CHAPTER 39

Relativity

1* · You are standing on a corner and a friend is driving past in an automobile. Both of you note the times when the car
passes two different intersections and determine from your watch readings the time that elapses between the two
events. Which of you has determined the proper time interval?
By definition, the proper time is measured by the clock in the rest frame of the car, i.e., by the clock in the car.
2 · The proper mean lifetime of pions is 2.6 × 10-8 s. If a beam of pions has a speed of 0.85c, (a) what would their
mean lifetime be as measured in the laboratory? (b) How far would they travel, on average, before they decay? (c)
What would your answer be to part (b) if you neglect time dilation?

γ = 1/ 1 − 0.85 = 1.90; ? ?t =4.94 × 10 s

(a) Use Equs. 39-13 and 39-7 2 −8

(b) ∆x = v∆t 8 -8
∆x = 0.85×3×10 ×4.94×10 m = 12.6 m
(c) Neglecting time dilation, ∆t = 2.6×10-8 s 8 -8
∆x = 0.85×3×10 ×2.6×10 m = 6.63 m

3 · (a) In the reference frame of the pion in Problem 2, how far does the laboratory travel in a typical lifetime of
2.6×10-8 s? (b) What is this distance in the laboratory’s frame?
(a) ∆x = v∆tπ ∆x = 6.63 m
(b) ∆x′ = γ∆x ∆x′ = 12.6 m

4 · The proper mean lifetime of a muon is 2 µs. Muons in a beam are traveling at 0.999c. (a) What is their mean
lifetime as measured in the laboratory? (b) How far do they travel, on average, before they decay?
(a) Use Equs. 39-13 and 39-7
γ = 1/ 1 − ( 0.999) = 22.37 ; ? ?t = 44.7 µs
2

(b) ∆x = v∆t 8 -6
∆x = 0.999×3×10 ×44.7×10 m = 13.4 km

5* · (a) In the reference frame of the muon in Problem 4, how far does the laboratory travel in a typical lifetime of
2 µs? (b) What is this distance in the laboratory’s frame?
8 -6
(a) ∆x = v∆tµ ∆xµ = 0.999×3×10 ×2×10 m = 599.4 m
(b) ∆x′ = γ∆xµ ∆x′ = 13.4 km
 Chapter 39 Relativity

6 · Jay has been posted to a remote region of space to monitor traffic. Toward the end of a quiet shift, a spacecraft
goes by, and he measures its length using a laser device, which reports a length of 85 m. He flips open his handy
reference catalogue and identifies the craft as a CCCNX-22, which has a proper length of 100 m. When he phones in
his report, what speed should Jay give for this spacecraft?
From Equ. 39-14, γ = Lp /L; solve for V
γ = 100/85; V = c 1 − 1 /γ = 0.527 c = 1.58 × 10 m/s
2 8

7 · A spaceship travels to a star 95 light-years away at a speed of 2.2×108 m/s. How long does it take to get there (a)
as measured on earth and (b) as measured by a passenger on the spaceship?
(a) As measured on earth, ∆t = ∆x/V ∆t = (95 c.y)/[(2.2/3) c] = 129.5 y
(b) Use Equ. 39-13; ∆tp = ∆t/γ γ = 1.47; ∆tp = (129.5/1.47) y = 88 y

8 · The mean lifetime of a pion traveling at high speed is measured to be 7.5×10-8 s. Its lifetime when measured at
rest is 2.6×10-8 s. How fast is the pion traveling?
Use Equ. 39-13; solve for V
γ = 7.5/2.6; V = c 1 − 1/ ? = 0.938 c = 2.81 ×10 m/s
2 8

9* · A meterstick moves with speed V = 0.8c relative to you in the direction parallel to the stick. (a) Find the length of
the stick as measured by you. (b) How long does it take for the stick to pass you?
(a) Use Equ. 39-14 γ = 1/0.6; L = (1 m)/γ = 0.6 m
(b) ∆t = L/V ∆t = (0.6 m)/0.8c = 2.5 ns

10 · The half-life of charged pions, π + and π −, is 1.8×10-8 s; i.e., in the rest frame of the pions if there are N pions at
time t = 0, there will only be N/2 pions at time t = 1.8×10-8 s. Pions are produced in an accelerator and emerge with a
speed of 0.998c. How far do these particles travel in the laboratory before half of them have decayed?
-8 -8
Use Equs. 39-13 and 39-7; ∆x = V∆t γ = 15.8; ∆t = γ × 1.8 × 10 s = 28.44 × 10 s; ∆x = 85.1 m

11 ·· A friend of yours who is the same age as you travels to the star Alpha Centauri, which is 4 light-years away and
returns immediately. He claims that the entire trip took just 6 y. How fast did he travel?
D′ = 2L/γ and ∆t′ = D′/V = 2L/γV 6 y = (8 c.y)/γV; 0.752 = (c/V)2(1 - V 2/c2) = c2/V 2 - 1;
V = 0.8c

12 ·· Two spaceships pass each other traveling in opposite directions. A passenger in ship A, which she knows to be 100
m long, notes that ship B is moving with a speed of 0.92c relative to A and that the length of B is 36 m. What are the
lengths of the two spaceships as measured by a passenger in ship B?
1. Find LA′ = LAp/γ γ = 2.55; LA′ = 39.2 m
2. Find LBp = γLB′ LBp = 2.55×36 m = 91.8 m

13* ·· In the Stanford linear collider, small bundles of electrons and positrons are fired at each other. In the laboratory’s
frame of reference, each bundle is about 1 cm long and 10 µm in diameter. In the collision region, each particle has an
 Chapter 39 Relativity

energy of 50 GeV, and the electrons and positrons are moving in opposite directions. (a) How long and how wide is
each bundle in its own reference frame? (b) What must be the minimum proper length of the accelerator for a bundle
to have both its ends simultaneously in the accelerator in its own reference frame? (The actual length of the
accelerator is less than 1000 m.) (c) What is the length of a positron bundle in the reference frame of the electron
bundle?
3 4
(a) 1. Use Equ. 39-25 to find γ γ = 50×10 /0.511 = 9.785×10
2. Find proper length of electron bundle; Lep = γLe Lep = 978.5 m; width unchanged = 10 µm
(b) 1. Find length of accelerator in electron frame Lacc,e = Lacc,p/γ
2. Set Lacc,e = Lp and solve for Lacc,p Lacc,p = (978.5 m) γ = 9.57×107 m
(c) Find length of positron bundle in electron frame Lpos = (1 cm)/γ = 1.02×10-7 m = 0.102 µm

14 · Use the binomial expansion

2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n(n -1) x 0 + . . . ≈ 1 + nx
2
to derive the following results for the case when V is much less than c, and use the results when applicable in the
following problems:
1 V2
(a) γ ≈ 1 +
2 c2
1 1 V2
(b) ≈ 1 -
γ 2 c2
1 1 V2
(c) γ − 1 ≈ 1 - ≈
γ 2 c2
(a) Using the binomial expansion, and setting β = V/c, γ = (1 - β 2)-1/2 = 1 + 1/2β 2 + … ≈ 1 + 1/2V 2/c2.
(b) 1/γ = (1 - β 2)1/2 = 1 - 1/2β 2 + … ≈ 1 - V 2/c2.
(c) From part (a) it follows that γ - 1 ≈ 1/2V 2/c2.
Note that the results given above apply only if β = V/c << 1.

15 ·· Show that when V << c the transformation equations for x, t, and u reduce to the Galilean equations.
Use Equ. 39-11 for x′, replace γ by (1 + 1/2V 2/c2), and retain only the lowest non-vanishing term in V/c. We then
have x′ = (1 + 1/2V 2/c2)(x - Vt) = x - Vt to lowest order in V/c.
Repeat the procedure for t′ = γ(t - Vx/c2) [Equ. 39-12]. We obtain t′ = (1 + 1/2V 2/c2)(t - Vx/c2) = t to lowest order
in V/c.
u x′ = (u x - V)/(1 - Vu x/c2) [Equ. 39-19a]. If V/c << 1, the denominator is approximately equal to 1 and u x′ = u x - V,
which is the Galilean transformation equation.
Using γ = (1 + 1/2V 2/c2), the denominators of Equs. 39-19b and c reduce to 1 to lowest order in V/c, so u y′ = u y and
u z′ = u z, as expected.

