Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Socialising
1. The Impact of Culture on Business
2. Telephoning
2. Telephoning across cultures
3. Presentations
3. Planning and preparation
4. Image, impact and making impression
5. The presentation
6. The end of the presentation
4. Meetings
7. Preparation for meetings
8. Participating in meetings
9. Ending the meeting
5. Negotiations
10. Know what you want
11. Getting what you can
12. Not getting what you don’t want
6. Management
13. What is management?
14. Types of managers
15. The management process
16. Management level and skills
7. Companies and organisations
17. Company structure
18. The external environment of organisations
8. Production and products
19. Just-in-time production
20. Products and brands
9. Marketing, advertising, promotion
21. The centrality of marketing
22. How companies advertise
23. The four major promotional tool
10. Market structure and competition
24. Market leaders, challengers and followers
25.Takeovers, mergers and buyouts
26. Profits and social responsibility
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11. Money and finance
27. A history of money – what makes the world goes round
28. The profits of labour
29. Accounting and financial statements
30. Exchange Rates
12. Banking and taxation
31. Types of banks
32. Opening an account and means of payment
33. Banking – Key words and sentences
34. Taxation and how to avoid it
13. Stock market
35. Stocks and shares
36. Bonds
37. Futures, options and swaps
Glossary
Cheia exerciţiilor
Bibliografie
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Roland, Marie-Claude; Mast-Grand, Martha – CV în limba
engleză, un pas spre angajare, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 2000
Dayan, A.; Lindsay, W.H.; Janakiewicz, A.; Marcheteau, M. –
Engleza pentru marketing şi publicitate, Editura Teora, Bucureşti,
2000
Bantaş, Andrei; Porţeanu, Rodica – Limba engleză pentru ştiinţă
şi tehnică, Editura Niculescu, Bucureşti, 1995
Laun, Flavia E. – Birotics and Telecommunication Explanatory
Dictionary, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1996
Mănăilă, D.; Popa, C.; Popa, D.; Popescu, I.M.; Vlad, V.I. – Mic
dicţionar poliglot de fizică, tehnică şi matematică, Editura Acora
Press, Bucureşti, 1995
Le Divenach, Éloi – Engleza în presă, Editura Teora, Bucureşti,
1999
Marcheteau, Michel – Berman, Jean-Pierre – Savio, Michel,
Engleza comercială în 40 de lecţii, Editura Niculescu, Bucureşti,
2001
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1. Socialising
Reading
The following text is about cultural diversity. Read it through once
and decide which of the three statements (A, B or C) given below the
extract offers the most accurate summary.
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unpopular once it is understood. International managers have it tough.
They must operate on a number of different premises at any one time.
These premises arise from their culture of origin, the culture in which
they are working, and the culture of the organization which employs
them.
In every culture in the world such phenomena as authority,
bureaucracy, creativity, good fellowship, verification and
accountability are experienced in different ways. That we use the
same words to describe them tends to make us unaware that our
cultural biases and our accustomed conduct may not be appropriate, or
shared.
SBU = strategic business unit = unitate comercială, economică
strategică
TQM = total quality management = managementul total al calităţii
JIT = just-in-time = livrare exact la momentul potrivit
CFT = customer first team =
MBO = management by objectives = managementul pe obiective
pay-for-performance = plată pentru munca depusă
human-resource management = managementul resurselor umane
at any one time = în fiecare moment
premises = premise, locaţii
grasp = a pricepe, a înţelege (în text)
accountability = răspundere
bias = tendinţă, orientare
Language Checklist
Cultural diversity and socializing
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Welcoming visitors
Welcome to …
My name’s …
Arriving
Hello. My name’s … from …
I’ve an appointment to see …
Sorry – I’m a little late / early.
My plane was delayed…
Introducing someone
This is … He/she’s my Personal Assistant.
Can I introduce you to … He/she’s our (Project Manager).
I’d like to introduce you to …
Offering assistance
Can I get you anything?
Do you need anything?
Would you like a drink?
If you need to use a phone or fax, please say.
Can we do anything for you?
Do you need a hotel / a taxi / any travel information / etc.?
Skills Checklist
Cultural diversity and socializing
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Body language
Language.
Practice 1
Visitor Receptionist
Introduce yourself
Thank assistant.
Reply – offer any other help.
Ask how far it is to station.
Two miles – ten minutes
by taxi.
Offer to book one.
Accept offer – suggest a time.
Promise to do that – say that
SB is free now.
Offer to take him/her to SB’s
office.
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2. Telephoning
Reading
Many people are not very confident about using the telephone
in English. However, good preparation can make telephoning much
easier and more effective. Then, once the call begins, speak slowly
and clearly and use simple language.
Check that you understand what has been said. Repeat the
most important information, look for confirmation. Ask for repetition
if you think it is necessary.
Remember too that different cultures have different ways of
using language. Some speak in a very literal way so it is always quite
clear what they mean. Others are more indirect, using hints,
suggestions and understatement (for example ‘not very good results’ =
‘absolutely disastrous’) to put over their message. North America,
Scandinavia, Germany and France are ‘explicit’ countries, while the
British have a reputation for not making clear exactly what they mean.
