1

CAST GOLD ALLOYS

Seminar By
Dr. Balamurugan
Postgraduate Student

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATIVE DENTISTRY & ENDODONTICS

SRI RAMACHANDRA DENTAL COLLEGE AND HOSPITAL
CHENNAI
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CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF CASTING ALLOYS

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

IDENTIFICATION OF ALLOYS BY PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS

GOLD

KARAT AND FINENESS

ALLOY COMPOSITION AND TEMPERATURE

PROPERTIES:

MELTING RANGE

DENSITY

STRENGTH

HARDNESS

ELONGATION

HEAT TREATMENT OF HIGH NOBLE METAL ALLOYS

SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT

HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT

CASTING SHRINKAGE

ALLOYS FOR ALL-METAL AND RESIN-VENEER RESTORATIONS

HIGH NOBLE ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC RESTORATIONS

MATERIAL CHOICE FOR A CAST RESTORATION

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INTRODUCTION

The physical properties of a tooth are the result of its

complex composite structure and the manner in which it is
supported within the bone by the periodontal ligament. The
enamel-dentin complex displays a brilliant marriage of hard
tissues with differing rigidity. Enamel, the harder mantle,
with the modulus of elasticity approaching 100 GPa, is
supported by a base of dentin, with a modulus of elasticity
of 14 to 28 GPa.

Intact, tooth is ideally suited for physiological function;

this involves dynamic change in its form and, with normal
function, the dentition wears without loss of vertical
dimension, strength or efficiency. When a tooth looses both
its enamel and dentin its physical integrity as well as its
biological integrity is compromised. Major requirement
when replacing lost tooth structure is to replace form and
function.

Plastic restorative materials are satisfactory in small

lesions but, as a problem of restoration of form and function
becomes more extensive, the need to employ rigid materials
increases in an attempt to reinstate the original anatomy
and function of the tooth.

Many materials are used for the construction of rigid

restorations. There are a number of sound reasons for the
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selection of noble metals and their alloys for the restoration

of teeth. Principally they resist oxidation and are not
attacked by acids. Seven metals meet this definition: Gold,
Platinum, Palladium, Rubidium, Ruthenium, Osmium and
Iridium. However, only the first three of these are used in
dentistry and they inert properties are of great value in the
hostile environment of the mouth.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DENTAL CASTING

ALLOYS

The history of dental casting alloys has been influenced

by three major factors: 1) the technologic changes of dental
prosthesis; 2) metallurgic advancements; and 3) price
changes of the noble metals since 1968.

Taggart’s presentation to the New York Odontological

Group in 1907 on the fabrication of cast inlay restorations
often has been acknowledge as the first reported application
of the lost wax technique in dentistry. The inlay technique
described by Taggart was an instant success. It soon led to
the casting of complex inlays such as onlays, crowns, fixed
partial dentures, and removable partial denture frame
works. Because pure gold did not have the physical
properties required of these dental restorations, existing
jewelry alloys were quickly adopted. These gold alloys were
further strengthened with copper, silver, or platinum.
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In 1932, the dental materials group at the National

Bureau of Standards surveyed the alloys being used and
roughly classified them as Type I (soft: Vickers hardness
number (VHN) between 50 and 90), Type II (medium: VHN
between 90 and 120), Type III (hard: VHN between 120 and
150), and Type IV (extra hard: VHN ≥ 150).

At that time, some tarnish tests indicated that alloys

with a gold content lower than 65% to 75% tarnished too
readily for dental use. In the following years, several patents
were issued for alloys containing palladium as a substitute
for platinum. By 1948, the composition of dental noble metal
alloys for cast metal restorations had become rather
diverse. With these formulations, the tarnishing tendency of
the original alloys apparently had disappeared. It is not
known that in gold alloys, palladium is added to counter act
the tarnish potential of silver.

