INDUSTRIAL

TRAINING REPORT

CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF
HAND TOOLS,
MAQSUDAN,JALANDHAR

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Introduction
The aim is to provide technology support services and trained manpower to
engineering industry in general and the hand tools industries in particular to
achieve global standards.
• CIHT is an autonomous organization.

• CIHT is a National Institute.

• CIHT was established in 1983 with assistance from UNDP,

Government of India and Government of Punjab.

• CIHT is aspiring for latest technology to be a leader in region.

Organizational Profile
Hand Tools Industry consists of organized, small scale and cottage sector.
About 80 % of small scale and cottage sector is located in and around Jalandhar
in Punjab, Nagaur in Rajasthan and Purulia in West Bengal. The Hand Tools
Industries are playing a vital role in economic development and earning
valuable foreign exchange for the country.

With a view to provide technology support services to engineering industry in

general and the hand tools industries in particular, the Government of India has
set up Central Institute of Hand Tools as a National Institute in Jalandhar, in
the state of Punjab as an autonomous organization with the assistance of
U.N.D.P and Govt. of Punjab.

The management of the institute rests with the Governing Council appointed by
the Govt. of India , with Development Commissioner, small scale industries as
ex-officio chairman of the institute. The Principal Director is the Chief
Executive Officer of the Institute. Other members include the Govt. officials
and the industrialists from the industry.

CIHT can offer services to local as well as industries in

Developing Countries.

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Consultancy
• Design & Manufacture of various toolings, jigs, fixtures and gauges used
in hand tool and other Engineering industry.
• Induction Hardening processes applicable to various hand tools i.e Pipe
Wrenches, Pliers, all type of hammers and other engineering items.
• Forging of various hand tools i.e. Spanners, Wrenches, Pliers, Claw
Hammers, Pipe Wrenches and other commercial forgings.
• Chemical and Physical testing of ferrous material and calibration of
gauges.
• Certificate Courses and Short Term Courses in Tool & Die Making.
• Establishment of Tool Rooms & Production Shops as per product mix.
• Selection of Machine Tools ( New & Modern) apart from existing
infrastructure.
• Training Personnel in available fields of testing and quality control.
• Similar Testing Laboratories / Standards rooms can be developed in
those countries.

Tool Room Services

The Tool Room is equipped with following indigenous as well as imported
machinery: -
• CNC Wire Cut Machine
• CNC Machining Centre (VMC-800) HMT
• CNC Turning CL 2050 Make Batliboi
• CNC Vertical Machining Centre, DAEWOO
• CNC Turner Lathe Machine
• CNC Trainer Milling Machine
• 3D Co-ordinate Measuring Machine
• Injection Moulding Machine
• Spark Erosion Machine
• Lathe HMT NH-22/1500

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 • Lathe HMT NH-26/3000
• Vertical Milling Machine (HMT) - 2 Nos.
• Universal Milling Machine (HMT) - 2 Nos.
• Cylindrical Grinding Machine
• Horizontal Surface Grinding Machine
• Tool & Cutter Grinder
• Copy Milling Machine
• Shaper Machine - 2 Nos.
• Band Saw
• Power Hacksaw
The Tool Room is providing assistance to the industries by way of making: -
• Forging Dies
• Trimming Dies
• Blanking Dies
• Broaches
• Gauges

Heat Treatment Shop

The Heat Treatment Shop is equipped with the following indigenous as well as
imported machinery/equipment to undertake training and heat treatment of
various Hand Tools and other engineering industries.
• Induction Heater (High Frequency), 60 KW
• Induction Heater (High Frequency), 20 KW
• Salt Bath Furnace (Neutral)
• Electric Tempering Furnace - 3 Nos.
• High Speed Steel Electrode Type Salt Bath Furnace
• Hydraulic Straightening Press
• Gas Carburizing Furnace
The department is also providing assistance by way of doing quality Heat
Treatment on: -
• Blanking Dies
• Trimming Dies
• Hand Tools
• Gears for Automobiles etc.
• Mild Steel