16 ·· Supersonic jets achieve maximum speeds of about (3×10-6)c. (a) By what percentage would you see a jet traveling
at this speed contracted in length? (b) During a time of 1 y = 3.15×107 s on your clock, how much time would elapse
 Chapter 39 Relativity

on the pilot’s clock? How many minutes are lost by the pilot’s clock in 1 y of your time?
(a) 100(Lp - L)/Lp = 100(1 - 1/γ) ≈ 50V 2/c2 V/c = 3×10-6; contraction = 4.5×10-10 %
(b) ∆t′ = ∆t/γ ≈ ∆t(1 - 1/2V 2/c2) = ∆t - ∆tV 2/2c2 Time lost = 3.15×107(9×10-12/2) = 0.142 ms = 2.36 µmin
Time on pilot’s clock = ( 3.15×107 - 1.42×10-4) min

17*·· How great must the relative speed of two observers be for the time-interval measurements to differ by 1%? (See
Problem 14.)
(∆t - ∆t′)/∆t = 1 - 1/γ ≈ 1/2V 2/c2 2 2
1/2V /c = 0.01; V = 0.02 c = 0.141c = 4.24×107 m/s

18 ·· A spaceship of proper length L′ = 400 m moves past a transmitting station at a speed of 0.76c. At the instant that
the nose of the ship passes the transmitter, clocks at the transmitter and in the nose of the ship are synchronized to t =
t′ = 0. The instant that the tail of the ship passes the transmitter a signal is sent and subsequently detected by the
receiver in the nose of the ship. (a) When, according to the clock in the ship, is the signal sent? (b) When, according to
the clock at the transmitter, is the signal received by the spaceship? (c) When, according to the clock in the ship, is the
signal received? (d) Where, according to an observer at the transmitter, is the nose of the spaceship when the signal is
received?
Let S be the reference frame of the ship and S ′ be that of the earth (transmitter station). Let event A be the emission
of the light pulse and event B the reception of the light pulse at the nose of the ship.
(a) In both S and S ′ the pulse travels at the speed c. Thus, tA = 400/0.76c s = 1.754 µs.
(c) The time of travel of the pulse to the nose is 400/c s = 1.333 µs. Thus the pulse arrives at tB = 3.09 µs
according to the clock in the ship.
(b), (d) To find the time and location of event B in frame S ′, use Equs. 39-12 and 39-11, respectively. Note that
here V, the velocity of reference frame S ′ relative to S, is -0.76c.
-6
(b) Evaluate γ and use Equ. 39-12; V = -0.76c γ = 1.54; tB′ = 1.56(3.09×10 + 0.76×400/c) = 6.40 µs
(d) Use Equ. 39-11 with V = -0.76c xB′ = 1.56(400 + 0.76c×3.09×10-6) m = 1723 m

19 ·· A beam of unstable particles emerges from the exit slit of an accelerator with a speed of 0.89c. Particle detectors
3.0 and 6.0 m from the exit slit measure beam intensities of 2×108 particles/cm2⋅s and 5×107 particles/cm2⋅s,
respectively. (a) Find the proper half-life of the particles. (b) Determine the beam intensity at the exit slit of the
accelerator. (c) The accelerator is adjusted so that the particles emerge from the exit slit with a speed of 0.96c. The
beam intensity at the farther detector is again 5×107 particles/cm2⋅s. Find the beam intensity at the exit slit of the
accelerator.
-8
(a) 1. Find ∆t to travel 3 m in lab ∆t = (3 m)/(0.89c) = 1.124×10 s
2. I6/I3 = 1/4 = 1/22; ∆t = 2τ1/2 τ1/2 = 0.562×10 s
-8

-8
3. Use Equ. 39-13 to find τ1/2,p γ = 2.193; τ1/2,p = 0.562×10 /2.193 s = 2.56 ns
(b) I0 = 4I3 I0 = 8×108 particles/cm2.s
(c) 1. Find ∆t to travel 6 m ∆t = (6 m)/(0.96c) = 2.083×10 s
-8

2. Find ∆tp and express as a τ1/2,p -8

γ = 3.57; ∆tp = 0.583×10 s = 2.277τ1/2,p
a
3. I0 = I6×2 I0 = 5×107×22.277 part./cm2.s = 2.42×108 particles/cm2.s
 Chapter 39 Relativity

20 ·· Show that if u x′ and V in Equation 39-18a are both less than c, then u x is less than c. (Hint: Let u x′ =
(1 - ε 1)c and V = (1 - ε 2)c, where ε 1 and ε 2 are small positive numbers that are less than 1.)
We let u x′ = (1 - ε 1)c and V = (1 - ε 2)c. Then Equ. 39-18a becomes

u x = 2 − (ε 1 + ε 2 ) = 2 − (ε 1 + ε 2 )
<10; Q.E.D.
c 1 + (1 − ε 1)(1 − ε 2 ) 2 − (ε 1 + ε 2 ) + ε 1ε 2

21* ··· Two events in S are separated by a distance D = x2 - x1 and a time T = t2 - t1. (a) Use the Lorentz transformation
to show that in frame S ′, which is moving with speed V relative to S, the time separation is t2′ - t1′ = γ(T -VD/c2). (b)
Show that the events can be simultaneous in frame S ′ only if D is greater than cT. (c) If one of the events is the cause
of the other, the separation D must be less than cT, since D/c is the smallest time that a signal can take to travel from
x1 to x2 in frame S. Show that if D is less than cT, t2′ is greater than t1′ in all reference frames. This shows that if the
cause precedes the effect in one frame, it must precede it in all reference frames. (d) Suppose that a signal could be
sent with speed c′ > c so that in frame S the cause precedes the effect by the time T = D/c′. Show that there is then a
reference frame moving with speed V less than c in which the effect precedes the cause.
(a) Use Equ. 39-12. t2′ - t1′ = γ[(t2 - t1) - (V/c2)(x2 - x1)] = γ(T - VD/c2), where T = t2 - t1 and D = x2 - x1.
(b) Events 1 and 2 are simultaneous in S ′ if t2′ = t1′ or (T - VD/c2) = 0. Since V ≤ c, D ≥ cT.
(c) If D < cT then t2′ > t1′, and the events are not simultaneous in S ′.
(d) If D = c′T > cT then T - VD/c2 = T[1 - (V/c)(c′/c)] = t2′ - t1′. In this case, t2′ - t1′ could be negative, i.e., t2′
could be less than t1′, or the effect could precede the cause.
22 · If event A occurs before event B in some frame, might it be possible for there to be a reference frame in which
event B occurs before event A?
Yes; see Problem 21.
23 · Two events are simultaneous in a frame in which they also occur at the same point in space. Are they
simultaneous in other reference frames?
Yes; see Problem 21.
24 ·· Two observers are in relative motion. In what circumstances can they agree on the simultaneity of two different
events?
They will agree only if the two events occur at the same point in space; see Problem 21.
Problems 25 through 29 refer to the following situation: An observer in S′ lays out a distance L′ = 100 light-
minutes between points A′ and B′ and places a flashbulb at the midpoint C′. She arranges for the bulb to flash and
for clocks at A′ and B′ to be started at zero when the light from the flash reaches them (see Figure 39-13). Frame
S ′ is moving to the right with speed 0.6c relative to an observer C in S who is at the midpoint between A′ and B′
when the bulb flashes. At the instant he sees the flash, observer C sets his clock to zero.
25* ·· What is the separation distance between clocks A′ and B′ according to the observer in S?
L′ is the proper distance Lp; use Equ. 39-14 γ = 1.25; L = 80 c.min

26 ·· As the light pulse from the flashbulb travels toward A′ with speed c, A′ travels toward C with speed 0.6c. Show
that the clock in S reads 25 min when the flash reaches A′. (Hint: In time t, the light travels a distance ct and A′ travels
 Chapter 39 Relativity

0.6ct. The sum of these distances must equal the distance between A′ and the flashbulb as seen in S.)
1. Find x, the location of the light flash in S at time t x = -ct (for light flash moving toward A′)
2. Find location of A′ in S at time t xA = -L/2 + 0.6ct
3. Total distance covered by light = 1.6ct - L/2; find t t = L/3.2c = (80 c.min)/3.2c = 25 min

27 ·· Show that the clock in S reads 100 min when the light flash reaches B′, which is traveling away from C with speed
0.6c. (See the hint for Problem 26.)
1. Find x, location of the light flash in S at time t x = ct (for light flash moving toward B′)
2. Find location of B′ in S at time t xB = L/2 + 0.6ct
3. Find time when flash reaches B′ as observed in S 0.4ct = L/2; t = (80 c.min)/0.8c = 100 min

