPITAL
ABSTRACT:
The main aim of this project is develop an intelligent ambulance which will reach the hospitals
without any problem in heavy traffics.
INTRODUCTION:
This particular project is designed for the cities with heavy traffic. Eg: In Bangalore the roads are
full jammed every time. Most of the time the traffic will at least for 100meters .In this distance
the traffics police can’t hear the siren form the ambulance .so he ignores this .Then the
ambulance has to wait till the traffic is left. Some times to leave the traffic it takes at least 30
minutes .So by this time anything can happen to the patient .So this project avoid these
disadvantages. According to this project, if any ambulance comes near or when the ambulance at
emergency comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and give
green signal for this ambulance.

COMPONENTSUSED:
Power Supply - 12V/1A DC
Micro controller – AT89C51
Buzzer - 5Vdc
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
RF transmitter & receiver
IR Transmitter and Receiver

SOFTWARES USED:
Keil uVision3
Embedded c
WORKING PRINCIPLE:

When the ambulance at emergency comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the signals and
give green signal for this ambulance.
The ambulance carries an IR transmitter and IR receiver will be there some few meter before the signal. The
receiver will receive the signal and the module will send the command turn on green through the RF and every
traffic post will have an RF receiver. So whenever the ambulance comes near the traffic, the ambulance will transmit
a code say “emergency” the receiver will receive this signal .Then it immediately switch off the other signals that is
it make all the signals red and later make this particular direction signal green. So by doing this the ambulance can
go without any problem.

BLOCK DIAGRAM: Module in Ambulance

Power Supply

Regulator
Trans former
(7805)
16X2 LCD
Rectifier Filter

AT89C51 RF RF Tx
MCU encoder

IR Rx

IR Tx
Block diagram: Traffic post

Power Supply

Regulator
Trans former
(7805)

Rectifier Filter
16X2 LCD

RF Receiver RF
Decoder
AT89C51
GREEN
MCU LED

RED
LED

YELLOW
LED
CHAPTER 2

 Literature survey

2.1 Embedded Systems

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated
functions, often with real-time computing constraints. It is usually embedded as part of a complete device
including hardware and mechanical parts. In contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal
computer, can do many different tasks depending on programming. Embedded systems control many of
the common devices in use today.

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the
size and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are
mass-produced, benefiting from economics of scale. Physically, embedded systems range from portable
devices such as digital watches and mp4 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power stations. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large
chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have some element of
programmability. For example, handheld computers share some elements with embedded systems — such
as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them — but are not truly embedded systems,
because they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected
Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing Unit (CPU).
This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded. The software residing on
the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded system architecture can be represented
as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the

operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air
conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the
software specific to that application. For applications involving complex processing, it is
advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application
software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip.
Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long
time you don’t need to reload new software.

2.2 Characteristics
 1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose
computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met,
for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements,
allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.
2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small,
computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the
features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar
is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system in automobiles provides a specific
function as a subsystem of the car itself.
3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are
stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware
resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard and/or screen.

Figure 2.1 A typical embedded system block diagram

2.3 Micro Controllers

The micro controller, nowadays, is an indispensable device for electrical/electronic engineers

and also for technicians in the area, because of its versatility and its enormous application. .Born
of parallel developments in computer architecture and integrated circuit fabrication ,the
microprocessor or computer on chip first becomes a commercial reality in 1971.with the
introduction of the 4 bit 4004 by a small, unknown company by the name of Intel corporation.
Other, well established, semiconductor firms soon followed Intel’s pioneering technology so that
by the late 1970’s we could choose from a half dozen or so micro processor typThe 1970s also
saw the growth of the number of personal computer users from a Handful of hobbyists and
hackers to millions of business, industrial, governmental, defense, and educational and private
users now enjoying the advantages of inexpensive computing.

A bye product of microprocessor development was the micro controller. The same fabrication
techniques and programming concepts that make possible general-purpose microprocessor also
yielded the micro controller.

Among the applications of a micro controller we can mention industrial automation,

mobile telephones, radios, microwave ovens and VCRs. Besides, the present trend in digital
electronics is toward restricting to micro controllers and chips that concentrate a great quantity of
logical circuits, like PLDs (Programmable Logic Devices) and GALs (Gate Array Logic). In
dedicated systems, the micro controller is the best solution, because it is cheap and easy to
manage. Despite it’s relatively old age, the 8051 is one of the most popular micro controllers in
use today. Many derivative micro controllers have since been developed that are based on--and
compatible with--the 8051. Thus, the ability to program an 8051 is an important skill for anyone
who plans to develop products that will take advantage of micro controllers.In 8051 architecture
there are so many controllers developed by different semiconductor companies.Here we are
going to use the controller manufactured by Atmel semiconductors which is AT89C51.All the
controllers belongs to 8051 architecture follow harward architecture and CISC design.

2.3 Communication:

Communication refers to the sending, receiving and processing of information by electric

means. As such, it started with wire telegraphy in the early 80’s, developing with telephony and
radio some decades later. Radio communication became the most widely used and refined
through the invention of and use of transistor, integrated circuit, and other semi-conductor
devices. Most recently, the use of satellites and fiber optics has made communication even more
wide spread, with an increasing emphasis on computer and other data communications.
 A modern communications system is first concerned with the sorting, processing and
storing of information before its transmission. The actual transmission then follows, with further
processing and the filtering of noise. Finally we have reception, which may include processing
steps such as decoding, storage and interpretation. In this context, forms of communications
include radio, telephony and telegraphy, broadcast, point to point and mobile communications
(commercial and military), computer communications, radar, radio telemetry and radio aids to
navigation. It is also important to consider the human factors influencing a particular system,
since they can always affect its design, planning and use.

Wireless communication has become an important feature for commercial products and a
popular research topic within the last ten years. There are now more mobile phone subscriptions
than wired-line subscriptions. Lately, one area of commercial interest has been low-cost, low-
power, and short-distance wireless communication used for personal wireless networks."
Technology advancements are providing smaller and more cost effective devices for integrating
computational processing, wireless communication, and a host of other functionalities. These
embedded communications devices will be integrated into applications ranging from homeland
security to industry automation and monitoring. They will also enable custom tailored
engineering solutions, creating a revolutionary way of disseminating and processing information.
With new technologies and devices come new business activities, and the need for employees in
these technological areas. Engineers who have knowledge of embedded systems and wireless
communications will be in high demand. Unfortunately, there are few adorable environments
available for development and classroom use, so students often do not learn about these
technologies during hands-on lab exercises. The communication mediums were twisted pair,
optical fiber, infrared, and generally wireless radio.

2.4 IR Remote Theory

The cheapest way to remotely control a device within a visible range is via Infra-Red light.
Almost all audio and video equipment can be controlled this way nowadays. Due to this wide
spread use the required components are quite cheap, thus making it ideal for us hobbyists to use
IR control for our own projects.
IR sensor is the combination of IR LED with PHOTO DIODE. After this combination we are
connecting the DARLINGTON PAIR TRANSISTOR. End of the IR sensor we have to
connect a NOT gate for the inverting purpose means low input have corresponding low output.
At last this entire connector is connected to any one external interrupt to generating the
interruption of the main program.

Infra-Red actually is normal light with a particular colour. We humans can't see this
colour because its wave length of 950nm is below the visible spectrum. That's one of the reasons
why IR is chosen for remote control purposes, we want to use it but we're not interested in seeing
it. Another reason is because IR LEDs are quite easy to make, and therefore can be very cheap.

IR LED wave length range 1.6m to 2.4m. Materials used for IR LED are InSB, Ge,Si, GaAs,
CdSe .

These IR s are not visible range for observation purpose we have to connect LED s are not.

2.5 RF Technology

Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz.
This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect
radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can
respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation

RF communication works by creating electromagnetic waves at a source and being able to pick up those
electromagnetic waves at a particular destination. These electromagnetic waves travel through the air at
near the speed of light. The wavelength of an electromagnetic signal is inversely proportional to the
frequency; the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.

Frequency is measured in Hertz (cycles per second) and radio frequencies are measured in kilohertz (KHz
or thousands of cycles per second), megahertz (MHz or millions of cycles per second) and gigahertz
(GHz or billions of cycles per second). Higher frequencies result in shorter wavelengths. The wavelength
for a 900 MHz device is longer than that of a 2.4 GHz device.

In general, signals with longer wavelengths travel a greater distance and penetrate through, and around
objects better than signals with shorter wavelengths.

Imagine an RF transmitter wiggling an electron in one location. This wiggling electron causes a ripple
effect, somewhat akin to dropping a pebble in a pond. The effect is an electromagnetic (EM) wave that
travels out from the initial location resulting in electrons wiggling in remote locations. An RF receiver
can detect this remote electron wiggling.

The RF communication system then utilizes this phenomenon by wiggling electrons in a specific pattern
to represent information. The receiver can make this same information available at a remote location;
communicating with no wires.

In most wireless systems, a designer has two overriding constraints: it must operate over a certain
distance (range) and transfer a certain amount of information within a time frame (data rate). Then the
economics of the system must work out (price) along with acquiring government agency approvals
(regulations and licensing).

In order to accurately compute range – it is essential to understand a few terms:

dB - Decibels

Decibels are logarithmic units that are often used to represent RF power. To convert from watts to dB:
Power in dB = 10* (log x) where x is the power in watts.

Another unit of measure that is encountered often is dBm (dB milliwatts). The conversion formula for it
is Power in dBm = 10* (log x) where x is the power in milliwatts.

Line-of-site (LOS)

Line-of-site when speaking of RF means more than just being able to see the receiving antenna from the
transmitting antenna. In, order to have true line-of-site no objects (including trees, houses or the ground)
can be in the Fresnel zone. The Fresnel zone is the area around the visual line-of-sight that radio waves
spread out into after they leave the antenna. This area must be clear or else signal strength will weaken.
There are essentially two parameters to look at when trying to determine range.