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Forge Shop
The Forge Shop is equipped with the following hammers and presses to
provide technical training and common facilities services to the industries: -
• Forging Press, Capacity 600 Ton (Imported)
• Belt Drop Hammer, Capacity - 2 Ton
• Belt Drop Hammer, Capacity - 1 Ton
• Power Press, Capacity 120 Ton (Italy)
• Power Press, Capacity 100 Ton
• Power Press, Capacity 50 Ton
• Power Press, Capacity 200 Ton
• Billet Shearing Machine, Capacity 100 MM
• Oil Fired Furnaces - 2 Nos.
• Induction Heater 125 KW
This department is providing common facility services by way of forging
following Hand Tools: -
• Claw Hammer
• Open End Spanner
• Brick Blaster
• Masson Hammer
• Pipe Wrench
• Bearing Puller
• Ring Spanner
• Pipe Fittings
TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL
This department is providing assistance to the industry by way of testing
various materials i.e. chemical composition, physical properties etc. The
section is also carrying out the inspection of various screw gauges and
measuring instruments.

Testing & Quality Control Section has the following main equipments: -
• Equipment for chemical testing for iron, steel brass and bronze etc.
• Salt spray test apparatus
• Bursting Strength Testing Machine
• Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Tester

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 • Metallurgical Micro-scope for Testing Micro Structure
• Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
• Proving rings for calibration of Universal Testing Machines
• Universal Testing Machine
• Torque Testing Equipment and Hand Load Testing Fixture
• Vickers / Rockwell Hardness Tester
• Tool Makers Micro-scope
• PVC Insulation Testing Equipment
• Monometer Thickness Gauge
• B.N.F. Jet Test Apparatus
• Multi Product Calibrator
• Profile Projector
• Slip Gauge Comparator
• Screw Thread Measuring Machine
• Spectrometer for Analysis of Metals
This section is providing assistance to the industry by way of testing various
materials i.e.: -
• Chemical Composition
• Physical Properties etc.
• Inspection of various screw gauges and measuring instrument.

CNC MACHINES(Computer Numeric Control)

CNC LATHE:

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CNC lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes (multispindle, etc.)
due to their ease of setting and operation. They are designed to use modern
carbide tooling and fully use modern processes. The part may be designed and
the toolpaths and the toolpaths programmed by the CAD/CAM process, and the
resulting file uploaded to the machine, and once set and trialled the machine
will continue to turn out parts under the occasional supervision of an operator.
The machine is controlled electronically via a computer menu style interface,
the program may be modified and displayed at the machine, along with a
simulated view of the process. The setter/operator needs a high level of skill to
perform the process, however the knowledge base is broader compared to the
older production machines where intimate knowledge of each machine was
considered essential. These machines are often set and operated by the same
person, where the operator will supervise a small number of machines (cell).

Electric discharge machining:

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Electric discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to
as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion, is
a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained using electrical
discharges (sparks). Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of
rapidly recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a
dielectric liquid and subject to an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is
called the tool-electrode, or simply the ‘tool’ or ‘electrode’, while the other is
called the workpiece-electrode, or ‘workpiece’.
When the distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the intensity of the
electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the
strength of the dielectric (at least in some point(s)), which breaks, allowing
current to flow between the two electrodes. This phenomenon is the same as
the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser) (see also breakdown voltage). As a
result, material is removed from both the electrodes. Once the current flow
stops (or it is stopped - depending on the type of generator), new liquid
dielectric is usually conveyed into the inter-electrode volume enabling the solid
particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating proprieties of the
dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode
volume is commonly referred to as flushing. Also, after a current flow, a
difference of potential between the two electrodes is restored to what it was
before the breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur.

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Generalities:
Electrical discharge machining is a machining method primarily used for hard
metals or those that would be very difficult to machine with traditional
techniques. EDM typically works with materials that are electrically
conductive, although methods for machining insulating ceramics with EDM
have also been proposed. EDM can cut intricate contours or cavities in pre-
hardened steel without the need for heat treatment to soften and re-harden
them. This method can be used with any other metal or metal alloy such as
titanium, hastelloy, kovar, and inconel. Also, applications of this process to
shape polycrystalline diamond tools have been reported.
EDM is often included in the ‘non-traditional’ or ‘non-conventional’ group of
machining methods together with processes such as electrochemical machining
(ECM), water jet cutting (WJ, AWJ), laser cutting and opposite to the
‘conventional’ group (turning, milling, grinding, drilling and any other process
whose material removal mechanism is essentially based on mechanical forces).