28 ·· The time interval between the reception of the flashes at A′ and B′ in Problems 26 and 27 is 75 min according to
the observer in S. How much time does he expect to have elapsed on the clock at A′ during this 75-min interval?
Use Equ. 39-13 to find ∆tp, the proper time in S ′ ∆tp = (75 min)/γ = (75/1.25) min = 60 min

29*·· The time interval calculated in Problem 28 is the amount that the clock at A′ leads that at B′ according to the
observer in S. Compare this result with LpV/c2.
The time interval calculated in Problem 28 is 60 min LpV/c2 = 100×0.6 min = 60 min, as expected

30 ·· In frame S, event B occurs 2 µs after event A, which occurs at ∆x = 1.5 km from event A. How fast must an
observer be moving along the +x axis so that events A and B occur simultaneously? Is it possible for event B to
precede event A for some observer?
From Problem 21b, tA′ = tB′ if ∆t = V∆x/c2; find V V = (2×10-6×9×1016/1.5×103) m/s = 1.2×108 m/s = 0.4c
Yes, tB′ will be less than tA′ if V > 0.4c

31 ·· Observers in reference frame S see an explosion located at x1 = 480 m. A second explosion occurs 5 µs later at x2
= 1200 m. In reference frame S ′, which is moving along the +x axis at speed V, the explosions occur at the same point
in space. What is the separation in time between the two explosions as measured in S ′?
1. From Equ. 39-11, ∆x′ = γ(∆x - V∆t); set ∆x′ = 0 V = ∆x/∆t = (1200 - 480)/5×10-6 m/s = 1.44×108 m/s
2. From Problem 21a, ∆t′ = γ(∆t - V∆x/c2) -6 -6
γ = 1.14; ∆t′ = 1.14(5×10 - 1.15×10 ) s = 4.39 µs

32 · How fast must you be moving toward a red light (λ = 650 nm) for it to appear green (λ = 525 nm)?

1 + V/c V α2 − 1 α = 1.238; V = 0.21c

λ0/λ = f/f 0 = α = 1 − V/c
; =
c α2 + 1

33* · A distant galaxy is moving away from us at a speed of 1.85×107 m/s. Calculate the fractional redshift (λ′ -λ0)/λ0 in
the light from this galaxy.
 Chapter 39 Relativity

1 + V/c V/c = 0.185/3 = 0.0617; λ/λ0 - 1 = 0.0637

(λ - λ0)/λ0 = λ/λ0 - 1 = -1
1 − V/c

34 · Sodium light of wavelength 589 nm is emitted by a source that is moving toward the earth with speed V. The
wavelength measured in the frame of the earth is 620 nm. Find V.

V α2 − 1 α = 0.95; V = -0.0512c; source is receding, not

From Problem 32, = 2 , where α = λ0/λ
c α +1 approaching the earth.

35 · A student on earth hears a tune on her radio that seems to be coming from a record that is being played too fast.
She has a 33-rev/min record of that tune and determines that the tune sounds the same as when her record is played at
78 rev/min, that is, the frequencies are all too high by a factor of 78/33. If the tune is being played correctly, but is
being broadcast by a spaceship that is approaching the earth at speed V, determine V.

V α2 − 1 α = 78/33 = 2.364; V = 0.696c

From Problem 32, = 2 , where α = f/f 0
c α +1

36 ·· Derive Equation 39-16a for the frequency received by an observer moving with speed V toward a stationary
source of electromagnetic waves.
In the rest frame of the source, the number of waves encountered by the observer in a time interval ∆ts is
n = (c + V)∆ts/λ = (c + V)f 0∆ts/c = f 0(1 + V/c)∆ts. This time interval in the rest frame of the observer is given by

1 + V/c 1 + V/c
∆to = ∆ts/γ. The frequency noted by the observer is f o = n/∆to = γ(1 + V/c)f 0 = f0 =
1 − V/c
1 − V 2 / c2

1 − V 2 / c2
f0 = f 0 ; Q.E.D.
1 − V/c

37* · Herb and Randy are twin jazz musicians who perform as a trombone–saxophone duo. At the age of twenty,
however, Randy got an irresistible offer to join a road trip to perform on a star 15 light-years away. To cele brate his
bounteous luck, he bought a new vehicle for the trip—a deluxe space-coupe which could do 0.999c. Each of the twins
promises to practice diligently, so they can reunite afterward. Randy’s gig goes so fabulously well, however, that he
stays for a full 10 years before returning to Herb. After their reunion, (a) how many years of practice will Randy
have? (b) how many years of practice will Herb have?
(a) 1. Find ∆ttravel in Randy’s frame, ∆ttravel (R) γ = 22.37; ∆ttravel (R) = (30.03 y)/22.37 = 1.34 y
2. Total time for Randy is ∆ttravel (R) + 10 y Randy’s years of practice = 11.34 y
(b) 1. Find ∆ttravel in Herb’s frame, ∆ttravel (H) ∆ttravel (H) = (30 c.y)/(0.999c) = 30.03 y
2. Total time for Herb is 10 y + ∆ttravel (H) Herb’s years of practice = 40.04 y
 Chapter 39 Relativity

38 ·· A clock is placed in a satellite that orbits the earth with a period of 90 min. By what time interval will this clock
differ from an identical clock on earth after 1 y? (Assume that special relativity applies and neglect general relativity.)
1. Use Equ. 11-19 and Problem 11-55 to find V V = ve / 2 = 7.92×103 m/s = 2.64×10-4c
2. Use Problem 15c and Equ. 39-13 Time difference = (3.15×107×6.97×10-8/2) s = 1.10 s

39 ·· A and B are twins. A travels at 0.6c to Alpha Centauri (which is 4 c⋅y from earth as measured in the reference
frame of the earth) and returns immediately. Each twin sends the other a light signal every 0.01 y as measured in her
own reference frame. (a) At what rate does B receive signals as A is moving away from her? (b) How many signals
does B receive at this rate? (c) How many total signals are received by B before A has returned? (d) At what rate
does A receive signals as B is receding from her? (e) How many signals does A receive at this rate? (f) How many
total signals are received by A? (g) Which twin is younger at the end of the trip, and by how many years?

(a) Use Doppler effect, Equ. 39-16b 1 − 0.6

f 0 = 100 y-1; f B = f 0 = 50 y −1
1 + 0.6
(b) 1. Find time for one way trip in frame S A ∆tA = ∆tB/γ; γ = 1.25; ∆tB = 4/0.6 = 6.67 y; ∆tA = 5.33 y
2. Number of signals received by B = number of Number of signals received by B = 533
signals sent by A, namely f 0∆tA
(c) 1. Find time in frame S A for round trip ∆TA = 2∆tA = 10.67 y
2. Number of signals received by B = number of Number of signals received by B = 1067
signals sent by A, namely f 0∆TA
(d) Proceed as in part (a) f A = 50 y-1
(e) Number of signals received by A = f A∆tA Number of signals received by A = 50×5.33 = 267
(f) 1. Find f A,r, rate of signals received by A on return f A,r = 200 y-1
(g) trip; use Equ. 39-16a Number of signals = 200×5.33 = 1066
2. Find number of signals received on return trip Total signals received by A = 1066 + 267 = 1333
3. Find total number of signals received by A
(g) 1. A sent 1067 signals at 100 per year Age of A = 1067/100 = 10.67 y
2. B sent 1333 signals at 100 per year Age of B = 13.33 y
3. Find age difference A is 2.66 y younger than B.

40 · A light beam moves along the y′ axis with speed c in frame S ′, which is moving to the right with speed V relative
to frame S. (a) Find the x and y components of the velocity of the light beam in frame S. (b) Show that the magnitude
of the velocity of the light beam in S is c.
(a) Find u x and u y using Equs. 39-18a and b u x = V; u y = c/γ, where γ = 1/ 1 − V 2 / c2
2 2
(b) Find u x + u y = u
u = V + c (1 − V / c ) = c ; speed of light is the
2 2 2 2

same in all reference frames.

