Rock Blasting Terms and Symbols A dictionary of symbols and terminology in rock blasting and related areas like drilling, mining and rock mechanics Editorin-Chief AGNE RUSTAN Division of Miring Engineering, Luled University of Technology Luled, Sweden A.A.BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM/BROOKFIELD/ 1998ROCK BLASTING TERMS AND SYMBOLS“Tis volume is compiled by a group of expen in cooeratin withthe Intemational Society for Rock “Mechanic” Commission on Fragmentation by Shsting Fron coverillsates the /ragmentation throw and angle of breakage aftr lastly tes with one single hoe ihe ingle hoe bling method) in lors limestone quatTy on Golnd, Sweden in 1986 “he lmwstone ha tensile stergth of ~8 MP3 anda high acute impedance of 162 x 10° ken" ‘Only one joint set was fund and twas almost vec. The horizontal being planes ineloded some soft clay lsyers. Te Basho ameter was 9 mm, andthe charge consisted of 33k of Nitro Nobel Dynamexas boom etarge (no subdeiling) pd 5 kgof ANFO as colurm charge. The lasted burden was 107m (sof the critcal burden). R meee 299 Rad 92 cl ‘Asstarzation to photocopy tems fr intemal persona! we or he ncemal or personal we of specific Clients is granted by A.A. Balkema, Roverdam, provided that he base fee of USSI.S0 per copy. pls 'USSO.i0 per page is paid direct to Copyright Clearance Center. 222 Rosewood Dave, Danvers MA 01925, USA. For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license By CCC. 8 separate system of payment has been amanged. The Te code for users ofthe Transactional Reponing Service is 90 5410 441 4/98 USS 50+ USSO 10 Published by ‘A.A.Balkema, PO, Box 1675, 3000 BR Roterdam, Netherlands Fax 31.10.4135987; E-mail balkema@ balers Intere! site: hipi#wwaralkema nt [A.A Balkema Publishers, Old Poet Road, Brookfield, 05036-9708, USA Fox: 802.276.3837: E-mail: info@sshgatecom ISBN oO ss104416 ©1998 A.A. Balema,Rowerdam Printed in the Netherlands Contents Associate editors Introduction Terminology list Noes forthe user List of symbols and abbreviations ‘Symbols Greek symbols ‘Acronyms, abbreviations and shortened forms References aff vitAssociate editors ‘Claude Cunningham Consulting Mining Eng AECI Explosives Limited Modderfontein House P.O, Modderfonteia, Transval 1645 ‘SOUTH AFRICA Carl Hendricks Assistant Professor Dept. OF Mining & Metal. Eng, MeGill University, 3450 University St. Montseal, Quebec. H3A 2A7 ‘CANADA Hans Peter Rossmanith Dr Institute for Mechanics Technical University of Vienna Wiedaer Hauptstrasse 8-10/325 Wiliam Forney Professor Mechanical Engineering Department University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA Roger Holmberg Technical Director Nitco Nobel AB Gytiom SE-713 82 Nora ‘SWEDEN KRY. Simha Professor Department of Mechanical Eng. Indian Insite of Science Bangalore 560 012 ‘A-1040 Vienna INDIA AUSTRIA Editorin-chief Chairman of the ISRM Blasting Terminology Grow ‘Agne Rustan Associate Professor Division of Mining Engineering Lule University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luled SWEDEN vitIntroduction Blasting is a subject which combines many different disciplines. such as mechanics, rock mechanics, physics. chemistry, Beology, geophysics, petrology, seismology. Imining engineering, rock construction engineering, etc. A specialist in one of the Fields mentioned usually lacks precise definitions of technical terms in the other Fields. The existence of a descriptive blasting dictionary of different professional dis- ciplines is therefore essential for a successful and meaningful communication among Specialists and for the development of blasting science. Ths is clearly demonstrated by the figure onthe next page. ‘The idea of compiling this blasting dictionary was brought up at the Third intr national Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting “Fragblasr J° in Brisbane. ‘Australia, in September 1990. The ISRM Commission on Rock Fragmentation, chaired by Professor William Fourey, formed an editorial Working Group which initially consisted of Claude Cunningham, South Africa, Richard Dick and William Foumey. USA, Roger Holmberg and Agne Rustan, Sweden, and V.S. Vutukur, Australia. Later on the Working Group was extended to include Hans Peter Ross- tanith, Austria, Carl Hendricks. Canada and K.R.Y. Simha, India. However, Rich- ard Dick, USBM and V.S. Vutukus, Australia retired before the tecminology list was, Finshed. Hans Peter Rossmanith did, despite his late arrival into the group, a large contribution to se the scientific and editorial standard of the book. “The objective of creating the dictionary was to make available an extended com- pilation of terms which would help studeats, ceachers, echnicians, engineers, scien tists and practitioners in the field of blasting to become better acquainted with inter- rational definitions and symbols, and assist them when publishing in the field of basting. in the existing literature, mainly short and incomplete glossaries or dictionaries of blasting were found. The most extensive glossaries were developed by Atlas Powder, USA, (65 terms) and the Institute of Makers of Explosives, USA, (293 terms). An- other useful vocabulary list was the USBM "Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Re- lated Terms’ which contains about 55,000 terms with approximately 150.000 defini ‘The present dictionary contains 1980 terms, 325 symbols, 77 acronyms, abbrevia- ions and shortened forts, 221 references, 32 figures, $7 formulas and 28 tables. Several new and original definitions have been included in the list. About 1/5 of the definitions given in the dictionary have been developed by the working group, pri marily because of the difficulty and large cost associated with finding the original ‘eference for definitions. tn the course of the compilation of this dictionary 18 terms ‘were identified which lack international standards for descriptive and operational efinitions In this dietionary, aot only short definitions of the terms are presented, but also a ‘quantification of some terms is included, and thei relationship to other parameters in blasting is highlighted. This dictionary represents therefore today the most extensive blasting dictionary available and itis a valuable tol and essential for writing papers, *Agne Rustan eck nus cancion epenieg + _ pectin det aurciaiee fe tonto ‘Comparison eee Precalculation eclanvih — gb siandege ne) Pesta + at cesien — Blasting EE epons etc. All scientists, engincers and students working with blasting should get a copy as a desk reference book. T would like to express my sincere thanks to the members of the Working Group for their voluntary and hard work on the dictionary, each member using his special skills and professionalism ina careful examination of the terms and their definitions. 1 also want to thank Dr Finn Ouchterlony of the Swedish Rock Engineering Founda ‘ion, Associate Professor Gour Sen atthe University of New South Wales in Austra- lia, and finally Professor Gunnar Almgren and Associate Professor Shao-Quan Koa at Luled University of Technology, for their contributions and their advice in pre= paring the dictionary. In addition I would like to thank librarian Paul MeMillen from Ireland for his linguistic correction ofthe ditionary. Many thanks are also extended (0 Luled University of Technology, which has sponsored a large part of this work. ‘Agne Rustan Ezditor-in-Chiet Note: Blasting technology is improving fast and new terms are constantly being de- veloped and used. Therefore, it will be necessary to upgrade the dictionary at regular intervals and your comments are therefore very much appreciated, Please contact the Chairman of this Working Group, Associate Prof. Agne Rustan, by Phone +46-920- 91456, Fax +46-920-91935 or Email Agne Rustan@ce.iuth.se Terminology listNotes for the user Sl ois are wed consistently in hs dictionary, where tm stands for meter. Kg for lgram or sons an Aor Ampere Fr se Teas and heir ust recommendation ote os omanony wed prec gven, gf compresive Stengih MPa often recommended seal of Pa Aecovling foe 180 31-9 Standard he decimal comina i used ised of he decal porn (The USA however, has voted again tis Sanda), Weight a force and sunt is Newion (6 bat is weongly wed large pa of the leraue on blaing fo dente mas eg). Teetre weight hs cose guemly been hanged to mas tughout ins teranolgy Ia Beall about explosive properties and methods est cnpoves se documented inte book ‘Explosives by R. Moyen 97? and “Enyctopacdia of Explosives tnd Related Items by Kaye estan, 1989 Some ofthe symoolsnleded ints dcdonary were taken rom he st “nt anal Lt of SymtnsDrting and Bagby Resa a 8 es writen inhale are hose nt recomended tobe used and hey shu therefore be replaced by entries marked by bold. hey souls A abbreviation, a shortened form of a word. eg. Eng. for Engineering. ‘Abel heat test, a test method used (0 astess the chemical stability of an explosive. "The parameter which is determined is te time after which a moist potassium io- dige-starch paper tums violet or blue when exposed to gases evolved by one gram Sf the explosive at 822 °C 180 *F), In commercial nitroglycerin explosives ¢ g this coloration should only develop after 10 minutes or more, In 2 more sensitive wariant of the method, zinc iodide-starch paper is employed. Today the Abel test ie stil used im quality control of commercial nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and ai- troglyca, but its practically speaking no longer employed instability testing of propellans, The test was proposed by Abel in 1875. Meyer, 1977. This test can aise be used to determine the degree of deterioration of an explosive that may have occurred during the period of storage. McAdam & Westwater, 1958. abrasion, the wearing away by friction. AGL, 1957 and 1969. abrasion value (AV) see ‘tungsten carbide abrasion test’. abrasion hardness, hardness expressed in quantitative terms or numbers indicating the degres o which a substance cesists being worn away by frictional contact with fan abrasive material, such as silica or earborundum grits. Also called abrasion ce sistance; wear resistance. Long, 1960. See also ‘abrasive hardness test’. abrasion resistance, see ‘abrasion hardness abrasive hardness test (abrasiveness), (4), (m or mm), abrasion rests serve (0 measure the resistance of rocks to wear due to friction of surfaces against each ther of compression (impact or indestation). These tests include wear when sub- jected to an abrasive material, wear in contact with metal and wear produced by Contact between the rocks, The tests can be grouped into three categories: (1) SSbrasive wear impact tests; (2) abrasive wear with pressure tests; and (3) atuition tests, See ‘Suggested Methods of Determining Hardness and Abrasiveness of Rocks”, ISRM, 1978. One abrasive hardness test employs 2 rotating abrasive wheel or plate against which the specimen is held. The specimens are abraded for given number of evolutions, and the mass of material abraded is a measure of the abrasive hardness, see “tungsten carbide abrasion test’. There are several other tests suggested in the literature, One index, the Cherchar abrasivity index (CAD), is used in full face boring, A steel cone with a cone angle of 90°, tensile strength (of 200 MPa and Rockwell hardness 54-56 is pulled over the length of | cm of the ock surface. The diameter of the resulting abraded flat on the steel cone, meas- tired in tenths of a mm in a microscope, determines the Cherchar abrasivity index. (Quartz and quartzite have CAL values of about 6 (cutter life = CL = 60 km), and Thmestone about | (CL = 2000 km). CL is approximately inversely proportional to (CAN?. Suana & Peters, 1982 abrasiveness (A), (m or mm), cesistance of rock against abrasion/wear, see ‘abra- sive hardness tests. abrasivity, ee ‘abrasive hardness test (absolute) bulk strength (ABS), (Sp) ($J/n’). use ‘absolute volume strength’(absolute) mass strength (absolute) mass strength (AMS). 