One reason for this seems to be that the British use language in a more
abstract way than most Americans and continental Europeans. In
Britain there are also conventions of politeness and a tendency to
avoid showing one’s true feelings. For example if a Dutchman says an
idea is ‘interesting’ he means that it is interesting. If an Englishman
says that an idea is ‘interesting’ you have to deduce from the way he
says it whether he means it is a good idea or a bad idea.
Meanwhile, for a similar reason Japanese, Russian and Arabs
– ‘subtle’ countries – sometimes seem vague and devious to the
British. If they say an idea is interesting it may be out of politeness.
The opposite of this is that plain speakers can seem rude and
dominating to subtle speakers, as Americans can sound to the British –
or the British to the Japanese.
The British have the tendency to engage in small talk at the
beginning and end of a telephone conversation. Questions about the
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weather, health, business in general and what one has been doing
recently are all part of telephoning, laying a foundation for the true
purpose of the call. At the end of the call there may well be various
pleasantries, Nice talking to you, Say hello to the family (if you have
met them) and Looking forward to seeing you again soon. A sharp,
brief style of talking on the phone may appear unfriendly to a British
partner. Not all nationalities are as keen on small talk as the British!
Being aware of these differences can help in understanding
people with different cultural traditions. The difficulty on the
telephone is that you cannot see the body language to help you.
Choose the closest definition of the following words from the text.
1. literal
a. direct and clear b. full of literary style c. abstract and
complicated
2. understatement
a. kind words b. less strong way of talking c. clever
speech
3. deduce
a. reduce b. work out c. disagree
4. vague
a. unclear b. unfriendly c. insincere
5. devious
a. rude b. dishonest c. clever
6. pleasantries
a. question b. request c. polite remarks
Language Checklist
Telephoning (1)
Introducing yourself
Good morning, Aristo.
Hello, this is … from …
Hello, my name’s … calling from …
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Saying who you want
I’d like to speak to … please.
Could I have the … Department, please?
Is… there, please?
Acknowledging repetition
Okay, I’ve got that now.
(Mr. Kyoto) I understand.
I see, thank you.
Skill Checklist
Telephoning: Preparation for a call
Objectives
Who do you want to speak to?
In case of non/availability, have an alternative strategy:
Call back / be called back – when?
Leave a message
Speak to someone else
Write or fax information
Introduction
Do you need to refer to:
A previous call?
A letter, order, invoice or fax?
Someone else (who?)
An event (what? When?)
Prediction
What do you expect the other person to say / ask you? how will you
respond?
Note: If you do not hear or understand the other person, say: I’m
sorry? or I’m sorry, I don’t understand. It is not polite to
say: Please repeat!
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DATAFILE: The Telephone
This datafile gives you many of the terms and phrases commonly used
in making telephone calls.
The directory
Look up their number in the directory. (UK).
I’ll look up the number in the telephone book. (US).
The number is ex-directory. (UK).
The number is unlisted. (US).
I’ll ring Directory Enquiries. (UK).
I’ll ring information. (US).
The receiver
Can I help you?
Putting you through.
I’m afraid he’s not available at the moment. (UK).
I’m afraid he’s tided up at the moment.
You’re welcome. Goodbye.
The line
He’s on the other line.
Would you like to hold the line?
The line is engaged. (UK).
The line is busy. (US).
The operator (in the public telephone system)
Dial 100 for the operator. (UK).
Dial 0 (zero) for the operator. (US).
I’d like to make a reverse charge call. (UK).
I’d like to make a collect call. (US).
I’d like to make a transfer charge call. (UK).
The dial
Dial 123 for the correct time. (UK).
Listen for the dialling tone.
All lines to the country you have dialled are engaged.
Please try later. (UK).
The codebook
I’m on a long distance (or international) call.
The STD code is … (UK).
The area code is … (US).
A message pad
Can I tell him who called?
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Can I give her a message?
Let me take down your number.
Remember
If you do not understand, say… “Sorry, I didn’t quite catch that.”
Practice 1
Caller Receptionist
Practice 2
In the following conversation, a Singaporean exporter plans to
send goods from Singapore to Greece. He wants to have a meeting
with a Greek shipping company, Intership.
Suggest suitable phrases for each step in the conversation, then
practice the dialogue with a colleague.
End call.
Language Checklist
Telephoning (2)
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Stating reason for a call
I’m ringing to …
I’d like to …
I need some information about …
Making arrangements
Could we meet some time next month?
When would be a good time?
Would Thursday at 5 o’clock suit you?
What about July 21st?
That would be fine.
No, sorry, I can’t make it then.
Sorry I’m too busy next week.
Changing arrangements
We’ve an appointment for next month, but …
I’m afraid I can’t come on that day.
Could we fix an alternative?
Confirming information
So…
Can I check that? You said …
To confirm that …
Can you / can I confirm that by fax?
Ending a call
Right. I think that’ all.
Thanks very much for your help.
Do call if you need anything else.
I look forward to … seeing you / your call / your letter / your fax / our
meeting.
Goodbye and thanks.
Bye for now.
Skills Checklist
Telephoning (2)
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Voice
Speed
Clarity
Volume
Structure
Background information
Key information
Repetition, emphasis and confirmation
Possible confirmation by fax
Style
Formal / informal
Cold call / new contact / established contact
In-company vs. Customer / Supplier / Outside agent
Colleague / friend / business associate / public
Company image
Structure of a call
Beginning
Introduce yourself
Get who you want
Small talk
State problem / reason for call
Middle
Ask questions
Get / give information
Confirm information
End
Signal end
Thank other person
Small talk
Refer to next contact
Close call
Check that there’s nothing else to say
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Exercise 2 Changing arrangements
Below is the schedule for your week in Sydney, Australia. Just before
you leave for Sydney you receive various telephone calls from the
people you are going to visit. They want to change their appointments.
