1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 ORGANIZATION

JOONIX ENERGY PVT LTD. started its photovoltaic operations in 1992. The company

conceptualizes, manufactures and designs Solar Photovoltaic Systems, Solar Lanterns,

Solar Home Lighting Systems, Solar Street Lighting Systems, LED Street Lighting

Systems and other systems for miscellaneous applications. The company has highly

qualified, experienced and competent directors in this field. The company manufactures

SPV systems whose clientele includes various Government Nodal Agencies and

Government Departments.

The Company designs and manufactures Solar Photovoltaic systems specially tailored to

the customer’s needs and demands. Joonix Energy Pvt Ltd is an ISO 9001 certified

organization dedicated to the highest levels of quality. The products of the company are

evaluated at Solar Energy Center (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of

India).

Joonix Energy Pvt Ltd is a full-service company offering unique solar PV products and

complete energy solutions, from initial Consultation to Project concievement, Project

Development and Design, Manufacturing, Installation and Maintenance. We strive hard

to create products that provide solar energy at the lowest possible cost in the industry.

These products are uniquely designed to install onto existing building infrastructures,

without penetrations and other major modifications. The Company manufactures SPV

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systems and supplies the same to various Government Nodal Agencies, Private

Organization & Individuals.

1.1.1 Quality Philosophy

At Joonix Energy Pvt ltd, our commitment to total quality extends to all layers of the

organization, empowering every individual - from engineering, to manufacturing, to

service and support - to anticipate and meet our customers' requirements. The result of

this customer-driven quality philosophy is the relentless pursuit of innovation, not for its

own sake, but for the continual improvement of our products and processes, and for the

satisfaction and ultimate competitive advantage of our customers.

1.1.2 Approvals and certifications

1) ISO 9001 – 2000

2) TCL (TRANSPACAFIC CERTIFICATIONS LTD)

3) NABCB ( NATIONAL ACCREDIATION BOARD FOR BODIES)

1.1.1 Products

➢ SOLAR HOME LIGHTING SYSTEM

Home lighting Systems are powered by solar energy using solar cells that convert solar

energy (sunlight) directly to electricity. The electricity is stored in batteries and used for

the purpose of lighting whenever required. These systems are useful in non-electrified
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rural areas and as reliable emergency lighting system for important domestic, commercial

and industrial applications. The SPV systems have found important application in the

dairy industry for lighting milk collection/ chilling centres mostly located in rural areas.

The Solar Home Lighting system is a fixed installation designed for domestic application.

The system comprises of Solar PV Module (Solar Cells), charge controller, battery and

lighting system (lamps & fans).

➢ SOLAR LANTERN

A Solar lantern is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology, which has found

good acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is irregular and scarce. Even in

the urban areas people prefer a solar lantern as an alternative during power cuts because

of its simple mechanism.

A solar Lantern is made of three main components - the solar PV panel, the storage

battery and the lamp. The operation is very simple. The solar energy is converted to

electrical energy by the SPV panel and stored in a sealed maintenance-free battery for

later use during the night hours. A single charge can operate the lamp for about 4-5 hours.

➢ SOLAR STREET LIGHT

This system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural areas. This

system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting. The system is

provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily.

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The system is provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to down operation

and overcharge / deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.

The solar street light system comprise of

• 74 Wp Solar PV Module

• 12 V, 75 Ah Tubular plate battery with battery box

• Charge Controller cum inverter (20-35 kHz)

• 11 Watt CFL Lamp with fixtures

• 4 metre mild steel lamp post above ground level with weather proof paint and

mounting hardware.

• The SPV modules are reported to have a service life of 15-20 years. Tubular

Batteries provided with the solar street lighting system require lower maintenance; have

longer life and give better performance as compared to pasted plate batteries used earlier.

The systems electronic provide for over-charge and over-discharge cut-off essential for

preventing battery and luminaries damages.

➢ LED STREET LIGHT

An LED street light (also called LED road lighting) is an integrated LED (Light Emitting

Diode) light fixture that is used as street lighting. Because they are more energy efficient

than other technologies used for street lighting, LED street lights can save on the cost of

keeping streets well lit during the night.

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An LED street light is an integrated light that uses LEDs as its light source. These are

considered integrated lights because the luminaries and the fixture are not separate parts.