6, (M/k), ealenlated eneray per unit mas of explosive. Any such figure must be supported by the name of the detonation code it get f ste enploe. and te convent for dering ny absolute temperature (7), (K) temperature quantified by the Kelvin scale.0°C = lee (6), temperature quanified by the Kelvin seal. 0°C (absolute) volume strength (AVS), (5), (MS/m’), calculated energy per unit vol ume of explosive. Any such figure must be supported by the name of the dona tion code used, the equation of state employed, and the convention for determin energy. absolute weight srengih (AWS), (54) (MAK), use ‘absolute mass strength Abutment, the mass of volume consisting ofthe walls im an underground excavation supporting the roof ofthe excavation abutment height (Fy), (m), se “height of abutment’ acceleration (a), (fs), the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. acceleration due to gravity (g),(mys%), the acceleration imparted to bodies by the attractive fore ofthe Earth. The acceleration hasan international standard value 0f 9.80665 mis! but varies with latitude and elevation on Earth, Lapedes, 1978 accelerometer, an instrument which measures acceleration o gravitational force c2- pable of imparting acceleration. Usually, a piezeo electric or pieze0 resistive cessed as measuring devi. acceptor charge, a charge of explosive or blasting agent which ceceives an impulse from an expiing donor charge esseenenn ms accessories and tools, see "blasting accessories. access tunnel or adit, @near-horzonal passage from the surface by which an un Segond mie ened The a thei ely open fo he race one acoustic impedance (2), (kgim's, Nim? or Pas/m), the product of the Pawave ve- locity and the density of a material. It charactezes & material as to its energy transfer properties. The acoustic impedance is an important quanty in characte Seng ck asi (real ude) and rock fagnenaton anifomiy ines), classification of acoustic impedance values found in the laboratory and inthe feldare given nTable tn te ery endo “The impedance theory describes the energy wansmission from one media to the adjacent, and canbe used approximately when studying how much energy can be transmitted from an explosive in a blasthole to the surrounding rock. The basic theory assumes a plane elastic wave which impacts at normal incidence t an in- terace between wo dismal mates mn steno aaZ acoustic impedance theory 27 ey where the transmitted pressure p, is given in (Pa), p. is the is given in (Pa), pis the incident pressure in (Pa), Zp isthe impedance ratio Z/Z, where Z, and Z, are the impedance's forthe Taterial ofthe incidence wave, and the material of the transmitted wave respec: tively. The maximum energy transmission fom one media to an adjacent is achieved for normal incidence, i, when the acoustic impedance ratio is equal to 1, see “impedance ratio" acoustic impedance of the material ofthe incidexce wave “oble ,Clasifietion of acoustic impedances or diferent kinds of rock and rockike materi Classof Acoustic Examples of materials ‘Acoustic impedance. Expected Scouse impedance Glob egimes) sical impedance (106 Sunder ko’) Lo Fie Vegiow 05 Lighvwegheconarte Sweden, 953 LIZ ~~ ‘Vey Righ Kernmeret col USA, Hearst ak, i376) au 28 Buses sandstone USA, FourneyetzL, $26 ~ is Low S10 Carbonaceous we Russi, 1994 = 688 High ‘Alum ste (perpendicular ohe —$.39611.1~ ‘eding panes) Norway. 1990 Sslemimesone USA. Foumey etal, 945 = 96 Medium 10-15 Laossavara magaetie Sweden. 1989 11.9 = Medium ogee concrete Sweden, 983. 12000 = Charcoal granite USA, Fouroey etal, 12, 1376 jet ernie Steen, 1983, bo Heneyquaraie Sweden, 1983 B= High > 15 Dalen Ina 1973. 2 = Low Shorgestimesione, Sweden, 1983 164 TDL te 1988 Tomas linesione, Tukey. 1993 166 5.6586 rst dnb lai 1973 2 Steinncher Emerg dolomite. Asia (86 = 1993 Stelter Erbergsideite Aust, 186 = 1993 “Tremolite schist. Inia 1973, 13 Kall gatbra, Sweden, 1983 20.8 Divag ema, Turkey. 1991216 Fo Tae Povave vlociies measured inte fel are generally lower than those measured for Tinail sboratry samples. The seus impedance values measured perpencuar to the bed gp lanes in’ Alur sue, Noveay vacy to 2 relaively lage extent depending maily on reese ine samples dry ox wet The acoustic impedance volves were taken for Ausra fom Moser (1993, fr loa from Ramana fe Venkalonaayany (1979), for Norway fom Listed {1580 or Resa fom Pevosyan (1998), for Sweden (om Rustan ota (1983), Nie (198) foe ‘Toney fom Bigin (1991) and Bilgin & Pasamehmeogly (1999), and finally fr USA fom Fourney eta (1976) sd Heute (1978) acoustic impedance of the material of the incidence wave (Zs (kglm?s), the ‘product of the P-wave velocity (c,) and the density (p) ofthe material of the inci- dence wave, Z=60 characterizes a material a to its energy transfer properties. An acoustic or ses mic wave will be reflected and transmitted a a discontinuity which is defined by a Change in material properies. The materials atthe discontinuity can be either a ase g- air aliquid e.g, water or a solid e.g. rock.acoustic impedance of the material ofthe transmitted wave acoustic impedance of the material of the transmitted wave Z), (kelm?s), the product of the P-wave velocity (c,) and the density (9) of the material of the transmitted wave 2 =P It characterizes a material as to its energy transfer properties. An acoustic oF seis~ mic wave will be ceflected and transmitted ata discontinuity which is defined by a change in material properties, The materials atthe diseuntinity can be either a 228g. air, aliquid e.g. water ora solide g. rok acoustic trace, the curve on the ground vibration record that records the sound level acoustic warning, a distinet audible warning used to indicate the progress of blast- ing operations. AS 2187.1, 1996. acoustic wave, & mechanical (longitudinal) wave in gases, liquids and solids. The audible part of mechanical waves has a frequency range between 20 and 20,000, Haz. In blasting, the mechanical waves transmitted in air are called air blast waves. The waves may be described in terms of change of pressure, particle displace. ment, particle velocity, particle acceleration, of density. Acoustic waves can be used to measure the physical properties of rocks, and the composition of gases. Investigations may be made both in situ, and in the laboratory, see also “seismic acronym, a word composed of the intial leters of the name of something, especially an organization, or of the words in a phrase. Examples of acronyms are NATO, RADAR and TEFL. cultural vibration, vibration that is strange and unfamiliar to the observer. Konya & Walter, 1990. adiabatic, 2 thermodynamic state characterized by no heat exchange beoween the working material, and its surroundings (or among different elements of the work ing material) In both ideal and non-ideal detonations the expansion of the deto- nation products beyond the Chapman-Joguet curve (CI curve) closely approxi ‘mates an adiabatic process or adiabatic conditions. A curve which represents the adiabatic process in a pressure-volume diagram is called an adiabat, see also ‘en roy and isentopic". adiabatic compression, a compression process during which no heat is added to or subtracted from a gas volume, and the intemal energy of the gas is increased by an ‘amount equivalent to the external work done on the gas. The increase in tempera- ture of the gas during adiabatic compression tends 0 inerease the pressure at the expense of a decrease in the volume alone, and, therefore, during adiabatic com pression the pressure rises faster than the volume decreases. adiabatic exponent or specific heat ratio (7), the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume (C,/C,) of the detonation gases, which varies from about 3,0 at the detonation state to 113 when the gases are fully expanded. AECI, 1993. The adiabatic exponent (y) is assumed to be a function of temperature T (CC). Hommert etal, 1987, y= Cry 4135 10 air cofcussion So L. iabatie pressure or explosion pressure (9) (MPa oF Pa), the pressue in an aabate poocess Ifthe process is caused by explosives ina blasthole, the pees- fore it called borhole pressure (7), ee “borehole pressure. adi acs tonnes nec pastage fom the sua by whch aU erground mine is entered. The adit is therefore only open to the surface at one end adobe charge, a mud-covered or unconfined explosive charge fied in contact with 2 Tock surface without the vse ofa borehole (Synonymous with bulldoue and mud Capping). Alas Powder, 1987 adearee EA) nfSay oe m/month, the linear distance in meters diven during 3 cer tain ime i unneling. ding, raising o shaft sinking, Fraenkel, 1958 advance per round (A), (eof drilled depth or round), see “pl seeeee ts ash of aurog a explosion of ethane and oxygen Carbon di Guide and seam are formed an when the steam condenses fo water a pial Yac- dm is ereate, which causes the inush of ee. Cooper, 1963 air Blast, the airbome shock wave or acoustic transient generated by an explosion. In nerground workings an explosion is acsompanied by a stong nish of ai, e sthen explosives ate used, and iti