In the late 1950s, a breakthrough occurred in dental

technology that was to influence significantly the fabrication
of dental restorations. This was the successful veneering of
a metal substructure with dental porcelain. Until that time,
dental porcelain had a markedly lower coefficient of thermal
expansion than did gold alloys, making it impossible to
attain a bond between the two structural components. It was
found that adding both platinum and palladium to gold
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would lower the alloy’s coefficient of thermal contraction

sufficiently to ensure physical compatibility between the
porcelain veneer and the metal substructure. The melting
range of the alloy was also raised sufficiently to permit firing
of the porcelain onto the gold-based alloy at 1040°C (1900°F)
without deforming the metal substructure. By 1978 the price
of gold was climbing so rapidly that attention focused on the
noble metal alloys- to reduce the precious metal content yet
retain the advantages of the noble metal for dental use.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF CASTING ALLOYS

Cast metals are used in dental laboratories to produce

in inlays, onlays, and crowns, conventional all metal bridges,
metal-ceramic bridges, resin-bonded bridges, Endodontic
posts, and removable partial denture frameworks. The
metals must exhibit biocompatibility, ease of melting,
casting, brazing (or soldering) and polishing, little
solidification shrinkage, minimal reactivity with the mold
material, good wear resistance, high strength and sag
resistance (metal-ceramic alloys), and excellent tarnish and
corrosion resistance. Generally, conventional type II and
type III gold alloys represent the standards against which
the performance of other casting alloys is judged.

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

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Several brands of crowns and bridge alloys are

currently available that are designed for all metal crowns,
bridges, onlays and inlays that are described according to
American Dental Association (ADA) Specification No.5 as
Types I through IV. In the past, this specification referred to
gold-based alloys. Since 1989, ADA approved casting alloys
can have any composition as long as they pass the tests for
toxicity, tarnish, yield strength, and percentage of
elongation. The minimum values for yield strength and
percent elongation determine whether an alloy is classified
as Type I (soft: for restorations subject to very slight stress
such as inlays), Type II (medium: for restorations subject to
moderate stress such as onlays), Type III (hard: for high-
stress situations, including onlays, crowns, thick veneer
crowns, and short- span fixed partial dentures), and Type IV
(extra hard: for extremely high stress states, such as
endodontic posts and cores, thin veneer crowns, long span
fixed partial dentures, and removable partial dentures).

Mechanical property requirements of

American Dental Association Specification No.5

Yield Strength (Mpa) (0.1% Maximum elongation

Alloy Type offset) (%)
Annealed Hardened Annealed Hardened
I (soft) 140 Maximum None 18 None
II (medium) 140-200 None 18 None
III (hard) 200-340 None 12 None
IV (extra hard) ≥ 340 500 10 2

In 1984 the ADA proposed a simple classification for

dental casting alloys. The three categories are: high noble
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(HN), noble (N), and predominantly base metal (PB). Many

manufacturers have adopted this classification to simplify
communication between dentists and dental laboratories
technologists. This system lacks the potential to
discriminate among alloys within a given category that may
have quite different properties. The dental casting alloy
classification is useful for estimating the relative cost of
alloys because the cost is dependent on the noble metal
content as well as on the alloy density.

Alloy classification of the

American Dental Association (1984)

Alloy Type Total Noble Metal Content

High noble metal alloy Contains ≥ 40 wt% Au and ≥ 60 wt% of the
noble metal elements (Au + Ir + Os + Pt + Rh +
Ru)
Noble metal alloy Contains ≥ 25 wt% of the noble metal elements
Predominantly base metal Contains < 25 wt% of the noble metal elements
alloy

The alloys that are used for metal-ceramic restorations

can be used for all metal (or resin-veneered) restorations,
whereas the alloys for all-metal restorations should not be
used for metal ceramic restorations. The principle reasons
that alloys for all-metal restorations cannot be used for
metal-ceramic restorations are that the alloys may not form
thin, stable oxide layers to promote bonding to porcelain;
their melting range may be too low to resist sag deformation
or melting at porcelain firing temperatures; and their
thermal contraction coefficients may not be close enough to
those of commercial porcelains.
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Classification of Alloys for All-Metal Restorations, Metal-

Ceramic Restorations and Frameworks for Removable Partial
Dentures

Removable
Alloy
All-Metal Metal-Ceramic Partial
Type
Dentures
High Noble Au-Ag-Cu-Pd Au-Pt-Pd Au-Ag-Cu-Pd
Metal-ceramic alloys Au-Pd-Ag (5-12 wt%
Ag
Au-Pd-Ag (>12 wt%
Ag
Au-Pd (no Ag)
Noble Ag-Pd-Au-Cu Pd-Au (no Ag) Ag-Pd-Au-Cu
Ag-Pd Pd-Au-Ag Ag-Pd
Metal-ceramic alloys Pd-Ag
Pd-Cu
Pd-Co
Pd-Ga-Ag

MARZOUK’S CLASSIFICATION

Class I
These are gold and platinum group based alloys in
accordance with the ADA specification #5. They are type I,
II, III and IV gold alloys.