Transmit Power

Transmit power refers to the amount of RF power that comes out of the antenna port of the radio.
Transmit power is usually measured in Watts, milliwatts or dBm. (For conversion between watts and dB
see below.)

Receiver sensitivity

Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum level signal the radio can demodulate. It is convenient to use
an example with sound waves; Transmit power is how loud someone is yelling and receive sensitivity
would be how soft a voice someone can hear. Transmit power and receive sensitivity together constitute
what is know as “link budget”. The link budget is the total amount of signal attenuation you can have
between the transmitter and receiver and still have communication occur.

Example:
Maxstream 9XStream TX Power: 20dBm
Maxstream 9XStream RX Sensitivity: -110dBm
Total Link budget: 130dBm.

For line-of-site situations, a mathematical formula can be used to figure out the approximate range for a
given link budget. For non line-of-site applications range calculations are more complex because of the
various ways the signal can be attenuated.

Data rates are usually dictated by the system - how much data must be transferred and how often does the
transfer need to take place. Lower data rates, allow the radio module to have better receive sensitivity and
thus more range. In the XStream modules the 9600 baud module has 3dB more sensitivity than the 19200
baud module. This means about 30% more distance in line-of-sight conditions. Higher data rates allow
the communication to take place in less time, potentially using less power to transmit.

WHAT IS THE NEED FOR RF?

Radio frequency is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This
range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio
waves Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to,
RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits. RF is widely used because it does not require any
line of sight, less distortions and no interference.

PROPERTIES OF RF:

Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct current signals. One
such property is the ease with which it can ionize air to create a conductive path through air. This
property is exploited by 'high frequency' units used in electric arc welding. Another special property is an
electromagnetic force that drives the RF current to the surface of conductors, known as the skin effect.
Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain insulating material, like the
dielectric insulator of a capacitor. The degree of effect of these properties depends on the frequency of the
signals.

DIFFERENT RANGES PRESENT IN RF AND APPLICATIONS IN THEIR RANGES?

Extremely low frequency

ELF 3 to 30 Hz

10,000 km to 100,000 km

directly audible when converted to sound, communication with submarines

Super low frequency

SLF 30 to 300 Hz

1,000 km to 10,000 km

directly audible when converted to sound, AC power grids (50 hertz and 60 hertz)
Ultra low frequency

ULF 300 to 3000 Hz

100 km to 1,000 km

directly audible when converted to sound, communication with mines

Very low frequency

VLF 3 to 30 kHz

10 km to 100 km

directly audible when converted to sound (below ca. 18-20 kHz; or "ultrasound" 20-30+ kHz)

Low frequency

LF 30 to 300 kHz

1 km to 10 km

AM broadcasting, navigational beacons, lowFER

Medium frequency

MF 300 to 3000 kHz

100 m to 1 km

navigational beacons, AM broadcasting, maritime and aviation communication

High frequency
HF 3 to 30 MHz

10 m to 100 m

Shortwave, amateur radio, citizens' band radio

Very high frequency

VHF 30 to 300 MHz

1 m to 10 m

FM broadcasting broadcast television, aviation, GPR

Ultra high frequency

UHF 300 to 3000 MHz

10 cm to 100 cm

Broadcast television, mobile telephones, cordless telephones, wireless networking, remote keyless entry
for automobiles, microwave ovens, GPR

Super high frequency

SHF 3 to 30 GHz

1 cm to 10 cm

Wireless networking, satellite links, microwave links, Satellite television, door openers.

Extremely high frequency

EHF 30 to 300 GHz

1 mm to 10 mm
Microwave data links, radio astronomy, remote sensing, advanced weapons systems, advanced security
scanning

WHY DO WE GO FOR RF COMMUNICATION?

RF Advantages:

1. No line of sight is needed.

2. Not blocked by common materials: It can penetrate most solids and pass through walls.
3. Longer range.
4. It is not sensitive to the light;.
5. It is not much sensitive to the environmental changes and weather conditions.

RF Disadvantages:

1. Interference: communication devices using similar frequencies - wireless phones, scanners, wrist
radios and personal locators can interfere with transmission
2. Lack of security: easier to "eavesdrop" on transmissions since signals are spread out in space
rather than confined to a wire
3. Higher cost than infrared
4. Federal Communications Commission(FCC) licenses required for some products
5. Lower speed: data rate transmission is lower than wired and infrared transmission

2.7 GSM Technology

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications: originally from Groupe Spécial Mobile) is
the most popular standard for mobile telephony systems in the world. The GSM Association, its
promoting industry trade organization of mobile phone carriers and manufacturers, estimates that
80% of the global mobile market uses the standard.GSM is used by over 2 billion people across
more than 212 countries and territories.Its ubiquity enables international roaming arrangements
between mobile phone operators, providing subscribers the use of their phones in many parts of
the world. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech
channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system.
 This also facilitates the wide-spread implementation of data communication applications into the
system.It is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of
standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone
standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system
operating at 900MHZ.

Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems have been

developed without the benefit of standardized specification. This presented many problems directly
related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital radio technology. The GSM
standard is intended to address these problems.

GSM-Introduction

• Architecture

• Technical Specifications

• Frame Structure

• Channels

 Security
 Characteristics and features
 Applications

Definition:
 Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second generation cellular standard

developed to cater voice services and data delivery using digital modulation.

GSM-History

• Developed by Group Special Mobile (founded 1982) which was an initiative of

CEPT (Conference of European Post and Telecommunication)

• Aim : to replace the incompatible analog system

• Presently the responsibility of GSM standardization resides with special mobile

group under ETSI ( European telecommunication Standards Institute )

• Full set of specifications phase-I became available in 1990

• Under ETSI, GSM is named as “Global System for Mobile communication “

• Today many providers all over the world use GSM (more than 135

Countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)

• More than 1300 million subscribers in world and 45 million subscribers in India.

GSM IN WORLD

Figures: March, 2005 Arab World

3% Asia Pacific
3%
3% Africa
3% (INDIA)
East Central Asia
4% 37% Europe
Russia

43% 4% India
1%
North America
South America
GSM IN INDIA

Figures: March 2005

Reliance
3%
Spice MTNL Bharti
Aircel
4% 4% 2% BSNL
Bharti
27% Hutch
BPL
6% IDEA
BPL
IDEA Aircel
13%
BSNL Spice
Hutch 22% Reliance
19%
MTNL
 GSM SERVICES

 Tele-services
 Bearer or Data Services
 Supplementary services
Tele-services

• Telecommunication services that enable voice communication

via mobile phones

• Offered services

- Mobile telephony

- Emergency calling

Bearer or Data Services

 Include various data services for information transfer between GSM and other networks like
PSTN, ISDN etc at rates from 300 to 9600 bps
 Short Message Service (SMS)
– up to 160 character alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal
 Unified Messaging Services(UMS)
 Group 3 fax
 Voice mailbox
 Electronic mail

Supplementary services

Call related services :

• Call Waiting- Notification of an incoming call while on the handset

• Call Hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call
 • Call Barring- All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls
• Call Forwarding- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user
• Multi Party Call Conferencing - Link multiple calls together
• CLIP – Caller line identification presentation
• CLIR – Caller line identification restriction
• CUG – Closed user group

GSM System Architecture-I

 Mobile Station (MS)

Mobile Equipment (ME)

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Base Station Controller (BSC)

 Network Switching Subsystem(NSS)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

Home Location Register (HLR)

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

Authentication Center (AUC)

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

System Architecture Mobile Station (MS)

The Mobile Station is made up of two entities:

1. Mobile Equipment (ME)

2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

Mobile Equipment

 Portable,vehicle mounted, hand held device

 Uniquely identified by an IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
 Voice and data transmission
 Monitoring power and signal quality of surrounding cells for optimum handover
 Power level : 0.8W – 20 W
 160 character long SMS.

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

 Smart card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

 Allows user to send and receive calls and receive other subscribed services
 Encoded network identification details
 - Key Ki,Kc and A3,A5 and A8 algorithms

 Protected by a password or PIN

 Can be moved from phone to phone – contains key information to activate the phone

System Architecture Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts that communicate across the standardized Abis
interface allowing operation between components made by different suppliers

1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

2. Base Station Controller (BSC)

System Architecture Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

 Encodes,encrypts,multiplexes,modulates and feeds the RF signals to the antenna.

 Frequency hopping
 Communicates with Mobile station and BSC
 Consists of Transceivers (TRX) units

Base Station Controller (BSC)

 Manages Radio resources for BTS

 Assigns Frequency and time slots for all MS’s in its area
 Handles call set up
 Transcoding and rate adaptation functionality
 Handover for each MS
 Radio Power control
  It communicates with MSC and BTS

System Architecture Network Switching Subsystem(NSS)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

 Heart of the network

 Manages communication between GSM and other networks
 Call setup function and basic switching
 Call routing
 Billing information and collection
 Mobility management
- Registration

- Location Updating

- Inter BSS and inter MSC call handoff

 MSC does gateway function while its customer roams to other network by using HLR/VLR.

System Architecture Network Switching Subsystem

 Home Location Registers (HLR)

- Permanent database about mobile subscribers in a large service area (generally one per GSM network
operator)

Database contains IMSI, MS ISDN, prepaid/postpaid, roaming restrictions, and supplementary services.

 Visitor Location Registers (VLR)

 - Temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its area, by HLR
database
- Controls those mobiles roaming in its area
- Reduces number of queries to HLR
- Database contains IMSI, TMSI, MSISDN, MSRN, Location Area, authentication
key

 Authentication Center (AUC)

- Protects against intruders in air interface
- Maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets
( RAND, SRES, Kc)
- Generally associated with HLR

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

- Database that is used to track handsets using the IMEI (International

Mobile Equipment Identity)

- Made up of three sub-classes: The White List, The Black List and the Gray List
- Only one EIR per PLMN

GSM Specifications-1

 RF Spectrum
GSM 900

Mobile to BTS (uplink): 890-915 Mhz

BTS to Mobile(downlink):935-960 Mhz

Bandwidth : 2* 25 Mhz

GSM 1800
 Mobile to BTS (uplink): 1710-1785 Mhz

BTS to Mobile(downlink) 1805-1880 Mhz

Bandwidth : 2* 75 Mhz

GSM Specification-II

 Carrier Separation : 200 Khz

 Duplex Distance : 45 Mhz
 No. of RF carriers : 124
 Access Method : TDMA/FDMA
 Modulation Method : GMSK
 Modulation data rate : 270.833 Kbps

OPERATION OF GSM
Call Routing

 Call Originating from MS

 Call termination to MS

Outgoing Call
 1. MS sends dialed number to BSS
2. BSS sends dialed number to MSC
3,4 MSC checks VLR if MS is allowed the requested service. If so, MSC asks BSS

to allocate resources for call.

