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UNIT 7
NOZZLES
OBJECTIVES
INPUT
7.0 INTRODUCTION
Nozzle
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
It is a duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in which a steadily flowing fluid
can be made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct.
There are many applications in practice which require a high-velocity stream of fluid,
and the nozzle is the best means of obtaining high-velocity, thus nozzles are used in
steam and gas turbines, in jet engines, in rocket motors, in flow measurement, and in
many other applications.
When a fluid is decelerated in a duct, causing a rise in pressure along the stream, then
the duct is called a diffuser; two applications in practice in which a diffuser is used are
the centrifugal compressor and the ram jet.
Nozzle Diffuser
Figure 7.2
a) Convergent Nozzle
Inlet Outlet
Figure 7.3
• The convergent nozzle in which the cross-section converges from the entry
area to a minimum area which is the exit.
Figure 7.4
- It has been stated before, that the velocity at the throat of a correctly
designed nozzle is the velocity of sound.
- The flow-up to the throat is sub-sonic while the flow after the throat is
supersonic. It should be noted that a sonic or supersonic flow requires a
diverging duct to accelerate it.
- In the same way, for a nozzle that is convergent, the fluid will attain sonic
velocity at the exit if the pressure drop across the nozzle is large enough.
- The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is attained to
the inlet pressure of a nozzle is called the critical pressure ratio.
γ −1
Tc ⎛ pc ⎞ γ 2
- Critical temperature ratio, =⎜ ⎟ =
T 1 ⎜⎝ p1 ⎟⎠ γ −1
γ / (γ −1)
pc ⎛ 2 ⎞
Critical pressure ratio, =⎜ ⎟
p1 ⎜⎝ γ − 1 ⎟⎠
-
NOZZLES J3008/7/5
- When the back pressure is exactly equal to the critical pressure, pc then the
velocity at exit is sonic and the mass flow through the nozzle is at a
maximum value. The exit pressure remains at pc, and the fluid expands
violently outside the nozzle down to the back pressure.
- It can be seen that the maximum mass flow through a convergent nozzle is
obtained when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is the critical pressure
ratio. Also, for a convergent-divergent nozzle, with sonic velocity at the
throat, the cross-sectional area of the throat fixes the mass flow through the
nozzle for fixed conditions.
Consider a stream of fluid at pressure p1, enthalpy h1, and with a low velocity
C1. It is required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to
accelerate to a high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct. It can be
assumed that the heat loss from the duct is negligibly small
(adiabatic flow, Q = 0), and it is clear that no work is done on or by the fluid
(W = 0). Applying the steady-flow energy equation :
2 2
C1 C2
h1 + + Q = h2 + +W
2 2
1 X 2
A1 A2
h1 h2
C1 C2
X
Figure 7.6
• Applying the steady-flow energy equation, between section 1 and any other
section X-X where pressure p1 , enthalpy h1 , and with low velocity C1. It is
required to find the shape of duct which will cause the fluid to accelerate to
high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct. Figure 7.6
• It can be assumed that the heat loss from the duct is negligibly small, and it is
clear no work is done on or by the fluid. Applying the steady-flow energy
equation which is :
C12 C2
h1 + =h + ------------(1)
2 2
C= 2(h1 − h ) + C12
(where 1 kJ=103
Nm)
• CA
Mass flow rate, m = ------------(4)
v
or
A v
Area per unit mass velocity , •
= ------------(5)
m C
v
Area per unit mass flow =
2(h1 − h) + C12
NOZZLES J3008/7/8
Example 7.1
Air at 8.6 bar and 190°C expands at the rate of 4.5 kg/s through a convergent-
divergent nozzle into a space at 1.03 bar. Assuming that the inlet velocity is
negligible, calculate the throat and the exit cross-sectional areas of the nozzle.
The nozzle is shown diagrammatically in figure below. The critical pressure ratio is
given by,
1 C 2
C1=0 C2
γ 1.4
p c ⎛ 2 ⎞ (γ −1) ⎛ 2 ⎞ 0.4
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.528
p1 ⎜⎝ γ + 1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 .4 ⎠
Tc 2 1
= =
T1 γ + 1 1.2
190 + 273
Tc = = 385.8 K
1.2
Then,
Cc = (RTc ) = (1.4 × 287 × 385.8) = 394 m / s
And,
C c = 44.77 (h1 − hc ) = 44.72 {C p (T1 − Tc )}
•
m Vc 4.5 × 0.244
Ac = = = 0.00279 m 2
Cc 394
463
T2 = = 252 K
1.835
Then,
•
mv2 4.5 × 0.702
A2 = = = 0.00485 m 2
C2 651
ACTIVITY 7A
7.2 Define :
(a) critical presssure ratio
(b) maximum mass flow
7.3 A fluid at 6.9 bar and 93°C enters a convergent nozzle with negligible
velocity, and expands isentropically into a space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the outlet
temperature and mass flow per m2 of exit area.
Assume that both helium and ethane are perfect gases, and the respective
molecular weights as 4 and 30.