Applications:
Prototype production
The EDM process is most widely used by the mould-making tool and die
industries, but is becoming a common method of making prototype and
production parts, especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics
industries in which production quantities are relatively low. In Sinker EDM, a
graphite, copper tungsten or pure copper electrode is machined into the desired
(negative) shape and fed into the workpiece on the end of a vertical ram.
Coinage die making
For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges by the coinage
(stamping) process, the positive master may be made from sterling silver, since
(with appropriate machine settings) the master is significantly eroded and is
used only once. The resultant negative die is then hardened and used in a drop
hammer to produce stamped flats from cutout sheet blanks of bronze, silver, or
low proof gold alloy. For badges these flats may be further shaped to a curved
surface by another die. This type of EDM is usually performed submerged in
an oil-based dielectric. The finished object may be further refined by hard
(glass) or soft (paint) enameling and/or electroplated with pure gold or nickel.
Softer materials such as silver may be hand engraved as a refinement.

Advantages and disadvantages:

Some of the advantages of EDM include machining of:
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 • Complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to
produce with conventional cutting tools
• Extremely hard material to very close tolerances
• Very small work pieces where conventional cutting tools
may damage the part from excess cutting tool pressure.
• There is no direct contact between tool and work piece.
Therefore delicate sections and weak materials can be
machined without any distortion.
Some of the disadvantages of EDM include:
• The slow rate of material removal.
• The additional time and cost used for creating electrodes
for ram/sinker EDM.
• Reproducing sharp corners on the workpiece is difficult
due to electrode wear.
• Specific power consumption is very high

WIRE EDM:

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In wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), also known as wire-cut EDM
and wire cutting, a thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is fed through
the workpiece, submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid, typically deionized
water.[20] Wire-cut EDM is typically used to cut plates as thick as 300mm and
to make punches, tools, and dies from hard metals that are difficult to machine
with other methods.
The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool, is held between upper and
lower diamond guides. The guides, usually CNC-controlled, move in the x–y
plane. On most machines, the upper guide can also move independently in the
z–u–v axis, giving rise to the ability to cut tapered and transitioning shapes
(circle on the bottom square at the top for example). The upper guide can
control axis movements in x–y–u–v–i–j–k–l–. This allows the wire-cut EDM to
be programmed to cut very intricate and delicate shapes.
The upper and lower diamond guides are usually accurate to 0.004 mm, and
can have a cutting path or kerf as small as 0.12 mm using Ø 0.1 mm wire,
though the average cutting kerf that achieves the best economic cost and
machining time is 0.335 mm using Ø 0.25 brass wire. The reason that the
cutting width is greater than the width of the wire is because sparking occurs

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from the sides of the wire to the work piece, causing erosion. This "overcut" is
necessary, for many applications it is adequately predictable and therefore can
be compensated for (for instance in micro-EDM this is not often the case).
Spools of wire are long—an 8 kg spool of 0.25 mm wire is just over 19
kilometers in length. Wire diameter can be as small as 20 micrometres and the
geometry precision is not far from +/- 1 micrometre.
The wire-cut process uses water as its dielectric fluid, controlling its resistivity
and other electrical properties with filters and de-ionizer units. The water
flushes the cut debris away from the cutting zone. Flushing is an important
factor in determining the maximum feed rate for a given material thickness.
Along with tighter tolerances, multiaxis EDM wire-cutting machining center
have added features such as multiheads for cutting two parts at the same time,
controls for preventing wire breakage, automatic self-threading features in case
of wire breakage, and programmable machining strategies to optimize the
operation.
Wire-cutting EDM is commonly used when low residual stresses are desired,
because it does not require high cutting forces for removal of material. If the
energy/power per pulse is relatively low (as in finishing operations), little
change in the mechanical properties of a material is expected due to these low
residual stresses, although material that hasn't been stress-relieved can distort in
the machining process.
The workpiece may undergo a significant thermal cycle, its severity depending
on the technological parameters used. Such thermal cycles may cause
formation of a recast layer on the part and residual tensile stresses on the
workpiece.