5 MSC routes the call to GMSC

6 GMSC routes the call to local exchange of called use7, 8,
9, 10 Answer back (ring back) tone is routed from called user to MS via

GMSC, MSC, BSS

Incoming Call
1. Calling a GSM subscribers
2. Forwarding call to GSMC
3. Signal Setup to HLR
4. 5. Request MSRN from VLR
6. Forward responsible MSC to GMSC
7. Forward Call to current MSC
8. 9. Get current status of MS
10. 11. Paging of MS
12. 13. MS answers
14. 15. Security checks
16. 17. Set up connection
Handovers

 Between 1 and 2 – Inter BTS / Intra BSC

 Between 1 and 3 –
Inter BSC/ Intra MSC

 Between 1 and 4 – Inter MSC

Security in GSM

 On air interface, GSM uses encryption and TMSI instead of IMSI.

 SIM is provided 4-8 digit PIN to validate the ownership of SIM
 3 algorithms are specified :
- A3 algorithm for authentication

- A5 algorithm for encryption

 - A8 algorithm for key generation

Characteristics of GSM Standard

 Fully digital system using 900,1800 MHz frequency band.

 TDMA over radio carriers(200 KHz carrier spacing.
 8 full rate or 16 half rate TDMA channels per carrier.
 User/terminal authentication for fraud control.
 Encryption of speech and data transmission over the radio path.
 Full international roaming capability.
 Low speed data services (upto 9.6 Kb/s).
 Compatibility with ISDN.
 Support of Short Message Service (SMS).

Advantages of GSM over Analog system:

 Capacity increases
 Reduced RF transmission power and longer battery life.
 International roaming capability.
 Better security against fraud (through terminal validation and user authentication).
 Encryption capability for information security and privacy.
 Compatibility with ISDN,leading to wider range of services

GSM Applications

 Mobile telephony
 GSM-R
 Telemetry System
- Fleet management
 - Automatic meter reading

- Toll Collection

- Remote control and fault reporting of DG sets

 Value Added Services

Future Of GSM

 2nd Generation
 GSM -9.6 Kbps (data rate)

 2.5 Generation ( Future of GSM)

 HSCSD (High Speed ckt Switched data)
 Data rate : 76.8 Kbps (9.6 x 8 kbps)
 GPRS (General Packet Radio service)
 Data rate: 14.4 - 115.2 Kbps
 EDGE (Enhanced data rate for GSM Evolution)
 Data rate: 547.2 Kbps (max)
 3 Generation
 WCDMA(Wide band CDMA)
 Data rate : 0.348 – 2.0 Mbps

Figure 2.2 The structure of a GSM network

CHAPTER 3

Problem formulation
The problem with the traffic system is that for every minute the vehicles at the 4-way road will
be heavy and the traffic lights shall be changed to each side for some fixed time. Even though
there are no vehicles at particular side, the traffic signals will glow for given fixed time.Due to
that there is time waste process. Due to this other side vehicles have to wait for the time to
complete the process. If any ambulance comes near or when the ambulance at emergency comes
to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop the other 3 sides with giving red signal
and give green signal for this ambulance. So that for this implementation we using different
technology such IR, RF and GSM communication.
CHAPTER 4

System Specification

4.1 89S52 Micro Controller

Features:

• Compatible with MCS-51® Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory

– Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles

• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

• Watchdog Timer

• Dual Data Pointer

• Power-off Flag
Description

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K

bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry- standard
80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector
two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry.
In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
Pin Description

VCC: Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is + 5V.

GND: Pin 20 provides ground.

Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL

inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during
accesses

to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull ups.

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes

during program verification. External pull ups are required during program verification.

Port 1:Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups.

In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count
input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the
following table.

Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and
verification.
Port 2:Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 2 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory
and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In
this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to
external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the
P2 Special Function Register.

Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3:Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.

Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in
the following table.

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST:Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets
the device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The
DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state
of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG:Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG)
during flash programming.

In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and
may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory.

If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the
bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly
pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external
execution mode.

PSEN:Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

EA/VPP:External access enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
 Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-
volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1:Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2:Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is
shown in Table 1. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may
not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random
data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect.

User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in
future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits
will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers: Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown in Table 2)
and T2MOD (shown in Table 3) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the
Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.
Interrupt Registers: The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can
be set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.

Dual Data Pointer Registers: To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two
banks of 16-bit Data Pointer Registers are provided: DP0 at SFR address locations 82H-83H and
DP1 at 84H-85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0 and DPS = 1 selects DP1. The user
should always initialize the DPS bit to the appropriate value before accessing the respective Data
Pointer Register.

Power Off Flag: The Power Off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4) in the PCON SFR. POF
is set to “1” during power up. It can be set and rest under software control and is not affected by
reset.

Memory Organization
 MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to
64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

Program Memory

If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory.
On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H through
1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to
external memory.

Data Memory

The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a
parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128 bytes
have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space.

When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode
used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the
SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access of the SFR space.

For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location
0A0H (which is P2).

MOV 0A0H, #data

Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For
example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the
data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).

MOV @R0, #data

Note that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of
data RAM are available as stack space.

Watchdog Timer
(One-time Enabled with Reset-out)

The WDT is intended as a recovery method in situations where the CPU may be
subjected to software upsets. The WDT consists of a 13-bit counter and the Watchdog Timer
Reset (WDTRST) SFR. The WDT is defaulted to disable from exiting reset. To enable the WDT,
a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the WDTRST register (SFR location 0A6H).
When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator is running.
The WDT timeout period is dependent on the external clock frequency. There is no way to
disable the WDT except through reset (either hardware reset or WDT overflow (reset). When
WDT overflows, it will drive an output RESET HIGH pulse at the RST pin.

Using the WDT

To enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the WDTRST
register (SFR location 0A6H). When the WDT is enabled, the user needs to service it by writing
01EH and 0E1H to WDTRST to avoid a WDT overflow. The 13-bit counter overflows when it
reaches 8191 (1FFFH), and this will reset the device. When the WDT is enabled, it will
increment every machine cycle while the oscillator is running. This means the user must reset the
WDT at least every 8191 machine cycles. To reset the WDT the user must write 01EH and 0E1H
to WDTRST. DTRST is a write-only register. The WDT counter cannot be read or written.
When WDT overflows, it will generate an output RESET pulse at the RST pin. The RESET
pulse duration is 96xTOSC, where TOSC=1/FOSC. To make the best use of the WDT, it should
be serviced in those sections of code that will periodically be executed within the time required
to prevent a WDT reset.

WDT during Power-down and Idle

In Power-down mode the oscillator stops, which means the WDT also stops. While in
Power-down mode, the user does not need to service the WDT. There are two methods of exiting
Power-down mode: by a hardware reset or via a level-activated external interrupt which is
enabled prior to entering Power-down mode. When Power-down is exited with hardware reset,
servicing the WDT should occur as it normally does whenever the AT89S52 is reset. Exiting
Power-down with an interrupt is significantly different. The interrupt is held low long enough for
the oscillator to stabilize. When the interrupt is brought high, the interrupt is serviced. To prevent
the WDT from resetting the device while the interrupt pin is held low, the WDT is not started
until the interrupt is pulled high. It is suggested that the WDT be reset during the interrupt
service for the interrupt used to exit Power-down mode.

To ensure that the WDT does not overflow within a few states of exiting Power-down, it
is best to reset the WDT just before entering Power-down mode.

Before going into the IDLE mode, the WDIDLE bit in SFR AUXR is used to determine
whether the WDT continues to count if enabled. The WDT keeps counting during IDLE
WDIDLE bit = 0) as the default state. To prevent the WDT from resetting the AT89S52 while in
IDLE mode, the user should always set up a timer that will periodically exit IDLE, service the
WDT, and reenter IDLE mode. With WDIDLE bit enabled, the WDT will stop to count in IDLE
mode and resumes the count upon exit from IDLE.

UART

Serial data communication uses two methods, asynchronous and synchronous. The synchronous
method transfers a block of data (characters ) at a time, while the asynchronous method transfers
a single byte at a time. It is possible to write software to use either of these methods, but
programs can be tedious and long. For this reason, there are special IC chips made by the
manufacturers for the serial data communications. These chips are commonly referred to as
UART ( universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter) and USART ( universal synchronous
receiver-transmitter). The 8052 has built-in UART.

Timer 0

The 16-bit register of timer 0 is accessed as low byte and high byte. The low byte register is
called TL0 ( Timer 0 low byte) and the high byte register is referred to as TH0 ( Timer 0 high
byte). These registers can be accessed like any other registers , such as A,B,R0,R1,R2 etc. for
example the instruction “MOV TL0,#4FH” moves the value 4FH into TL0, the low byte of
Timer 0. These registers can also be read like any other register. For example, “MOV R5,TH0”
saves TH0 ( high byte of Timer 0) in R5.

Timer1

Timer 1 is also 16 bits and its 16-bit register is split into two bytes, referred to as TL1 (Timer 1
low byte ) and TH1 ( Timer 1 high byte). These registers are accessible in the same way as the
registers of Timer 0.

Timer 2

Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event counter.
The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in Table 2). Timer 2 has
three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down counting), and baud rate generator. The
modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as shown in Table 3. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit
registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine
cycle. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the
oscillator frequency.