In manufacturing, the LED light cluster is sealed on a panel and then assembled to the

LED panel with a heat sink to become an integrated lighting fixture.

A light-emitting-diode lamp is a solid-state lamp that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

as the source of light. Since the light output of individual light-emitting diodes is small

compared to incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, multiple diodes are used

together. LED lamps can be made interchangeable with other types. Most LED lamps

must also include internal circuits to operate from standard AC voltage. LED lamps offer

long life and high efficiency, but initial costs are higher than that of fluorescent lamps.

➢ Solar Photovoltaic industry in India

Begun as far back as in the mid 70’s solar photovoltaic programme of the

Government of India is one of the largest in the World. While the rest of the world

has progressed tremendously in production of basic silicon monocrystalline

photolytic cells, in India the major players are Central Electronics Ltd, BHEL, REIL

and the other manufacturers of SPV modules are in fact assemblers sourcing the cells

and carrying out assembly. Where this segment of basic manufacturing has not shown

much growth in India and is unlikely also in the near future due to high costs

involved in manufacturing monocrystalline silicon cells from scratch, the market is

growing for SPV applications based products with the active encouragement of the

government.

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Electricity and social development go hand in hand. Rural areas of India are so far-

flung that in some cases it is decided not to lay down conventional electricity lines

due to the small populace to be served and high cost of laying lines.

Conventional gensets are also not feasible due to recurring maintenance problems.

The best solution under the circumstances is solar photovoltaic based systems to

generate power, run irrigation pumping sets and home lighting and streetlights.

In addition to offering subsidy on these products government is also offering training

on PV technology, PV system designs and related fields.

The programme of MNES comprises of promoting use of PV technology to provide

lighting in villages in the form of :

TABLE 1.1

Community lighting systems Capacity usually 1KW to 2.5 KW

Portable solar lanterns Small 10Wp SPV module connected to a

12V7AH battery lighting 7 W CFL lamp

for 3 hours a day

Street lights Built around a 75Wp SPV module

charging a 100-130AH battery to run a

11W CFL lamp for dusk to dawn

operation.

Fixed home lighting systems Based on 35-50Wp SPV module,

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 powering two CFLs each of 9 or 11W to

work 4-5 hours per day. Some systems

also incorporate facility to run a small

TV set or a fan from the power supply.

Water Pumping Typically 1KW DC motor based

pumping for shallow pumping.

1.2 WHY LED STREET LAMPS?

In today's world, the gradual depletion of energy and the gradual deterioration of

environment has become a great challenge to us. LED is the most preferred green lighting

source in the 21st century, which is the criterion of energy saving and environment

protection. Most of the countries in the world have used the policy and rules to map out

the spread plan and a revolution in the field of lighting industry is expected soon.

In the past three years, we have invested tremendous amount of manpower and resources.

Committed to develop new generation semiconductor LED lighting products. LED lamps

need only 20% power as that of traditional bulbs and can generate 80 lm/w. These lamps

have super long life up to 50,000 hours and 8 times the brightness than traditional light

bulb. Now all this is no longer inconceivable, it has it has become a reality.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

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The fundamental purpose of a Practice School is to prepare for employment in the chosen

discipline at the conclusion of undergraduate studies. Study at university is enhanced by

the opportunity to relate academic and professional aspects of engineering disciplines.

1. To gain first-hand experience of working as an engineering professional,

including the technical application of engineering methods.

2. To work with other engineering professionals.

3. To experience the discipline of working in a professional organization.

4. To develop technical, interpersonal and communication skills, both oral and

written.

5. To observe interactions of engineers with other professional groups.

6. To observe the functioning and organization of business and companies.

7. To get exposed to engineering experience and knowledge which is required in

industry, where these are not taught in the lecture rooms.

8. To apply the engineering knowledge taught in the lecture rooms in real industrial

situations.

9. To use the experience gained from the Practice School in discussions held in the

lecture rooms.

10. To get a feel of the work environment.

11. To gain experience in writing reports in engineering works/projects.

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12. To get exposed to the engineers responsibilities and ethics.

It is worth noting that many employers regard this period as a chance to assess new

employees for future employment. Ability to take responsibility, make sound decisions

and apply technical skills will be highly regarded. Projects can help to evaluate

companies for which one might wish to work, or make decisions about fields of

engineering which one enjoys.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ABOUT LEDs

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator

lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical

electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern

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versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very

high brightness.