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FORGING PROCESS:

Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.[1]

Traditionally, forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, and
though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to
the 12th century, the hammer and anvil are not obsolete. The smithy or forge
has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered processes,
production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands
of modern industry.
In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers
powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers
may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power
hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses
are common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but
they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more convenient, power
sources.

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Advantages and disadvantages:
Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or
machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal
grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is
continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength
characteristics.
Some metals may be forged cold, however iron and steel are almost always hot
forged. Hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold
forming, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary
machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be
desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as
heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that
are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and
titanium, can be hot forged, followed by hardening.
Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery,
tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high temperature
furnace (sometimes referred to as the forge) will be required to heat ingots or
billets. Owing to the massiveness of large forging hammers and presses and the
parts they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot
metal, a special building is frequently required to house the operation. In the
case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock
and vibration generated by the hammer. Most forging operations will require
the use of metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully
heat treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the
tremendous forces involved.

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Processes:

A cross-section of a forged connecting rod that has been etched to show the
grain flow.
There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they
can be grouped into three main classes:
Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases
Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases
Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces
multidirectional flow
Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die
forging, impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging and
upsetting.[1]
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Temperature:
Hot working and Cold working
All of the following forging processes can be performed at various
temperatures, however they are generally classified by whether the metal
temperature is above or below the recrystallization temperature. If the
temperature is above the material's recrystallization temperature it is deemed
hot forging; if the temperature is below the material's recrystallization
temperature but above 3/10ths of the recrystallization temperature (on an
absolute scale) it is deemed warm forging; if below 3/10ths of the
recrystallization temperature (usually room temperature) then it is deemed cold
forging. The main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed
work hardening effects are negated by the recrystallization process. Cold
forging typically results in work hardening of the piece.

Drop forging:

There are two types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and closed-die drop
forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the
former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does. The similarity
between the two is that a hammer is raised up and then dropped onto the
workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die.

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Open-die drop forging:
Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging, a
hammer strikes and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary
anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies (the surfaces
that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing
it to flow except where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to
orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually
flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized
operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or
be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool.
Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing
and custom work. In some cases, open-die forging may be employed to rough-
shape ingots to prepare them for subsequent operations. Open-die forging may
also orient the grain to increase strength in the required direction.
Cogging is successive deformation of a bar along its length using an open-die
drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw material to the proper
thickness. Once the proper thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved
via edging.
Edging is the process of concentrating material using an concave shaped open
die. The process is called edging, because it is usually carried out on the ends
of the workpiece. Fullering is a similar process that thins out sections of the

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forging using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the workpieces for
further forging processes.

Edging Fullering

Impression-die drop forging:

Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In impression-die
work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil.
Usually the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the
workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is
generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds.
Depending on the size and complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped
multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die
cavities, forming what is referred to as flash. The flash cools more rapidly than
the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it
helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to
completely fill the die cavity. After forging the flash is removed.
In commercial impression-die forging the workpiece is usually moved through
a series of cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first
impression is used to distribute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to
the needs of later cavities; this impression is called an edging, fullering, or
bending impression. The following cavities are called blocking cavities, in
which the piece is working into a shape that more closely resembles the final
product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and

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large fillets. The final shape is forged in a final or finisher impression cavity. If
there is only a short run of parts to be done it may be more economical for the
die to lack a final impression cavity and instead machine the final features.[2]
Impression-die forging has been further improved in recent years through
increased automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding,
positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after
forging. One variation of impression-die forging is called flashless forging, or
true closed-die forging. In this type of forging the die cavities are completely
closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to
this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of
the starting material. The disadvantages of this process include additional cost
due to a more complex die design and the need for better lubrication and
workpiece placement.
There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die
forging. One method incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal.
The casting is removed after it has solidified, but while still hot. It is then
finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed, then the part is quench
hardened. Another variation follows the same process as outlined above, except
the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplet into shaped
collectors (similar to the Osprey process).
Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and
required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low
recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with more
volume. This is one of the major reasons closed-die forgings are often used in
the automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings are common in these
industrial sectors is because forgings generally have about a 20 percent higher
strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same
material.