41* · A spaceship is moving east at speed 0.90c relative to the earth. A second spaceship is moving west at speed 0.90c
relative to the earth. What is the speed of one spaceship relative to the other?
 Chapter 39 Relativity

Let S be the earth reference frame and S ′ be that of the ship traveling east (positive x direction). Then in the
reference frame S ′, the velocity of S is directed west, i.e., V = -u x. Now apply the velocity transformation equation,
Equ. 39-19a, to determine the speed of the other ship in the reference frame S ′.

ux − V 2ux u x = -0.9c; u x′ = 0.994c

u x′ = =
1 − Vu x / c 2
1 + u 2x / c 2

42 ·· Two spaceships are approaching each other. (a) If the speed of each is 0.6c relative to the earth, what is the
speed of one relative to the other? (b) If the speed of each relative to the earth is 30,000 m/s (about 100 times the
speed of sound), what is the speed of one relative to the other?
2 ux u x′ = 1.2c/1.36 = 0.882c
(a) See Problem 41; u x ′ = 2 2
1 + ux / c
u x′ = 60,000 m/s
2 -8
(b) (V/c) = 10 ; use Galilean transformation

43 ·· A particle moves with speed 0.8c along the x″ axis of frame S ″, which moves with speed 0.8c along the x′ axis
relative to frame S ′. Frame S ′ moves with speed 0.8c along the x axis relative to frame S. (a) Find the speed of the
particle relative to frame S ′. (b) Find the speed of the particle relative to frame S.
1. Use Equ. 39-18a to find u x′ in terms of u x″; u x′ = 1.6c/1.64 = 0.9756c
here V of S ′ relative to S ″ is 0.8c
2. Now find u x; V of S relative to S ′ is 0.8c u x = (0.9756 + 0.8)c/(1 + 0.9756×0.8) = 0.997c

44 · The approximate total energy of a particle of mass m moving at speed u << c is (a) mc2, (b) 1
2 0mu2,
(c) cmu, (d) 1
2 mc2, (e) 1
2 cmu.
(a)
45*· Find the ratio of the total energy to the rest energy of a particle of rest mass m0 moving with speed (a) 0.1c,
(b) 0.5c, (c) 0.8c, and (d) 0.99c.
(a), (b), (c), (d) From Equ. 39-25, E/E0 = γ (a) γ = 1.005; (b) γ = 1.15; (c) γ = 1.67; (d) γ = 7.09

46 · A proton (rest energy 938 MeV) has a total energy of 1400 MeV. (a) What is its speed? (b) What is its
momentum?
(a) From Problem 41, γ = E/E0; solve for u
γ = 1.49; u = c 1 − 1/ γ = 0.742c
2

(b) From Equ. 39-21, p = γm0u

p = 1.49(938 MeV/c2)(0.742c) = 1037 MeV/c

47 · How much energy would be required to accelerate a particle of mass m0 from rest to (a) 0.5c, (b) 0.9c, and
(c) 0.99c? Express your answers as multiples of the rest energy.
(a), (b), (c) Energy needed = K = (γ - 1)m0c2 (a) γ = 1.155, K = 0.155E0; (b) K = 1.29E0; (c) K = 6.09E0
 Chapter 39 Relativity

48 · If the kinetic energy of a particle equals its rest energy, what error is made by using p = m0u for its momentum?
If K = E0 then γ = 2 (see Equ. 39-23). Therefore, p rel = 2m0u, whereas p class = m0u. The error is m0u or 50% of p rel .
49* · What is the energy of a proton whose momentum is 3m0c?

Use E = c p2 + ( m0 c )2 (see Problem 52) E= 10 m0c2 = 2.97 GeV

50 ·· A particle with momentum of 6 MeV/c has total energy of 8 MeV. (a) Determine the rest mass of the particle.
(b) What is the energy of the particle in a reference frame in which its momentum is 4 MeV/c?
(c) What are the relative velocities of the two reference frames?
E0 = 5.29 MeV
(a) E0 = E 2 − p c 2 (see Problem 52)
2

E = 6.63 MeV
2 2 2
(b) E = p c + ( )
E0 ; E0 is an invariant u a = (6/8)c = 0.75c; u b = (4/6.63)c = 0.603c
(c) 1. Find u a and u b; use Equs. 39-21 and 39-25 V = (0.75 - 0.603)c/(1 - 0.75×0.603) = 0.268c
2. Use Equ. 39-19a and solve for V

51 ·· Show that
 0u
  2 -3 / 2

d  m  u
= m0  1 - 2  du
 1 - 2/ 2   c 
 u c 

dp dq
q − p
d  p du du d  m0 u 
 = 1 − u 2 / c 2 m0 + ( m 0 u 2 / c 2 )/ 1 − u 2 / c 2
  =
du  q 
Use . Thus .
q 2
du  1 − u 2 / c 2  1 − u 2 / c2

This simplifies to m0/(1 - u 2/c2)3/2; Q.E.D.

2 2
52 ·· Use Equations 39-21 and 39-25 to derive the equation E 2 = p c 2 + ( m0 c 2 ) .

m02 c 4 2 2 2 u2 
Square Equ. 39-25: E 2 = = m c 
 c +  = m 20 c 4 + m 20 c 2 u 2 γ 2 . But from Equ. 39-21 we
2
1 − u /c −
2 2 0 2
 1 u c 
/

have m20 c 2 u 2 γ = p c 2 . We therefore obtain the desired result, namely E 2 = (m0c2)2 + p 2c2.
2 2

53* ·· Use the binomial expansion (Equation 39-27) and Equation 39-28 to show that when pc << m0c2, the total energy is
given approximately by
2
p
E ≈ m0 c2 +
2 m0

From Equ. 39-28 we have E = p 2 c 2 + ( E0 )2 = m0c2 1 + p 2 / m 20 c 2 . When p/m0c << 1 we can expand the square
root, retaining only the first two terms. Thus, E = m0c2[1 + 1/2(p 2/m02c2)] = m0c2 + p 2/2m0; Q.E.D.
54 ·· (a) Show that the speed u of a particle of mass m0 and total energy E is given by
 Chapter 39 Relativity

1/2
u  ( m 0 c 2 )2 
= 1 - 
c  E2 
and that when E is much greater than m0c2, this can be approximated by
u ( m 0 c 2 )2
≈ 1 -
c 2 E2
Find the speed of an electron with kinetic energy of (b) 0.51 MeV and (c) 10 MeV.

(a) See Problem 52. We have 1 - u 2/c2 = (m0c2/E)2 and so u/c = 1 − ( m 0 c 2 /E )2 . If E >> m0c2 we can expand the
square root, and keeping only the first two terms, we have u/c = 1 - (m0c2 )2/2E 2; Q.E.D.
(b) Use the result of (a) and E = E0 + K u = c 1 − ¼ = 0.866c
(c) Here E ≅ 20E0 >> E0; use approximation for u u = c(1 - 1/800) = 0.999c

55 ·· The rest energy of a proton is about 938 MeV. If its kinetic energy is also 938 MeV, find (a) its momentum and
(b) its speed.
E − E0
2 2
(a) From Equ. 39-28, pc = p= 3 0E0/c = 1625 MeV/c
(b) See Problem 54(b) u = 0.866c

56 ·· What percentage error is made in using 1

2 m0u 2 for the kinetic energy of a particle if its speed is (a) 0.1c and
(b) 0.9c?
2 2 2
(a) 1. From Equ. 39-23, K = E0(γ - 1) γ = 1.00504; K = 0.00504m0c ; 1/2m0u = 0.005m0c
2. % error = 100(K - 1/2m0u 2)/K Error = (4/5)% = 8%
2 2 2
(b) 1. Repeat as in part (a) γ = 2.294; K = 1.294m0c ; 1/2m0u = 0.405m0c
2. % error = 100(K - 1/2m0u 2)/K Error = 68.7%

57* ·· The K0 particle has a rest mass of 497.7 MeV/c2. It decays into a π − and π +, each with rest mass 139.6 MeV/c2.
Following the decay of a K0, one of the pions is at rest in the laboratory. Determine the kinetic energy of the other pion
and of the K0 prior to the decay.
We shall first consider the decay process in the center of mass reference frame and then transform to the laboratory
reference frame in which one of the pions is at rest.
mK0 c = 2 m π 0γ c ; γ = mK0 / 2 mπ 0 = 1.78
2 2
1. Write the conditions for energy conservation in CM
2. Since one of the pions is at rest in the lab frame,
γ = 1.78 for the transformation to the lab frame; find K
of K0 KK = 0.78×497.7 MeV = 389.5 MeV
3. Find the total initial energy in the lab frame E = (497.7 + 389.5) MeV = 887.2 MeV
4. Kπ = E -2m0πc2 Kπ = (887 - 2×139.6) MeV = 608 MeV

58 ·· The sun radiates energy at the rate of about 4×1026 W. Assume that this energy is produced by a reaction whose
net result is the fusion of 4 H nuclei to form 1 He nucleus, with the release of 25 MeV for each He nucleus formed.
 Chapter 39 Relativity

Calculate the sun’s loss of rest mass per day.