In the Counter function, the register is incremented in esponse to a 1-to-0 transition at its
corresponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is sampled during S5P2
of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle,
the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle
following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator
periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the
oscillator frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the
level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.

Capture Mode

In the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0,
Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in T2CON.

This bit can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2 = 1, Timer 2 performs the same
operation, but a 1- to-0 transition at external input T2EX also causes the current value in TH2
and TL2 to be captured into RCAP2H and RCAP2L, respectively. In addition, the transition at
T2EX causes bit EXF2 in T2CON to be set. The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt.
The capture mode is illustrated in Figure 5.

Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter)

Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when configured in its 16-bit auto-
reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter Enable) bit located in the
SFR T2MOD (see Table 4). Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0 so that timer 2 will default to
count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up or down, depending on the value of the
T2EX pin.

options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2 counts up to 0FFFFH and
then sets the TF2 bit upon overflow. The overflow also causes the timer registers to be reloaded
with the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The values in Timer in Capture ModeRCAP2H
and RCAP2L are preset by software. If EXEN2 = 1, a 16-bit reload can be Figure 6 shows Timer
2 automatically counting up when DCEN=0. In this mode, two triggered either by an overflow or
by a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2 bit. Both the
TF2 and EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled.

Setting the DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up or down, as shown in Figure 6. In this
mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count. A logic 1 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count
up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the TF2 bit. This overflow also causes the 16-bit
value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L to be reloaded into the timer registers, TH2 and TL2,
respectively. A logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The timer underflows when TH2
and TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The underflow sets the TF2 bit and
causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the timer registers .The EXF2 bit toggles whenever Timer 2
overflows or underflows and can be used as a 17th bit of resolution. In this operating mode,
EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.
 Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in T2CON
(Table 2). Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different if Timer 2 is used for
the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function. Setting RCLK and/or
TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode, as shown in Figure 8. The baud rate
generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2 causes the Timer 2
registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are
preset by software. The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer 2’s overflow rate
according to the following equation.

The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most applications, it
is configured for timer operation (CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation is different for Timer 2 when
it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a timer, it increments every machine cycle (at
1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a baud rate generator, however, it increments every state time
(at 1/2 the oscillator frequency). The baud rate formula is given below.

Where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a 16-bit
unsigned integer. Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in Figure 8. This figure is valid only
if RCLK or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2 does not set TF2 and will not
generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0 transition in T2EX will set EXF2
but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2, TL2). Thus, when Timer 2 is in
use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be used as an extra external interrupt. Note that when
Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate generator mode, TH2 or TL2 should not
be read from or written to. Under these conditions, the Timer is incremented every state time,
and the results of a read or write may not be accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but
should not be written to; because a write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload
errors. The timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2
registers.

Interrupts

The AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and
INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These interrupts
are all shown in Figure 10. Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or
disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global
disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once. Note that Table 5 shows that bit position
IE.6 is unimplemented. In the AT89S52, bit position IE.5 is also unimplemented. User software
should not write 1s to these bit positions, since they may be used in future AT89 products. Timer
2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON. Neither of
these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service
routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2 that generated the interrupt, and that
bit will have to be cleared in software. The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at
S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the
next cycle. However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in
which the timer overflows.

Oscillator Characteristics

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be
configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 11. Either a quartz

crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source,
XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in Figure 12. There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal
clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high
and low time specifications must be observed. Oscillator connections

Note: C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

Asynchronous serial communication and data framing

The data coming in the receiving end of the data line in a serial data
transfer is all 0’s and 1’s; it is difficult to make sense of the data unless the sender and receiver
agree on a set of rules, a protocol, on how the data is packed, how many bits constitute the
character, and when the data begins and ends.

4.8.1 Start and Stop bits

Asynchronous serial data communication is widely used for character
orientation transmissions. In the asynchronous method, each character is placed between start
and stop bits. This is called the framing. In data framing for asynchronous communications, the
data, such as ASCII characters, are packed in between a start and stop bits. The start bit is always
one-bit but the stop bit can be one or two bits. The start bit is always a 0 and the stop bit is 1.

4.8.2. Parity Bit

In some systems in order to maintain data integrity, the parity bit of the character
byte is included in the data frame. This means that for each character we have a single parity bit
in addition to start and stop bits. The parity bit is odd or even. In case of odd parity bit the
number of data bits of a book of including the parity bit, is even.

4.8.3 Data Transfer rate

The rate of data transfer in serial data communication is stated in bps or
it can be called as baud rate. Baud rate is defined as the number of signal changes per second. As
far as the conductor wire is concerned, the baud rates as bps are the same.

Figure 4.10: DATA FRAMING

Figure 4.11: Data Transfer between 89C51 and System

4.9 Registers used for Communication

4.9.1. SBUF Register:

SBUF is an 8 bit register used solely for serial communication in the 8051. For
byte of data to be transfers via TxD line, it must be placed in SBUF register. SBUF also holds
the byte of data when it is received by the 8051’s RxD line.
The moment a byte is written into SBUF, it is framed with the start and stop
bits and transferred serially via TxD line. Similarly when bits are received serially via RxD, the
8051 defames it by eliminating a byte out of the received, and then placing it in the SBUF.

4.9 .2.SCON (Serial control register):

Bit addressable
Address location 98H

Figure 4.12: SCON register:

REN- Set or cleared by software to enable or disable reception.

TB8- Not widely used
RB8- Not widely used
TI- Transmits interrupt flag. Set by hardware at the beginning of the stop bit in mode 1.
It must be cleared by software
RI- Received interrupts flag. Set by hardware halfway through the stop bit mode 1. It must
be cleared by software.
 SM0
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
SM1 Serial mode 0
Synchronous mode
8-bit data, 1 start bit, 1 stop
bit, variable baud rate
9-bit data, 1 start bit, 1 stop
bit, fixed baud rate
9-bit data, 1 start bit, 1 stop
bit, variable baud rate

Figure 4.13: UART modes

4.10.MAX232 Driver/Receiver:

This module is primary of interest for people building their own electronics with an RS-232
interface. Off-the-shelf computers with RS-232 interfaces already contain the necessary
electronics, and there is no need to add the circuitry as described here.

Serial RS-232 (V.24) communication works with voltages (-15V ... -3V for high [sic]) and
+3V ... +15V for low [sic]) which are not compatible with normal computer logic voltages. On
the other hand, classic TTL computer logic operates between 0V ... +5V (roughly 0V ... +0.8V
for low, +2V ... +5V for high). Modern low-power logic operates in the range of 0V ... +3.3V or
even lower.

So, the maximum RS-232 signal levels are far too high for computer logic electronics, and the
negative RS-232 voltage for high can't be grokked at all by computer logic. Therefore, to receive
serial data from an RS-232 interface the voltage has to be reduced, and the low and high voltage
level inverted. In the other direction (sending data from some logic over RS-232) the low logic
voltage has to be "bumped up", and a negative voltage has to be generated, too.

RS-232 TTL Logic

-----------------------------------------------

-15V ... -3V <-> +2V ... +5V <-> high

+3V ... +15V <-> 0V ... +0.8V <-> low

Figure 4.14 Voltage levels for RS232 and TTL

All this can be done with conventional analog electronics, e.g. a particular power supply and a
couple of transistors or the once popular 1488 (transmitter) and 1489 (receiver) ICs. However,
since more than a decade it has become standard in amateur electronics to do the necessary
signal level conversion with an integrated circuit (IC) from the MAX232 family (typically a
MAX232A or some clone). In fact, it is hard to find some RS-232 circuitry in amateur
electronics without a MAX232A or some clone.

The MAX232 from Maxim was the first IC which in one package contains the necessary drivers
(two) and receivers (also two), to adapt the RS-232 signal voltage levels to TTL logic. It became
popular, because it just needs one voltage (+5V) and generates the necessary RS-232 voltage
levels (approx. -10V and +10V) internally. This greatly simplified the design of circuitry.
Circuitry designers no longer need to design and build a power supply with three voltages (e.g.
-12V, +5V, and +12V), but could just provide one +5V power supply, e.g. with the help of a
simple 78x05 voltage converter.

The MAX232 has a successor, the MAX232A. The ICs are almost identical, however, the
MAX232A is much more often used (and easier to get) than the original MAX232, and the
MAX232A only needs external capacitors 1/10th the capacity of what the original MAX232
needs.

It should be noted that the MAX232(A) is just a driver/receiver. It does not generate the
necessary RS-232 sequence of marks and spaces with the right timing, it does not decode the RS-
232 signal, it does not provide a serial/parallel conversion. All it does is to convert signal voltage
levels. Generating serial data with the right timing and decoding serial data has to be done by
additional circuitry, e.g. by a 16550 UART or one of these small micro controllers (e.g. Atmel
AVR, Microchip PIC) getting more and more popular.

The MAX232 and MAX232A were once rather expensive ICs, but today they are cheap. It has
also helped that many companies now produce clones (ie. Sipex). These clones sometimes need
different external circuitry, e.g. the capacities of the external capacitors vary. It is recommended
to check the data sheet of the particular manufacturer of an IC instead of relying on Maxim's
original data sheet.

The original manufacturer (and now some clone manufacturers, too) offers a large series of
similar ICs, with different numbers of receivers and drivers, voltages, built-in or external
capacitors, etc. E.g. The MAX232 and MAX232A need external capacitors for the internal
voltage pump, while the MAX233 has these capacitors built-in. The MAX233 is also between
three and ten times more expensive in electronic shops than the MAX232A because of its
internal capacitors. It is also more difficult to get the MAX233 than the garden variety
MAX232A.A similar IC, the MAX3232 is nowadays available for low-power 3V logic.

4.11 MAX232Application:

The MAX232(A) has two receivers (converts from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels) and two
drivers (converts from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels). This means only two of the RS-232
signals can be converted in each direction. The old MC1488/1498 combo provided four drivers
and receivers.