The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched

on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the

form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light

(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the

semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical

components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present

many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,

longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability

and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current

and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general

lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

2.1.1 Technology-Physics

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with

impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-

side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers

—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages.

When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in

the form of a photon.

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 The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap

energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the

electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical

emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED

have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-

ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.

Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-

shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type

layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many

commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means

that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface

interface. Therefore Light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production,

subject to much research and development.

2.1.2 Efficiency and operational parameters

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 milliwatts

[mW] of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs

capable of continuous use at one watt [W]. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor

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die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted

onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.

One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by

its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the

efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt

LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For

comparison, a conventional 60–100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15 lm/W,

and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. A recurring problem is that

efficiency will fall dramatically for increased current. This effect is known as droop and

effectively limits the light output of a given LED, increasing heating more than light

output for increased current.

In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree, Inc.

to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes [mA]. This produced a commercially packaged

white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially

available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In

2006 they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131

lm/W at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145

lm/W by 2008, which would be approaching an order of magnitude improvement over

standard incandescents and better even than standard fluorescents. Nichia Corporation

has developed a white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of

20 mA.

It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 W) LEDs are necessary for practical general

lighting applications. Typical operating currents for these devices begin at 350 mA.

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 Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low temperature in a lab. In

a lighting application, operating at higher temperature and with drive circuit losses,

efficiencies are much lower. United States Department of Energy (DOE) testing of

commercial LED lamps designed to replace incandescent lamps or CFLs showed that

average efficacy was still about 46 lm/W in 2009 (tested performance ranged from

17 lm/W to 79 lm/W).

Cree issued a press release on February 3, 2010 about a laboratory prototype LED

achieving 208 lumens per watt at room temperature. The correlated color temperature

was reported to be 4579 K.

2.1.3 Lifetime and failure

Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at

low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs produced in the 1970s and

1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours but

heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.

The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of

light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well.

Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high-

power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current

densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early

light output degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it

has been suggested to use the terms L75 and L50 which is the time it will take a given

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 LED to reach 75% and 50% light output respectively. L50 is equivalent to the half-life of

the LED.

Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperature dependent. Most

manufacturers’ published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25°C.

LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal lights, and that are

utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result

in low signal intensities or even failure.

LEDs maintain consistent light output even in cold temperatures, unlike traditional

lighting methods. Consequently, LED technology may be a good replacement in areas

such as supermarket freezer lighting and will last longer than other technologies. Because

LEDs do not generate as much heat as incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient

technology to use in such applications such as freezers. On the other hand, because they

do not generate much heat, ice and snow may build up on the LED luminaire in colder

climates. This has been a problem plaguing airport runway lighting, although some

research has been done to try to develop heat sink technologies in order to transfer heat to

alternative areas of the luminaire.

2.1.4 High power LEDs

High power LEDs from Philips Lumileds Lighting Company mounted on a 21 mm star

shaped base metal core PCB.

High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than

an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can produce over a

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thousand lumens. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a

heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the

device will burn out in seconds. A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb

in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto

Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009 some HPLEDs

manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip

emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent,

halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive.

LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power

without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and

part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of this type of

HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. A large number of LED elements in series may be able to

operate directly from line voltage. In 2009 Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC

voltage capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The

low power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibly than the original AC

LED design.

2.1.5 Considerations for use

Power sources

The current/voltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the current

is dependent exponentially on the voltage (see Shockley diode equation). This means that

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 a small change in voltage can lead to a large change in current. If the maximum voltage

rating is exceeded by a small amount the current rating may be exceeded by a large

amount, potentially damaging or destroying the LED. The typical solution is therefore to

use constant current power supplies, or driving the LED at a voltage much below the

maximum rating. Since most household power sources (batteries, mains) are not constant

current sources, most LED fixtures must include a power converter. However, the I/V

curve of nitride-based LEDs is quite steep above the knee and gives an If of a few

milliamperes at a Vf of 3 V, making it possible to power a nitride-based LED from a 3 V

battery such as a coin cell without the need for a current limiting resistor.

2.1.6 Electrical Polarity

As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material. However, no

current flows and no light is produced if a small voltage is applied in the reverse

direction. If the reverse voltage becomes large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage,

a large current flows and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently

limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.