But you do not want to change the order in which you visit them. First
apologize for not managing the day they suggest, then suggest a
different time on the original day. Here you have their calls:
Hello? Mr. Rossi? This is the Australian Chemical Bank. I’m Mr.
Whitle’s secretary. I understand you have an appointment for 10 a.m.
on Tuesday 13th. I’m afraid that Mr. Whitley is rather tied up them.
Could I suggest Monday instead?
Hello, Mr. Rossi? Tim Brown, your agent. Small problem. Our
meeting for Friday is all right, but Monday afternoon is likely to be
difficult; someone is coming to see us who might be a useful outlet for
some of your range. perhaps we could change our meeting to Tuesday
afternoon?
Mr. Rossi? It’s Jenny Kinsella here. From B.I.G. I’m sorry but my
colleagues can’t all make it on Thursday afternoon. Could I suggest
we meet on Tuesday instead?
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Er… yes… why not? OK … Well, thank you very much.
Hello again, Tim Brown here again. I forgot; I have some other
customers visiting on Friday morning. How about a meeting on
Thursday sometime, if that’s all right with you?
Mr. Rossi? Good morning. I’m ringing for Mr. Lund of Lund and
Lund Associates. He’s very sorry, but he won’t be able to manage
Wednesday afternoon. Could I suggest Friday afternoon instead?
Well, I think that should be all right. I’ll give you a cal this afternoon
to confirm. Thank you. Goodbye.
Monday, 12 November
Morning Arrive Sydney airport 8.30 a.m.
Afternoon 3 p.m. Tim Brown (agent) at hotel
Tuesday, 13 November
Morning 10 a.m. Mr. Whitley, Australian Chemical Bank
Afternoon
Wednesday, 14 November
Morning
Afternoon 2 p.m. Lund & Lund Associates (Mr. William Lund)
Thursday, 15 November
Morning
Afternoon 3 p.m. Jenny Kinsella + colleagues (B.I.G.
Distribution)
Friday, 16 November
Morning 11 a.m. Tim Brown
Afternoon flight 390, Depart Sydney 6 p.m.
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Practice 3
Use the flow chart below as the basis for a telephone conversation
involving a complaint. Refer to the Language Checklist if you
need to.
Answer.
Greeting.
Introduce yourself.
Offer to help.
Explain problem.
Order HF5618 for 20 printers.
Only 17 have arrived.
Express surprise.
This is second time you have
received an incomplete delivery.
Suggest possible error in
order administration.
Agree – say you need the
other three printers urgently.
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Language Checklist
Telephoning (3)
Threatening
If the problem is not resolved…
We’ll have to reconsider our position.
We’ll have to renegotiate the contract.
We’ll contact other suppliers.
The consequences could be very serious.
Denying an accusation
No, I don’t think that can be right.
I’m sorry but I think you’re mistaken.
I’m afraid that’s not quite right.
I’m afraid that can’t be true.
Skills Checklist
Telephoning (3)
Who is to blame?
Who is responsible?
Are you talking to the right person?
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Was your order or your specifications correct?
Were you partly responsible for arrangements which went wrong, e.g.
transport?
Does responsibility actually lie elsewhere, i.e. with a third party?
Read the text, then mark the sentences that follow as True (T)
or False (F).
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Above all, one should remember that people do not usually
mind if their own codes are broken by foreigners as long as they sense
consideration and goodwill. This is much more important than a set of
rules of etiquette.
a. For the British and the Italians it is normal to interrupt the other
speaker during the conversation.
b. A special importance is attached to listening in Japanese and
Finnish cultures.
c. One should interrupt and try to help speakers who may have
difficulty in saying what they want to say.
d. It is unusual for Americans and British to use first names early in a
business relationship.
e. It doesn’t matter if you break certain social rules if it is clear that
you are sensitive to other people.
f. Etiquette is the critical point in telephoning between different
cultures.
3. Presentations
Language Checklist
Structure (1) The introduction to a presentation
Greeting
Good morning / afternoon ladies and gentlemen.
(Ladies and) Gentlemen …
Subject
I plan to say a few words about …
I’m going to talk about …
The subject of my talk is …
The theme of my presentation is …
I’d like to give you an overview of …
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Structure
I’ve divided my talk into (three) parts.
My talk will be in (three) part.
I’m going to divide …
First …
Second …
Third …
In the first part …
Then in the second part…
Finally…
Timing
My talk will take about ten minutes.
The presentation will take about two hours … but there’ll be a twenty-
minute break in the middle. We’ll stop for lunch at 12 o’clock.
Skills Checklist
Effective presentations – planning and preparation
Audience
Expectations
Technical knowledge
Size
Questions and / or discussion
Speaker’s competence
Knowledge
Presentation technique
Content
What to include
Length / depth (technical details)
Number of key ideas
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Structure
Sequence
beginning, middle, end
Repetition, summarizing
Delivery
Style
Formal / informal
Enthusiasm / confidence
Voice
Variety / speed
Pauses
Body language
Eye contact
Gesture / movement
Posture
Visual aids
Type / design / clarity
Relevance
Practice
Tape recorder
Script or notes
Room
Size / seating
Equipment (does it work?)