Typically a pair of a driver/receiver of the MAX232 is used for TX and RX and the second one
for CTS and RTS. There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the
DTR, DSR, and DCD signals. Usually these signals can be omitted when e.g. communicating
with a PC's serial interface. If the DTE really requires these signals either a second MAX232 is
needed, or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used (if it can be found in consumer
electronic shops at all). An alternative for DTR/DSR is also given below.Maxim's data sheet
explains the MAX232 family in great detail, including the pin configuration and how to connect
such an IC to external circuitry. Exactly to connect the RS-232 signals to the IC. So here is one
possible example:
MAX232 Pin Nbr. MAX232 Pin Name Signal Voltage DB9 Pin

7 T2out CTS RS-232 7

8 R2in RTS RS-232 8

9 R2out RTS TTL n/a

10 T2in CTS TTL n/a

11 T1in TX TTL n/a

12 R1out RX TTL n/a

13 R1in RX RS-232 2

14 T1out TX RS-232 3

15 GND GND 0 5

Figure 4.15 RS232-DB9 pin Diagram

5.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs (seven
segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

 2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the
task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep
displaying the data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are “specialized” for being used with the microcontrollers, which means that
they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing different messages on
a miniature LCD.

A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently
used in practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages
in two lines with 16 characters each . It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation
marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that user makes
up on its own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right), appearance of the
pointer, backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.

Pins Functions
There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Function Pin Number Name Logic State Description

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd

D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data

0 Write data (from controller to LCD)

Control of 5 R/W
1 Read data (from LCD to controller)
operating
Access to LCD disabled
0
Normal operating
6 E 1
Data/commands are transferred to
From 1 to 0
LCD

7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
Data / commands
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6

14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

LCD screen:
 LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists
of 5x7 dot matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether
messages are displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied on
pin marked as Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some versions of
displays have built in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used during operating, a resistor for
current limitation should be used (like with any LE diode).

LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or as data,
which depends on logic state on pin RS:

RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor

addresses built in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying position
is determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the address of
previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands which
LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

Command R R D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Execution
 S W Time

Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS

Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS

I/
Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S 40uS
D

Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

D
Function set 0 0 0 0 1 N F x x 40uS
L

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

B
Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 DDRAM address -
F

Write to CGRAM or
1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM

Read from CGRAM or

1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right

0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

 0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

LCD Connection

Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the microcontroller, there are 8-
bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is determined at the beginning of the process in
a phase called “initialization”. In the first case, the data are transferred through outputs D0-D7 as
it has been already explained. In case of 4-bit LED mode, for the sake of saving valuable I/O
pins of the microcontroller, there are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for communication, while
other may be left unconnected.

Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first (that
normally would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With the help
of initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret each data received. Besides, with
regards to the fact that data are rarely read from LCD (data mainly are transferred from
microcontroller to LCD) one more I/O pin may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the
Ground. Such saving has its price. Even though message displaying will be normally performed,
it will not be possible to read from busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.

LCD Initialization

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set by
default. This means that:

1. Display is cleared
2. Mode

DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface

N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line

F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off

D = 0 Display off

U = 0 Cursor off

B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry

ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1

S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not always! If for
any reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will
start perform completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit can not meet this condition or if it
is needed to provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset
enabling display to operate normally must be applied.

Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on whether

connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over to be done after
that is to give basic commands and of course- to display messages.
Fig: Procedure on 8-bit initialization.

CONTRAST CONTROL:

To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be adjusted. To adjust the
contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used which can behave like a variable

voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is varied, the contrast of the LCD can be adjusted.

Potentiometer

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.

This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a
circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at
the ends of the track are connected across the power supply, then the wiper terminal will provide
a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Presets Potentiometer Symbol 

These are miniature versions of the standard variable

resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when
the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-
sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets.

Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects
where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very
fine control.

Preset Symbol
 

LCD INTERFACING WITH THE MICROCONTROLLER:

 Vcc

P2.0 4 (RS) 1
Gnd

P2.1 5 (R/W) 2

P2.2 6(EN) 3 PRESET

(CONTRAST
CONTROL)

LCD

Vcc FOR BACKLIGHT

PURPOSE
Gnd

Infrared LED (IR LED)

 IR sensor is the combination of IR LED with PHOTO DIODE. After this combination
we are connecting the DARLINGTON PAIR TRANSISTOR. End of the IR sensor we have to
connect a NOT gate for the inverting purpose means low input have corresponding low
outputInfra-Red actually is normal light with a particular colour. We humans can't see this
colour because its wave length of 950nm is below the visible spectrum. That's one of the reasons
why IR is chosen for remote control purposes, we want to use it but we're not interested in seeing
it. Another reason is because IR LEDs are quite easy to make, and therefore can be very cheap.

Although we humans can't see the Infra-Red light emitted from a remote control doesn't
mean we can't make it visible. A video camera or digital photo camera can "see" the Infra-Red

light as you can see in this picture. If you own a web cam, point your remote to it, press
any button and you'll see the LED flicker. They do dozens of different jobs and are found in all
kinds of devices. Among other things, they form the numbers on digital clocks, transmit
information from remote controls, light up watches and tell you when your appliances are turned
on. Collected together, they can form images on a jumbo television screen or illuminate a traffic
light.

FIG.3.1 IR LED USED IN REMOTE CONTROL

DARLINGTON PAIR:
An emitter follower offers high impedance of 500Kohms. For applications requiring still higher
input impedance, we may use what is called Darlington in place of conventional transistor. This
Darlington pair basically consists of two transistors cascaded in cc configuration. In the figure
shown below the input impedance of the second transistor

Constitutes the load impedance of the first.

We thus conclude that in comparison with a conventional single transistor emitter follower has in
higher current gain, higher input impedance and almost the same voltage gain lower out put
impedances.

Fig: Darlington Pair

Modulation

Modulation is the answer to make our signal stand out above the noise. With modulation we
make the IR light source blink in a particular frequency. The IR receiver will be tuned to that
frequency, so it can ignore everything else.
You can think of this blinking as attracting the receiver's attention. We humans also notice the
blinking of yellow lights at construction sites instantly, even in bright daylight.
In the picture above you can see a modulated signal driving the IR LED of the transmitter on the
left side. The detected signal is coming out of the receiver at the other side.

In serial communication we usually speak of 'marks' and 'spaces'. The 'space' is the default
signal, which is the off state in the transmitter case. No light is emitted during the 'space' state.
During the 'mark' state of the signal the IR light is pulsed on and off at a particular frequency.
Frequencies between 30kHz and 60kHz are commonly used in consumer electronics.
At the receiver side a 'space' is represented by a high level of the receiver's output. A 'mark' is
then automatically represented by a low level.

Please note that the 'marks' and 'spaces' are not the 1-s and 0-s we want to transmit. The real
relationship between the 'marks' and 'spaces' and the 1-s and 0-s depends on the protocol that's
being used. More information about that can be found on the pages that describe the protocols.

TRANSMITTER:

In the picture below we can see a modulated signal driving the IR LED of the transmitter
on the left side. The detected signal is coming out of the receiver at the other side.

FIG.3.2 IR TRANSMITTER

The transmitter usually is a battery powered handset. It should consume as little power as
possible, and the IR signal should also be as strong as possible to achieve an acceptable control
distance. Preferably it should be shock proof as well.
 Many chips are designed to be used as IR transmitters. The older chips were dedicated to
only one of the many protocols that were invented. Nowadays very low power microcontrollers
are used in IR transmitters for the simple reason that they are more flexible in their use. When no
button is pressed they are in a very low power sleep mode, in which hardly any current is
consumed. The processor when wakes up to transmit the appropriate IR command only a key is
pressed

FIG.3.3 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT USED TO DRIVE IR LED

Quartz crystals are seldom used in such handsets. They are very fragile and tend to break
easily when the handset is dropped. Ceramic resonators are much more suitable here, because
they can withstand larger physical shocks. The fact that they are a little less accurate is not
important.

The current through the LED (or LEDs) can vary from 100mA to well over 1A! In order
to get an acceptable control distance the LED currents have to be as high as possible. A trade-off
should be made between LED parameters, battery lifetime and maximum control distance. LED
currents can be that high because the pulses driving the LEDs are very short. Average power
dissipation of the LED should not exceed the maximum value though. You should also see to it
that the maximum peek current for the LED is not exceeded. All these parameters can be found
in the LED's data sheet.

A simple transistor circuit can be used to drive the LED. A transistor with a suitable h fe
and switching speed should be selected for this purpose. The resistor values can simply be
calculated using Ohm's law. Remember that the nominal voltage drop over an IR LED is
approximately 1.1V. The normal driver, described above, has one disadvantage. As the battery
voltage drops, the current through the LED will decrease as well. This will result in a shorter
control distance that can be covered.

An emitter follower circuit can avoid this. The 2 diodes in series will limit the pulses on the base
of the transistor to 1.2V. The base-emitter voltage of the transistor subtracts 0.6V from that,
resulting in constant amplitude of 0.6V at the emitter. This constant amplitude across a constant
resistor results in current pulses of a constant magnitude. Calculating the current through the
LED is simply applying ohm’ law.

PHOTODIODES:

Unfortunately for us there are many more sources of Infrared light. The sun is the
brightest source of all, but there are many others, like: light bulbs, candles, central heating
system, and even our body radiates Infrared light. In fact everything that radiates heat, also
radiates Infrared light. Therefore we have to take some precautions to guarantee that our IR
message gets across to the receiver with out errors.

Photodiodes are used for the detection of optical power (UV, Visible, and IR) and for
the conversion of optical power to electrical power. The photodiode spectral response can be
measured in X-ray, UV, visible, or IR.  X-ray photodiodes are optimized for X-ray, gamma ray,
and beta radiation detection.