Design of impression-die forgings and tooling

Forging dies are usually made of high-alloy or tool steel. Dies must be impact
resistant, wear resistant, maintain strength at high temperatures, and have the
ability to withstand cycles of rapid heating and cooling. In order to produce a
better, more economical die the following rules should be followed:

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  The dies should part along a single, flat plane if at all possible. If not the
parting plan should follow the contour of the part.
 The parting surface should be a plane through the center of the forging
and not near an upper or lower edge.
 Adequate draft should be provided; a good guideline is at least 3° for
aluminum and 5° to 7° for steel
 Generous fillets and radii should be used
 Ribs should be low and wide
 The various sections should be balanced to avoid extreme difference in
metal flow
 Full advantage should be taken of fiber flow lines
 Dimensional tolerances should not be closer than necessary
1.
2.
The dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die
forging method are outlined in the table below. It should be noted that the
dimensions across the paring plane are affected by the closure of the dies, and
are therefore dependent die wear and the thickness of the final flash.
Dimensions that are completely contained within a single die segment or half
can be maintained at a significantly greater level of accuracy.

Dimensional tolerances for impression-die forgings

Mass [kg (lb)] Minus tolerance [mm (in)] Plus tolerance [mm (in)]

0.45 (1) 0.15 (0.006) 0.48 (0.018)

0.91 (2) 0.20 (0.008) 0.61 (0.024)

2.27 (5) 0.25 (0.010) 0.76 (0.030)

4.54 (10) 0.28 (0.011) 0.84 (0.033)

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9.07 (20) 0.33 (0.013) 0.99 (0.039)

22.68 (50) 0.48 (0.019) 1.45 (0.057)

45.36 (100) 0.74 (0.029) 2.21 (0.087)

A lubricant is always used when forging to reduce friction and wear. It is also
used to as a thermal barrier to restrict heat transfer from the workpiece to the
die. Finally, the lubricant acts as a parting compound to prevent the part from
sticking in one of the dies.
Press forging:
Press forging works slowly by applying continuous pressure or force, which
differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The
amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in
seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press
forging operation can be done either cold or hot.

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The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is
its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually
only deforms the surfaces of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and
anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. Another
advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new parts strain rate.
We specifically know what kind of strain can be put on the part, because the
compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled. There are a few
disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in
contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a
time consuming process due to the amount of steps and how long each of them
take. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with
workpiece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the
surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less
ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore heated
dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote surface flow, and enable the
production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece may also need

22
to be reheated. When done in high productivity, press forging is more
economical than hammer forging. The operation also creates closer tolerances.
In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by the machinery, when in
press forging, the greater percentage of work is used in the work piece. Another
advantage is that the operation can be used to create any size part because there
is no limit to the size of the press forging machine. New press forging
techniques have been able to create a higher degree of mechanical and
orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation to the outer most layers of
the part material, reduced levels of microcracking take place in the finished
part.
Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die
and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging usually requires less
draft than drop forging and has better dimensional accuracy. Also, press
forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing for easy
automation.

Upset forging:
Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its
length.[11] Based on number of pieces produced this is the most widely used
forging process.[11] A few examples of common parts produced using the upset
forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners.
Upset forging is usually done in special high speed machines called crank
presses, but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic
press. The machines are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane, to
facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from one station to the next. The
initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up
to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard
upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies
open enough to allow the workpiece to move from one cavity to the next; the
dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally against
the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every
cycle then a finished part will be produced with every cycle, which is why this
process is ideal for mass production.