Sound quality
Language
Simple / clear
Spelling
Sentence length
Structure signals
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Practice 1
Look at the following situations.
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Practice 2
In any presentation the beginning is crucial. Certainly some things
are essential in an introduction and others are useful. Here is a list
of what could be included in an introduction. Mark them
according to how necessary they are using the following scale:
Reading
Read the text below and find:
a. eight advantages of using visual aids
b. three warnings about using visual aids
Dinckel and Parnham (1985) say that ‘The great danger (in
using visual aids) is that presenters place the major emphasis on visual
aids and relegate themselves to the minor role of narrator or
technician. You are central to the presentation. The visual aid needs
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you, your interpretation, your explanation, your conviction and your
justification.’
Visual aids can make information more memorable and they
help the speaker. However, they must literally support what the
speaker says and not simply replace the spoken information. It is also
not enough to just read the text from a visual aid.
There are many advantages to the correct use of visual aids.
They can show information which is not easily expressed in words or
they can highlight information. They cause the audience to employ
another sense to receive information, they bring variety and therefore
increase the audience’s attention. They save time and they clarify
complex information.
Language Checklist
Using visuals
Equipment
(slide) projector
slides (B.E.)
diapositives (Am.E.)
overhead projector (OHP)
transparency (B.E.)
slide (Am.E.)
flip chart
whiteboard
metaplan board
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Introducing a visual
I’d like to show you …
Have a look at this …
This (graph) shows / represents …
Here we can see …
Let’s look at this …
Here you see the trend in …
Comparisons
This compares x with y
Let’s compare the …
Here you see a comparison between …
A dramatic dramatically
A marked markedly
A significant increase / fall To increase / fall significantly
A slight slightly
Describing trends
To go up To go down
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To increase an increase To decrease a decrease
To rise a rise To fall a fall
To climb a climb To decline a decline
To improve an improvement To deteriorate a deterioration
To recover a recovery To get worse a downturn
To get better an upturn
To level out a leveling out
To stabilize
To stay the same
To reach a peak a peak To reach a low point
To reach a maximum To hit bottom a trough
To peak
To undulate an undulation
To fluctuate a fluctuation
Skills Checklist
Using visual supports
Available media
Use media which suit the room and audience size.
Overhead projector (OHP)
- Transparencies / OHT’s / slides (Am.E.)
Slide projector
- Slides / diapositives (Am.E.)
Video / computer graphics / flip chart / whiteboard
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Use pauses – give audience time to comprehend picture.
Never show a visual until you want to talk about it.
Remove visual once finished talking about it.
Switch off equipment not in use.
Use of colour
For slides, white writing on blue / green is good. Use different colours
if colour improves clarity of message (e.g. pie charts.).
Use appropriate colour combination: yellow and pink are weak
colours on white backgrounds.
Practice 3
5. The presentation
Reading
36
Read the following passage and identify at least six
recommendations about speaking technique which can help to
make the message in a presentation clear.
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the future. Key words in sequencing information are first, then, next,
after that, later, at the end, finally, etc.
Still another technique which helps to emphasize key points is
careful repetition. Examples are As I’ve already said, there is no
alternative but to increase production by 100 per cent or I’d like to
emphasize the main benefit of the new design – it achieves twice as
much power with half as much fuel.
A final point concerns timing and quantity of information.
Psychologists have suggested that concentration is reduced after about
twenty minutes without a break or a change in activity. Furthermore,
audiences should not be overburdened with technical details or given
too many facts to remember. It is claimed that to ask people to
remember more than three things in a five-minute talk is too much.
Some say that seven is the maximum number of any length of
presentation. Any such calculations are probably not very reliable, but
every speaker needs to think about exactly how much information of a
particular type a specific audience is likely to absorb and to plan
accordingly.
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Introduction Main body of information
Practice 4
television commercials
newspaper advertising
magazines
youth magazines in-store on-pack targeted
women’s magazines e.g. e.g. mailing
displays, coupons,
merchandising competitions,
free samples joint promotions
Begin as follow:
‘ Good morning, everyone. I’d like to talk about the advertising mix
for the new Cheri range of beauty products. We are planning two
categories of advertising, above-the-line and below-the-line. I’ll talk
first about… ‘
Vocabulary
Merchandising: Any direct efforts to encourage sales of a product,
increase consumer awareness, etc.
Above-the-line advertising: Mass media advertising, such as
television, radio and newspaper.
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Below-the-line advertising: Forms of advertising at the point of sale or
directly on the product, such as packaging, shop displays, etc.
Language Checklist
Structure (2) The main body
Listing
There are three things to consider. First … Second … Third …
There are two kinds of … The first is … The second is …
We can see four advantages and two disadvantages. First, advantages.
One is … Another is … A third advantage is … Finally …
On the other hand, the two disadvantages.
First … Second …
Sequencing
There are (seven) different stages to the process
First / then / next / after that / then (x) / after x there’s y, last …
There are two steps involved.
The first step is … The second step is …
There are four stages to project.
At the beginning, later, then, finally …
I’ll describe the development of the idea.