2.1.7 Safety

The vast majority of devices containing LEDs are "safe under all conditions of normal

use", and so are classified as "Class 1 LED product"/"LED Klasse 1". At present, only a

few LEDs—extremely bright LEDs that also have a tightly focused viewing angle of 8°

or less—could, in theory, cause temporary blindness, and so are classified as "Class 2".In

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 general, laser safety regulations—and the "Class 1", "Class 2", etc. system—also apply to

LEDs.

2.1.8 Advantages

• Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs. Their

efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike Fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

• Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of the color filters

that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

• Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto

printed circuit boards.

• On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will

achieve full brightness in microseconds. LEDs used in communications devices can have

even faster response times.

• Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off

cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or

HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.

• Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or

lowering the forward current.

• Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the

form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is

dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.

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 • Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-

out of incandescent bulbs.

• Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000

to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent

tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the

conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.

• Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage

with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.

• Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.

Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light

and direct it in a usable manner.

• Toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

2.1.1 Disadvantages

• Some Fluorescent lamps can be more efficient.

• High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an

initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional

expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and

power supplies needed.

• Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient

temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient

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temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device

failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially

important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the

device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low

failure rate.

• Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold

and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated

power supplies.

• Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a

black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at

500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED

illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces

being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However,

the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is

now available in state-of-art white LEDs.

• Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a

lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical

light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is

contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.

2.1 LIGHTING

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A street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of

light on the edge of a road, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern

lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or

activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have been

performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts

which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles.

Before incandescent lamps, gas lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps

required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps, but later

designs employed ignition devices that would automatically strike the flame when the gas

supply was activated. The earliest of such street lamps were built in the Arab Empire,

especially in Córdoba, Spain. The first modern street lamps, which used kerosene, were

introduced in Lvov, Poland in 1853.

The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the 'Electric candle',

'Jablotchkoff candle' or 'Yablochkov candle' developed by the Russian Pavel Yablochkov

in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that

both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. Yablochkov candles were first used to light

the Grands Magasins du Louvre, Paris where 80 were deployed -- improvement which

was one of the reasons why Paris earned its "City of Lights" nickname.

Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which,

although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city

streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly.

With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of

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the 19th century, they passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use

longer.

Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-

intensity discharge lamps. They were often operated in high-voltage series circuits. Series

circuits were popular since the higher voltage in these circuits produced more light per

watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single

switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district.

To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street lamp

was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series

street lights were equipped with isolation transformers [8] that would allow current to pass

across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the film cutout was

invented. The film cutout was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts

connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the

current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of

volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law). In this

way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power restored to the rest of the district. The

street light circuit contained an automatic voltage regulator, preventing the current from

increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the

failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the

contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator

separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the

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two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above

ground/earth.

Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps, often HPS high

pressure sodium lamps. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination

for the least consumption of electricity. However when scotopic/photopic light

calculations are used, it can been seen how inappropriate HPS lamps are for night

lighting. White light sources have been shown to double driver peripheral vision and

increase driver brake reaction time at least 25%. When S/P light calculations are used,

HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%.

New street lighting technologies, such as LED or inductionlights, emit a white light that

provides high levels of scotopic lumens allowing street lights with lower wattages and

lower photopic lumens to replace existing street lights. However, there have been no

formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of

light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on

implementation of these new technologies until the standards are updated.

With the development of high efficiency and high power LEDs it has become possible to

incorporate LEDs in lighting and illumination. Replacement light bulbs have been made

as well as dedicated fixtures and LED lamps. LEDs are also being used now in airport

and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include medium intensity runway

lights, runway centerline lights and obstruction lighting.

2.2 LED STREET LIGHTS

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• An LED street light (also called LED road lighting) is an integrated LED (Light

Emitting Diode) light fixture that is used as street lighting. Because they are more energy

efficient than other technologies used for street lighting, LED street lights can save on the

cost of keeping streets well lit during the night.

• An LED street light is an integrated light that uses LEDs as its light source. These

are considered integrated lights because the luminaries and the fixture are not separate

parts. In manufacturing, the LED light cluster is sealed on a panel and then assembled to

the LED panel with a heat sink to become an integrated lighting fixture.