also catsea By the ejection of ai from large Underground openings owing to the sudden fall large masses of rock, the eo lapse of plas slippage along a fal, or song fo of air pushed outward from the source of an explosion. There are four main types of air blast overpressues defined as follows: SPP or air presire pulse air bast overpressure produced from direct cock dis- placement othe face or mounding of he blast collar: RPP or rack pressure pulse, ie baat overpressure produced from vibrating ground; GRP or gas release pute, ir blast overpressure produced from gas escaping from the detonating explosive ihuough tock Traces and SRP or stemming release pulse, a blast overpressure produced from gas eseaping fom the blown-outstering. The most damaging Petes of ir Blast are caused by unconfined srface charges, Air Sas overpressure for unconfined surface charge may be estimated fom the following formula: @ For confined borehole charges, ac bast overpressure may be estimated fam: pa33(%2 {re where pis pressue in (kPa), Q explosive charge in (kg) and R is distanes (rom the charge in (m). Atls Powder, 1987 air blast foeusing, the concentration of sound energy in a small region at ground level due to refraction of the sound waves back 0 the earth from the atmosphere, ‘Tis oveus under certain meteorological conditions, for example during inver- air concussion, see ‘air last.airdeck blasting airdeck blasting, a contcolled contour blasting method where airspace is replacing the column charge. The method was initially developed for controlled contour blasting of large diameter holes on the surface. A plug atthe bottom of stemming, is used to prevent the stemming from falling ito the column volume. Chiappetta, & Mammele, 1987, Airspace can also be used a8 a substitute for told stemming material between multiple charges in a blasthole, Airdox, tradename for carridges of compressed air of very high pressure (70 MPa) charged into “Airdox" cylinders, which are inserted into the drill holes. Special valves fited with the “Airdox’ cylinders permit sudden release of the compressed air atthe back (bottom) of the borehole. Airdox aze employed to break sot rocks (eg. coal), and do not ignite a gassy or dusty atmosphere. air gap test, gap test with air as medium between charges, see “gap tet. air loader, a charging machine which uses compressed air to transport the explosive int the blasthole. See ‘charging machine’ air pressure pulse (APP), (,), Pa oF dB), air blast overpressure produced from direc rock displacement atthe face or movnding of the blast collar, see also “ait bast’. Atlas Powder, 1987. air shaft, a shaft used for ven‘ilation of mines, downeast when transferring fresh air from the surface to the underground workings and upeast when discharging ex hausted air o the surface. alignment deviation or error (D,), (degrees, mm or %), angular, relative or per Centage deviation from the intended angle of driling in collaing, aluminium, a metal aluminized ANFO (ALANFO), a mixture of ANFO and aluminium powder (AL), ‘The adding of aluminium powder increases the strength of the ANFO explosive. aluminized explosive, an explosive to which aluminium has been added inthe form of powder, grains, or flakes. This increases the mass stength ofthe explosive, be cause ofthe large amount of heat of oxidation produced when aluminium is oxi ized alluvial, materials such as loose gravel, sand, and mud deposited by streams. alluvial mining or placer mining, the exploitation of alluvial deposits by dredging, hydraulicking, or drift mining. The alluvial could be deposited in stream beds beach dunes or onthe ocean floor. ambient noise levels (2,,), (Pa or dB), existing background noise levels. FEM, ‘American table of distances, 2 quantity-distance table published by the Insitute of| Makers of Explosives (IME) as pamphlet No, 2, which specifies safe distance for explosive storage from inhabited buildings, public highways, passenger railways, and other stored explosive materials. USBM, 1983. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), a non-profit organization that provides a management system in which producers, users, ulimate consumers, and representatives of government and academia develop technical information in the published form of agreed upon documents called “voluntary consensus stan- dards’. Current membership is over 29,000 organizations and individuals, world- wide, with a total unit participation of well over 80,000 in 137 technical commit tees. In addition to the 6600 standards contained inthe 48 volume Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM also provide numerous other technical publications and related material which have evolved from commitee activities, ASTM, 1982, angle of breakage aamonia gelatine, see “ammonium nitrate geligite ammonium nitrate (AN), 2 chemical compound represented by the formula NENOy ls properties are: molecular weight 80,04, cclouriess, orthorhombic (2163 10 +325 °C), density 1725 ken? (at +25 °C), meting poim +169.6 °C, Soluble in water a5 well sin ethyl alcohol. AN is used in crystalline or pelletized form in explosives, and as a ferliser. Bennet, 1962. ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO), 2 noa-water-esisant explosive ideally composed of 94,0 0 94.3 % ammonium nitrate (AN), and 5,7-6,0% fuel oil (FO), “The quality and density ofthe AN pris, the quality of the fel, andthe cont of the overall mux is important forthe explosive performance Inthe USA, ANFO is called a blasting agent because it isnot cap sensitive. ammonium nitrate gelignites, explosives similar to straight gelatines except thatthe main consiten {s ammonium aizate instead of sodium nitrate. In te USA the term ammonia geltines is use amplitude (4), (m or mm), the maximum positive or negative value of one period in 2 eyelic changing quant. a amplitude of particle aceleration (4,),(ms"or mmf) se ‘amplitude and accel- eration’ amplitude of particle displacement (4), (m or mm), see ‘amplitude and displace- amplitude of particle velocity (A,) (ms oF ms), see ‘amplitude and velocity" Anchor bol, metal od or pipe puted into deilholes which are normaly dled pec- pendiculr (0 the rock surface being ceinforced. It may be glued by cement or ep- xy in the hole cr fastened at the bottom by some mechanical device. Anchor tolts normally have a length of a couple of meters. [ANFO charger or loader), a machine consisting ofa pressure vessel for explosive orege and a semiconducting charging house connected tothe pressure vessel ‘© bused to charge (load) ANFO info blasthole. usually upholes angle of breakage (0), ()y the angle between the two sie cracks formed by the reakout prism when a hole is blasted parallel toa feee face (bench blasting) or perpendicular tothe fee sutace (crater blasting), ee Figure 1. The angle depends a » Figure. Angle of treskage in 2) Bench asng ant b) Crater btn, fn the rock type, and it varies between 120-160" in bench blasting. The angle de- Greases a litle withthe size ofthe burden. Rustan etal, 1983. angle of caving (9), (). see ‘angle of failure’.angle of failure angle of deposition (8), (*, see ‘angle of repose (in deposition) angle of dumping (8), se ‘angle of repose (in deposition) angle of failure (9), (), angle of yield or angle af caving, the angle between the failure surface and a horizontal surface, angle of friction (6, oF 8), (), the maximam angle at which a body will be in rest, ‘when the body i placed on an inclined plane, se Figure 2. See also ‘angle of re- pose’. Angle of friction Fur 2 Ange of ction (i eine he naximu ale douse of body on in clined plane, angle of internal friction (6), () the angle between the abscissa andthe tangent of the curve representing the relationship of shearing resistance to normal stress act ing within a soil. ASCE, 1958, See also Figure 28 under the enty ‘shear angle’. angle of pouring (8), (2), see ‘angle of repose (in deposition’. angle of repose (in deposition) (6,), () angle of rest, angle of pouring, angle of dumping, angle of deposition or natural slope angle, the maximum slope with re spect tthe horizontal at which a heap of any loose or fragmented solid material will stand without sliding or come o rest when the material has been deposited. angle of repose (in loading or draining) or angle of slide (6), (), the maximum slope with respect to the horizontal at which a heap of any loose or fragmented solid material will stand when itis loaded frora the botom of the heap. This angle is slightly lager than the angle of repose (in deposition). angle of res (8, or 8). °), Could be either the “angle of repose in deposition” or “angle of repose in loading’, se ‘angle of repose in deposition’ or ‘angle of re- ose in loading” angle of shear (visual) in uniaxial compression (B), (9, the angle beoween the planes of maximum shear which is bisected by the axis of greatest compression, see Figure 3, page Il. Rice, 1960. Not wo be mixed with angle of internal friction or shear angle (9). angle of slide (8). (), see “angle of repo angle of veld (g). *), see ‘angle of failure’ angle reading instrument, an instrument to determine the angle of... the drill rod (vertical and/or horizontal) when stating a dil hole, collaring, or inthe hole. loading’ 0 arc height ! oy =n eden , 93. = minor stress direction |e Gq =normal stress on shear plane x" eshear stress olong shear plane —| 7 [= B =angle of shear UL I Figure 3, Definition of angle of shear @cavsed by the failure plane a in biaxial compression angular deviation in dling se bending deviation” ; ara eeaucney (oh ead or) defined by © ~2af where fis the eueney inf anisotropy, directional dependence ofa physical quantity characterizing 2 mate Hare ke are snsotrpie. Anisotropy can arse i rock de tthe reaction armel Sueses,Seirenaion metamorphism or du to the facusng ding flasang and mining activites Antotropy ean Be quatifed by measurement of Scum wave vlonties in diferent deco. AN rll sal sere or pelts (ess than 5 mm a damete) of ammonia tate ws opposed to aes, Konya & Wate 1990. apenge opening with diferent shape, When the term is used for chancterza in of jens i denotes the With of te joint. apparent srater th cavity cause by cater blasting as it exists before he broken tetera i emoved appropriate authority, ee Yegulator authority seero eet ie ave of saterent in wating bythe eglatory authority eting out arto aay ack mace or tng which approved ules otherwise sed. AS 218711996, . approvinate potenta strain energy release rate (Gy) (Jn?) energy seeded 9 Crete ne rack surfaces, (SRM, 1988 aquattum technique, high-speed photographic echaiqu for examining he devel- arian of a datnaton tad propagation of shock waves in 2 tansparet mater CAI Nocto be confused wih aquarium et, bubble tex or underwater uation test eto measue the presse ofan underwater explosion, Lesd and sae membranes are employed. snd the eximateof the parameter i based 08 erst ane deformation ata fanction of the performance ofthe explosive and of the dutunce om the explosion site The measuring apparatus, consising of pi ita and anvil esembles the Kast brisance meter, see also ‘bisane™. Meyer, i977. arch height (m8 “eight of archarching arching, a process which occurs when the curent to a blasting cap is too high, and the resistance wire in the fuse head explodes instead of being heated up. This ‘causes a light arch which may desuoy the function of the blasting cap. ‘Ardeer tank fume test, test method for blast fumes similar to Crawshaw-Tones area (A), (m), the physical quantity, the measure of the size of a two-dimensional surface, oF region on such surface. Lapedes. 