Class II
These are low gold alloys, with gold content less than
50%. Some may contain as little as 5% gold.

Class III
These are non-gold palladium based alloys.

Class IV
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Nickel chromium based alloys.

Class V
Castable, moldable ceramics.
IDENTIFICATION OF ALLOYS BY PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS

As a result of several alternate alloy systems, an

understanding of their composition is vital, in view of
differences in formulations and the resulting properties.
Thus, the crown and bridge, metal-ceramic, and removable
partial denture alloys are classified according to not only
function but also according to their composition. When an
alloy is identified according to the elements it contains, the
components are listed in declining order of composition,
with the largest constituent first followed by the second
largest constituent. An exception to this rule is the
identification of certain alloys by elements that significantly
affect physical properties or that represent potential
biocompatibility concerns, or both.

GOLD

Pure gold is a soft, malleable, ductile metal that has

rich yellow colour with a strong metallic luster. Although
pure gold is the most ductile and malleable of all metals, it
ranks much lower in strength. Gold melts at 1064°C and has
a density of 19.32 g/cc. The density depends somewhat on
the condition of the metal, whether it is cast, rolled, or
drawn into wire. Small amounts of impurities have a
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pronounced effect on the mechanical properties of gold and

its alloys. The presence of less than 0.2% lead causes gold
to be extremely brittle. Mercury in small quantities also has
a harmful effect on its properties. The addition of calcium to
pure gold improves the mechanical properties of gold used
for gold foil restorations.

Air or water at any temperature does not affect or

tarnish gold. Gold is not soluble in sulfuric, nitric, or
hydrochloric acid. However it readily dissolves in
combination of nitric and hydrochloric acids to form the
trichloride of gold. It is also dissolved by few other chemicals
such as potassium cyanide and solutions of bromine or
chlorine.

Because gold is nearly as soft as a lead, it must be

alloyed with copper, silver, platinum, and other metals to
develop the hardness, durability, and elasticity necessary in
dental alloys.

KARAT AND FINENESS

Traditionally the gold content of a dental alloy has been

specified on the basis of karat or fineness. Karat refers to
the parts of pure gold in 24 parts of an alloy. For example,
24-karat gold is pure gold, whereas 22-karat gold is alloy
containing 22 parts of gold and 2 parts of other metals.

Fineness describes gold alloys by the number of parts

per 1000 of gold. For example, pure gold has fineness of
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1000, and 650 fine alloy has a gold content of 65%. Thus,
the fineness rating is 10 times the gold percentage in an
alloy. An alloy that is three-fourths (75%) pure gold is 750
fine. Fineness is considered a more practical term than
karat.
ALLOY COMPOSITION AND TEMPERATURE

In each phase diagram the horizontal axis represents

the composition of the binary alloy. For example, the
horizontal axis represents a series of binary alloys of gold
and copper ranging in composition from 0% gold (or 100%
copper) to 100% gold. The composition can be given in
atomic percent (at%) or weight percent (wt%). The atomic
and weight percent compositions of the binary alloys can
differ considerably. For example, for the Au-Cu system
shown (A), an alloy that is 50% gold by weight is only 25%
gold by atoms. For other systems, such as the Au-Pt system
(F), there is little difference between atomic and weight
percentages. The difference between atomic and weight
percentage depends on the differences in the atomic
masses of the elements involved. The bigger the difference
in atomic mass, the bigger the difference between the
atomic and weight percentages in the binary phase diagram.
From a marketing and sales standpoint, most alloy
compositions are given in weight percentages because the
weight percentages of gold are higher for this massive
element. However, the physical and biological properties of
these alloys relate best to atomic percentages. Therefore it
is important to keep the difference between atomic and
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weight percent in mind when selecting and using noble

dental casting alloys. Alloys that appear high in gold by
weight percentage may in reality contain far fewer gold
atoms than might be thought.

