INTRODUCTION TO PV SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic systems are designed around the photovoltaic cell. Since a

typical photovoltaic cell produces less than 3 watts at approximately 0.5 volt dc,
cells must be connected in series-parallel configurations to produce enough
power for high-power applications. Modules may have
peak output powers ranging from a few watts, depending upon the intended application,
to more than 300 watts. Typical array output power is in the 100-wattto-
kilowatt range, although megawatt arrays do exist.

Since PV arrays produce power only when illuminated, PV systems often

employ an energy storage mechanism so the captured electrical energy may be
made available at a later time. Most commonly, the storage mechanism consists
of rechargeable batteries, but it is also possible to employ more exotic storage
mechanisms. In addition to energy storage, storage batteries also provide transient
suppression, system voltage regulation and a source of current that can
exceed PV array capabilities.

When a battery storage mechanism is employed, it is common to also incorporate

a charge controller into the system, so the batteries can be prevented from
reaching either an overcharged or overdischarged condition. It is also possible
that some or all of the loads to be served by the system may be ac loads. If this
is the case, an inverter will be needed to convert the dc from the PV array to ac.
If a system incorporates a backup system to take over if the PV system does not
produce adequate energy, then the system will need a controller to operate the
backup system.

It is also possible that the PV system will be interconnected with the utility
grid. Such systems may deliver excess PV energy to the grid or use the grid as a
backup system in case of insufficient PV generation. These grid interconnected
systems need to incorporate suitable interfacing circuitry so the PV system will
be disconnected from the grid in the event of grid failure.

The PV Cell:

The PV cell is a specially designed pn junction or Schottky barrier device.

The well-known diode equation describes the operation of the shaded PV cell.

When the cell is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are produced by the interaction
of the incident photons with the atoms of the cell. The electric field created
by the cell junction causes the photon-generated-electron-hole pairs to separate,
with the electrons drifting into the n-region of the cell and the holes drifting
into the p-region. It is important to remember that when a cell is illuminated, it will generally
convert less than 20% of the irradiance into electricity. The balance is converted
to heat, resulting in heating of the cell. As a result, the cell can be expected to
operate above ambient temperature. If the cell is a part of a concentrating system,
then it will heat even more, resulting in additional temperature degradation
of cell performance.

The photocurrent developed in a PV cell is dependent on the intensity of the

light incident on the cell. The photocurrent is also highly dependent on the
wavelength of the incident light. In Chapter 2 it was noted that terrestrial sunlight
approximates the spectrum of a 5800 K blackbody source. PV cells are
made of materials for which conversion to electricity of this spectrum is as efficient
as possible. Depending on the cell technology, some cells must be thicker
than others to maximize absorption. Cells are often coated with an antireflective
coating to minimize reflection of sunlight away from the cells.