NOZZLES J3008/7/11
7.1
b) Convergent Nozzle
Inlet Outlet
7.2
a) critical presssure ratio
- The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is
attained to the inlet pressure of a nozzle.
7.3 Solution :
a)
It is necessary first to calculate the critical pressure in order to discover
whether the nozzle is choked or not.
Ro
We know that, R=
M
Therefore for helium,
8314
R= = 2079 Nm / kg K
4
Then,
γR
Cp =
(γ − 1)
So,
γ −1 R 2079
= = 5 = 1.66
γ C p 10 × 5.24
1
∴γ = = 1.66
1 − 0.397
γ / (γ −1)
pc ⎛ 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
p1 ⎜⎝ γ − 1 ⎟⎠
(1.66 / 0.66 )
⎛ 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = 0.488
⎝ 2.66 ⎠
The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid does not reach
the critical conditions and the nozzle is not choked. The nozzle is shown
diagrammatically in the figure below :
1 2
Then,
(γ −1) / γ 0.397
T1 ⎛ p1 ⎞ ⎛ 6.9 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 1.295
T2 ⎜⎝ p 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3.6 ⎠
93 + 273
T2 = = 282.5 K
1.295
So,
So,
• A2 C 2 1 × 935
m= = = 573 kg / s
V2 1.63
Mass flow per m 2 exit area = 573 kg / s
Ro
R=
M
Therefore for ethane ,
8314
R= = 277.1 Nm / kg K
30
Then,
γR
Cp =
(γ − 1)
So,
γ −1 R 277.1
= = 3 = 0.167
γ C p 10 × 1.66
1
∴γ = = 1.2
1 − 0.167
γ / (γ −1)
pc ⎛ 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
p1 ⎜⎝ γ − 1 ⎟⎠
(1.2 / 0.2 )
⎛ 1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = 0.566
⎝ 1.1 ⎠
The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid reaches critical
conditions at exit and the nozzle is choked. The expansion from the exit
pressure of 3.91 bar down to the back pressure of 3.6 bar must take place
outside the nozzle. The nozzle is shown diagrammatically in the figure below :
1 2
3.6 bar
Then,
Tc ⎛ 2 ⎞ 1
=⎜ ⎟=
T1 ⎜⎝ γ + 2 ⎟⎠ 1.1
366
T2 = Tc = = 332.7 K
1.1
So,
Also,
So,
• A2 C 2 1 × 333
m= = = 1412 kg / s
V2 0.236
Mass flow per m 2 exit area = 1412 kg / s
NOZZLES J3008/7/16
INPUT
Steam turbine, gas turbine, jet engine, flow measurement, rocket propulsion,
steam injector and an injector itself.
a) Steam Turbine
• Of all the heat engines and prime movers the steam turbine is the nearest to
the ideal and it is widely used in power plants and in all industries where
power and/or heat is needed for processes; such as pulp mills, refineries,
petro-chemical plants, food processing plants, desalination plants, refuse
incinerating and district heating plants.
b) Gas Turbine
• The main use for the gas turbine in the present day is in the air-craft field,
and the large unit of a gas turbine is used for electric power generation and
for marine propulsion.
c) Jet Engine
• Jet engines move the airplane forward with a great force that is produced
by a tremendous thrust and causes the plane to fly very fast.
• All jet engines, which are also called gas turbines, work on the same
principle. The engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor
raises the pressure of the air. The compressor is made up of fans with many
blades and attached to a shaft. The blades compress the air. The
compressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the
mixture. The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the
back of the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the
aircraft are thrust forward as shown in Figure 7.7.
• In a jet engine airplane, thrust is a result of hot gases (exhaust) rushing out
of the engine's nozzle. The action of the gases rapidly moving backward
causes a reaction in the air. The air puts out a force equal to the thrust, but
in the opposite direction, moving the airplane forward.
Figure 7.7
NOZZLES J3008/7/19
d) Flow Measurement
• A nozzle is used frequently as a flow meter by inserting it into a pipeline
and measuring the pressure drop or the differential between the inlet and
the throat. This pressure must be kept small, and is measured by a water or
mercury manometer.
• Eddies are set up as the fluid leaves the nozzle and the kinetic energy of
the jet is dissipated irreversibly. This means that some of the pressure
drop, ∆ p , is not recovered, and so the nozzle causes a loss of pressure in
the pipeline.
e) Rocket Propulsion
• One very important use of the nozzle is as a
means of propolsion. Since the fluid
flowing through the nozzle is accelerated
In 1926, Robert relative to the nozzle, then by Nowton’s
Goddard tested the third law, it follows that the fluid exerts a
first liquid-propellant trust on the nozzle in the opposite direction
rocket engine. His to the fluid flow.
engine used
gasoline and liquid • In the jet aeroplane and the ram-jet the
oxygen. The basic atmospheric air is drawn in, compressed,
idea is simple. In heated, and allowed to expand through a
most liquid- nozzle, leaving the aircraft at high velocity ;
propellant rocket the rate of change of momentum of the air
engines, a fuel and backwards relative to the aircraft gives a
an oxidizer (for reactive forward trust to the aircraft.
example, gasoline
and liquid oxygen) • In order to achieve jet-propelled flight in
are pumped into a space, where there is no atmosphere to be
combustion drawn into the vehicle, it is necessary that
chamber. There the fuel plus its oxidant should be carried in
they burn to create the rocket. This is known as the rocket
a high-pressure and propolsion.
high-velocity stream
of hot gases. These • A rocket operating on a chemical fuel
gases flow through consists of tanks containing the chemical
a nozzle that propollent, and a rocket motor (or rocket
accelerates them engine) which consists of a combustion
further (5,000 to chamber and a convergent-divergent nozzle.