 UV enhanced photodiodes are optimized for the UV and blue spectral regions, Photodiodes are a
two-electrode, radiation-sensitive junction formed in a semiconductor material in which the
reverse current varies with illumination. Photodiodes are used for the detection of optical power
and for the conversion of optical power to electrical power. Photodiodes can be PN, PIN, or
avalanche.  PN photodiodes feature a two-electrode, radiation-sensitive PN junction formed in a
semiconductor material in which the reverse current varies with illumination.  PIN photodiodes
are  diodes with a large intrinsic region sandwiched between P-doped and N-doped
semiconducting regions.  Photons absorbed in this region create electron-hole pairs that are then
separated by an electric field, thus generating an electric current in a load circuit
4.12 RF Module:

Radio frequency (abbreviated RF) is a term that refers to alternating current (AC) having
characteristics such that, if the current is input to an antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is
generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications. These frequencies cover a
significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, extending from nine kilohertz (9
kHz),the lowest allocated wireless communications frequency (it's within the range of human
hearing), to thousands of gigahertz(GHz).

When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, it gives rise to an electromagnetic field that

propagates through space. This field is sometimes called an RF field; in less technical jargon it is
a "radio wave." Any RF field has a wavelength that is inversely proportional to the frequency. In
the atmosphere or in outer space, if f is the frequency in megahertz and sis the wavelength in
meters, then

s = 300/f

The frequency of an RF signal is inversely proportional to the wavelength

of the EM field to which it corresponds. At 9 kHz, the free-space wavelength is approximately

33 kilometers (km) or 21 miles (mi). At the highest radio frequencies, the EM wavelengths
measure approximately one millimeter (1 mm). As the frequency is increased beyond that of the
RF spectrum, EM energy takes the form of infrared (IR), visible, ultraviolet (UV), X rays, and
gamma rays.

Many types of wireless devices make use of RF fields. Cordless and cellular telephone, radio and
television broadcast stations, satellite communications systems, and two-way radio services all
operate in the RF spectrum. Some wireless devices operate at IR or visible-light frequencies,
whose electromagnetic wavelengths are shorter than those of RF fields. Examples include most
television-set remote-control boxes Some cordless computer keyboards and mice, and a few
wireless hi-fi stereo headsets.
The RF spectrum is divided into several ranges, or bands. With the exception of the lowest-
frequency segment, each band represents an increase of frequency corresponding to an order of
magnitude (power of 10). The table depicts the eight bands in the RF spectrum, showing
frequency and bandwidth ranges. The SHF and EHF bands are often referred to as the
microwave The main requirements for the communication using RF are:

 RF Transmitter
 RF Receiver
 Encoder and Decoder

RF TRANSMITTER STT-433MHz:

 The STT-433 is ideal for remote control applications where low cost and longer range is
required.
 The transmitter operates from a1.5-12V supply, making it ideal for battery-powered
applications.
 The transmitter employs a SAW-stabilized oscillator, ensuring accurate frequency control for
best range performance.
 The manufacturing-friendly SIP style package and low-cost make the STT-433 suitable for high
volume applications.
Features:

 433.92 MHz Frequency

 Low Cost
  1.5-12V operation
 Small size
PIN DESCRIPTION:

GND Transmitter ground. Connect to ground plane

DATA Digital data input. This input is CMOS compatible and should be driven with CMOS level inputs.

VCC Operating voltage for the transmitter. VCC should be bypassed with a .01uF ceramic capacitor and
filtered with a 4.7uF tantalum capacitor. Noise on the power supply will degrade transmitter noise
performance.

ANT 50 ohm antenna output. The antenna port impedance affects output power and harmonic
emissions. Antenna can be single core wire of approximately 17cm length or PCB trace antenna.

CONNECTION:
The typical connection shown in the above figure cannot work exactly at all times because there will be
no proper synchronization between the transmitter and the microcontroller unit. i.e., whatever the
microcontroller sends the data to the transmitter, the transmitter is not able to accept this data as this
will be not in the radio frequency range. Thus, we need an intermediate device which can accept the
input from the microcontroller, process it in the range of radio frequency range and then send it to the
transmitter. Thus, an encoder is used. The encoder used here is HT640 from HOLTEK SEMICONDUCTORS
INC.

ENCODER HT640:

PIN DESCRIPTION:

The 318 (3 power of 18) series of encoders begins a three-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a
transmission enable (TE for the HT600/HT640/HT680 or D12~D17 for the HT6187/HT6207/HT6247,
active high). This cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D12~D17) is held high.
Once the transmission enable falls low, the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops as
shown below.

Addres
s/data programming (preset)

The status of each address/data pin can be individually preset to logic high, logic low, or floating. If a
transmission enable signal is applied, the encoder scans and transmits the status of the 18 bits of
address/data serially in the order A0 to AD17.

Transmission enable

For the TE trigger type of encoders, transmission is enabled by applying a high signal to the TE pin. But
for the Data trigger type of encoders, it is enabled by applying a high signal to one of the data pins
D12~D17.

ASIC APPLICATION CIRCUIT OF HT640 ENCODER:

DEMO CIRCUIT: Transmission Circuit

The data sent from the microcontroller is encoded and sent to RF transmitter. The data is transmitted on
the antenna pin. Thus, this data should be received on the destination i.e, on RF receiver.

RF RECEIVER STR-433 MHz:

The data is received by the RF receiver from the antenna pin and this data is available on the data pins.
Two Data pins are provided in the receiver module. Thus, this data can be used for further applications

PINOUT:

ANT Antenna input.

GND Receiver Ground. Connect to ground plane.

VCC (5V) VCC pins are electrically connected and provide operating voltage for the receiver. VCC can be
applied to either or both. VCC should be bypassed with a .1μF ceramic capacitor. Noise on the power
supply will degrade receiver sensitivity.

DATA Digital data output. This output is capable of driving one TTL or CMOS load. It is a CMOS
compatible output.

CONNECTION:
The decoder used is HT648L from HOLTEK SEMICONDUCTOR INC.
PIN DESCRIPTION:

Features

 Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V.

 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology.
 Low standby current.
 Capable of decoding 18 bits of information.
 Pairs with HOLTEK’s 318 series of encoders.
 8~18 address pins.
 0~8 data pins.

 The 3^18 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are
paired with the 3^18 series of encoders.
 For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder pair with the same number of address and data
format should be selected.
 The 3^18 series of decoders receives serial address and data from that series of encoders that
are transmitted by a carrier using an RF medium.
 A signal on the DIN pin then activates the oscillator which in turns decodes the incoming
address and data.
 It then compares the serial input data twice continuously with its local address.
  If no errors or unmatched codes are encountered, the input data codes are decoded and then
transferred to the output pins.
 The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. That will last until the address code is
incorrect or no signal has been received.
 The 3^18 decoders are capable of decoding 18 bits of information that consists of N bits of
address and 18–N bits of data.
BASIC APPLICATION CIRCUIT OF HT648L DECODER:

DEMO CIRCUIT: Reception circuit

The data transmitted into the air is received by the receiver. The received data is taken from the data
line of the receiver and is fed to the decoder .The output of decoder is given to microcontroller and then
data is processed according to the applications.

GSM AT Commands:
This AT command tutorial is written to support our Teltonika T-ModemUSB, a USB2.0 GSM
modem based on the Nokia 12i GSM module - fast EDGE technology is supported. Some of the
most popular applications are SMS based telemetry, security and news broadcasting.

Steps using AT commands to send and receive SMS using a GSM modem from a computer

1. Setting up GSM modem

2. Using the HyperTerminal
3. Initial setup AT commands
4. Sending SMS using using AT commands
5. Receiving SMS using using AT commands
6. Using a computer program to send and receive SMS

After succesfully sending and receiving SMS using AT commands via the HyperTerminal,
developers can 'port' the ASCII instructions over to their programming environment, eg. Visual
Basic, C/C++ or Java and also programmically parse ASCII messages from modem.

1. Setting up your GSM modem

Most GSM modems comes with a simple manual and necessary drivers. To setup your T-
ModemUSB, download the USB GSM Modem Quick Start ( Windows ) guide (460kB PDF).
You would be able to send SMS from the Windows application and also setup GPRS
connectivity. The GSM modem will map itself as a COM serial port on your computer.
Most GSM modems comes with a simple manual and necessary drivers. To setup your T-
ModemUSB, download the USB GSM Modem Quick Start ( Windows ) guide (460kB PDF).
You would be able to send SMS from the Windows application and also setup GPRS
connectivity. The GSM modem will map itself as a COM serial port on your computer.
Hint :: By developing your AT commands using HyperTerminal, it will be easier for you to
develop your actual program codes in VB, C, Java or other platforms.

Go to START\Programs\Accessories\Communications\HyperTerminal (Win 2000) to create a

new connection, eg. "My USB GSM Modem". Suggested settings ::

- COM Port :: As indicated in the T-Modem Control Tool

- Bits per second :: 230400 ( or slower )
- Data Bits : 8
- Parity : None
- Stop Bits : 1
- Flow Control : Hardware

You are now ready to start working with AT commands. Type in "AT" and you should get a
"OK", else you have not setup your HyperTerminal correctly. Check your port settings and also
make sure your GSM modem is properly connected and the drivers installed.
The Initial setup AT commands are

AT Returns a "OK" to confirm that modem is working

AT+CPIN="xxxx"   To enter the PIN for your SIM ( if enabled )

AT+CREG? A "0,1" Reply confirms your modem is connected to GSM network

AT+CSQ Indicates the signal strength, 31.99 is maximum.

AT+CMGF=1 To format SMS as a TEXT message

AT+CSCA="+xxxxx"   Set your SMS center's number. Check with your provider.

AT+CMGS="+yyyyy" <Enter> > Your SMS text message here <Ctrl-Z>

The "+yyyyy" is your receipent's mobile number.

AT+CNMI=1,2,0,0,0   Set how the modem will response when a SMS is received

When a new SMS is received by the GSM modem, the DTE will receive the following

+CMT :  "+61xxxxxxxx" , , "04/08/30,23:20:00+40"

This the text SMS message sent to the modem

AT+CMGR=3 <Enter>  AT command to send read the received SMS from modem at 3rd slot.

+CMGR: "REC READ","+61xxxxxx",,"04/08/28,22:26:29+40"

This is the new SMS received by the GSM modem

AT+CMGD=3 <Enter>   To clear the SMS receive memory location in the GSM modem.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A RPS (Regulated Power
Supply) is the Power Supply with Rectification, Filtering and Regulation being done on the AC
mains to get a Regulated power supply for Microcontroller and for the other devices being
interfaced to it.