A second aspect of the phase diagrams that deserves

attention is the liquidus and solidus lines. The y-axes show
temperature. If the temperature is above the liquidus line
(marked L), then alloy will be completely molten. If the
temperature is below the solidus line (marked S), then the
alloy will be solid. If the temperature lies between the
liquidus and solidus lines, the alloy will be partially molten.
The distance between the liquidus and solidus lines varies
among systems. For example, the temperature difference
between these lines is small for the Ag-Au system, and
varies considerably with composition for the Au-Cu system.
From a manipulative standpoint, it is desirable to have a
narrow liquidus-solidus range because the alloy should be in
the liquid state as little time as possible before casting.
While in the liquid state, the alloy is susceptible to
significant oxidation and contamination. If the liquidus-
solidus line is broad, then the alloy will remain at least
partially molten longer before it can be cast. The
temperature of the liquidus line is also important and varies
considerably among alloys and with composition. For
example the liquidus line of the Au-Ag system ranges from
962-1064°C (C) but the liquidus line of the Au-Pd system
ranges form 1064-1554° C. It is often desirable to have an
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alloy with a liquidus line at lower temperatures because the

method of heating is easier, fewer side reactions occur, and
shrinkage of the alloy is generally less of a problem.

PROPERTIES

MELTING RANGE

Dental casting alloys do not have melting points, but

they do have melting ranges because they are mixtures of
elements rather than pure elements. The width of the
solidus-liquidus melting range is important to the
manipulation of the alloys. The solidus-liquidus range should
be narrow to avoid having the alloy in a molten state for
extended times during casting. If the alloy spends a long
time in the partially molten state during casting, there is
increased opportunity for the formation of oxides and
contamination.

The Au-Ag-Pt alloys, have wider ranges, which makes

them more difficult to cast without problems.

DENSITY

Density is important during the acceleration of the

molten alloy into the mold during casting. Alloys with high
densities will generally accelerate faster and tend to form
complete castings more easily. Alloys with high densities
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generally contain higher amounts of denser elements such

as gold or platinum. Thus the Au-Ag-Pt alloys and Au-Cu-Ag-
Pd-I alloys are among the most dense of the casting alloys.

STRENGTH

Strength of alloys can be measured by either the yield

strength or tensile strength. Although tensile strength
represents the maximum strength of the alloy, the yield
strength is more useful in dental applications because it is
the stress at which permanent deformation of the alloys
occurs. Because permanent deformation of dental castings
is generally undesirable, the yield strength is a reasonable
practical maximum strength for dental applications. For
several alloys, such as Au-Cu-Ag-Pd-I, II, and III, the
formation of the ordered phase increases the yield strength
significantly. For example, the yield strength of the Au-Cu-
Ag-Pd-II alloys increases from 350 to 600 Mpa with the
formation of an ordered phase. For other alloys, such as the
Au-Ag-Pt and Ag-Pd alloys, the increase in yield strength is
more modest in the hardened condition. The Pd-Cu-Ga alloy
do not support the formation of ordered phase because the
ratio of palladium and copper are not in the correct range
for ordered phase formation.

The yield strengths of these alloys range from 320-

1145 Mpa (hard condition). The strongest alloy is the Pd-Cu-
Ga alloy with a yield strength of 1145 Mpa. The other alloys
range in strength from 320-600 Mpa. These latter yield
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strengths are adequate for dental applications and are

generally in the same range as those for the base metal
alloys, which range from 495-600. The effect of solid-
solution hardening by the addition of copper and silver to
the gold or palladium base is significant for these alloys.
Pure cast gold has a tensile strength of 105 Mpa. With the
addition of 10-wt% copper (coin gold), solid-solution
hardening increases the tensile strength to 395 Mpa. With
the further addition of 10-wt% silver and 3-wt% palladium
(Au-Cu-Ag-Pd-I), the tensile strength increases to about 450
Mpa and 550 Mpa in the hard condition.