First the background, then the present situation, and then the prospects
for the future.
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Skills Checklist
Structure (2) The main body
Organization of presentation
Logical progression of ideas and/or parts of presentation.
Clear development.
Sequential description of processes.
Chronological order of events, i.e. background -- present -- future
Topic
Main parts Sections Subsections
A i a.
b.
ii.
B i. a.
b.
ii.
iii. a.
b.
c.
C i. a.
b.
ii.
Internal structure of the main body of a complex presentation
Signaling the structure
Use listing techniques.
Link different parts.
Use sequencing language.
Reading
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Read the following text and identify:
a. a potential problem at the end of a presentation.
b. three ways to avoid the problem.
A sales presentation
After talking about his or her products or services, the speaker
wants the audience to explain their needs and says:
‘Okay – I’ve told you about the ways Snappo can help
companies like yours. Now for us to do that, we need to know more
about the way you work. For example, tell me about your particular
situation, tell me what in particular may interest you … .’
A training manager
Speaking to an audience of Department Managers, vice-
presidents, or potential trainees, the Training Manager has outlined
recommendations and explained what is available. He/she can end
with:
‘Right! I’ve told you what we can offer. Now tell me what are
your impressions, what are your priorities and what else do you need
to know now?'
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Another option is for the speaker to have a question prepared.
Ask something which you know the audience will have to answer.
This often breaks the ice and starts discussion. It may be possible to
single out an individual who is most likely to have a question to ask
you or a comment to make, or it may be apparent from earlier contact
perhaps during the reception or coffee break, that a particular
individual has something to say or to ask.
Be polite.
Check understanding if necessary by paraphrasing.
Listen very carefully.
Don’t say anything you’ll regret later.
Ask for repetition or clarification.
Agree partially before giving own opinions: Yes, but…
Keep calm.
Tell the truth (most of the time!)
Practice 5
Imagine that you have given a talk on Marketing in Japan at a
conference on business trends. What would you say in these
situations? If you need to, refer to the Language Checklist.
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figure …’ Paraphrasing this, ask if in the USA or Europe that
could not happen.
6. Someone suggests that in Japan there has always been an
emphasis on quality and on products. In the West market research
has been more developed. Agree, but say the situation is changing.
7. A speaker says something you don’t understand. What do you
say?
Language Checklist
The end of presentation
Concluding
There are two conclusions / recommendations.
What we need is …
I think we have to …
I think we have seen that we should …
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Handling Questions
Not understood
Sorry, I’m not sure I’ve understood. Could you repeat?
Are you asking if …?
Do you mean …?
I didn’t catch (the last part of) your question.
If I understood you correctly, you mean …? Is that right?
Skills Checklist
Structure (3) Ending the presentation
A summary
Restates main point(s).
Restates what the audience must understand and remember.
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Contains no new information.
Is short.
A conclusion
States the logical consequences of what has been said.
Often contains recommendations.
May contain new and important information.
Is short.
Questions
Inviting questions implies that the audience is less expert than the
speaker.
Beware of the ‘nightmare scenario’ – total silence! Have one or
two prepared questions to ask the audience.
Keep control of the meeting.
Discussion
Inviting discussion gives the impression that the audience have
useful experience, so is often more ‘diplomatic’.
You still need to control the discussion.
Handling questions
Listen very carefully.
Ask for repetition or clarification if necessary.
Paraphrase the question to check you understand it.
Give yourself time to think – perhaps by paraphrasing the
question.
Check that the question is relevant. If not, don’t answer if you
don’t want to.
Refer questioner to another person if you can’t answer.
Suggest you’ll answer a question later if you prefer.
Check that the questioner is happy with your answer: eye contact
and a pause is often sufficient.
Keep control.
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Don’t allow one or two people to dominate.
Be polite.
Signal when time is running out – ‘Time for one last question’.
At the end, thank the audience.
Good morning ladies and gentlemen; we haven’t all met before so I’d
better introduce myself. I’m Luis Lopez from the development
department of Citrus Incorporated… I should say before we start that I
hope you’ll excuse my English. I’m a little out of practice…
Anyway, I’m going to be talking this morning about a new product
which we are planning to launch in two months’ time; it’s called
KOOL-OUT, that’s K-O-O-L dash O-U-T, and it’s a lemon-flavoured
drink…
Well, I’ll start with the background to the product launch; and then
move on to a description of the product itself, I’m going to list some of
the main selling points that we should emphasize in the advertising
and sales campaign. I think if you don’t mind, we’ll leave questions to
the end…
Now firstly, as you all know, we had a gap in our soft-drink product
range for the last two years; we have been manufacturing mixed-fruit
drinks and orange drinks for the last ten years, but we stopped
producing lemonade two years ago; I think we all agreed that there
was room on the market for a completely new lemon-flavoured drink
… Secondly, the market research indicated that more and more
consumers are using soft drinks as mixers with alcohol, so in other
words, the market itself has expanded.
This brings me to my next point which is that we have rather new
customer-profile in mind; I must emphasize that this product is aimed
at the young-professional, high-income, market and not the traditional
consumer of old-fashioned lemonade. At this point we must consider
the importance of packaging and design, and if you look at the video
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in a moment, you’ll see that we have completely re-vamped the
container itself as well as the label and slogan…
Now to digress for just a moment, the more sophisticated packaging
means a high unit cost, and this may be a problem in the selling area,
but we’ll have a chance to discuss that aspect later… so … to go back
to my earlier point, this is a totally new concept as far as Citrus
Incorporated are concerned; as you see we are using both the new-size
glass bottle and the miniature metal cans.