1978. armor plate test, See ‘projectile impact test armour stone, large blocks used in sea-defence structures such as breakwaters, Fa- ‘ourable conditions for armour stone production are large burdens. small spac- ings, low specific charge (0.2 kg/n?), and simultaneous firing of all holes in a row, Wang eta, 1991 artificial barricade, an artificial mound or revetted wall or soil embankment of a ‘minimum thickness of 0,91 m, in USA. IME, 1981. A-scale, the scale of 2 sound level measurement instrument in which an in-built iter discriminates against low frequencies. It approximates the frequencies which can bbe heard by the human ear. Konya & Walter, 1990. asymmetric charge location (ACL), eccentric location of a eylindrical and elon- gated charge ina blasthole. attenuation, decrease in amplitude of a wave a5 a funetion of distance of propaga jon from its tource. There are thre causes of seismic wave attenuation, geomet- ‘ical damping or spreading (divergence) dependent on decrease of pulse magni- tude due to larger and larger space over which the pulse extends and material damping or internal damping decrease of pulse magnitude from viscous damping and seartering losses due to reMection and refraction axial coupling ratio (R,), (%)s the ratio between the length or volume of the bla thole being charged f6 the (otal available length or volume for charge in a blas: thole. axial decoupling ratio (Rg), (%)y the catio between the total length or volume of a blasthole to the length or volume of the section of dh blasthole being charged, axial priming, system for priming blasting agents in which the core of priming ma terial for example a detonating cord is placed lengthwise aloug the charge back, the etn of any underground excavation wack ar verbrealersk volume broken beyond the pare defined bythe ast tow of slates ance depth (on) the maximam depth broken beyond he plane defined by the ast ow of lasoles bat, dtnage, eduction ofthe rock mass sength athe back of an excavation by ‘at back Steal filed imo open stopes underground to stabilize the rock and t0 tnt sabidence ofthe round surface. The baci material may consis of ae vot lings satu snd et bask hal wf tle ining or stoping. Singh de Wondra, 1989, Suppested ston lature for dil oes in development Deadings i given in Figur Back boles a. Helper holes > cere h 27 Stoping holes.” | cut notess | AP [beret rs Side- oF rib holes Litters Figwe 4 Suggested nomenclatre for dil hoes in development adigs back-up detonator, an extra detonator used for the safe detonation of a charge in @ round. The use of back-up detonators isereases the probability of detonation if the first detonator fails Dback wall, final wall in surface blasting. ballistic pendulum (mortar), a testing device for explosive strength which meas- lures the impulse of an explosive, The laboratory instrument consists of a heavy Bballistic dise pendulum mortar in which a standard explosive charge mass is fired, and the an- Ble of recoil is measured. Historically it was used to calibrate explosives strength against that of blasting gelatine. The 10 g explosive sample is, However, insuffi- cient for many modem explosives to develop their characteristic energy release at a cenain blasthole diameter. ballistic disc, a cylindrical charge witha half spherical liner at one end turned with the convex side towards the charge and where the cylindrical and half spherical liners consist of spun sheet metal. The charge may consist of the high energy ex- plosive composition RDX/TNT/wax. Its a shaped charge used for clearing hang, lips im underground metal mines. The charge is supported on a telescopic leg stand, that allows adjustments for aiming atthe target boulder. Sen, 1995 BAM fall hammer test, se “all hammer test’ BAM steel tube test, a shock test of explosive under confinement in astet cylinder and by initiation from a detonator and booster (RDX/wax 95/5). The sensitivity of ‘solid or liquid can be measured. This testis needed for the United Nation clossi- fication. Persson et al., 1994, band, applied to a stratum or lamina conspicuous because it differs in colour from adjacent layers. A group of layers displaying colour differences is described as, being banded. A.G.L., 1957 and 1960, banded (adjective), the property of those rocks having thin and nearly parallel bands of different textures, colours, or minerals. barren rock, ee "waste (rock)" barricade (noun), grown-over earth embankments erected in order to protect uild- ings which may be endangered by an explosion. The top height of the barricade ‘must be at least one meter above the building being protected. The required safety distances between explosive manufacture buildings or storage houses can be halved if the houses are baricaded. Meyer, 1977. barricaded (adjective), the effective screening of a building containing explosives from a magazine or other buildings, railway, or highway by a natural or an artifi- cial barvier. A straight line from the top of any side-wall ofthe building contain. tug explosives to the eaves line of any magazine or other building. oF to a point 36 m above the centre of a railway of highway shall pass through such a barrier. IME, 1981, base charge, the detonating component (usually PETN) in a blasting cap, initiated by the priming charge or the initiation element. It also sometimes refers to the charge loaded into the bottom of a blasthole, usually called bottom charge. basin, a depressed area with no surface outlet The term is widely applied, e.g. toa lake basin, to ground water basin, to a shallow depression on the sea floor, (0 a circular depression on the moons surface, of 10 a tidal basin, Bates & Jackson, 1987, beanhole connector, a connector usually made of aluminium. crimped at the end of the safety fuse, and connected toa plastic igniter cord for easy initiation of multi- ple shot holes. Sen, 1992. Becker-Kistiakowski-Wilson equation of state, one commonly used equation of state. Mader, 1979. bedded deposit, a mineral deposit of tabular form that generally lies hosizontally and is commonly parallel to the stratification of the enclosing rocks. A coal seam 4 bending isa ypial ted deposit: tes may conan indus minors and some ae metaliferous, Grego 1983 eld ie sedentary o aie rocks, the division plane thst separate Speed Iyer, beds or st AG. 1957 and 1960 eee ted eck orth ears est generally covered by overburden vol sorter ele ating ayers of sedimentary roc, usual spurte by asia o i egy. Te ec can fen be ea sept log thes ples. earn ig te ly ofthe aero 2 bedded Formation. "The bedding Spc- vag dsrbed in Table SRM, 1981 “Table 2 Bedding spacing. After ISRM. 198 Description Very thickly bedded “Thikly bedded Mediuim bedded “Thinly bedded Very thinly bedded Laminated bel wire 0 onnectng wr’ AS 17 1, 1996 , So ee aol sro Inova te tp oa eral ne Ben or cies which oes arid vera ornelined down noe ee Scsce Te night of bench vane anal fo a fe eters 9 aa aia re onmon enc height nse mining. Benches ae 1 ole mining bu sometime on lage unegroud ope- by oF tasting, ncscnvationnetodwhere benches ae sed in tps When he ae ne aque on or ever ows of Sasol re cil peal et eto ined ee foc. The boom ofthe Pes re more cies 1 ee Te Coutncment depends onthe cation ofthe Basta La TH ape ae tanning sr open sping. he tp pa ofthe ert i pi festng)and he im pa ken 6 Seether ve ee hoon hols wench ight iy asec eg of ber aa eset ccqnien wheres ighalis woke in ses oi aoa eee fomaton perp fo he ans fa conga sro ne crt meme app oa lng at SRM, 175 eee rseiatio oes ining (fami o )x dein et the led fm the ested onentton Beading de on genie by dyn and fens sabes of he dling 8 See eee es dence m hardness of ieret xk ype he £5) ee Stand ai el te dling mes, andthe sits theaseberm berm, a horizontal shelf or ledge cut into an embankment or sloping wall. or an open pit or quarry to break the continuity of an otherwise long slope, forthe purpose of strengthening and increasing the stability of the slope, or catching or aresting slope slough material. A berm may also be used as a haulage road or serve as 8 bench above which material is excavated from a bank or bench face. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for bench. USBM, 1968. biaxial compression, state of stress caused by the application of compressive and ‘normal stresses in (wo perpendicular directions Bichel Gauge fume test, 2 test method for blast fumes similar to Crawshaw-Jones fame test, see ‘Crawshaw-Jones fume tes inary explosive, an explosive based on two ingeediets. such a8 nitromethane and ammonium nittate, which are shipped and stored separately and mixed atthe job site to form a high explosive. USBM, 1983, inary image, digitized picture in image analysis. Dit wear index (BWI, a measure of resistance against wear determined by the abra- sive hardness, see ‘abrasive hardness test, The value is used to pedict the life time of drill steel equipment. Iis a function of the drilling rate index (DRI) and the abrasion value (AV), see “tungsten carbide abrasion tes’. Selmer-Olsen & Blindheim, 1970. black powder, a low explosive" consisting of a mixture of sodium or potassium si- uate, carbon, and sulphur. Black powder was first used in underground mines in 1627. Today itis seldom used as an explosive, because of its low energy. poor fame quality, and extreme sensitivity to sparks. Black powder 18 used in safety fuse, and as an explosive for quarrying dimensional stone lack powder fuse, see ‘safety fuse blast or shot (noun), the process of inducing shock waves and quasi static gas pres sure by explosives for breaking rock, welding different metals together, demol ishing buildings or initiating seismic’ waves for geophysical purposes. See also “blasting” Diastability, ability of rock of any material 0 fragment when being blasted. The ‘most important physical and mechanical rock propenies for blastabilty include: 1) Acoustic impedance, 2) Rock structure and friction properties ofthe discont ruities. Disferent test methods can be used to determine the blastabilty: 1) De- termination ofthe rock constant, whichis a specific value of the eesistance ofthe rock to the explosive force, determined by ial blasting, see ‘rock constant’ Fraenkel, 1954, 2) Small-scale crater blasting (cones) is used to determine the ‘optimal charge depth in full-scale crater blasting. 