1. Find number of reactions per second, N E/reaction = 4×10-12 J; N = 1038 s-1
-12 8 2 -29
2. Find ∆m per reaction ∆m = 4×10 /(3×10 ) = 4.44×10 kg
3. ∆M = 8.64×104N∆m ∆M = 3.84×10 kg
14

59 ·· Two protons approach each other head on at 0.5c relative to reference frame S ′. (a) Calculate the total kinetic
energy of the two protons as seen in frame S ′. (b) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the protons as seen in
reference frame S, which is moving with speed 0.5c relative to S ′ such that one of the protons is at rest.
(a) In S ′, K = 2(γ - 1)E0; evaluate K γ = 1.155; K = (2×0.155×938) MeV = 291 MeV
(b) 1. Find u and γ of moving proton in S; V = 0.5c u = c/(1 + 0.25) = 0.8c; γ = 1.67
2. Find K of moving proton; K = (γ - 1)E0 K = 0.67×938 MeV = 628 MeV

60 ·· An antiproton p 0 has the same rest energy as a proton. It is created in the reaction
p + p → p + p + p + p . In an experiment, protons at rest in the laboratory are bombarded with protons of
kinetic energy KL, which must be great enough so that kinetic energy equal to 2m0c2 can be converted into the rest
energy of the two particles. In the frame of the laboratory, the total kinetic energy cannot be converted into rest
energy because of conservation of momentum. However, in the zero-momentum reference frame in which the two
initial protons are moving toward each other with equal speed u, the total kinetic energy can be converted into rest
energy. (a) Find the speed of each proton u such that the total kinetic energy in the zero-momentum frame is 2m0c2.
(b) Transform to the laboratory’s frame in which one proton is at rest, and find the speed u ′ of the other proton.
(c) Show that the kinetic energy of the moving proton in the laboratory’s frame is KL = 6m0c2.
(a) We need K = E0 for each proton; find γ and u E0 = (γ - 1)E0; γ = 2; u = 0.866c (see Problem 55)
(b) Use Equ. 39-19a with V = -u, and u x = -u u x′ = -1.732c/1.75 = -0.990c
(c) 1. Note that γ′ = [1 - (4 3 /7)2]-1/2 = 7 K′ = (γ′ - 1)E0 = 6m0c2

61* ··· A particle of rest mass 1 MeV/c2 and kinetic energy 2 MeV collides with a stationary particle of rest mass
2 MeV/c2. After the collision, the particles stick together. Find (a) the speed of the first particle before the collision,
(b) the total energy of the first particle before the collision, (c) the initial total momentum of the system, (d) the total
kinetic energy after the collision, and (e) the rest mass of the system after the collision.

(a) E = K + E0 = γE0; u/c = 1 − 1/ γ 2

γ = 3; u = c 8/9 = 0.943c
(b) E = γE0 E = 3E0 = 3 MeV
p= 8 E0/c = 2.828 MeV/c
(c) p 2c2 = E 2 - E02; p = E − E0 /c
2 2

Ef = 5 MeV
(d), (e) 1. From energy conservation, Ef = Ei
Ef0 = 4.123 MeV = m0f c2; m0f = 4.123 MeV/c2
2. p f = p i; Ef 2 = p f 2c2 + Ef02
Kf = 0.877 MeV
3. Kf = Ef - Ef0

62 · A set of twins work in an office building. One works on the top floor and the other works in the basement.
Considering general relativity, which one will age more quickly?
 Chapter 39 Relativity

(a) They will age at the same rate.

(b) The twin who works on the top floor will age more quickly.
(c) The twin who works in the basement will age more quickly.
(d) It depends on the speed of the office building.
(e) None of these is correct.
(b)
63 ··· A horizontal turntable rotates with angular speed ω. There is a clock at the center of the turntable and one at a
distance r from the center. In an inertial reference frame, the clock at distance r is moving with speed u = rω. (a)
Show that from time dilation according to special relativity, time intervals ∆t0 for the clock at rest and ∆tr for the
moving clock are related by
∆t r - ∆t0 r 2ω 2
≈ - if rω << c
∆ t0 2 c2
(b) In a reference frame rotating with the table, both clocks are at rest. Show that the clock at distance r experiences
a pseudoforce Fr = mrω2 in this accelerated frame and that this is equivalent to a difference in gravitational potential
between r and the origin of φ r -φ 0 = 1
2 r2ω2. Use this potential difference in Equation 2 to show that in this frame the
difference in time intervals is the same as in the inertial frame.
∆ t r − ∆ t0 r2 ω 2
(a) For rω /c << 1, 1/γ ≈ 1 - r2ω 2/2c2 (see Problem 14). From Equ. 39-13, =− .
∆ t0 2 c2

(b) The pseudoforce is given by FP = -ma, where a is the acceleration of the non-inertial reference frame
(see p. 129). In this case, a = rω 2, the centripetal acceleration directed inward. Hence, FP = Fr = mrω 2. If we now
associate a potential with this pseudoforce, using the standard definition φ = -(1/m)∫Fr dr, the potential difference

∆ t r − ∆ t0 r2 ω 2
between the center and a point at r is -1/2r2ω 2. Then, using Equ. 2, p. 1273, =− .
∆ t0 2 c2

64 · True or false:
(a) The speed of light is the same in all reference frames.
(b) Proper time is the shortest time interval between two events.
(c) Absolute motion can be determined by means of length contraction.
(d) The light-year is a unit of distance.
(e) Simultaneous events must occur at the same place.
(f) If two events are not simultaneous in one frame, they cannot be simultaneous in any other frame.
(g) If two particles are tightly bound together by strong attractive forces, the rest mass of the system is less than the
sum of the masses of the individual particles when separated.
(a) True (b) True (c) False (d) True (e) False (f) False (g) True
65* · An observer sees a system consisting of a mass oscillating on the end of a spring moving past at a speed u and
notes that the period of the system is T. Another observer, who is moving with the mass–spring system, also measures
its period. The second observer will find a period that is (a) equal to T, (b) less than T, (c) greater than T, (d) either
 Chapter 39 Relativity

(a) or (b) depending on whether the system was approaching or receding from the first observer, (e) There is not
sufficient information to answer the question.
(b)
66 · The Lorentz transformation for y and z is the same as the classical result: y = y′ and z = z′. Yet the relativistic
velocity transformation does not give the classical result u y = u y′ and u z = u z′. Explain.
Although ∆y = ∆y′, the ∆t ≠ ∆t′. Consequently, u y = ∆y/∆t ≠ ∆y′/∆t′ = u y′.
67 · A spaceship departs from earth for the star Alpha Centauri, which is 4 light-years away. The spaceship travels at
0.75c. How long does it take to get there (a) as measured on earth and (b) as measured by a passenger on the
spaceship?
(a) As measured on earth ∆t = L/u ∆t = (4 y.c)/(0.75c) = 5.33 y
(b) Use Equ. 39-13 to find ∆tp γ = 1.51; ∆tp = 3.53 y

68 · The total energy of a particle is twice its rest energy. (a) Find u/c for the particle. (b) Show that its momentum is
given by p = 3 0m0c.
(a) E = γE0 (see Equ. 39-25); solve for u/c 1 − 1/ γ 2 = 0.866
γ = 2; u/c =
(b) Use Equ. 39-28; p 2c2 = (γ2 - 1)E02
p= 3 m0 c

69* · How fast must a muon travel so that its mean lifetime is 46 µs if its mean lifetime at rest is 2 µs?

Find γ from Equ. 39-13; then u/c = 1 − 1/ γ

2 γ = 23; u = 0.999c

70 · A distant galaxy is moving away from the earth with a speed that results in each wavelength received on earth
being shifted such that λ′ = 2λ0. Find the speed of the galaxy relative to the earth.

1 + V/c V α2 − 1 α = 2; V = 0.60c
λ0/λ = f/f 0 = α = 1 − V/c
; = 2
c α +1

71 · How fast must a meterstick travel relative to you in the direction parallel to the stick so that its length as measured
by you is 50 cm?