10,000 mph exit Some way of introducing the propellant
velocities being from the tanks to the combustion chamber
typical), and then is also necessary, and this can be done by
they leave the using a pump or by having an additional
engine. tank of compressed nitrogen.
Figure 7.10
Adapted from
www.HowStuffWorks.com
NOZZLES J3008/7/21
f) Steam Injector
• Steam injector is widely used in the steam locomotives and is one of the
components used in the nuclear power plants.
• In the steam engine of the steam locomotive, the water supply to the boiler
is provided by two live steam injectors, or one live steam and one exhaust
injector on larger locomotives. Injectors work because steam under the
same pressure and conditions flows from a contracted nozzle at a much
greater velocity than water. The steam cone, or nozzle, regulates the
quantity of steam used by the injector. It is both convergent and divergent
in order to direct the flow of steam into the combining cone and gives it
the maximum possible velocity. (Figure 7.11)
• The condensation of the steam jet and the transfer of its energy to the
water takes place in the combining cone which receives the steam and
water. In condensing, the steam gives up its velocity to the water, which is
then further accelerated by the vacuum in the combining cone caused by
the reduction in the volume of the steam when condensed by the water.
• At the inlet end is a jet consisting of a mixture of steam and water, while
the outlet end has a jet of hot water flowing at high velocity but very low
in pressure. Steam injectors are very efficient and waste very little heat as
the steam used is returned to the boiler as hot water.
Boiler
Water
Delivery pipe
Steam
Figure 7.11
NOZZLES J3008/7/22
g) Injector
• One of an example of an injector is a fuel injector. It is an electronically
controlled valve. It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump in
your car, and it is capable of opening and closing many times per second.
Figure 7.12
• The injectors are mounted in the intake manifold so that they spray fuel
directly at the intake valves. A pipe called the fuel rail supplies pressurized
fuel to all of the injectors.
Figure 7.12
Adapted from www.HowStuffWork.com
ACTIVITY 7B
4
1 s t a u b i n
h
3 p o p l i o n
u 2
r 7
6 t o t p
9 t r
5 f w e t
11 r s
c e
10 b o e r u
n
12 a l e 8 j t
13 I j e o r
s
NOZZLES J3008/7/24
Horizontal :
1. The _____________ is widely used in power plants and all industries where power
or heat is needed for processes.
3. Marine ___________use the gas turbine to delevop mechanical energy.
5. A nozzle is used as a _____________ by inserting it into a pipeline.
6. A differential between the inlet and the _________ of a flow meter is called the
pressure drop.
8. In the______aeroplane the atmospheric air is drawn in, compressed, heated, and
allowed to expand through a nozzle.
10. In the steam engine of steam locomotive, the water supply to the _______ is
provided by two live steam injectors.
13. When an injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a pluger that opens the
______,allowing the pressurized fuel to squirt out through a tiny nozzle.
Vertical :
2. The basic parts of a turbine are the __________, which has blades projecting
radially from its periphery.
4. Jet engines move the airplane forward with a great force that is produced by a
tremendous __________ and causes the plane to fly very fast.
7. The ______________ can be reduced by using a convergent-divergent nozzle in
the pipeline.
9. A rocket operating on a chemical ________ consists of tanks containing the
chemical propellent.
11. The steam ______ or nozzle regulates the quantity of steam used by the injector.
NOZZLES J3008/7/25
FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 7B
4
1 s t e a m t u r b i n e
h
3 p r o p u l s i o n
u 2
s r 7
6 t h r o a t p
9 t r
5 f l o w m e t e r
11 u r s
c e s
10 b o i l e r u
n r
12 v a l v e 8 j e t
l
o
13 I n j e c t o r s
s
NOZZLES J3008/7/26
SELF-ASSESSMENT
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section
and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you
face any problems, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.
7.1 Calculate the throat and exit areas of a nozzle to expand air at the rate of 4.5
kg/s from 8.3 bar, 327°C into a space at 1.38 bar. Neglect the inlet velocity
and assume isentropic flow.
7.2 It is required to produce a stream of helium at the rate of 0.1 kg/s travelling at
sonic velocity at a temperature of 15°C. Calculate the inlet pressure and
temperature required assuming a back pressure of 1.013 bar and negligible
inlet velocity. Calculate also the exit area of the nozzle. Assume isentropic
flow and helium is a perfect gas of molecular weight = 4 and γ =1.66.
FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT
Answers :