• A light-emitting-diode lamp is a solid-state lamp that uses light-emitting diodes

(LEDs) as the source of light. Since the light output of individual light-emitting diodes is

small compared to incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, multiple diodes are used

together. LED lamps can be made interchangeable with other types. Most LED lamps

must also include internal circuits to operate from standard AC voltage. LED lamps offer

long life and high efficiency, but initial costs are higher than that of fluorescent lamps.

• Light-emitting diode lamps have the characteristics of long life expectancy and

relatively low energy consumption. The LED sources are compact, which gives

flexibility in designing lighting fixtures and good control over the distribution of light

with small reflectors or lenses. LED lamps have no glass tubes to break, and their internal

parts are rigidly supported, making them resistant to vibration and impact.

• The primary appeal of LED street lighting is energy efficiency compared to

incandescent bulbs of the same luminance. Research continues to improve the efficiency

of newer models. One such advance can be found in a street light product created by

Lighting Science Group. One model of LED street lights produced by this group is up to

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60% more efficient than previous models, lasts for 12 years and allows for cost recovery

through energy savings in only three years.

• An LED street light based on a 901 milliwatt output LED can normally produce

the same amount of (or higher) luminance as a traditional light, but requires only half of

the power consumption.

• The lifespan of LED street lights is determined by its light output compared to its

original design specification. Once its brightness decreases by 70%, an LED street light is

considered to be at the end of its life.

• Most LED street lights have a lens on the LED panel, that is designed to cast its

light in a rectangular pattern, an advantage compared to traditional street lights, which

typically have a reflector on the back side of a high-pressure sodium lamp.

• LEDs have a number of useful properties, 3 of which are useful here:

directionality, specific colour and efficiency.

• In addition to the inherent efficiency of LEDs, street light can be made very

directional, casting light mostly along the roadway, with only a small amount down and

none up. This will allow good illumination with the least light generation, further

reducing power consumption and saving more money.

• In addition, by using separate red, green and blue elements, the colour can be

varied. By producing different colours at different times, colour vision can be helped

while protecting night vision. At dawn/dusk, the lights product a blue/green light,

complementing the red glow of the low sun, helping colour vision. At night, the lights

generate pink light, protecting night vision. Red light on its own is too unnatural.

24
• The LED Street light is embossed with transparent glass and heavy metal which

has a high tensile strength.

2.3.1 Advantages of led streetlights

The operational life of current white LED lamps is 100,000 hours. This is 11 years of

continuous operation, or 22 years of 50 per cent operation. The long operational life of an

led lamp is a stark contrast to the average life of an incandescent bulb, which is

approximately 5000 hours. If the lighting device needs to be embedded into a very

inaccessible place, using LEDs would virtually eliminate the need for routine bulb

replacement.

Benefits

Key advantages of quality LED street lights include:

• Improved night visibility due to higher color rendering, higher color temperature

and increased illuminance uniformity.

• Significantly longer lifespan

• Lower energy consumption

• Reduced maintenance costs

• Instant-on with no run-up or re-strike delays

• No mercury, lead or other known disposable hazards

25
• Lower environmental footprint

• An opportunity to implement programmable controls (e.g. bi-level lighting)

• LED lights offer municipalities other cost advantages. Never will you have the

creepy flickering streetlamp with an LED light; there is no filament to burn out, reducing

maintenance. LED lights are up to 10 times more efficient than incandescent lights

because the heat in an LED is almost completely turned into light, not wasted as heat, so

they last longer. Because LED lights are plastic rather than glass, they also are less likely

to crack or shatter.

• Installing LED lights can be paired with installing computer networks that

respond to real-time conditions, changing the amount of streetlight as necessary. This

allows cities to customize their lighting according to season, neighborhood safety, or

storm conditions. To boot, the low energy cost of LED lighting makes it more feasible to

fit streetlamps with mini solar cells themselves, taking them off the grid entirely

• Regular streetlights are also the culprit of light pollution -- the glow that comes

from cities, so bright that it is observable by satellite. To the delight of astronomers

everywhere, LED lights produce a more focused, spotlight-like beam. LED lights may

also be coated with thin nanocrystals, resulting in natural seeming light rather than

fluorescent’s wash-out blue or sodium’s fuzzy yellow glow.