3) Multiple hole blasts on the half scale. Bergmann etal, 1973. 4) Critical burden rests. Rustan etal, 1983. 5) Single hole blast tests at different burdens in the laboratory or on the fll scale. Rustan etal, 1983 and Rustan & Nie, 1987. blast area, te area near a blast with the influence of lyrock or concussion. blast casting, a blasting method used in surface coal mining where the overbucden is, casted (thrown) by blasting a large distance. This makes it possible to mine the underlying coal with less overbucden haulage blast damage, damage caused by blasting, eg. excessive ground vibrations and/or air pressure and/or Nyrock blasthole blast damage index (BD, (D,)sis define bythe ratio Between the induced test from blasting and the dynamic tensile strength for the rock mass, Its a dimen- slonles indieator analogous to the reciprocal of safety factor and may vary be> ween 0-3. Tis used as an index to quantify the damage from blasting under- (round on the surrounding rock mass. The blast damage index Dy is defined according to Yu & Vongpaisal, 1996 as follows: set is vgs the vector sum of peak particle velocities in three onhogonl diee- Teese she density of rock mas in (kg/m!) and cy the P-wave velocity in vey Fite quali constant (0-1), and oy the dynamic tensile strength ofthe rock eae in (ay The corelation between Dy and typeof damage, see Table 3. “able 3. Blast damage index Dy and typeof damage. Alter Yu & Vongpasl (196) Bist damage inden Type of damage Wy ___ ee $0.05) "No damage to underground excavations, Maxim allowable vale for fey permonet workngs.©g.erusher chambers, shafs, permanent shops, ce Dit, purp Aouses ee 02s Ne noviceabe damage Maximum tolerable value for long erm wockings, safe access, rere stalons, lunch oom et os Mlnor and desereescbbing effects. Maxim tolerable vale fr ine mein term workings. eg ain drift. main halage ways. 07s Neto dons abi damage Mima ele ie fovtemporry working e.g. tose cus dail fs, stope accesses, to Mejor ondcominuots cobbing allure, requiring inensfed rehabilitation Severe damage 0 an entire opening, causing rehabilitation wok dificult ‘or imposible Major ving: normally eculing in abondoned aceeses blast design, design ofa blast operation which includes the layout of the blasthole pattem, the selection of explosives, decking, delay times, initiation pattem, stem ‘ming, and necessary safety measures blasted burden, true or effective burden (B,), (m), shortest perpendicular distance from the cente or centre line of the charge to the fee surface created by earlier ‘charges fired in the round. Tre exact shape ofthe free surface created by earlier Firing charges cannot always be determined. The size of blasted burden, after the blastholes have been drilled, depends on the firing sequence. blaster (USA), shotfirer (UK), a qualified person in charge of a blast. Also, a per: son (blaster in-charge) who has passed atest, approved by some authority, which certifies his or her qualifications to supervise blasting activities. USBM, 1983, blasters” galvanometer, see “blasting galvanometer blasthole, a cylindrical opening drilled into rock or ather materials forthe placement ‘of explosives. 0blasthole dewatering blasthole dewatering, the process of dewatering boreholes before charging with the help of compressed air operated pumps or electrical submergible impellent pumps. blasthole diameter (@), (m), the diameter of the borehole into which the explosive is placed, blasthole liner, often a thin plastic envelope to protect non-water-resistant explo- sives from water in the blasthole. The explosive is filled into the liner in charging When ANFO is charged pneumatically, plastic borehole liners should not be used because of the risk of initiation of the explosive by static electricity. blasthole plug or sealer, see ‘borehole plug” blast induced damage zone, the zone around a blasthole where new eracks and di- lation of rock mass is caused during blasting. The blastinduced damage zone is the result of a complex interaction of mainly the rock quality (eg, the Barton Q- factor), the (linear) charge concentration (kg/m). the confinement (e.g. the burden and spacing), the delay time between contour holes and the decoupling, The ex- tent of the damage zone can be determined by vibration measurement, seismic re fraction technique, extensometers, gas pressure measurement, hydraulic meas- lurement, acoustic emission, and by diamond drilling, (The last method is performed by drilling a hole clase o the perimeter before blasting and observing the joint and erack frequency. The observation in the hole is repeated after blast. ing and the new cracks are counted. The increase in crack frequency is taken as a measure of blast damage), ‘The blast induced damage zone at surface blasting can be divided into three categories according to Mojtabai & Beattie, 1996. The heavy damage zone where the rock is totally shattered and fragmented. Each rock black is completely sepa: rated or loosened and an excavator can dig trough most ofthe material with litle cor no difficulty. Large craters sometimes form on top of the muckpile or near the bench toe. The medium damage zone (called only damage zone by Mojtabai and Beattic), is characterized by large, wide-open radial cracks as well as fractures that form parallel to the bench face. Some other fractures have openings as wide 15 125 mm. Ground heave and an increase in volume are alse apparent. The minor damage zone is characterized by small, closed fractures that normally run parallel to the bench face. Very litle ground heave may be present. This type of daunage ‘may not be considered serious, but it is expected to be more severe in the lower portion of the bench where the explosive columa is placed. In Table 4 the vibra- ‘ion levels for four different kind of rock types are shown, Sec also "blast damage index BDI * for underground damage’ “Table 4. Vibration levels (ns for different rock spes and damage clases, Afler Moisi & Beatie, 1996, Rock ype Uniaxial com RQD Minor damage Mediom Heavy pressive (8) zone damage zone damage zone Sureagih (MPs) (ives) (aes) ous) Sofi senine 2 0ISS15S355 > 355 Hoard schist so 23035050400 Schultze grave 40 047 4704700, porphyry 0 Kons ns. blasting efficiency blasting, a chemical-physical-mechanical process including the initiation (fring) of Srqlesives fr the purpose of breaking materials such a5 col re, ined tne fr ele materials, moving the material, splitting off rock blocks for building pu- poses, demolishing building and constructions or generating seismic waves, The Explosive is often located in dil holes in rock, but sometimes, eg. in boulder Binstng, it ay be located onthe suface of the rock mass. Compared with pac- ing Ue charge in borehole, sueface charges require a specific charge up to 10 times in excess, bt typiealy 3 times fr correct placing ofan appropriate lay-on charge tasting accesories, norrexplsive devies and materials use in lasting, sich as, cap crimpers,tamping bags, basting machines, blasting galvanometers, and car tedge punches. In South Afia, this term strictly refers to initiating deviees for explosives, e, capped fuses, igniter cords, detonating cords, electric blasting caps et. blasting agent, any explosive which is composed of non-explosive ingredients and amb be iied In wconfned condos by a standard No, 8 blasting cp “These explosives consist predominantly of ammonium strate, basting cap or (eemented ea, small neal (almiium) tae closed a one end and containing a small amount of primary explosive ~ 1g. For delay caps a pyrotechnical substance is used to crete the proper delay time. Blasting caps are Fitted by a safety fuse detonating cord, shock re of ype e.g. NONEL, deto- dating pas in laste tubes or electcie cutent. The itation ofthe explosive can be achieved dredy by the methods mentioned or via a Booster. The unit, deto- ator cap and booster together, is called a primer where a detonator isthe ele- tented eap assembled withthe shock tube, the electric wires or the safety fase. A booster is used shen the charge cannot be initiated by a detonator onl. ‘Seismic’ tasting caps needs a high degee of uniformity of firing and thezefore they have a reaction time often < | ms. blasting cap No- 6, a blasting cap with a base charge of 0.22 g, Sen, 1982. blasting eap No.8, a blasting cap containing 0.40 t0 0.45 g of PETN base charge at specifi gravity of 1400 kg/m, and primed with standard mass of primer, de- pending onthe manufacturer. USBM, 1983. blasting cap No. 8 star, 2 blasting cap with a base charge of 0,88 g. This is the ‘common blasting cap sed in most mining, Sen, 1992. blasting eap test a method for esting blasting caps. Among the many tests are four major ones: 1) Water resistance test, 2) Drop test, 3) Snatch test and 4) Vibration test blasting circuit, the electrical circuit used to fire one or more electric blasting caps. ‘USBM, 1983, blasting crew, a group of persons who assist the blaster or shotier in load in, and firing a blast, basting diary, se “blasting log" blasting efficiency (m, the tio of useful energy output to energy input in blasting Ta rock blasting the explosive energy is transformed into wave propagation and quaststate gas presute energy inthe blasthole. The wave energy is used for fracturing (cracking), frictional losses in the rock, and throw, and is finaly lost. the surrounding air a6 noise. The quasistatic pressure is used to bend the rock vying 19Dlasting equipment prism bewesn the two side cracks, to extend the ail cracks staring lose othe blastae wal and to eet he rock rs baning equipment tol, inser and achinery wed for