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The following three rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset
forged:
The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without
injurious buckling should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.
Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset
successfully provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times
the diameter of the stock.
In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the
stock, and where the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the
diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported metal beyond the face of the
die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Automatic hot forging:

The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars
(typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of the machine at room temperature
and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs very
quickly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and
larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or hollow, round
or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in diameter. The
main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to accept
low cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery. There is no
flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional
forging. The final product is a consistent 1,050 °C (1,920 °F) so air cooling will
result in a part that is still easily machinable (the advantage being the lack of
annealing required after forging). Tolerances are usually ±0.3 mm (0.012 in),
surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to 1°. Tool life is nearly double that
of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of 6/100 of a
second. The downside to the process is it only feasible on smaller symmetric
parts and cost; the initial investment can be over $10 million, so large
quantities are required to justify this process.
The process starts by heating up the bar to 1,200 to 1,300 °C (2,192 to
2,372 °F) in less than 60 seconds using high power induction coils. It is then
descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and transferred several successive
forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final forged, and pierced

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(if necessary). This process can also be couple with high speed cold forming
operations. Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so
that the advantages of cold-working can be obtained, while maintaining the
high speed of automatic hot forging.
Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings,
transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges,
and neck rings for LP gas cylinders. Manual transmission gears are an example
of automatic hot forging used in conjunction with cold working.

Roll forging:
Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness
and increased in length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or
semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped grooves. A heated
bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a stop the rolls rotate and the bar is
progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. The work piece is then
transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the
same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The
advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain
structure into the workpiece.
Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers
and leaf springs.
Net-shape and near-net-shape forging:
This process is also known as precision forging. This process was developed to
minimize cost and waste associated with post forging operations. Therefore, the
final product from a precision forging needs little to no final machining. Cost
savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall
decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining.
Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1° to 0°. The downside of this
process is its cost, therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction
can be achieved.
Cost implications:
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To achieve a low cost net shape forging for demanding applications that are
subject to a high degree of scrutiny, i.e. non-destructive testing by way of a die-
penetrant inspection technique, it is crucial that basic forging process
disciplines are implemented. If the basic disciplines are not met, there is a high
probability that subsequent material removal operations will be necessary to
remove material defects found at non-destructive testing inspection. Hence low
cost parts will not be achievable.
Example disciplines are: die-lubricant management (Use of uncontaminated
and homogeneous mixtures, amount and placement of lubricant). Tight control
of die temperatures and surface finish / friction.

Induction forging:
Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating
style used. Many of the above processes can be used in conjunction with this
heating method.

Equipment

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Hydraulic drop-hammer

(a) Material flow of a conventionally forged disc; (b) Material flow of an

impactor forged disc.
The most common type of forging equipment is the hammer and anvil.
Principles behind the hammer and anvil are still used today in drop-hammer

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equipment. The principle behind the machine is very simple—raise the hammer
and then drop it or propel it into the workpiece, which rests on the anvil. The
main variations between drop-hammers are in the way the hammer is powered;
the most common being air and steam hammers. Drop-hammers usually
operate in a vertical position. The main reason for this is excess energy (energy
that isn't used to deform the workpiece) that isn't released as heat or sound
needs to be transmitted to the foundation. Moreover, a large machine base is
needed to absorb the impacts.
To overcome some of the shortcomings of the drop-hammer, the counterblow
machine or impactor is used. In a counterblow machine both the hammer and
anvil move and the workpiece is held between them. Here excess energy
becomes recoil. This allows the machine to work horizontally and consist of a
smaller base. Other advantages include less noise, heat and vibration. It also
produces a distinctly different flow pattern. Both of these machines can be used
for open die or closed die forging.
A forging press, often just called a press, is used for press forging. There are
two main types: mechanical and hydraulic presses. Mechanical presses function
by using cams, cranks and/or toggles to produce a preset (a predetermined force
at a certain location in the stroke) and reproducible stroke. Due to the nature of
this type of system, different forces are available at different stroke positions.
Mechanical presses are faster than their hydraulic counterparts (up to 50
strokes per minute). Their capacities range from 3 to 160 MN (300 to 18,000
short tons-force). Hydraulic presses use fluid pressure and a piston to generate
force. The advantages of a hydraulic press over a mechanical press are its
flexibility and greater capacity. The disadvantages include a slower, larger, and
costlier machine to operate.
The roll forging, upsetting, and automatic hot forging processes all use
specialized machinery.
Scrap:-
Scrap is the material which is formed after forging as shown in fig.. In case of
impression die forging flashes are produced and these flashes are removed by
punching or mechanical press. And these removed material referred to as a
scrap. We can melt this scrap for forming ingots by continuous casting process.
And we can avoid the wastage of material.