Finally, let’s look at the major attractions of the product. In spite of
the higher price it will compete well with existing brands; the design
is more modern than any of the current rival products, and incidentally
the flavour is more realistic and natural… it’s low calorie, too.
O.K., so just before closing, I’d like to summarize my main points
again… We have KOOL-OUT, a new design concept, aimed at a
relatively new age and income group; it’s designed to be consumed on
its own, as a soft drink, or to be used as a mixer in alcohol-based
drinks and cocktails. It comes in both bottle and can and this will
mean a slightly higher price than we are used to; but the improved
flavour and the package design should give us a real advantage in
today’s market… well, that’s all I have today for the moment, thank
you for listening, now if there are any questions, I’ll be happy to
answer them…
Interruptions
a. You haven’t mentioned the price yet!
b. Your product is more expensive than your competitor’s!
c. I’d like the exact specifications, please!
d. I still don’t understand the difference between the de-luxe and
economy models!
e. Your new model seems much heavier than the old one!
Replies
1. I take your point… but have you taken into account the improved
durability?
2. I’ll be coming to that in a moment.
3. You’re right, but on the other hand our product has a number of
unique design features.
4. Our technical department will be able to give you an answer on
that.
5. Let me clarify that for you.
Now, you may well ask, what does the mean by ‘up-market’?
Anticipates
What’s ‘up-market’?
4. Meetings
Language Checklist
Chairing and leading discussion
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Introducing the agenda
You’ve all seen the agenda …
On the agenda, you’ll see there are three items.
There is one main item to discuss …
Stating objectives
We’re here today to hear about plans for …
Our objective is to discuss different ideas …
What we want to do today is to reach a decision …
Introducing discussion
The background to the problem is …
This issue is about …
The point we have to understand is …
Calling on a speaker
I’d like to ask Mary to tell us about …
Can we hear from Mr. Passas on this?
I know that you’ve prepared a statement on your Department’s
views…
Summarising
So, what you’re saying is …
Can I summarise that? You mean …
So, the main point is …
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Skills Checklist
Preparation for meetings
Chair
Decide objectives.
What type of meeting (formal or informal, short or long, regular
or a ‘one off’, internal / external information giving / discussion /
decision making)?
Is a social element required?
Prepare an agenda.
Decide time / place / participants / who must attend and who can
be notified of decisions.
Study subjects for discussion.
Anticipate different opinions.
Speak to participants.
Secretary
Obtain agenda and list of participants.
Inform participants and check:
Room, equipment, paper, materials.
Refreshments, meals, accommodation, travel.
Participants
Study subjects on agenda, work out preliminary options.
If necessary, find out team or department views.
Prepare own contribution, ideas, visual supports, etc.
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Practice 1
Suggest phrases which could be used by a chairperson in the
following situations in a meeting.
a. To welcome the participants to a meeting.
b. To state the objectives of the meeting.
c. To introduce the agenda.
d. To introduce the first speaker.
e. To prevent an interruption.
f. To thank a speaker for his/her contribution.
g. To introduce another speaker.
h. To keep discussion to the relevant issues.
i. To summarise discussion.
j. To ask if anyone has anything to add.
k. To suggest moving to the next topic on the agenda.
l. To summarise certain actions that must be done following the
meeting (for example, do research, write a report, meet again,
write a letter, etc.).
m. To close the meeting.
Practice 2
1. In groups, work out a brief agenda, with an appropriate order,
for a meeting of the marketing department of Axis Finance Ltd., a
medium-size financial services company. Your agenda should
include the points listed here:
Any other business
New products
Minutes of previous meeting
Marketing plans for next year
Date of next meeting
Review of marketing performance in the current year
Personnel changes
Chair’s opening address
Apologies for absence.
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2. In pairs, prepare a brief opening statement by the chair to
introduce the meeting above:
Think about what the opening statement from the chair needs to say
Use your agenda as a guide
Refer to the Language Checklist
Practise in pairs
8. Participating in meetings
Language Checklist
Discussion in meetings
Stating opinion
It seems to me …
I tend to think …
In my view …
We think / feel / believe …
There’s no alternative to …
It’s obvious that …
Clearly / obviously …
Interrupting
Excuse me, may I ask for clarification on this?
If I may interrupt, could you say … ?
Sorry to interrupt, but …
Do you think so? My impression is …
What? That’s impossible. We / I think …
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Handling interruptions
Yes, go ahead.
Sorry, please let me finish …
If I may finish this point …
Can I come to that later?
That’s not really relevant at this stage …
Can we leave that to another discussion?
Skills Checklist
Participating in meetings
Types of meeting
Decision making meeting
Information giving meeting
Spontaneous / emergency meeting
Routine meeting
Internal meeting
Customer / client / supplier - first meeting / established
relationship
Reaching a consensus
Discussion leads to consensus
Consensus is recognised and verbalised by leader
Decisions checked and confirmed
Practice 3
Use the skeleton outline below to recreate the entire dialogue with
a partner. Choose alternative interruptions and ways of handling
interruptions.