• LED lights offer an array of other benefits. Because they don’t emit UV rays, they

don’t attract insects.

26
2.3.1.1Light pollution

In urban areas light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy. In settings

near astronomical telescopes and observatories, low pressure sodium lamps may be used.

These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps

because low pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light.

Observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually

eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting.

The light pollution also disrupts the natural growing cycle of plants.

2.3.1Disadvantages

The major criticisms of LED street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if

misused, Dangers

There are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations.

• The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is

the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a

street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave

the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower,

so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed

gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.

• Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey

one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle.

27
• Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally

electrify light poles and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact

with the pole. Some cities have employed the Electrified Cover Safeguard technology

which sounds an alarm and flashes a light, to warn the public, when a pole becomes

dangerously electrified.

There are also physical dangers. Street light stanchions (poles) pose a collision risk to

motorists. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (frangible or

collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lower portions to

increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally

topple street lights.

2.1 COMPARISON WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF STREET LIGHTS

FIG. 2.1

28
FIG.2.2

29
TABLE 2.1

30
TABLE 2.2

31
2.4.1 Spectra-effect function

Man’s retina is a radiate receiver which is made up of subulate and bacilliform cells.

Each cell has different character and function completely. The sensitization ability of

bacilliform cells is much worse than the subulate cells, but they have different sensitivity

to the light. When illuminate (daytime), subulate cells operate on the vision, when

illuminate at dark, bacilliform cells operate on the vision, when illuminate at dark,

bacilliform cells operate on the vision. To different wavelength spectrum, the sensitivity

for man depends on the function of the wavelength called spectrum effect function.

32
Experiment shows, depend on the observation field is different; spectrum efficiency

function is different. The international lighting commission (CIE) determined the

spectrum efficiency function as picture (one), form picture (one) we can see th

corresponding peak value wavelength of Photopic Vision V(λ) and Scotopic Vision V(λ)\

is different, the peak value of V(λ) is 555nm, while V(λ) is 507nm.

FIG. 2.3

with the same distributing to the spectrum, the brightness is quite different between bright

vision and dark vision. See picture (two), LED light dark vision is 2.35 times than the

bright vision, while the dark vision is 0.94 times brighter than. Usually photics meterage

equipment sense light in bright vision condition, while streetlight is effective at night

(dark vision), so ht common illuminate date get to be revised. The revised coefficient of

LED is 2.35, and the revised coefficient of sodium light is 0.94; so in the same condition,

(the same meterage instrument), LED streetlight is 2.5 times brighter than sodium light.

Accordingly, to reach the same brightness, for LED streetlight, 40% illumination is

needed of sodium light.

33
2.4.2 Photometric Comparison

As far as eyes: LED streetlight is 2.5 times brighter than sodium light, in the same

altitude.

FIG. 2.4

2.1 PURPOSE

There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights

and placement. Misuse of the different types of lights can make the situation worse by

compromising visibility or safety.

34
2.5.1Beacon lights

A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it

helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust

their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see

vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim

light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the

dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine

onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually

the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting

onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this

purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.

2.5.2Roadway lights

Street lights are not normally intended to illuminate the driving route (headlights are

preferred), but to reveal signs and hazards outside of the headlights' beam. Because of the

dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a

particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with

several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much

information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway

junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all

hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for

approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing

lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's
35
night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve

where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often

justified.

If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multilane traffic), to

avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights it should not be lit intermittently, as

this requires repeated eye readjustment which implies eyestrain and temporary blindness

when entering and leaving light pools. In this case the system is designed to eliminate the

need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at

close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes

from curb to curb.

Research a few years ago suggested that by comparison to other countries, more

pedestrians are hit by motor vehicles at night in Britain. The theory behind this was that

Britain almost exclusively, used low pressure sodium street lighting, (LPS); unlike the

rest of the world that use mercury vapour gas discharge lighting. This was most

noticeable when flying in from Europe at night and seeing a warm orange glow when

approaching Britain. LPS lighting, being monochromatic, shows pedestrians as shadowy

forms, unlike other forms of street lighting. In recognition of this, pedestrian crossings

are now lit by additional "white" lighting, and sodium lighting is being replaced by

modern types.

36
2.5.3Security lighting

FIG. 2.5 A sodium vapour light. This type is often used as security lighting.