A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective
of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as “Regulated D.C Power Supply”

For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one
Electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output
voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called
the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the
middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the
power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is
stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input)
coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS

Power Out= Power In

VS X IS=VP X IP
Vp = primary (input) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip  = primary (input) current    
RECTIFIER:

A circuit which is used to convert ac to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The process of

conversion ac to dc is called “rectification”

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS:

 Half wave Rectifier

 Full wave Rectifier
1. Centre tap full wave rectifier.

2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.

Full-wave Rectifier:

From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge
rectifier as more advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full
wave bridge rectifier circuit.

Bridge Rectifier:

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-
wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in fig (a) to
achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes
wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Fig (A)

Operation: During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased
while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is
shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.
 Fig (B)
During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward
biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow direction is
shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.

Fig(C)

Filter:

A Filter is a device which removes the ac component of rectifier output but allows the
dc component to reach the load.

Capacitor Filter:
 We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is
121% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages of
ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications. Ripples can be removed by one of the
following methods of filtering.

(a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by –pass for the ripples voltage though
it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the D.C. to appear at the load.

(b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current (due to high
impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the dc (due to low resistance to dc).

(c) Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter section filter,
multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties mentioned in (a) and (b) above.
Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier and another with full wave
rectifier.

Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC

supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from
the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC
voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value).

To calculate the value of capacitor(C),

C = ¼*√3*f*r*Rl
Where,
f = supply frequency,
r = ripple factor,
Rl = load resistance
Note: In our circuit we are using 1000µF hence large value of capacitor is placed to
reduce ripples and to improve the DC component.

Regulator:
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators
are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection
from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of
the fixed voltage regulators ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805
+5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the
positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the
Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power,
you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

Fig 6.1.6 A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

78XX:

The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The
LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications.
When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an
effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current.
The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263packages,

Features:

• Output Current of 1.5A

• Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%

• Internal thermal overload protection

• Internal Short-Circuit Limited

• Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V.
CHAPTER 5

System Design

Designing of this system is possible when you select the specific controller to suite. For this we
selected 89S52 controller. With the help of 89S52 controller, intelligent ambulance which will
reach the hospitals without any problem in heavy traffics.The system can be implemented
successfully with the help IR, RF and GSM technology. To the ambulance system, we shall
connect IR receiver to receive the signal from IR transmitter which shall be connected near to the
traffic post. And also connect the RF transmitter and GSM modem to ambulance system. And at
traffic post, we shall connect another system, which shall be used to control the traffic signals.
When ambulance comes nearby (for example 100 mts) the traffic post, the IR transmitter sents a
signal to ambulance indicating that ambulance is nearby the traffic post. IR receiver receives that
signals and amubalance system shall send the signal to traffic post system mentioning that
ambulance has arrived at the post using Rf transmitter. Immediately traffic post system receives
the signal by using RF receiver, give green signal to ambulance to cross the traffic post. GSM
modem is used to communicate with hospital for informing the status of the patient in
ambulance.
5.1 Hardware Design:
5.1.1 Schematic

J3

LC D

G N D
P 0 .0
P 0 .1

P 0 .4
P 0 .5
P 0 .2
P 0 .3

P 0 .6
P 0 .7
VC C
gnd
vcc

R S

EN
VC C

W
3
R 6 VC C

10
11

14
15
12
13

16
C 5

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
C AP
C 7 PO T
VC C
U 3

2 1 C AP
C 4 V+ C 1+ 3
C 1- C 6 U 1
6 J3
V- 4
P2 C 2+ 5 1 1 40 J2
5 C AP C 2- 2 2 P 1 .0 VC C
9 14 11 C AP 3 3 P 1 .1 39 1
4 13 T1O U T T 1 IN 12 4 4 P 1 .2 P 0 .0 /A D 0 38 2
8 R 1 IN R 1O U T 5 5 P 1 .3 P 0 .1 /A D 1 37 3
3 7 10 TXD 6 6 P 1 .4 P 0 .2 /A D 2 36 4
7 8 T2O U T T 2 IN 9 R XD SW 1 C 1 7 7 P 1 .5 P 0 .3 /A D 3 35 5
2 R 2 IN R 2O U T 8 8 P 1 .6 P 0 .4 /A D 4 34 6
C P 1 .7 P 0 .5 /A D 5
6 33 7
1 P 0 .6 /A D 6 32 8
M A X23 2 C O N 8 9 P 0 .7 /A D 7
R ST
C O N N E C TO R D B 9 R 4 31 C O N 8
R J4 E A /V P P
J7 30
C O N 2 1 R XD 1 0 A L E /P R O G 29
2 TXD 1 1 P 3 .0 /R XD PSEN J2
3 1 2 P 3 .1 /T XD
4 1 3 P 3 .2 /IN T 0 28 1
5 1 4 P 3 .3 /IN T 1 P 2 .7 /A 1 5 27 2
P 3 .4 /T 0 P 2 .6 /A 1 4
1
2

6 1 5 26 3
7 1 6 P 3 .5 /T 1 P 2 .5 /A 1 3 25 4
8 1 7 P 3 .6 /W R P 2 .4 /A 1 2 24 5
C 3 P 3 .7 /R D P 2 .3 /A 1 1 23 6
P 2 .2 /A 1 0 22 7
C O N 8 18 P 2 .1 /A 9 21 8
1

U 6 XTA L2 P 2 .0 /A 8
C AP
1

t / f ( 4 p in )
Y 1 C O N 8
C R Y S TA L
3

C 2
19
XTA L1
3

20
C AP G N D

D 1 D 2 D 4 D 6 U 5
D IO D E D IO D E D IO D E D IO D E +5V
1 2 A T89S 52
V IN VO U T
G N D

C 8 R 5
L M 7 8 0 5 /T O 104 R
C 9
3

= 1 0 0 0 U F /2 5 V

T it le
C < T it le >
LED
D 5 S iz e D ocum ent N um ber R ev
A <D oc> <R ev C ode>

D a te : T h u r s d a y , J u ly 1 5 , 2 0 1 0 Sheet 1 of 1
5.1.2. Schematic Description

The main aim of this power supply is to convert the 230V AC into 5V DC in order to give supply
for the TTL. This schematic explanation includes the detailed pin connections of every device with the
microcontroller.

This schematic explanation includes the detailed pin connections of every device with the
microcontroller.

Let us see the pin connections of each and every device with the microcontroller in detail.

Power Supply: In this process we are using a step down transformer, a bridge rectifier, a smoothing
circuit and the RPS. At the primary of the transformer we are giving the 230V AC supply. The secondary
is connected to the opposite terminals of the Bridge rectifier as the input. From other set of opposite
terminals we are taking the output to the rectifier.

The bridge rectifier converts the AC coming from the secondary of the transformer into
pulsating DC. The output of this rectifier is further given to the smoother circuit which is capacitor in our
project. The smoothing circuit eliminates the ripples from the pulsating DC and gives the pure DC to the
RPS to get a constant output DC voltage. The RPS regulates the voltage as per our requirement.

Microcontroller: The microcontroller AT89S52 with Pull up resistors at Port0 and crystal oscillator
of 11.0592 MHz crystal in conjunction with couple of capacitors of is placed at 18 th & 19th pins of 89S51
to make it work (execute) properly.

RF Module: The RF transmitter and receiver are input and output devices. This is connected to the
port P2 of the Microcontroller through the decoder and encoder for transmitter and receiver circuit
respectively

LCD: The LCD data lines are connected to port 0 of the microcontroller in the schematic and
the control signals like RS, EN are connected to pin2,3 of port 1.
 IR Module: The IR transmitter and receiver are input and output devices. This is
connected to the port P3 of the Microcontroller.

GSM module: Here the modem is connected to microcontroller by using serial port of 89S52. i.e., Tx
and Rx signals (pin 10, 11)

5.2.SOFTWARE Components

5.2.1. ABOUT SOFTWARE

Software used is:
*Keil software for C programming

*Express PCB for lay out design

*Express SCH for schematic design

KEIL µVision3
µVision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and
debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:

 A project manager.
 A make facility.
 Tool configuration.
 Editor.
 A powerful debugger.
This software is used for execution of microcontroller programs.

Keil development tools for the MC architecture support every level of software developer from
the professional applications engineer to the student just learning about embedded software
development.

The industry-standard keil C compilers, macro assemblers, debuggers,real, time Kernels, Single-board
computers and emulators support all avr derive--atives and help you to get more projects completed on
schedule. The keil software development tools are designed to solve the complex problems facing
embedded software developers.

 When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller you the device database
and the µvision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options for you.
 Numerous example programs are included to help you get started with the most
popular embedded avr devices.
 The keil µ Vision debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals(PC, CAN, UART,
SPI,Interrupts,I/O ports, A/D converter, D/A converter and PWM modules)of your avr device. Simulation
helps you understand h/w configurations and avoids time wasted on setup problems. Additionally,
with simulation, you can write and test applications before target h/w is available.

 When you are ready to begin testing your s/w application with target h/w, use the
MON51, MON390, MONADI, or flash MON51 target monitors, the ISD51 In-System Debugger, or the
ULINK USB-JTAG adapter to download and test program code on your target system.

Express PCB Express PCB is a Circuit Design Software and PCB manufacturing service. One can learn
almost everything you need to know about Express PCB from the help topics included with the programs
given.

Details: Express PCB, Version 5.6.0

Express SCH The Express SCH schematic design program is very easy to use. This software enables
the user to draw the Schematics with drag and drop options. A Quick Start Guide is provided by which
the user can learn how to use it.

Details: Express SCH, Version 5.6.0

EMBEDDED C: The programming Language used here in this project is an Embedded C Language. This
Embedded C Language is different from the generic C language in few things like

a) Data types
b) Access over the architecture addresses.
The Embedded C Programming Language forms the user friendly language with access over Port
addresses, SFR Register addresses etc.