harging and Bs ing operons, ef. pines ples, deph pages, vibration monies. orge boxes resistance gages, ANFO leases, basing fee “fet ie" Dastingglvanometer, an elect isrument wo measure the resistance of ane: wie Wasting cei Is poweed by eg a siver clone cell and basa bu Coren liming device Only devices which ave been proved bythe authors fe permite tbe used forts psp biasing glting a gelins mint of 82% glycerin and 8% nio-cellse Geizocoto) cia song (ug) esplsive, has high water essence, and Sill one of the most power explosives. Used asa standard for explosive Seng Gregory 1980 Basing in frozen gravel, ecinigues oblast in ffosen gravel The techigue for ang equal t that of ding in rock Both sus nd burn cts have been tested Dick, 197, blasting lg «wien record of information about a specie bast as may bere ty aw or regulon. Alas Powder 1967 basting machine, an electra lectromechanical or eleconic device which po- vides electrical nergy to sting creat forte purpose of energizing etc biasing caps. A CD-tpe basing machine ses cepacors forthe cleeve di charge blasting machine-generator, a blasting machine generating energy by twisting the handle oa genemtor fasting mat covering, utlly made of srap des, lags, ropes oF wie eae, ‘placed ove alata reduce yor Diaing os itrogiye Blasting lon ex lat Csi’ Basing powder, powder conning lest tte, nd ints place more charcoal than lack powder econo 65 to 75% pause mse, 100 15% fh, nd 15 to 20% charoa Inthe Uned State, sodiun nai se age Inplace of potassium sit Fy, 192 biasing scheme, se "blast design tasting site se Di site Blasting supplies, ineloes explosives, sting cap, ses and ancilary exuipment such as charging pols, sting nachines. teste blasting switch, a switch vse to connect» power source toa basting circ, The ‘itch an be loeted ina sure sande ihe anger gas outbursts is ven jin the underground. ane Wah danse of * . ‘basting wbratio, the par ofthe energy from 2 Bas that manifest ise ack ass vibrations which ae raat from he immedi last rea trough the ork fms and overayng sl Ser ao “sisic waves ‘ast ayout, he dling pases an ination dea layout Blast pattern the geometry ofthe dil hols ld cut on the top ofa bench or the rel pater afer deiling x he bt ofa bench. Also the geometry the ei 2 blowpipe holes at the face of @ drift or tunnel including the burden and the spacing distance and their relationship to each other. ISRM, 1992. blast site, the location where the explosive material is handled during charging, in- “luding the perimeter of blastholes and 15 m (50 ft) in all directions from charged holes or holes to be loaded. In underground mines. 4,5 m (15 {0 of solid nb or pillar ean be substituted for the 15 m distance. These rules are used in the USA ‘Alas Powder, 1987. blast plan, see “blast design’ blast pressure, see ‘borehole pressure’ blast vibration monitoring, the technique to measure the blast vibrations in the fround andlor air pressure around a blast. The technique for blast vibration fronitoring is described in “Suggested methods for blast vibration monitoring’. see ISRM, 1992. blind shaft, en underground shaft, connected to the main shaft by a drift or transfer station. blistering, see ‘mud capping’ blister shooting see ‘mud capping’ block hole, small hole driled into a rack or boulder into which an anchor bolt oF ‘small charge of explosive may be placed. Long, 1960. block holing, the breakage of boulders by loading (charging ) and fring small explo- sive charges, Atlas Powder, 1987. See also popping. block size, ock block dimension or volume resulting from the mutual orientation of “intersecting joint sts, and the spacing of the individual joint sets. The block size can be quantified according to standard procedure. Classification of block size, see Table 5. ISRM, 1981 ‘Table 5 Classifstion of block size After ISRM. 1981. Descripion A) ‘ery ag Books <1 Large bloke 13 Medium-sized blocks 0 Small leks 1030 sal Books > block size inde, is estimated by selecting by eye several typical block sizes and taking the average dimensions. ISRM, 1978 block size in situ, the joints and planes of weakness in a rock mass éefine the size of the blocks in situ. Several methods have been proposed in the atempt to deter: imine the block size in situ. These methods are the parametrical, the simulation ‘nd the computational methods. Wang & Latham, 1990. blocky hale, see ‘block hole” blowpipe, & metal pipe which is connected t0 an air or water hose, of both, to clean ‘Out blast holes before charging or to remove stemming in the event of a misfired Charge. The blowpipe should be made of copper or any material which will not 2body waves cause sparks when itis in contact with rock or other materials, because a spark ‘may initiate the explosive, body waves, are transverse (shear) and longitudinal (mainly compression but also @ small tensile part) waves both also caled seismic waves. They propagate in the interior of an elastic solid or in fuids with shear resistance. In water only longitu- dinal waves can exist because the shear strength of water is zero. The body waves are not related to a boundary surface. A perfectly sharp distinction between body waves and surface waves is difficult to make unless the waves are plane or spheri~ cal booster, a cap sensitive explosive with high detonation velocity used in small quan- tities to initiate and improve the performance of another explosive, the latter forming the major postion of the charge, A booster does not contain an initiating device. bboot-leg, butt or gun, that portion or remainder of a shot hole in a face after the ex plosive has been fired, A situation in which the blast fails to cause total failure of the rock because of insufficient explosives for the amount of burden, or owing to incomplete detonation of the explosives. boreabiliry, see ‘drilability’ borehole, cylindrical hole drilled by a mechanical device or jet-piercing equipment into the rock. borehole binocular, periscope or strata scope, instrument for singular observation of the borehole wall and in which the illumination is created by a bul. borehole deviation, see “drilling accuracy’ borehole deviation measurement, the measurement of the deviation of a borehole. Different techniques may be used such as accelerometers (change of inertia), gy- roscope, photography of concentric rings (Maxibor), using a light in the hole, or observing a reflex pushed into the hole, etc, For measurement on the surface 3 vertical borehole deviation device “Borepak’ is commonly used. It consists of a set of interlocking 2 m long and 63 mm in diameter rods containing microchips and inclinometers. A sighting device (binocular or theodolite) atthe top of the borehole is used to mark the position of the collar and the drilling direction. An. electronic notebook is used to collect the required data for input into a personal computer to obtain a plot ofthe hole. borehole diameter (d), (mm or mm), the mean width of the cross-section of the bore- hole. The borehole diameter varies depending on drilling conditions and equip~ ment. A nominal diameter must be assumed for the purpose of calculating mass per meter of explosive in the borehole. Normally the diameter is larger than the Gril bic size, and it decreases with length in upholes, but because of flushing it in- creases with depth in downholes. In scientific work itis important to determine the actual mean hole diameter. The size of the blasting operation controls the size (small intermediate or large) of the diameter of the boreholes. A suggestion for classification of borehole diameters is given in Table 6. borehole length (,), (m), the length ofthe borehole as measured along the axis from. the collar to the bottom of the hole. borehole liner, see “blasthole liner’. Dorehole plug, material used 10 block a borehole with the aim of fixing the explosive within a certain length of the borehole, Borehole plugs are made of wood or plas- borehole pressure Table 6, Definition of borehole sie according tothe diameter. Boren ie Taegan ies om) Suc ines (om) Snalltoreble <0 intermediate 5.200 creole tone > 200 Linge brcholes tic materials, inflated tyres or gasbags, and sandfilled bags. The poly-deck gasbag isa selfinflating bag available in a range of sizes fom 75 mm to 400 mm in di ‘ameter. The inflation is caused by reaction of diluted hydrochloric acid and bicar- ‘bonate producing CO, gas. Borehole plugs may be used in open stoping or in ver~ tical retreat mining. They can also be used to separate deck charges of to create air decks borehole pressure or explosion pressure, (py), (MPa), the theoretical pressure ex- trted of the borehole wall by the explosive after the detonation front has passed, Sand before any expansion of the borehole wall has taken place. The borehole pres: Sure at the maximem expansion of the blasthole diameter but before the break down is called the equilibrium borehole pressure (py,) (MPa). The enexBy &X- panded up to this point is defined as the shock energy and the typical operating pressure during this phase ranges from the equilibrium borehole pressure of about 1000 MPa and depending on rock and explosive properties, down to 30 MPa. In the older literature the borehole pressuce is calculated before expansion of the di- meter. This pressure is calculated for the explosive gas density equal to the den- sity of the original explosive, and in classical theory (ideal explosives) itis quoted 2 Pe fe 0 (ideal fully coupled explosives) where py isthe borehole pressure in MPa, p, is the densiy of the explosive in kgf and c, the detonation velocity ofthe explosive in mvs. This formula cannot be used for decoupled charges and non-ideal explosives. ‘The borehole pressure before expansion of the borehole and using radial or axial decoupled charges ean with reasonable reliability be calculated according tthe following formula: nba where pp = borchole pressure (MPa), pe = density of the explosive (kg/m), eg = Velocity of detonation (es), Rq = axial decoupling, percentage of explosive col umn charged (%). de = diameter of the explosive ater charging into the blasthole (im), dy = diameter of the blasthole (m), k = a value which has to be determined experimentally on site. The value of k is ~2.6 according to Atlas Powder, 1987, For ideal explosives (military explosives) and decoupled charges, e.g. linear rt ont anedcud raven Bborehole TY shaped charges used for contolled contour blasting, the value of & isin the ange of 4106, Bjaraholt, 1981 “The relation between borehole pressure and volume of the gases follows from the equation of state ofthe explosive. IF the gas pressure is above 100 MPa the equa- tion of state is expressed by pV" = const. whele pis the pressure (MPa). Vis the 42s volume (7) ¥the adiabatic exponent, (In thermodynamics x is used as sym= bol instead of borehole TV, a TV-camera which is serving the borehole wall bottom, the floor in any underground operation. Fraenkel. 