Security lighting is similar to high-intensity lighting on a busy major street, with no pools

of light and dark, but with the lighted area extending onto people's property, at least to

their front door. This requires a different type of fixture and lens. The increased glare

experienced by drivers going through the area might be considered a trade-off for

increased security. This is what would normally be used along sidewalks in dense areas

of cities. Often unappreciated is that the light from a full moon is brighter than most

security lighting.

37
 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 ILLUMINANCE DISTRIBUTION AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS

FIG. 3.1

38
3.2 INTEGRATED HIGH POWER LED STREETLIGHT INSTALLATION

METHOD

➢ FIG 3.2 168W Figure

Integrated High Power LED streetlight Power Supply Cavity Structure and Connection

Diagram FIG. 3.3

39
FIG. 3.4 Five common Formats to install streetlight

➢ FIG. 3.5 28W installation Method

40
FIG. 3.6 Anatomical Drawings

41
3.3 TROUBLESHOOTING METHODS AND MAINTENANCE

TABLE 3.1

FIG. 3.7

42
FIG. 3.8

FIG 3.9

43
3.4 SPECIFICATIONS

Top of Form

/Exporters_Suppl 12327

Current 380 mA

LUX 12000 Lumens

Watt Consumption 38 Watts

At Height of 9 Meter

Voltage Range 60 v to 450 v

Application Street Lights

Advantages

LED lighting is totally new concept in power saving products, which consumes

very low power is a true replacement of normal energy saving lighting products.

It saves 50% more power than T5 or T8 tube type energy saving lightings. In first

glance the price seems higher, but life span of this lighting system is

approximately 50 times higher than the normal filament lightings.It is very

economical than other conventional or energy efficiency lighting systems. The

feature of LED lighting is solid state in nature, vibration resistant & shock proof.

44
3.5 DUTY CYCLE:

The LED street lighting system is designed to be automatically switch ON at dusk,

operate throughout the night and automatically switch OFF at the dawn. It is under the

average daily insolation of 5 KWh /sq.m. on a horizontal surface.

3.6 LED STREET LIGHTS, EASY SET-UP AND MINIMUM RUNNING

COSTS

LED High Power streetlights, named "Clarion" are new kids in town, ready to replace the

existing high wattage light sources. As the name signifies "Loud and Clear", these lights

are far superior than their existing counterparts and got the attitude to carry it for longer

period of time. Street Lights are everywhere and if replaced with LED street lights could

produce significant energy savings on a very large scale.

The fixture casting is constructed of die-cast Aluminum, coated with special powder

coating treatment resulting in a long lasting fixture.

Flexible and adaptable to existing street lamp poles & existing electrical systems, LED

Street Lights can be used at any scale and height.

3.6.1 Specifications

Operating Voltage : 220 Volt A.C. +/-15%

45
TABLE 3.2

3.6.2 Technical requirement of led for village street lighting:

These minimum technical specifications are for replacing the existing street lights in

villages with LEDs. TABLE 3.3

46
3.7 SOLAR LED STREET LIGHTING

Solar street lighting system is ideal for street lighting in remote villages. The system is

provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily.

The system is provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to dawn operation

and overcharge / deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.

47
The SPV modules are reported to have a service life of 15-20 years. Tubular Batteries

provided with the solar street lighting system require lower maintenance; have longer life

and give better performance.

FIG. 3.10 FIG. 3.11

Approximate cost

The approximate cost for the most common specification is around Rs 24,000. It varies

based on models.

Advantages

• No requirement of electricity

• Easy to install

• Simple to operate and low maintenance cost

• Eco friendly

48
• This system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural

areas. This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting. The

system is provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11

hours daily. The system is provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to

down operation and overcharge / deep discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.

• TABLE 3.4 Different Versions of Solar LED Street Lighting System

FIG.3.12 Light output comparison

49
3.7 TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR MAIN COMPONENTS

 • The Solar Module is manufactured with high efficiency solar cells assembled

and laminated at high temperature on a toughened and tempered glass with high

transparency. The module typically has a lifespan of over 30- 50 years.

 • The Regulator is a battery charge regulator with a microprocessor that gives

optimal functioning of the street light. Battery charge control with various charge regimes

(cyclical, buffer and equalizing charge) in order to guarantee the maximum production

and most efficient storage of energy from the solar module. Discharge control ensures

optimum performance of the battery, switch off of the lamp if the battery reach a state

75% discharge.