HARDNESS

Hardness is a good indicator of the ability of an alloy to

resist local permanent deformation under occlusal load.
Although the relationships are complex, hardness is related
to yield strength and gives some indication of the difficulty
in polishing the alloy. Alloys with high hardness generally
will have high yield strengths and are more difficult to
polish. The values for hardness generally parallel those for
yield strength. In the hard condition, the hardness of these
alloys ranges form 155 kg/mm2 for the Ag-Pd alloys to 425
kg/mm2 for the Pd-Cu-Ga alloys. More typically the hardness
of the noble casting alloys is around 200 kg/mm2. The Ag-Pd
alloys are particularly soft because of the high concentration
of silver, which is a soft metal. The Pd-Cu-Ga alloys are
particularly hard because of the high concentration of Pd,
which is a hard metal. The hardness of most noble casting
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alloys is less than that of enamel (343 kg/mm2), and

typically less than that of the base metal alloys. If the
hardness of an alloy is greater than enamel, it will tend to
wear the enamel of the teeth opposing the restoration.
ELONGATION

The elongation is a measure of the ductility of the alloy.

For crown and bridge applications, the value of elongation
for an alloy is generally not a big concern because
permanent deformation of the alloys is generally not
desirable. However elongation will indicate whether the alloy
can be burnished. Alloys with high elongation can be
burnished with out fracture. In the hardened condition, the
elongation will drop significantly. For example, for the Au-
Cu-Ag-Pd-II alloys, the elongation is 30% in soft condition
versus only 10% in hardened condition. In the soft condition,
the elongation of noble dental casting alloys ranges from 8
to 30%. These alloys are substantially more ductile than the
base metal alloys, which have elongation on the order of 1-
2%.

HEAT TREATMENT OF HIGH NOBLE METAL ALLOYS

Gold alloys can be significantly hardened if the alloy

contains a sufficient amount of copper. Types I and II alloys
usually do not harden, or they harden to a lesser degree
than do Types III and IV alloys. The actual mechanism of
hardening is probably the result of several different solid-
state transformations. Although the precise mechanism may
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be in doubt, the criteria for successful hardening are time

and temperature.

Alloys that can be hardened can, of course, also be

softened. In metallurgic terminology the softening heat
treatment is referred to as solution heat treatment. The
hardening heat treatment is termed age hardening.

SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT

The casting is placed in an electric furnace for

10minutes at a temperature of 700°C (1292°F) and then it is
quenched in water. During this period, all intermediate
phases are presumably changed to a disordered solid
solution, and the rapid quenching prevents ordering from
occurring during cooling. The tensile strength, proportional
limit, and hardness are reduced by such a treatment but the
ductility is increased.

The softening heat treatment is indicated for structures

that are to ground. Shaped or otherwise cold worked, either
in or out of the mouth. Although 700°C is an adequate
average softening temperature, each alloy has its optimum
temperature, and the manufacturer should specify the most
favorable temperature and time.

HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT

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The age hardening or hardening heat treatment of

dental alloys can be accomplished in several ways. One of
the most practical hardening treatments is by ‘ soaking’ or
aging the casting at a specific temperature for a definite
time, usually 15 to 30 minutes, before it is water quenched.
The aging temperature depends on the alloy composition
but is generally between 200°C (400°F) and 450°C (840°F).
The manufacturer specifies the proper time and
temperature.

Ideally, before the alloy is given an age-hardening

treatment, it should be subjected to a softening heat
treatment to relieve all strain hardening, if it is present, and
to start the hardening treatment with the alloy as a
disordered solid solution. Otherwise there would not be a
proper control of the hardening process, because the
increase in strength, proportional limit, and hardness and
the reduction in ductility are controlled by the amount of
solid-state transformations allowed. The transformations, in
turn, are controlled by the temperature and time of the age-
hardening treatment.

Because the proportional limit is increased during age

hardening, a considerable increase in the modulus of
resilience can be expected. The hardening heat treatment is
indicated for metallic partial dentures, saddles, bridges, and
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other similar structures. For small structures, such as inlays,

a hardening treatment is not usually employed.

The yield strength, the proportional limit, and the

elastic limit are all measures of essentially the same
property. This property reflects the capacity of an alloy to
withstand mechanical stresses without permanent
deformation. In general, the yield strengths increase when
progressing from Type I to Type IV alloys. Age hardening
substantially increases the yield strength.