1954. bottom bench, underground bench, blasted after the excavation ofthe top heading. [ito Nobel, 1993. bottom charge (Qj), (kg), the mass of charge used (0 break the rock mass at the ‘botiom of a blasthole. Normally the bottom charge is given a lager bulk stvengih (the charge concentration should be ~2,5 times the charge concentration in the ‘columa), because of the larger confinement atthe bottom of the hole bottom heading ~ overhand stoping, method of blasting used for adits, tunnels, and drifts. The lower part, or bottom heading, is either driven in steps or to the full length, whereafter the upper partis broken out by stoping or slabbing. Fraenkel, 1958, bottom initiation, initiation ofa charge atthe botiom ofthe blasthole. bottom load, see “bottom charge’ boulder, oversize rock fragment from blasting to be disintegrated by following blasting (secondary blasting), mechanical or other methods into small sized pieces suitable for further handling. Boulders ean normally not be handled by the loading equipment, and/or by the crusher in use. boulder frequency (/,), (No1000 tor No,/1000 m?), number of boulders per 1000 { (metic ton) oF 1060 i! of rock broken, Boundary Element Method (BEM), eumerical technique based on segmenting the surface of the body area only. Advantageous for the calculation of large move. iments of rock mass during blasting. The boundary element method provides dis tributions of stresses and displacements over the boundary of the domain (area) under consideration. box euty the initial cut driven into a rock mass, where intially no open sides existed, see Figure 5, inserted into the borehole with the aim of ob yy Figure 5, Box ct ater Kennedy, 190) brittleness “This cesults in a highwall on both sides ofthe cut. Swelling of the cock will occur both vertially and horizontally. Kennedy. 1990. In Australi the term box cutis also used fora patter of holes adopted for blasting to a new level below an ex: isting floor (eg in shaft sinking or to create a deeper level in surface mining). branching of a crack, division of «propagating crack into two or more cracks. Ade- iquate crack propagation energy is a necessary condition for the branching of cracks 10 occur. branch line, the length of detonating cord or signal ube running between (and con- ‘nected 1) the tunkline and the primer. AS 2187.1, 1996. break, a class term including fauls, ruptures, fractures, joins, fissure and other es- ‘continuities in rock formations. breast holes, blastholes in drifting or tunnelling located next 10 the roof Holes and ‘with blasting action downwards. Singh & Wondrad, 1989. breast hole helper, a blasthole located next to a breast hole and initiated before the breast holes in waneling. idgewire, a resistance wire which connects the ends of the leg wires inside an tlectric blasting cap. It is embedded in the ignition charge of the blasting cap, lect squib or similar deviees, The Fine wice, sometimes a platinum wite, 1s heated by the passage of the elecric current to igaite the ignition charge. bridgewire detonator, contain of an incandescent bridge made of thin resistance ‘wire which is made to glow by the application of an electric pulse. An igniting pills built around the wire by repeated immersion in a solution of a pyrorechnical Tateral ina solvent, followed by dying. The igniting flash acts directly onto the detonation serface in the case of instantaneous detonators; in delayed-action deto ators itis sent over a delay device onto the detonating pill so as to produce a ‘watertight bond with it, Non-armed bridgewice detonators have an open casing, into which a detonator nay be inserted. Meyer. 1977 bridging, a term used to indicate that the continuity of an explosive column in a borehole is broken. This may occur, either by improper placement. asin the ease of slurries of poured blasting agents. or where some foreign material has plugged the hole. Konya & Walter, 1990. Drisanee, the rise time and amplitude of the transient pulse caused by a certain ex plesive in a blasthole ofa certain diameter in cack or placed free in water or ait. ‘Fhe rise time and amplitude depend on both the characteristics of the explosive (velocity of detonation (c,) and its confining medium (Young's modulus). An ccaplosive with a high cy has @ higher brisance. A rock with a high value of ‘Young's modulus will get larger rise ime and strain amplitude. brisance test (Hess, see ‘Hess cylinder compression test brisance test (Kast, see ‘Kast eylinder compression test Drisance value, see “brisance test (Kast), brittle fracture in fracture mechanies a fracture characterized by the lack of plastic deformation atthe erack tip. brittleness, proneness of a solid to crack at low stress level before the onset of plas- tie deformation. See also “fracture toughness. brittleness (Criability) test Sip (Swedish) , a measure of rock resistance to crushing due to repeated mass-drop impacts (impact wear). The rock material to be ested by impact wear, 05 kg with a density of 2650 kg/m? in the fraction of 11.2 -16,0 5broaching bility. Tanwock, 1989. pred eek el ‘aya & Walter, 1990. ere Beste [sm Stemming) Figue 6. Bue blasting (afer Kennedy, 1990), % duced in the final contour row, bi a6 the two rows (buffer cows) next fo the ontout row. The dil hole diameter isthe same in the buffer 201s in the pro- Geetion blast area, Holes are located half to three fourths ofthe normal production bast values. Subdeiling is totally avoided forthe butter holes. buffer row, the row next t0 the ast row (perimeter oF trim rom) of the main blast. ‘These holes have inereased stemming to prevent cratering back at the surface trough the perimeter row. Kennedy, 1990 building stone blasting, see “dimensional stone blasting’. building demolition blasting, the demolition of buildings by explosives bulk density or apparent density ofan explosive before charging (Py (kel), the mass ofthe explosive divided by its volume before charging into the blasthole. bulk density of explosive (after charging) (p,) (kg/m), the mass of explosive in the borehole divided by that volume of the-biathole which is charged. For car trudged explosives the bulk density is lower than the explosive density because of Uiffeulty of getting 100% packing of the explosive and for powder explosives, Tike ANFO, the bulk density will be larger because the explosive needs to be compressed lite to get it ofasen in upholes, bulk explosive, explosive material prepared for use without packing, These kind of explosives wil Fil the cross-section of the borehole after charging (decoupling ratio= I) bulkhead, 2 panition (wall) builtin in an underground structure ora structural fining to prevent the passage of ai, water, or muck, ISRM, 1975. boul ix, see “bulk explosives’ bulk modulus (R), (Pa), modulus of volumetric expansion or inverse of compress- ilay tincompressbily) a derived quantity characterizing the inverse compressi~ bility of s material. [cs a quantity that expresses a materials resistance co elastic changes in volume. Itcan be calculated as follows; na2ganltye._€ 3°" 30-29) XI-w where p isthe hydrostatic pressure in (Pa) and ¢is the volumetric strain 2 is the Tame"s constant and G the shear modulus in (Pa) valid for isotropic media, and v is Poisson's ratio, Eis Young's modulus in (Pa), p the density of the material in (kg/m, ¢, is the longitudinal wave velocity in (avs) and c, isthe transverse wave velocity in (mis). 1/K = compressibility, (x) (I/Pa). bulk specific volume (v3), an Mk), bulk volume per unit of mass bulk strength (5), (MJsin), energy released per unit volume of explosive. Usually expressed as relative bulk strength (RBS), (sy). when related to the bulk strength of a standard explosive such as ANFO. (ANFO is the normal reference explosive with densities between 750 and 870 kg/tn’, wile blasting gelatine is often quoted having adensity of 1550 kg/m, bulldoze or mud capping, see ‘adobe charge bulled hole, a blasthole which has been enlarged (chambered) to accommodate ex- ‘ca explosive over a portion of its length (usually at the bottom) by exploding @ small charge. AS 2187.1, 1996. bulletcresistant, ability to resist penetration by a bullet. The US standard for maga- abullet sensitivity Zine walls oF doors (of constriction) stipulates resistance t penetration by a butler ‘of 150:grain M2 ball ammunition having a nominal muzzle velocity of 822,96 m/s {2900 fuse} fred from a 0.30-calibre rifle a a distance of 30.48 m (100 fd) per pendicular tothe wall or door. Dulettest, a methed 0 test the sensitivity of explosives with respect o impact. Bul- ets are shot against a sample of the explosive. The velocity ofthe ballet i in creased until the explosive is intted balling, a procedure intended to enlarge a section ofa blast hole (usually the botiom) in order to accommodate exra explosive over that section, AS 21871, 1996 bull hole, Targe empty cents hole ina pale Role cut. Ofofison, 1990. See “parallel hole cur bunch connector, detonating cont prepared in wo loops though which upto 20 hock tubes leading to detonators in blasthole: canbe iiiate by the detonation from the cord. The cord is initiated by a detonator attached to a shock ce. This {ype of initiation is commonly used in dit and tunnel basing burden, abbreviation for “burden distance see ‘burden distance’ burden, burden in Bench Blasting (B), sy shores perpendicular distance berween the centre line ofa charge an the fre or buffered face burden, burden in crater Blasting (8), (m) shores perpendicular distance berween the cenite of a charge and che free surface. Usually the terms “charge depth’ or “depth of burial” are used in the lerture burden, blasted burden (irue or effective burden) (By, (m), shortest perpendicular distance from the eenue line ofthe centre ofa charge tothe fee surface creied 'y earlier charges fred inthe round, The exact shape ofthe fee surface created by ealier fring charges cannot always be determined because it depends on the real delay times and fring Sequence burden distance, shortest perpendicular distance between the cente line or cent of charge and the free