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Promise to discuss this later.
But first …
Interrupt: suggest a break.
Reject the idea.
Reading
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insufficient degree of understanding of one another’s requirements,
then an acceptable conclusion is unlikely to be reached. There are four
essential elements in decision-making: awareness, understanding,
empathy and perception.
It is only when we accept that communications are a two-way
process that any form of communication, including decision making,
will become genuinely successful and effective.
Decision-making is not always an identifiable activity. Frequently the
discussion can evolve into a consensus which can be recognised and
verbalised by the leader without the need to ‘put things to the vote’.
3. Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the
following:
a. common agreement
b. economical use of resources
c. aim
d. fix a goal
e. what one must have
f. what one would like to have
g. consider other options
h. way of seeing things
i. seeing things as others see them
j. develop
k. express through speaking.
Handling interruptions:
Promise to come back to a point later
Politely disagree with an interruption
Say the interruption is not relevant or that time is short
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Politely accept the interruption and respond to it before continuing
Reject a suggestion
Reading
Read the following text and identify:
a. three recommendations on how a meeting should end
b. what should happen after a meeting.
Language Checklist
Ending the meeting
Clarifying
This means …
What I mean is …
What I want to say is …
To explain this in more detail …
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Checking that the clarification is sufficient
Is that okay? / is that clearer now?
Delaying decisions
I think we need more time to consider this.
I think we should postpone a decision …
Can we leave this until another date?
It would be wrong to make a final decision …
Skills Checklist
Ending meetings
Improving meetings
Motivation to change
Gather information on present situation
Identify specific areas needing improvement
Identify alternative courses of action
Practise new techniques
Improvement model.
Practice 4
You are at an internal meeting to discuss increases in the price of
your products. With a partner, use these prompts to make a
dialogue. Try to use new language from this unit.
Participant A Participant B
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Say we need to know more
about the effects of a price
increase.
Suggest doing market research.
Agree. Suggest contacting a
friend who knows about
market consultancy firms.
Suggest first looking at previous
experience of price rises –
then later going to a Marketing Consultancy.
Practice 5
In pairs use the outline below to create a chair’s closing remarks
for a meeting. To make this more realistic, add names and other
details as required. Practice your closing remarks together.
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5. Negotiations
Language Checklist
Negotiations (1)
Making an opening statement
Welcoming
Welcome to …
I’m sure we will have a useful and productive meeting …
First meeting
We see this as a preparatory meeting …
We would like to reach agreement on …
Handing over
I’d like to finish there and give you the opportunity to reply to this.
I’d like to hand over to my colleague …, who has something to say
about …
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Skills Checklist
Negotiations (1)
Type of negotiation
Towards agreement
Both teams try to suit joint interests
Independent advantage
Each team aims to get best deal
Conflict
A team aims to win and make the other team lose
Purpose of negotiation
Exploratory (possible areas of interest)
Conciliatory (resolving differences)
Targets
Scale (e.g. 1-10)
Decide realistic maximum and minimum acceptable scores
Possible concessions
Plan your bargaining strategy
List essential conditions
Impossible to concede
List possible concessions
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Opening statements
State general objectives
State priorities
State independent (not joint) objectives
Be brief
Practice 1
1. Suggest phrases for each of the following at the start of a
negotiation.
Welcome the other side.
Develop small talk (trip, weather).
Mention plans for lunch – make your visitors feel welcome (see
city centre / local restaurant).
Suggest you start talking about the main subject of your meeting.
Introduce a colleague.
Explain general aim or purpose of the meeting. (preliminary /
exploratory)
Say what your side wants from the meeting. (Establish beginnings
of a partnership / learn about supply systems / price variations and
supply costs.)
Types of negotiation:
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This type is the negotiation to resolve conflict, for example in a
contractual dispute. Here, it is possible that each party regards the
other as an opponent and seeks to win the argument.
Suggestion
Counter suggestion
Agreement
Confirmation
Practice 2
Reading
1. Read the following extract. According to the writer, are these
statements about negotiating true (T) or false (F):
a. Decide on the most important and less important issues.
b. Try to guess what the other side thinks.
c. Note answers to the questions you ask.
d. Deal with issues in isolation, one at a time.
e. Make concessions and get a concession in return.
f. Tough bargaining can combine with a spirit of cooperation.
g. If there are problems, you have to accept or reject what is on
offer.
If there are big differences between the two parties, you have a
choice of these options: to accept, to reject, or to carry on negotiating.
If you decide to carry on, then the options in the next round are:
To make a new offer
To seek a new offer from the other party
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To change the shape of the deal (vary the quantity or the quality,
or bring in third parties)
Begin bargaining.
Language Checklist
Negotiations (2)
Bargaining
We can agree to that if …
On condition that …
So long as …
That’s not acceptable unless …
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Without …
Making concessions
It you could … we could consider …
So long as … we could agree to …
On condition that we agree on … then we could …
Let’s think about the issue of …
We could offer you …
Would you be interested in …?
Could we tie this agreement to …?
Accepting
We agree.
That seems acceptable.
That’s probably all right.
Confirming
Can we run through what we’ve agreed?
I’d like to check what we’ve said / confirm
I think this is a good moment to repeat what we’ve agreed so far.
Summarising
I’d like to run through the main points that we’ve talked about.
So. I’ll summarise the important points of our offer.