Signed char:
 o Used to represent the – or + values.
o As a result, we have only 7 bits for the magnitude of the signed number, giving us values from
-128 to +127.

Embedded C Data types:

Data Types Size in Bits Data Range/Usage

unsigned char 8-bit 0-255

signed char 8-bit -128 to +127

unsigned int 16-bit 0 to 65535

signed int 16-bit -32,768 to +32,767

sbit 1-bit SFR bit addressable only

Bit 1-bit RAM bit addressable only

sfr 8-bit RAM addresses 80-FFH only

CHAPTER 6

Implementation

The applications as discussed in the design are implemented and the source code related to the
current work is pasted in the appendix.

SOFTWARE
µVision3
µVision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and debug
embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:

 A project manager.
 A make facility.
 Tool configuration.
 Editor.
 A powerful debugger.
To help you get started, several example programs (located in the \C51\Examples, \C251\Examples,
\C166\Examples, and \ARM\...\Examples) are provided.

 HELLO is a simple program that prints the string "Hello World" using the Serial Interface.

Building an Application in µVision2:

To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in µVision2, you must:

1. Select Project - (for example, 166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).

2. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.
µVision2 compiles, assembles, and links the files in your project.

Creating Your Own Application in µVision2

To create a new project in µVision2, you must:

 1. Select Project - New Project.
2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.
3. Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device from the Device
Database™.
4. Create source files to add to the project.
5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, Files, Add/Files, select Source Group1, and add the source files
to the project.
6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the target device from
the Device Database™ all special options are set automatically. You typically only need to
configure the memory map of your target hardware. Default memory model settings are optimal
for most applications.
7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

Debugging an Application in µVision2

To debug an application created using µVision2, you must:

1. Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.

2. Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may enter G, main in the
Output Window to execute to the main C function.
3. Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.
Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.

Starting µVision2 and creating a Project

µVision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the program icon. To
create a new project file select from the µVision2 menu

Project – New Project…. This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new project file
name.

We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply use the icon Create
New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then select this folder and enter the file name for
the new project, i.e. Project1.
 µVision2 creates a new project file with the name PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a default target
and file group name. You can see these names in the Project

Window – Files.

Now use from the menu Project – Select Device for Target and select a CPU for your project. The
Select Device dialog box shows the µVision2 device database. Just select the microcontroller you use.
We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This selection sets necessary tool options for
the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the tool Configuration

Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files

Typical, the tool settings under Options – Target are all you need to start a new application. You
may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build Target toolbar icon. When
you build an application with syntax errors, µVision2 will display errors and warning messages in the
Output

Window – Build page. A double click on a message line opens the source file on the correct location in a
µVision2 editor window.

Once you have successfully generated your application you can start debugging.

After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to download the
software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. µVision2 creates HEX files with each build process
when Create HEX files under Options for Target – Output is enabled. You may start your PROM
programming utility after the make process when you specify the program under the option Run User
Program #1.

CPU Simulation
 µVision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped for read,
write, or code execution access. The µVision2 simulator traps and reports illegal memory accesses being
done.

In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the integrated peripherals of
the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of the CPU you have selected are configured from
the Device

Database selection

You have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more Information
about selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral components using the
Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each peripheral using the controls in the dialog boxes.

Start Debugging

You start the debug mode of µVision2 with the Debug – Start/Stop Debug Session command.
Depending on the Options for Target – Debug Configuration, µVision2 will load the application program
and run the startup code µVision2 saves the editor screen layout and restores the screen layout of the
last debug session. If the program execution stops, µVision2 opens an editor window with the source
text or shows CPU instructions in the disassembly window. The next executable statement is marked
with a yellow arrow. During debugging, most editor features are still available.

For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program source text of
your application is shown in the same windows. The µVision2 debug mode differs from the edit mode in
the following aspects:

_ The “Debug Menu and Debug Commands” described on page 28 are Available. The additional debug
windows are discussed in the following.

_ The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build Commands are disabled.

Disassembly Window
 The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and assembly program or
just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed instructions may be displayed with Debug –
View Trace Records. To enable the trace history, set Debug – Enable/Disable Trace Recording.

If you select the Disassembly Window as the active window all program step commands work on CPU
instruction level rather than program source lines. You can select a text line and set or modify code
breakpoints using toolbar buttons or the context menu commands.

You may use the dialog Debug – Inline Assembly… to modify the CPU instructions. That allows
you to correct mistakes or to make temporary changes to the target program you are debugging.

CHAPTER 7

System Testing

The system can be tested with the use of KEIL compiler. This one we are using to write
programs for 8051 controller. After writing programs using 8051 programmer we can dump code
in to the controller. RF encoder and decoders we will connect to port pins at transmitting and
receiving sides. First we shall write diagnostic code to test the basic functionality of the each
device connected to the system. Then we write our application and test it.

CHAPTER 8

Results and Evaluation

This chpater lists down the results realized from the practical work and examines whether
ideas/solution approaches recommended in research are met by the practical implementation.

Because now a days IR, RF and GSM technology became very popular,here its very easy to use
for any applications with the help of 8051 controller.In all low end applications now a days we
are using 8051 controllers like industrial automation and data acquisition.
.
CHAPTER 9

Conclusion

With this we can conclude that the system which has developed by using controller having the
following features like 8 bit 8051 architecture in a tiny 40 pin DIP package,128B RAM and 4kB
on-chip Flash Program Memory, can be really used in real time environment. But there may be
some limitations and constraits which we have to look into it.
For low end applications this controller is very easy to use and at the same time RF also
widely accepted protocol for mobile communication.

References
[1] 8051 Architecture and Programming by Mazidi

[2] 8051 Programming by Ayala

[3] MAX232 user guide by MAXIM semiconductors

[4] Wikipedia

[5] RF Technology

[6] GSM AT commands user manual

Appendix

Source code.

Traffic post system

#include<reg51.h>

#include"lcd.h"
sbit gl= P3^4;

sbit rl= P3^5;

sbit rf=P3^7;

void main()

unsigned char ch;

lcd_init();

msgdisplay(" INTELLIGENT AMBULANCE ");

delay(600);

delay(600);

while(1)

lcdcmd(0x01);

lcdcmd(0x80);

while(rf==1); // wait to rceive data (VT monitor)

while(rf==0);

ch=P2;

if(ch=='A')

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" NO AMBULANCE ");

gl=1;

rl=0;

delay(100);

if(ch=='B')

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" AMBULANCE ARRIVED ");

gl=0;;

rl=1;

delay(100);

if(ch=='*')

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" NO AMBULANCE ");

gl=1;

rl=0;

delay(100);
}

if(ch=='#')

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" AMBULANCE ARRIVED ");

gl=0;;

rl=1;

delay(100);

Ambulance system:

#include<reg51.h>

#include"lcd.h"

void Enter(void);

void GSM_Init(void);

void Modem_send(unsigned char *);

void send_sms(unsigned char *,unsigned char *);

void Delay1(unsigned int);

sbit ld= P3^3;

sbit ir= P3^4;

sbit rf=P3^7;

void main()

SCON = 0x50; //Mode 1..8 bit data,..1 stop bit,..1 start bit

TMOD = 0x20; //Timer 1....Mode 2...8 bit Auto Reload

TH1 = 0xFD; //Baud Rate 9600

TR1 = 1;

ld=0;

delay(500);

ld=1;

lcd_init();

msgdisplay(" INTELLIGENT AMBULANCE ");

delay(500);

GSM_Init();

ld=0;

delay(500);

ld=1;

while(1)
 {

while(ir==1) // no ambulance

lcdcmd(0x01);

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" NO AMBULANCE ");

ld=1;

rf=1;

P2='*';

delay(50);

rf=0;

rf=1;

P2='A';

delay(50);

rf=0;

while(ir==0) //ambulance arrived

{

lcdcmd(0x01);

lcdcmd(0x80);

msgdisplay(" AMBULANCE ARRIVED ");

ld=0;

rf=1;

P2='B';

delay(50);

rf=0;

rf=1;

P2='#';

delay(50);

rf=0;

send_sms("AT+CMGS=\"8142154992\"","PATIENT UNDER CRICITAL

CONDITION");

//send_sms("AT+CMGS=\"8978987877\"","PATIENT UNDER CRICITAL

CONDITION");

delay(50);

}
}

void GSM_Init(void)

lcdcmd(0x01);

msgdisplay("GSM Initializing");

Delay1(100);

Modem_send("AT");

Modem_send("ATE0");

Modem_send("AT+CSMS=0");

Modem_send("AT+IPR=9600");

Modem_send("AT+CMGF=1");

Modem_send("AT&W");

Modem_send("AT+CNMI=2,1,0,0,0");

lcdcmd(0x01);

msgdisplay("GSM Initialized");

Delay1(100);

}
void Modem_send(unsigned char *ch)

unsigned char cha;

while(*ch)

SBUF = *ch;

while(TI == 0);

TI = 0;

ch++;

Enter();

TI = 0;

RI = 0;

while(1)

while(RI == 0);

RI = 0;

cha = SBUF;

if(cha == 'O');

while(RI == 0);

RI = 0;

cha = SBUF;

if(cha == 'K')
 break;

SBUF = 'A';

while(TI == 0);

TI = 0;

SBUF = '/';

while(TI == 0);

TI = 0;

TI = 0;

RI = 0;

void send_sms(unsigned char *No,unsigned char *v)

unsigned char ch1='X';

while(*No)

SBUF=*No;

while(TI==0);

TI=0;

No++;

Enter();
 while(ch1!='>')

while(RI==0);

ch1=SBUF;

RI=0;

while(*v)

SBUF=*v;

while(TI==0);

TI=0;

v++;

RI=0;

TI=0;

SBUF=0x1A;

while(TI==0);

TI=0;

RI=0;

}
void Delay1(unsigned int itime)

unsigned int i,k=0;

for(i=0;i<itime;i++)

for(k=0;k<1000;k++);