The hardness values for noble metal correlate quite

well with the yield strengths. Traditionally, hardness has
been used for indicating the suitability of an alloy for a given
type of clinical application.

The elongation is a measure of ductility or the degree

of plastic deformation an alloy can undergo before fracture.
A reasonable amount of elongation is essential if the clinical
application requires deformation of the as-cast structure,
such as is needed for clasp and margin adjustment and
burnishing. Age hardening reduces the elongation, in some
cases significantly. Alloys with low elongation are brittle
materials and fracture readily if deformed.

CASTING SHRINKAGE

Most metals and alloys, including gold and the noble

metal alloys, shrink when they change from the liquid to the
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solid state. Such a consideration is very important in dental

casting procedure. For example, if a mold for an inlay is an
accurate reproduction of the missing tooth structure, the
cast gold inlay is an accurate reproduction of the missing
tooth structure, the cast gold inlay will be too small by the
amount of its casting shrinkage.

The shrinkage occurs in three stages: 1) the thermal

contraction of the liquid metal between the temperature to
which it is heated and the liquidus temperature; 2) the
contraction of the metal inherent in its change from the
liquid to the solid state: and 3) the thermal contraction of
the solid metal that occurs down to room temperature.

The first mentioned contraction is probably of no

consequence, because as the liquid metal contracts in the
mold, more molten metal can flow into the mold to
compensate for such shrinkage. The values for the casting
differ for the various alloys presumably because of
differences in their composition. It has been shown, for
example, that platinum, palladium, and copper all are
effective in reducing the casting shrinkage of an alloy. The
value for casting shrinkage of pure gold closely approaches
that of its maximal linear thermal contraction.

In general, it is apparent that the values obtained for

the casting shrinkage are less than the linear thermal
shrinkage values, even though the casting shrinkage as
obtained included both the solidification shrinkage and
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thermal shrinkage. This condition can be accounted for by

two logical assumptions, 1) when the mold becomes filled
with molten metal, the metal starts to solidify at the walls of
the mold because the temperature of the mold is less than
that of the molten metal; and 2) during initial cooling, the
first layer of metal to solidify against the walls of the mold is
weak, and it tends to adhere to the mold until it gains
sufficient strength as it cools to pull away. When it is
sufficiently strong to contract independently of the mold, it
shrinks thermally until it reaches room temperature.

The important consideration is that the thermal

shrinkage of the first weak solidified layer is initially
prevented by its mechanical adhesion to the walls of the
mold. During this period, it is actually stretched because of
its interlocking with the investment material. Thus, any
contraction occurring during solidification can be eliminated.
Also, part of the total thermal contraction can be eliminated,
with the result that the observed casting shrinkage is less
than might be expected on the basis of the possible stages
of he shrinkage.

Because the thermal contraction as the alloy cools to

room temperature dominates the casting shrinkage, the
higher melting alloys tend to exhibit greater shrinkage. This
must be compensated for in the casting technique if good fit
is to be obtained.
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Linear Solidification Shrinkage of Casting Alloys

Alloy Casting shrinkage (%)
Type I, gold base alloy 1.56
Type II, gold base alloy 1.37
Type III, gold base alloy 1.42
Ni-Cr-Mo-Be alloy 2.3
Co-Cr-Mo alloy 2.3

ALLOYS FOR ALL-METAL AND RESIN-VENEER

RESTORATIONS

In 1927, the Bureau of standards established gold

casting alloy Types I through IV according to dental function,
with hardness increasing from Type I to Type IV.

But based on the 1989 revision of specification No.5 by

the ADA, the following four alloy types are classified by their
properties and not by their compositions:

Type I (soft)- small inlays, easily burnished and subject

to very slight stress

Type II (medium)- inlays subject to moderate stress,

including thick three quarter crowns, abutments, pontics,
and full crowns

Type III (hard)- inlays subject to high stress, including

thin three –quarter crowns, thin cast backings, abutments,
pontics, full crowns and denture bases, and short-span fixed
partial dentures. Some Type III gold alloys usually can be
age hardened, especially those containing at least 8-wt% of
copper.
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Type IV (extra hard)- inlays subject to very high

stresses, including denture base bars and clasps, partial
denture frameworks, and long span fixed partial dentures.
The compositions of these alloys are usually based on a
majority of either gold or silver; gold alloys can be age
hardened by an appropriate heat treatment.
Composition Range (weight percent) of Traditional
Types I to IV Alloys
Alloy Sn, In, Fe,
Main Elements Au Cu Ag Pd
Type Zn, Ga
I High noble (Au base) 83 6 10 0.5 Balance
II High noble (Au base) 77 7 14 1 Balance
III High noble (Au base) 75 9 11 3.5 Balance
III Noble (Au base) 46 8 39 6 Balance
III Noble (Ag base) --- --- 70 25 Balance
IV High noble (Au base) 56 14 25 4 Balance
IV Noble (Ag base) 15 14 45 25 Balance
Metal
High noble (Au base) 52 --- --- 38 Balance
Ceramic

Types I and II alloys are often referred to as inlay

alloys. The development of modern direct and indirect tooth-
coloured filling materials has virtually eliminated the use of
types I and II gold alloys. Traditional Types III and IV alloys
are generally called crown and bridge alloys, although Type
IV alloys also are used occasionally for high-stress
applications such as removable partial denture frameworks.

Physical Properties of Some Modern Noble

Metal Dental Alloys

Yield Strength
Alloy Main Melting Density ‡ Hardness Present
Type Elements Range (g/cm ) 2 (Mp (VHN) Elongation
(psi)
a)
High noble (15,000
I 943-960°C 16.6 103 80 36
)
High noble (27,000
II 924-960°C 15.9 186 101 38
)
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High noble (30,000

III 924-960°C 15.5 207 121 39
)
Noble (35,000
843-916°C 12.8 241 138 30
)
Ag-Pd noble (38,000
1021-1099°C 10.6 262 143 10
)
High noble (40,000
IV 921-943°C 15.2 275 149 35
)
High noble (54,000
871-932°C 13.6 372 186 38
)
Noble (63,000
930-1021°C 11.3 434 180 10
)
Metal (83,000
* High noble 1271-1304°C 13.5 572 220 20
ceramic )
HIGH NOBLE ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC
RESTORATIONS

The disadvantage of dental porcelain as a restorative

material is its low tensile strength and shear strength.
Although porcelain can resist compressive stresses with
reasonable success, substructure design does not permit
shapes in which compressive stress is the principal force.

A method by which this disadvantage can be minimized

is to bond the porcelain directly to a cast alloy substructure
made to fit the prepared tooth. If a strong bond is attained
between porcelain veneer and the metal, the porcelain
veneer is reinforced. Thus, the risk of brittle fracture can be
avoided or, at least, minimized.

To fabricate this restoration, a metal substructure is

waxed, cast, finished, and heat-treated. A thin layer of
opaque porcelain is fused to the metal substructure to
initiate the porcelain-metal bond and mask the colour of the
substructure. Then dentin and enamel porcelains,
sometimes referred to as body and incisal porcelains, are
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fused onto the casting, shaped, stained to improve the

aesthetic appearance, and glazed.

The original metal-ceramic alloys contained 88% gold

and were much too soft for stress-bearing restorations such
as fixed partial denture. Because there was no evidence of a
chemical bond between these alloys and dental porcelain,
mechanical retention and undercuts were used to prevent
detachment of the ceramic veneer. It was found that the
bond strength of the porcelain to this type of alloy was less
than the cohesive strength of the porcelain. So if failure
occurred in the metal-ceramic restoration, it would most
probably arise at the porcelain-metal interface. By adding
less than 1% of oxide forming elements such as iron, indium,
and tin to this high-gold alloy, the porcelain –metal bond
strength improved three fold. Iron also increases the
proportional limit and strength of the alloy.

This 1% addition of base metals to the gold, palladium,

and platinum alloy was all that was necessary to produce a
slight oxide film on the surface of the substructure to
achieve a porcelain-metal bond strength level that
surpassed the cohesive strength of the porcelain itself.
Metal-ceramic alloys also fall into one of the three general
categories- high noble, noble, or base metal. In spite of
vastly different chemical compositions, all the alloys share
atleast three common features: 1) they have the potential to
bond to dental porcelain, 2) they possess coefficients of
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thermal contraction compatible with those of dental

porcelains; and 3) their solidus temperature is sufficiently
high to permit the application of low-fusing porcelains.