 • Light sensor for the automatic switch on and off the lamps after sunset and

automatic switch off at sunrise.

 "PLUS" function which serves as an automatic increase of lighting time of the

lamp in accordance with the amount of energy that the battery has stored. This very

important function allows adaptation of the period of lighting, dependent on the actual

amount of energy captured by the solar module and stored in the battery during the day.

After the standard minimum period of 6 hours programmed, the microprocessor will

verify the actual state of charge of the battery and, should it still have energy, it will keep

the lamp on for the rest of the night.

 • The regulator has a maximum capacity of 10 Amperes and is equipped with a

fuse to protect it from short circuit. It is designed to perform at extreme temperature and

50
humidity conditions and includes a temperature compensation device. It has signals for

state of battery charge and eventual fails of the system, and ensures the optimal battery

lifetime under all environmental and operational conditions.

 • The DC/AC ballast serves the SOX lamp, transforming an input current at 12

Volts DC into an AC output of stabilized current at high frequency, suitable to power a

large light bulb and typically able to guarantee a durability of over 25000 hours. This

ballast can be positioned inside the lamp casing.

 • The lamp is made of SOX 18W, 26W, 35W bulb, with a luminous flow of 2700

lumens, 3700 lumens, 5200 lumens. Typically the lamp is installed at about 6 meters

from ground and its light generates an 18-20 meter diameter cone of light.

FIG.3.13

51
In general, the specifications of the parts are

• 74 Watt Solar PV Module

• 12 V, 75 Ah Tubular battery with battery box

• Charge Controller cum inverter (20-35 kHz)

• 11 Watt CFL Lamp with fixtures

• 4 metre mild steel lamp post above ground level with weather proof paint and

mounting hardware.

4 WORKING MODEL

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FIG. 4.1

52
 C9 - 470 µF
C10 - 1 µF
C11 - 222 µF
L1 - 1.2mH
L2 - 1.2mH
D1 - IN4007 X 4
D2 - 4148
D3 - 4148
D4 - TK431
M1 - IRF 840
4.2 COMPONENT LIST IC - UC 3842A

R1 - 100K

R2 - 22
53
R3 - 100K

R4 - 22

R5 - 56

R6 - 5.6K

R7 - 47

R8 - 3.3

R9 - 47K

R10 - 1K

R11 - .68

R12 - 1K

R13 - 16K

R14 - 2.2K

R15 - 39K

C1 - .1µF/275VAC

C2 - 22 µF/450VAC

C3 - 47 µ F/50VAC

C4 - 47 µF

54
C5 - 531 µF

C6 - 104 µF

C7 - 470 µF

C8 - 104 µF

4.3 SPECIFICATIONS

INPUT VOLTAGE - 170-250V

LIGHT SOURCE - 1W LED

NUMBER OF LEDs - 4

LED TOTAL POWER - 4W

CURRENT - 380mA

LUX - 400 lumen

EFFICIENCY - >85%

FREQUENCY - 50 Hz

POWER FACTOR - >.95

WORK TEMPRATURE - -30 degree to +50 degree

55
LIFESPAN - >50,000 hours

FIG 4.2

56
57
FIG. 4.3

FIG.4.4

5 CONCLUSIONS

58
The challenging aim of providing light in rural areas can be achieved by producing

energy locally. Photovoltaic systems offer the possibility of exploiting an energy source

available everywhere while at the same time respecting the environment. The storage

of the energy into batteries overcomes the intrinsic discontinuity of the solar energy. The

use of LEDs, ever-growing in lighting solutions, seems the most appropriate choice for

energy saving thanks to their high luminous efficiency. Moreover, the availability of

different LED drivers, with buck or boost configuration, provides flexibility in lighting

systems design and high efficient power conversion solutions.

6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.ledlighting-manufacturer.com/.../LED-news-Benefits-of-LED-streetlights

featured.matternetwork.com/.../led-streetlights-a-bright-idea.cfm

www.ledlightsorient.com/street-lights

www.sptrading.co.in/led-street-lights.

www.tradeindia.com/manufacturers/.../led-street-lights

www.joliet-led-streetlight

www.ecogeek.org/content/view/

59