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Dies:
Dies is used in forging as shown in fig. Die material is made very hard which
can’t be deforming easily. So we can make dies of different shapes according
to product which we want to manufacture.
The shape of die is made in process of forging wise. i.e,
1. Fullering
2. Edging]
3. Bending
4. Blocking
5. Finishing

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Heat treatment:
30
Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical
properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat
treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as
glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to
extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case
hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is
noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to processes where
the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties
intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other
manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Processes:
Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals called "grains"
or crystallites. The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one
of the most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical behavior
of the metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate the
properties of the metal by controlling rate of diffusion, and the rate of cooling
within the microstructure.

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Complex heat treating schedules are often devised by metallurgists to optimize
an alloy's mechanical properties. In the aerospace industry, a superalloy may
undergo five or more different heat treating operations to develop the desired
properties. This can lead to quality problems depending on the accuracy of the
furnace's temperature controls and timer.

ANNEALING:
Annealing is a technique used to recover cold work and relax stresses within a
metal. Annealing typically results in a soft, ductile metal. When an annealed
part is allowed to cool in the furnace, it is called a full anneal heat treatment.
When an annealed part is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in air,
it is called a normalizing heat treatment. A stress relief annealing is when only
the first stage of annealing is performed. The second stage of annealing is
recrystallization, where new stress-free grains grow. The third stage is grain
growth, which causes the existing grains to grow.
Hardening and tempering (quenching and
tempering):
To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated into
the austenitic crystal phase and then quickly cooled. Depending on the alloy
and other considerations (such as concern for maximum hardness vs. cracking
and distortion), cooling may be done with forced air or other gas (such as
nitrogen), oil, polymer dissolved in water, or brine. Upon being rapidly cooled,
a portion of austenite (dependent on alloy composition) will transform to
martensite, a hard, brittle crystalline structure. The quenched hardness of a
metal depends on its chemical composition and quenching method. Cooling
speeds, from fastest to slowest, go from polymer (i.e.silicon), brine, fresh
water, oil, and forced air. However, quenching a certain steel too fast can result
in cracking, which is why high-tensile steels such as AISI 4140 should be
quenched in oil, tool steels such as 2767 or H13 hot work tool steel should be
quenched in forced air, and low alloy or medium-tensile steels such as XK1320
or AISI 1040 should be quenched in brine or water. However, metals such as
austenitic stainless steel (304, 316), and copper, produce an opposite effect
when these are quenched: they anneal. Austenitic stainless steels must be
quench-annealed to become fully corrosion resistant, as they work-harden
significantly.

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Untempered martensite, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for most
applications. A method for alleviating this problem is called tempering. Most
applications require that quenched parts be tempered (heat treated at a low
temperature, often 300 F or 150 C) to impart some toughness. Higher
tempering temperatures (may be up to 1300 F or 700 C, depending on alloy and
application) are sometimes used to impart further ductility, although some yield
strength is lost.

Precipitation hardening:
Some metals are classified as precipitation hardening metals. When a
precipitation hardening alloy is quenched, its alloying elements will be trapped
in solution, resulting in a soft metal. Aging a "solutionized" metal will allow
the alloying elements to diffuse through the microstructure and form
intermetallic particles. These intermetallic particles will nucleate and fall out of
solution and act as a reinforcing phase, thereby increasing the strength of the
alloy. Alloys may age "naturally" meaning that the precipitates form at room
temperature, or they may age "artificially" when precipitates only form at
elevated temperatures. In some applications, naturally aging alloys may be
stored in a freezer to prevent hardening until after further operations - assembly
of rivets, for example, may be easier with a softer part.
Examples of precipitation hardening alloys include 2000 series, 6000 series,
and 7000 series aluminium alloy, as well as some superalloys and some
stainless steels.