Use Equ. 39-14 and u/c = 1 − 1/ γ

2 γ = 2; u = 0.866c

72 · Show that if V is much less than c, the doppler shift is given approximately by ∆f/f ≈ ±V/c.

1 + V/c
∆f/f 0 = (f - f 0)/f 0 = f/f 0 - 1 = 1 − V/c
- 1. Expanding numerator and denominator using the binomial expansion

gives, to lowest order in V/c, ∆f/f 0 = (1 + 1/2V/c)(1 + 1/2V/c) - 1 = 1 + V/c - 1 = V/c. The sign depends on whether
the source and receiver are approaching or receding. Here we have assumed that they are approaching.
 Chapter 39 Relativity

73* ·· If a plane flies at a speed of 2000 km/h, for how long must it fly before its clock loses 1 s because of time dilation?
2 2 16 2 11 4
∆t - ∆tp = ∆t(1 - 1/γ) ≈ ∆tV /2c (see Problem 14) ∆t = [(2×9×10 )/(555.5) ] s = 5.83×10 s ≈ 1.85×10 y

74 ·· The radius of the orbit of a charged particle in a magnetic field is related to the momentum of the particle by
p = BqR 39-41
This equation holds classically for p = mu and relativistically for p = m0u/ 1 - u 2 / c2 . An electron with kinetic
energy of 1.50 MeV moves in a circular orbit perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B = 5×10-3 T. (a) Find the
radius of the orbit. (b) What result would you obtain if you used the classical relations p = mu and K = p 2/2m?
(a) 1. Use Equ. 39-28; pc = E − E = K + 2 E 0 K p = 1.94 MeV/c = 1.04×10-21 kg.m/s
2 2 2
0

2. R = p/Bq R = 1.04×10-21/(5×10-3×1.6×10-19) m = 1.30 m

R = 0.827 m
(b) R = 2mK /Bq; m = 9.11×10-31 kg; K = 2.4×10-13 J

75 ·· Oblivious to economics and politics, Professor Spenditt proposes building a circular accelerator around the earth’s
circumference using bending magnets that provide a magnetic field of magnitude 1.5 T. (a) What would be the kinetic
energy of protons orbiting in this field in a circle of radius RE? (See Problem 74.) (b) What would be the period of
rotation of these protons?
(a) 1. Find p = REBq p = 1.53×10-12 kg.m/s = 2.87×109 MeV/c
2. K = p c 2 + E02 − E0 ; for pc >> E0, K ≈ pc
2 K = 2.87×109 MeV
T = 0.133 s
(b) E ≈ pc and u ≈ c; T = 2π RE /c

76 ·· Frames S and S ′ are moving relative to each other along the x and x′ axis. Observers in the two frames set their
clocks to t = 0 when the origins coincide. In frame S, event 1 occurs at x1 = 1.0 c⋅y and t1 = 1 y and event 2 occurs at
x2 = 2.0 c⋅y and t2 = 0.5 y. These events occur simultaneously in frame S ′. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of
the velocity of S ′ relative to S. (b) At what time do both these events occur as measured in S ′?
(a) See Problem 21; ∆t - V∆x/c2 = 0; solve for V; V/c = c/[(1 c.y)/(-0.5 y)] = -0.5; V = -0.5c;
note that ∆t = t2 - t1 = -0.5 y S ′ moves in the negative x direction
(b) Use Equ. 39-12 to find t1′ = t2′ γ = 1.155; t1′ = t2′ = 1.73 y

77* ·· An interstellar spaceship travels from the earth to a distant star system 12 light-years away (as measured in the
earth’s frame). The trip takes 15 years as measured on the ship. (a) What is the speed of the ship relative to the
earth? (b) When the ship arrives, it sends a signal to the earth. How long after the ship leaves the earth will it be
before the earth receives the signal?
(a) 1. ∆t′ = L′/u = L/γu γu = (12 c.y)/(15 y) = 0.8c
( γ u/c )2 u/c = 0.64/1.64= 0.625 ; u = 0.625c
2. Solve for u/c; u/c =
1 + ( γ u/c )2
T = (12/0.625 + 12) y = 31.2 y
(b) T = L/u + L/c
 Chapter 39 Relativity

78 ·· The neutral pion π 0 has a rest mass of 135 MeV/c2. This particle can be created in a proton–proton collision:
p+p →p+p+ π0
Determine the threshold kinetic energy for the creation of a π 0 in a collision of a moving and stationary proton. (See
problem 60.)
Here we can use the result given in Problem 85. We have Σ min c2 = 2×938 MeV = 1876 MeV;
2 2
Σ mfin c = (1876 + 135) MeV = 2011 MeV; mtarget c = 938 MeV. We obtain, using the expression given in
Problem 85, Kth = [(1876 + 2011)(2011 - 1876)/1876] MeV = 280 MeV. Below, we follow the procedure
employed in the solution of Problem 60.
(a) 1. Use energy conservation to find γ in CM frame 2γ(938 MeV) = 2011 MeV; γ = 1.072
u = 0.36c
2. Find u/c; u/c = 1 − 1/ γ
2

u ′ = 0.72c/(1 + 0.362) = 0.637c

(b) Transform to the lab frame and find u ′
γlab = 1.30; Klab = 281 MeV
(c) Find Klab of proton; Klab = (γlab - 1)E0

79 ·· A rocket with a proper length of 1000 m moves in the +x direction at 0.6c with respect to an observer on the
ground. An astronaut stands at the rear of the rocket and fires a bullet toward the front of the rocket at 0.8c relative to
the rocket. How long does it take the bullet to reach the front of the rocket (a) as measured in the frame of the rocket,
(b) as measured in the frame of the ground, and (c) as measured in the frame of the bullet?
8
(a) In rocket frame, ∆t = ∆tp = Lp/u ∆t = (1000/0.8×3×10 ) s = 4.17 µs
(b) 1. Use Equ. 39-18a to find u ground u ground = 1.4c/(1 + 0.48) = 0.946c
2. Find u ′, speed of bullet relative to rocket as Relative to rocket, as seen from the ground,
seen from the ground u ′ = (0.946 - 0.6)c = 0.346c
8
3. Find L = Lp/γ and ∆tground = L/u ′ γ = 1.25; ∆tground = (800/0.346×3×10 ) s = 7.71 µs
(c) 1. Find L′, length of rocket in bullet frame γ = 1.67; L′ = 600 m
8
2. ∆tbullet = L′/u ∆tbullet = (600/0.8×3×10 ) s = 2.5 µs

80 ··· In a simple thought experiment, Einstein showed that there is mass associated with electromagnetic radiation.
Consider a box of length L and mass M resting on a frictionless surface. At the left wall of the box is a light source
that emits radiation of energy E, which is absorbed at the right wall of the box. According to classical electromagnetic
theory, this radiation carries momentum of magnitude p = E/c (Equation 32-13). (a) Find the recoil velocity of the box
such that momentum is conserved when the light is emitted. (Since p is small and M is large, you may use classical
mechanic s.) (b) When the light is absorbed at the right wall of the box, the box stops, so the total momentum remains
zero. If we neglect the very small velocity of the box, the time it takes for the radiation to travel across the box is ∆t =
L/c. Find the distance moved by the box in this time. (c) Show that if the center of mass of the system is to remain at
the same place, the radiation must carry mass m = E/c2.
(a) Since momentum is conserved, E/c + Mv = p i = 0. Therefore, v = -E/Mc.
(b) Distance moved by the box is d = vL/c = -EL/Mc2
(c) Let x = 0 be at the center of the box and let the mass of the photon be m. Then initially the center of mass is at
xCM = -1/2mL/(M + m). When the photon is absorbed at the other end of the box then the center of mass is at
xCM = [-MEL/Mc2 + m(1/2L - EL/Mc2)]/(M + m). Since no external forces act on the system, the two expressions
 Chapter 39 Relativity