The coefficient of thermal expansion tends to have a

reciprocal relationship with the melting point of alloys and
the melting range of alloys; that is, the higher the melting
temperature of a metal, the lower is its thermal expansion.
This fact is important in formulating metal-ceramic alloys for
different dental porcelains.

Gold-based Metal-Ceramic alloys- PFM alloys containing

more than 40 wt% gold at least 60 wt% of noble metals
(gold plus platinum and palladium and /or the other noble
metals) are generally classified as high noble.

Gold-platinum-palladium alloys - these alloys have a

gold content ranging up to 88% with varying amounts of
palladium, platinum, and small amounts of base metals.
Some of these alloys are yellow in colour. Alloys of this type
are susceptible to sag deformation, and fixed partial
dentures should be restricted to three-unit spans, anterior
cantilevers, or crowns.

Gold-Palladium-Silver Alloys- These gold-based alloys

contain between 39% and 77% gold, up to 35% palladium,
and silver levels at high as 22%. The silver increases the
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thermal contraction coefficient, but it also has a tendency to

discolour some porcelains.

Gold-Palladium Alloys- A gold content ranging from

44% to 55% and a palladium level of 35% to 45% is present
in these metal-ceramic alloys, which have remained popular
despite their relatively high cost. The lack of silver results in
a decreased thermal contraction coefficient and the freedom
from silver discoloration of porcelain. Alloys of this type
must be used with porcelains that have low coefficients of
thermal contraction to avoid the development of axial and
circumferential tensile stresses in porcelain during the
cooling part of the porcelain firing cycle.

MATERIAL CHOICE FOR A CAST RESTORATION

Several years ago the choice of an alloy for a cast

restoration was simple, insofar as there was no other choice
than the four types of gold alloy. At the present time,
however, the choice is made difficult not only due to the
various alloys available to the profession, but also to the
availability of cast ceramics. It is the dentist’s duty both to
understand the properties of the cast materials used, and to
prepare the teeth and manipulate the materials to get the
most out of them. It is also our professional responsibility to
inform the patient of the advantages and possible
drawbacks of the material used and the measures required
by the dentist and patient to prevent any shortcomings from
making the restoration a failure.
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Without doubt, gold alloys maintain several advantages

primarily because the technique for fabricating a cast
restoration in a gold alloy has been preferred over the years.
This does not mean that newer materials are not suitable for
oral use. It is fair to say that they still have a long way to go
to arrive to the current status of gold alloys.

Gold alloys are usually indicated when the casting has

lengthy margins with the possibility of marginal
discrepancies, even with the most meticulous technique.
The burnishability of these types of gold alloys makes it easy
to adjust these margins after fabricating the casting.

When using a class I alloy for a single tooth restoration,

if the casting is going to be subjected to normal and above
normal type of loading, type III gold alloys are the ideal
alloys to use. Type II gold alloys are used only in smaller
castings and in areas of normal and less than normal
loading.

Type I gold alloys are seldom used. They are indicated

for use in areas with no direct occlusal loading, e.g., class V
and III restorations. The softness of the alloy makes it easy
to adapt the margins properly at these locations. Type IV
gold alloys are rarely used in single tooth restorations, but
may be indicated if the casting will be carrying an
attachment for a partial denture, or if it is a part of a long
splint, i.e., the casting will be subjected to unusually high
loading situations.
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In evaluating class II alloys present clinical data reveal

that there is little different between them and class I alloys.
The major difference is in their tarnish and corrosion
resistance, especially when the gold content gets lower than
40%. Therefore, they can be used in lieu of high gold alloys
in areas with low corrosion activity, but the patient should
be

Phase diagrams for binary combination of A, copper and gold, B, copper

and palladium, C, silver and gold, D, silver and palladium, E, palladium an
gold, F, gold an platinum. Atomic percentages are shown along the bottom
of each graph; weight percentages are shown along the top. L= liquidus,
S=solidus.
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advised of what to expect. The tooth preparation and cast

fabrication are no different than those for class I alloys, and
these alloys are definitely much less expensive than class I
alloys.