Selective hardening:
Some techniques allow different areas of a single object to receive different
heat treatments. This is called differential hardening. It is common in high
quality knives and swords. The Chinese jian is one of the earliest known
examples of this, and the Japanese katana the most widely known. The
Nepalese Khukuri is another example.

Case hardening:
Case hardening is a process in which an alloying element, most commonly
carbon or nitrogen, diffuses into the surface of a monolithic metal. The
resulting interstitial solid solution is harder than the base material, which
improves wear resistance without sacrificing toughness.

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Laser surface engineering is a surface treatment with high versatility,
selectivity and novel properties. Since the cooling rate is very high in laser
treatment, metastable even metallic glass can be obtained by this method.
CONVENTIONAL MACHINES:
Lathe machine:

A lathe (pronounced /ˈleɪð/ is a machine tool which spins the workpiece to

perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or
deformation with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object
which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, and
glassworking. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design
being the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also
be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads
or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of
incredible complexity. The material can be held in place by either one or two
centers, at least one of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate
varying material lengths. Other workholding methods include clamping the
work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using
clamps or dogs.

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Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick
holders, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments
(especially woodwind instruments), crankshafts and camshafts.

Modes of use:
When a workpiece is fixed between the headstock and the tailstock, it is said to
be "between centers". When a workpiece is supported at both ends, it is more
stable, and more force may be applied to the workpiece, via tools, at a right
angle to the axis of rotation, without fear that the workpiece may break loose.
When a workpiece is fixed only to the spindle at the headstock end, the work is
said to be "face work". When a workpiece is supported in this manner, less
force may be applied to the workpiece, via tools, at a right angle to the axis of
rotation, lest the workpiece rip free. Thus, most work must be done axially,
towards the headstock, or at right angles, but gently.
When a workpiece is mounted with a certain axis of rotation, worked, then
remounted with a new axis of rotation, this is referred to as "eccentric turning"
or "multi axis turning". The result is that various cross sections of the
workpiece are rotationally symmetric, but the workpiece as a whole is not
rotationally symmetric. This technique is used for camshafts, various types of
chair legs.

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Examples of work produced from a lathe:

Drilling machine:
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid
materials. The drill bit is a multipoint, end cutting tool. It cuts by applying
pressure and rotation to the workpiece, which forms chips at the cutting edge.

36
Process:
Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the
presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the
inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.
Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low
residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly
stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This causes the
workpiece to become more susceptible to corrosion at the stressed surface.
For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may be long
spirals or small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters.[1]
The type of chips formed can be an indicator of the machinability of the
material, with long gummy chips reducing machinability.
When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be
deflected, which causes the hole to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-
diameter ratio of the drill bit, the higher the tendency to walk. The tendency to
walk is also preempted in various other ways, which include:

Milling machine:

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A milling machine (also see synonyms below) is a machine tool used to
machine solid materials. Milling machines are often classed in two basic forms,
horizontal and vertical, which refers to the orientation of the main spindle. Both
types range in size from small, bench-mounted devices to room-sized
machines. Unlike a drill press, which holds the workpiece stationary as the drill
moves axially to penetrate the material, milling machines also move the
workpiece radially against the rotating milling cutter, which cuts on its sides as
well as its tip. Workpiece and cutter movement are precisely controlled to less
than 0.001 in (0.025 mm), usually by means of precision ground slides and
leadscrews or analogous technology. Milling machines may be manually
operated, mechanically automated, or digitally automated via computer
numerical control (CNC).

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Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, from simple (e.g.,
slot and keyway cutting, planing, drilling) to complex (e.g., contouring,
diesinking). Cutting fluid is often pumped to the cutting site to cool and
lubricate the cut and to wash away the resulting swarf.

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