for xCM must be equal. Solving for m gives m = E/[c2(1 - E/Mc2)]. But E/Mc2 << 1 since the box macroscopic, i.e.,
Mc2 ~ 1016 J whereas E = hf < 1 J for any reasonable values of f. Consequently, m = E/c2.
81* ··· A rocket with a proper length of 700 m is moving to the right at a speed of 0.9c. It has two clocks, one in the nose
and one in the tail, that have been synchronized in the frame of the rocket. A clock on the ground and the nose clock
on the rocket both read t = 0 as they pass. (a) At t = 0, what does the tail clock on the rocket read as seen by an
observer on the ground? When the tail clock on the rocket passes the ground clock, (b) what does the tail clock read
as seen by an observer on the ground, (c) what does the nose clock read as seen by an observer on the ground, and
(d) what does the nose clock read as seen by an observer on the rocket? (e) At t = 1 h, as measured on the rocket, a
light signal is sent from the nose of the rocket to an observer standing by the ground clock. What does the ground
clock read when the observer receives this signal? (f) When the observer on the ground receives the signal, he sends a
return signal to the nose of the rocket. When is this signal received at the nose of the rocket as seen on the rocket?
We shall use the following notation: S is the ground reference frame, S ′ is the reference frame of the rocket, and
V = 0.9c is the speed of the rocket relative to S. We denote by T and N the tail and nose of the rocket, respectively.
(a) 1. Write the initial conditions in S ′ tN′ = 0, xN′ = 0, and tT′ = 0, xT′ = -L′ = -700 m
2. Find xT using length contraction xT = -L′/γ
3. Find tT′ at t = 0 using Equ. 39-12 tT′ = γ(-Vx T/c2) = VL′/c2 = 0.9×700/c = 2.1 µs
(b) Find the time for rocket to move a distance L′ tT′ = L′/V = 700/0.9×3×108 s = 2.59 µs
(c) tN = ∆t′ = (2.59 - 2.1) µs tN = 0.49 µs
(d) tN′ = tT′ (clocks are synchronized in S ′) tN′ = 2.59 µs
(e) 1. Find ∆t, time the signal is sent; use Equ. 39-13 ∆t = 2.294×1 h = 2.294 h
2. Find ∆ttravel , time of travel of signal to ground ∆ttravel = ∆x/c = 2.294×0.9 h = 2.065 h
3. Find trec, time the signal is received on ground trec = (2.294 + 2.065) h = 4.36 h
(f) 1. Find ∆x when the signal is sent ∆x = (4.36 h)(0.9c) = 3.924 c.h
2. In S, signal travels at 0.1c relative to rocket; ∆t = (4.36 h)(0.9c/0.1c) = 39.24 h
find time t when signal reaches rocket. t = (39.24 + 3.924) h = 43.16 h
3. Use Equ. 39-13 to find tN′ tN′ = (43.16/2.294) h = 18.8 h

82 ··· An observer in frame S standing at the origin observes two flashes of colored light separated spatially by ∆x =
2400 m. A blue flash occurs first, followed by a red flash 5 µs later. An observer in S ′ moving along the x axis at
speed V relative to S also observes the flashes 5 µs apart and with a separation of 2400 m, but the red flash is
observed first. Find the magnitude and direction of V.
1. ∆t′ = γ(∆t - V∆x/c2) (see Problem 21a); set -∆t/γ = ∆t - V∆x/c2;
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
∆t′ =-∆t and solve for V ∆t (1 - V /c ) = ∆t - 2V∆x∆t/c + V ∆x /c
V = 2(∆x/∆t)/[1 + (∆x/c∆t)2]
2. Substitute numerical values V = 2.70×108 m/s = 0.9c; positive x direction.

83 ··· Reference frame S ′ is moving along the x′ axis at 0.6c relative to frame S. A particle that is originally at x′ = 10 m
at t x’ = 0 is suddenly accelerated and then moves at a constant speed of c/3 in the -x′ direction until time
t 2’ = 60 m/ c , when it is suddenly brought to rest. As observed in frame S, find (a) the speed of the particle, (b) the
distance and direction the particle traveled from t′1 to t′2, and (c) the time the particle traveled.
 Chapter 39 Relativity

(a) Use Equ. 39-16a; u x′ = -c/3 u x = (3/5 - 1/3)c/(1 - 0.2) = c/3

(b) 1. Find x2′; ∆t′ = t2′ - t1′ = 60 m/c = 200 ns x2′ = 10 - (60 m/c)(c/3) = -10 m
2. Find x2 using Equ. 39-9 γ = 1.25; x2 = 1.25(-10 + 36) m = 32.5 m
3. Find x1 and ∆x = x2 - x1 x1 = 1.25(10 m) = 12.5 m; ∆x = 20 m
(c) 1. Find t1 and t2 t1 = 1.25(6 m/c) = 7.5 m/c = 25 ns
t2 = 1.25(60 m/c - 6 m/c) = 225 ns
2. ∆t = t2 - t1 ∆t = 200 ns

84 ··· In reference frame S the acceleration of a particle is a = a x i + a y j + a z k . Derive expressions for the acceleration
components a x', a y', and a z' of the particle in reference frame S' that is moving relative to S in the x direction with
velocity V.

 u −V  (1 − Vu x / c2 ) du x + ( u x − V)(V/ c 2 ) du x
From Equ. 39-19a we have du x ′ = d   =
x
2
 1 − Vu x / c  (1 − Vu x / c 2 )2
(1 − V 2 / c 2 )
= du x .
(1 − Vu x / c 2 )2

From Equ. 39-10, dt′ = γd(t - Vx/c2) = γdt - (γV/c2)dx = γdt - (γV/c2)(dx/dt)dt = γ(1 - Vu x/c2)dt. We now obtain

du x ′ = (1 − V / c ) du x =
2 2
ax
a x′ = , where δ = (1 - Vu x/c2). Proceeding in exactly the same manner,
dt ′ γ (1 − Vu x / c ) dt
2 3
γ δ
3 3

ay ( Vu y / c2 ) ax
one obtains a y ′ = + and an identical expression for a z′ with z replacing y.
γ 2δ 2
γ 3δ 3

85* ··· When a projectile particle with kinetic energy greater than the threshold kinetic energy Kth strikes a stationary
target particle, one or more particles may be created in the inelastic collision. Show that the threshold kinetic energy of
the projectile is given by

( ∑ m in + ∑ m fin ) (∑ m fin - ∑ m in) c2

K th =
2 m target

Here Σ min is the sum of the rest masses of the projectile and target particles, Σ mfin is the sum of the rest masses of the
final particles, and mtarget is the rest mass of the target particle. Use this expression to determine the threshold kinetic
energy of protons incident on a stationary proton target for the production of a proton–antiproton pair; compare your result
with that of Problem 60.
In solving this problem we shall adopt the convention of the problem statement and use m to denote rest masses rather
than relativistic masses. Let mi denote the mass of the incident (projectile) particle. Then Σ min = mi + mtarget . Consider
now the situation in the center of mass reference frame. At threshold we have E 2 -p 2c2 = Σ mfin c2. Note that this is a
relativistically invariant expression. In the laboratory frame, the target is at rest so Etarget = Et = Et,0. We can therefore
 Chapter 39 Relativity

write (Ei + Et,0)2 - p i2c2 = (Σ mfin c2)2. For the incident particle, Ei2 - p i2c2 = Ei,02 and Ei = Ei,0 + Kth, where Kth is the
threshold kinetic energy of the incident particle in the laboratory frame. We can now express Kth in terms of the rest
energies: (Et,0 + Ei,0)2 + 2KthEt,0 = (Σ mfin c2)2. But Et,0 + Ei,0 = Σ min c2 and Et,0 = mtarget c2. Solving for Kth we obtain
(Σ min + Σ mfin )(Σ m fin − Σ min) c 2
K th =
2 m target

For the creation of a proton - antiproton pair in a proton - proton collision, Σ min = 2mp, Σ mfin = 4mp, and
mtarget = mp. The above expression then gives Kth = (6×2/2)mp c2 = 6mp c2, where mp denotes the rest mass of a proton.
86 ··· A particle of rest mass M 0 decays into two identical particles of rest mass m0, where m0 = 0.3M 0. Prior to the
decay, the particle of rest mass M 0 has an energy of 4M 0c2 in the laboratory. The velocities of the decay products are
along the direction of motion of M 0. Find the velocities of the decay products in the laboratory.
We shall solve the problem for the general case of a particle of rest mass M 0 decaying into two identical particles each
of rest mass m0. In the center of mass reference frame, M 0c2 = 2mc2 = 2γm0c2. Solving for u/c we obtain

u/c = 1 − (2 m0 / M 0 )2 , where u is the speed of each of the decay particles in the CM frame. Next we determine
the speed V of the laboratory frame relative to the CM frame. The energy of the particle of rest mass M 0 is γCMM 0c2,

where γCM = 1/ 1 − V 2 / c2 and V/c = βCM = 1 − 1/ γ

2
CM We can now use the velocity transformation,
Equ. 39-18a to determine u lab, the speeds of the decay products in the laboratory reference frame. The result is

β CM ± u/c
u lab = c . The ± refers to the fact that one of the decay particles will travel in the direction
1 ± β CM (u/c)

of M 0, the other in the direction opposite to that of M 0.