surface, burden, drilled burden (8), fn, the burden distance measured inthe plane con- ining the collars of bastholes, between the front row blastholes and the face or between one row of blastholes andthe next row. This distance is oaly equal 10 pcteal burden when the bench is vertical. With inclined hoes, foc geometrical ‘easoas, the drilled burden is always larger than the practieal burden. Durden, maximum burden (By), (the largest burden distance which can be used for good fragmentation if al boreholes are located at their correct postions (no borehole deviation). Because ‘good fragmentation’ is difficult o define in quan titative terms the use of the term “maximum burden disiance” is noc recom: mended burden, spcimum burden (B,), (m), the burden distance for which the combined cost of deiling, blasting, micking, hauling, and crashing is minimum burden, optimum breakage burden (B,), (0), in bench and crater blasting the bur den distance which, for a certain charge size, gives the maximum amount of rock broken, In the interest of safe breakage, the burden distance in rater blasting should usualy be slighty smaller than the optimum breakage burden. bburden, optimum fragmentation burden (8) (a) the burden distance which gives the maxima surface cea of fragmented rock. 28 burning rate burden, practical burden (B,), (m), the planned burden used in blasting which is de- rived by subtracting the greatest blasthole deviation (caused by driling) from the ‘maximum burden. For vertical benches 8, burden, reduced burden (B,), (i), the reeued burden is defined as 2-55, where Bis the practical burden and S, is eke practical spacing, If the properties ofthe rock and explosives are not known in detail, the following formulas, based fon regression analysis of burdens and spacings used in more than one hundred surface and underground mines, can be used for rough estimates of the reduced burden, Rustan, 1990, For surface mines with blasthole diameters of 90-380 mm; ++ 525 expected maximum value Bee = 37% expected minimum value where dis the blasthole diameter in m. It is assumed thatthe decoupling ratio is equal 6 | For underground mines with blasthole diameters of $0-165 mm; 4 404% expected maximum value 136% ~ 25% expected minimum valve ‘where d isthe blasole diameter in m. Ic i assumed thatthe decoupling ratio is equal | Formulas including rock and explosive properties, se Kou & Rustan, 1992. burden velocity (vy rms) the average velocity of the burden rock mass after de tachment from the solid rock mass. It depends on the suength ofthe rock and ex: Plosive, and the confinement (burden, blasthole inclination. et). By high speed Photography an empirical formula has been developed, Chiappeta, 1991 AL where v, isthe velocity ofthe burden (mus). &, and fate constants depending on explosive and rock properties. and B is the burden distance (). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), the International Bureau for ‘Weighs and Measures, established in 1875 and located in Sevres near Pars. burn cut, a cut where all holes are drilled parallel to the tunnel axis and slightly up- ‘wards Yor dewatering, and where all the dill holes are of the same diameter see Figure 7, Some of the holes are charged heavily. while others ate left without 2 ‘charge to accomplish the swelling ofthe rock. The distances between the oles are small (-0.2 m) and usually a square pattem for the centre holes is used, burning Fate, the linear burning rate of = propellant is the rate at which the chemical ‘combustion reaction is propagated by Both thermal conduction and radiation. The 2burst current white = empty holes or relief holes Figure 7. Burcu (alter Alas Cope 1982), combustion gases are flowing in the direction opposite to that of the combustion progress (unlike in detonation). Meyer, 1977. burst current, the value of the current at which the bridge-wire or foil explodes. RISI, 1992. ‘bus wires, the (wo wires, joined to the connecting wire, to which the leg wires of che ‘electric caps are connected in a parallel ciccuit, see Figure 8. Each leg wire of each, cap is connected to a different bus wire. Ina series-in-parallel cicuit. each end of ‘each series is connected to a different bus wire. USBM, 1983. Bur wire Caps q Connecting wer Bus wie Parallel eiveuit Bus wire ——- =] Connecting wire Caps h Seresin-parallel circuit Figure 8, Definition of tus wires in an inition circ butt button bit, percussive bit having tungsten carbide buttons. They are manufactured in sizes from ~35 mm and upwards, butt or socket, incompletely blasted hole which after the blast may still contain €x- plosives and is thus considered hazardous. acap, see “basting cap fap erimper, 2 mechanical device for ering the metalic shell ofa Blasting cap Securely 10a section of inserted safety fase. IME, 1981 capped fuse, safety fase to which a basing cap hasbeen crimped on 0 one end ‘capped primer, a package oF catcidge of cap-sensitve explosive which is specii- ally designed to transmit detonation to other explosives. and sehich consins a blasting cap. USBM, 1983 capping station, a special location expressly used for preparing capped fuses. AS 2187.1, 1996. cap sensitive ee ‘cap sensitivity” cap sensitivity, sensitivity of an explosive to initiation by atest blasting cap No. 8 {0.80-0.45 g of PETN) ora faction thereof. The base charge of blasting cap No.8 may be different in other counties. Im South Afscathe charge mas is 08 g cap sensitivity test, atest to determine the sensitivity of an explosive to shock from Ba standard detonator. Is used as one ofthe enter for classifying energetic ma- terials as explosives inthe United Nations Haaards Division 1.5, Persson etal, 1994 cap wires or leg wires, the two single wires or one duplex wire extending ou from fan elecsc blasting cap. IME, 1981 carbon monoxide, CO is a poisonous ga, tasteless, odourless anda by-product of the detonation ofan explosive. An inadequate amount of oxygen inthe explosive causes the formation of excessive carbon monoxide coment in the Blas fumes, Cardox, a tradename for a system that uses hollow carwidges made of alloy see and filled with liquid carbon dioxide, which, when initiated by a mixture of potassium perchlorate and charcoal, creates a pressure, 70-130 MPa, adequate to break ard tundercu col. USBM, 1983. careful blasting, see ‘controlled basting’ Carrick delay detonator, a special designed detonator where the rbe is made of a non-slagging bronze element, a opposed to the aluminium used in conventional Setonators. Ths the possibly ofthe ignition of pos-blast gases fom the hot molten aluminium particles (called sagging is eliminated. I is special designed basting cap for use in gassy coal mines. Sen, 1995, carton, a lighoveight inner container for explosive materials, usually encased in a ‘substantial shipping container called a case. Alas Powder, 1987 cartridge, a performed unit of explosive enclosed in thin or tick paper or plastics to 1 pregeermined diameter and length cartridge count (stick count), a method of expressing the mas ofan explosive cat- {ridge by listing dhe number of earrdges per 23 kg (50-pound) case (inthe USA), ‘This incorrect measure should be ceplaced by grams or kilograms per cartridge, because other countries may have other ease masses, for example South Africa (25 ke. cartridge density the ratio between the mass of an explosive catrdge and its vo: 2 ‘channel effect cartridged explosive, explosive enclosed in thin or thick paper or plastics 0 a pre- determined diameter and length ‘cartridge loader, device to blow cartridges by means of compressed aie through @ plastic hose into the drill hole. Ths results ina high bulk explosive density. cartridge punch, a wooden, plastic, oF non-sparking metal device to punch an ‘Opening in an explosive cartidge © accept a detonator ora section of detonating cord, IME. 1981 cartridge strength, see “bulk strength’. ase, a substantial outer shipping container meeting the US Department of Trans- ‘oration (DOT) specification for explosive materials. Atlas Powder, 1987. case insert, set of printed, precautionary instructions, including the US fnstitute of ‘Makers of Explosives (IME) Do's and Don'ts, which is inserted into a case of €- plosive materials. Adas Powder, 1987, ‘case liner, a plastic or paper barter used to prevent the escape of explosive materials from acase, Aas Powder, 1987. cast blasting, see ‘bast casting” ast booster, a high density explosive unit designed to provide a high detonation ‘locity and a high detonation pressure, for adequate initiation of the ‘mainvcolumn charge. It may be made up of a more sensitive inner core to accent Initiation from a detonating cord and detonator. The inner core may be made of Pentolite (a SO%/S0% mixture of PETN and TNT) or only PETN. Sandhu & Pradhan, 1991 ‘cast charge, a charge of solid high explosive used to detonate less sensitive explo sive materials. See also ‘cast booster cast, extruded or pressed booster, a cast, extruded, or pressed sold high explosive ved to detonate explosive materials of lower sensitivity. Alas Powder, 1987. casting of explosives, increasing the density of an explosive atthe manufacturing bY ‘casting. This increases the brisance ofthe explosive and this technique is therefore Used for military explosives but also for primers and boosters or commercial plosives. catt pile, spoil or spoil bank, the pile of material that is cast or moved, from its ‘riginal postion by an excavating machine, as opposed t that loaded into havlsge equipment, It is usually composed of waste material cast primer, primer with hard consistency, used (0 initiate blasting agents. Usually ‘an explosive with high detonation velocity, See also "cast booster’ cautious blasting or controlled blasting, blasting with ceraia limitations due to surroundings eg. limitations concerning flyrock. ground vibrations, air shock waves. Nifo Nobel, 1993. See also ‘controled blasting’ centralizer, dling accessory used to make the dil string rotate on the same axis i ‘oder o reduce borehole deviation. centres, the distance between two adjacent parallel blasthole. certified blaster, a blaster authorized through governmental agency certification €© prepare, execute and supervice blasting, chambering, see ‘springing’ channel effet, effect where a shock wave in air, in the gap between a pipe charBe ‘and the blasthole wall, moves faster than the detonation front ia the explosive ‘The pressure generated from the air shock wave may be large enough to dead- 3 wae