In the present instance, γCM = 4, βCM = 0.968, 2m0/M 0 = 0.6, and u/c = 0.8. We find u lab = 0.996c and u lab = 0.775c.
87 ··· A stick of proper length Lp makes an angle θ with the x axis in frame S. Show that the angle θ ′ made with the x′
axis in frame S ′, which is moving along the +x axis with speed V, is given by tan θ ′ = γ tan θ and that the length of
the stick in S ′ is
1/2
1 
L′ = Lp  2 cos2 θ + sin 2 θ 
γ 
In its reference frame, the stick has x and y components Lpx = Lp cos θ and Lpy = Lp sin θ. Only Lpx is Lorentz
contracted to Lx′ = Lpx/γ, so the length in the reference frame S ′ is L′ = (Lx′2 + Ly′2)1/2 = Lp (cos 2 θ/γ2 + sin2 θ)1/2. The
angle that L′ makes with the x′ axis is given by tan θ ′ = Ly′/Lx′ = sin θ/(cos θ/γ) = γ sin θ/cos θ = γ tan θ.
88 ··· Show that if a particle moves at an angle θ with the x axis with speed u in frame S, it moves at an angle θ ′ with
the x′ axis in S ′ given by
sin θ
tan θ ′ = ( cos θ - V/u)
γ
u y’ uy 1 − Vu x / c 2 u sin θ sin θ
The angle of u ′ with the x′ axis is tan θ ′ = = = = .
u x’ γ (1 − Vu x / c ) u x − V γ (u cos θ − V) γ ( cos θ − V/u)
2
 Chapter 39 Relativity

89* ··· For the special case of a particle moving with speed u along the y axis in frame S, show that its momentum and
energy in frame S ′ are related to its momentum and energy in S by the transformation equations.
Compare these equations with the Lorentz transformation for x′, y′, z′, and t′. These
 VE  E’  E Vp 
e P x’ = γ  p x - 2  , p y’ = p y , p z’ = p z’ ; = γ  - 2x  quations show that the quantities p x, p y, p z, and
 c  c c c 
E/c transform in the same way as do x, y, z, and ct.
In S, u x = u z = 0, u y = u; p x = p z = 0, p y = γu m0u, and E = γu m0c2. Here, γu = 1/ 1 − u 2 / c2 . Then,
applying the velocity transformation equations we find, in S ′, u x′ = -V, u y′ = u/γ, u z′ = 0. This gives
u ′2 = V 2 + u 2(1 - V 2/c2) = V 2 + u 2 - V 2u 2/c2 and (1 - u ′2/c2) = 1 - V 2/c2 - u 2/c2 + V 2u 2/c4 = (1 - V 2/c2)(1 - u 2/c2). In
S ′ the momentum components are p x′ = γ′m0u x′, p y′ = γ′m0u y′, and p z′ = 0, where

γ′ = 1/ 1 − u’ / c = γ u / 1 − V / c . In terms of the parameters in S, p x′ = -γu m0V/ 1 − V / c = -γEV/c , where

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

γ = 1/ 1 − V 2 / c2 . Since p x = 0, p x′ = γ(p x - EV/c2). In terms of the parameters in S, p y′ = p y and p z′ = p z.

E′ = γ′m0c2 = γγu m0c2 = γE = γ(E - Vp x/c) and E′/c = γ(E/c - Vp x/c2). Note that E′2 - p ′2c2 = E02 (see Problem
91), which demonstrates that E0 is a relativistic invariant. Also, comparison with Equs. 39-11 and 39-12 shows that
the components of p and E/c transform as do the components of r and ct.
90 ··· The equation for the spherical wavefront of a light pulse that begins at the origin at time t = 0 is
x2 + y2 + z2 -(ct)2 = 0. Using the Lorentz transformation, show that such a light pulse also has a spherical wave-
front in frame S ′ by showing that x′2 + y′2 + z′2 -(ct′)2 = 0 in S ′.
The Lorentz transformation was derived on the basis of the postulate that the speed of light is c in any inertial
reference frame. Thus, if the clocks in S and S ′ are synchronized at t = t′ = 0, then it follows from the Einstein
postulate that r2 = c2t2 and r′2 = c2t′2 or r2 - c2t2 = 0 = r′2 - c2t′2. In other words, the quantity s2 = r2 - c2t2 = 0 is a
relativistic invariant, which can also be written as x2 + y2 + z2 - c2t2 = 0.
Using the Lorentz transformation equations for x, y, z, and t we have x′2 + y′2 + z′2 - (ct′)2 = γ2(x2 - 2Vxt + V 2t2)
+ y2 + z2 - γ2(c2t2 - 2Vxt + V 2x2/c2). The terms linear in x cancel; the terms in x2 combine to give γ2x2(1 - V 2/c2) =
x2; the coefficients of the terms in (ct)2 give γ2(V 2/c2 - 1) = -1. Thus, r2 - c2t2 = r′2 - c2t′2 as required by the
Einstein postulate.
91 ··· In Problem 90, you showed that the quantity x2 + y2 + z2 -(ct)2 has the same value (0) in both S and S ′. Such a
2 2 2 2
quantity is called an invariant. From the results of Problem 89, the quantity p x + p y + p z - (E/c ) must also be an
invariant. Show that this quantity has the value -m0c2 in both the S and S ′ reference frames.
From Equ. 39-28, p 2c2 - E2 = -E02 or p 2 - (E/c)2 = -m02c2. Since m0 is the rest mass, i.e., the mass of the particle in
its rest frame, it is a constant. It follows that p 2 - (E/c)2 must be a relativistic invariant. Also, in Problem 89 we saw
that the components of p and the quantity E/c transform like the components of r and the quantity ct. In Problem 90
we demonstrated that r2 - (ct)2 is a relativistic invariant. Consequently, p 2 - (E/c)2 must also be relativistically
invariant.
92 ··· Two identical particles of rest mass m0 are each moving toward the other with speed u in frame S. The particles
collide inelastically with a spring that locks shut (Figure 39-14) and come to rest in S, and their initial kinetic energy is
transformed into potential energy. In this problem you are going to show that the conservation of momentum in
 Chapter 39 Relativity

reference frame S ′, in which one of the particles is initially at rest, requires that the total rest mass of the system after
the collision be 2 m0 / 1 - u 2 / c2 . (a) Show that the speed of the particle not at rest in frame S ′ is
u’ = 2u/(1 + u 2 / c2 ) 0and use this result to show that

u2 1 - u 2 / c2
1 - ’2 =
c 1 + u 2 / c2

(b) Show that the initial momentum in frame S ′ is p’ = 2 m0 u/(1 - u 2 / c2 ) 0. (c) After the collision, the composite
particle moves with speed u in S ′ (since it is at rest in S). Write the total momentum after the collision in terms of the
final rest mass M 0, and show that the conservation of momentum implies that M 0 = 2 m0 / 1 - u 2 / c 2 .
(d) Show that the total energy is conserved in each reference frame.

(a) 1. Use Equ. 39-19a, where V = -u u ′ = 2u/(1 + u 2/c2)

u ’2 (1 − u 2 / c2 ) 1 − u2 / c 2
2
1− 4 u 2 / c2
2. Express 2 in terms of u and c 1− = 2
=
c 1 + 2 u 2 / c2 + u 4 / c4 (1 + u 2 / c2 ) 1 + u2 / c 2

(b) Write p ′ = γ′m0u ′; γ′ = 1 + u 2 / c2 2u 2 m0 u

p ′ = m0 =
1/ 1 − u’ 2 / c2 1 − u / c 1 + u / c 1 − u 2 / c2
2 2 2 2

(c) p f′ = γM 0u = p ′; γ = 1/ 1 − u 2 / c2 M 0 = 2m0/γ(1 - u 2/c2) = 2m0γ

Ei = 2m0γc2; Ef = M 0c2 = 2m0γc2; Ei = Ef
(d) 1. Write Ei and Ef in S
Ei′ = m0c2 + γ′m0c2 = 2m0c2/(1 - u 2/c2)
2. Write Ei′ and Ef′ in S ′
Ef′ = γM 0c2 = 2m0c2/(1 - u 2/c2); Ei′ = Ef′