Can we summarise the proposal in a few words?
Looking ahead
So, the next step is …
We need to meet again soon.
In our next meeting we need to …
So, can we ask you to …?
Before the next meeting we’ll …
We need to draw up a formal contract.
Skills Checklist
Negotiations (2) – Bargaining in negotiations
Concessions rules
‘A key principle in negotiation is to give a little and get a little at the
same time.’
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Ask for concessions
All concessions are conditional
Conditions first ‘If … then …’
‘It’s a package’
Give what’s cheap to you and valuable to them.
Main speaker
Create a joint, public and flexible agenda.
Question needs and preferences.
Don’t talk too much.
Listen.
Don’t fill silences.
Build on common ground.
Explore alternatives ‘What if …?’
Be clear, brief and firm.
Follow concession rules.
Support speaker
Wait till the Chair or your main speaker brings you in.
Be clear, brief and firm.
Follow the concession rules.
Support your main speaker
- Agree (nod, ‘That’s right …’)
- Emphasise (‘This point is very important’)
- Add forgotten points (‘And we must remember …’)
- But don’t make concessions for your main speaker.
- Listen.
- Don’t fill silences.
Practice 3
Make sentences which include concessions based on the prompts
below. The first is done for you as an example.
a. a better warranty / quicker payment terms
We could offer a better warranty if you would agree to quicker
payment terms.
b. free delivery / large order
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c. free on-site training / small increase in price
d. 5 % discount / payment on delivery
e. extra £ 50, 000 compensation / agreement not to go to law
f. promise to improve safety for staff / agreement on new contracts
g. better working conditions / shorter breaks
Practice 4
You and a partner are representatives of Beck Instruments and
Ojanpera Inc., a machine tool maker. Ojanpera is in discussion with
Beck Instruments to buy a machine, the BI 25. Use the flow chart
below to negotiate some aspects of an agreement for the sale of the
BI 25.
Practice 5
The following letter is from Gibson Trust Ltd. To the Ministry of
Urban Development summarising the points agreed in the
negotiation between them and outlining the next steps. Complete
the spaces in the letter with appropriate words given below.
Neil Finch
Ministry of Urban Development
140- 144 Whitehall
London WCI 4RF
May 2 200—
Dear Neil,
We would like to confirm through this letter and the (c) ________
drawings that the property (d) ______ in the above sale consists of the
land presently occupied by the station buildings and also the former
car parks to the east of the station, the offices to the west and the
warehouse alongside the traks. The government-owned housing on the
north side of the railway lines is (e) _______ .
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Our next meeting will be on May 15 at 10 a.m., at which development
plans will be (h) ______. Soon after this, contracts will be (I) ______ .
Then we will need time to consider the contracts but hopefully they
will be (j) ______ by the end of September.
Your sincerely,
Jill Kearne
Chief Negotiator
Encs. (I)
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b) Goodwill is important but the speed of the meeting should be
quick and businesslike.
c) The meeting should get down to business as soon as possible
and reach quick decisions.
Reading
Match each of the following to a phrase in the text with a similar
meaning:
a. highlight the disadvantages of failing to reach a deal
b. think of new benefits for both sides
c. alter parts of what is on offer
d. take a break to consider positions
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e. have the negotiation in a different place
f. change the individuals involved
g. ask an independent person to come and help you reach agreement
h. have an informal meeting to talk things over.
Practice 6
In pairs, use the given prompts to suggest a response to the
statements.
Situation 1
The problem is that we have never offered the kind of warranty you
are looking for.
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Suggest leaving the point and returning to it later after discussing
other issues, i.e. training for technical staff.
Situation 2
There’s a number of issues on the table. We seem to be a long way
from an agreement.
Suggest changing the package on offer (variables include price,
shipment costs, payment terms).
Situation 3
The price you are asking is rather high, quite a lot higher than we were
expecting.
Send a signal that you could offer better payment terms.
Situation 4
There are several problems. We think there is quite a lot of negotiation
ahead before we can agree on a common strategy.
Suggest advantages of reaching agreement: more global influence,
better prospects for the future.
Practice 7
Below are four offers or request. Reject each one, using the
information in the prompts.
Situation 1
Let me make a suggestion. If you agree to buy 100 units every month
for the next twelve months, we’ll agree a 10 % discount.
You don’t know how many units you will need in six and twelve
months. It might be more or less.
Situation 2
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The price we are offering excludes installation costs but does include
a twelve month’s guarantee.
Other suppliers offer free installation and a two year parts and labour
warranty.
Situation 3
I think the absolute minimum investment in advertising must be
$40,000, otherwise we cannot reach enough of our market. It’s not
much to ask for.
You cannot spend more than your budget.
Situation 4
Now, some excellent news: we’d like to increase our order. Right now
you are sending us 350 boxes a month. We need at least 500, demand
is very high …
Your order books are full, the plant is working at capacity.
Practice 8
Suggest what you could say in the following situations.
Situation 1
After a long negotiation, you have reached agreement and now plan a
meal in a local restaurant with the other party in the negotiation.
Situation 2
Your efforts to reach agreement have been unsuccessful. It is late. End
the negotiation but offer some hope that in the future you might
manage some cooperation with the other side.
Situation 3
A colleague has asked you to cooperate on a project, but after long
discussion you feel you cannot participate because of fundamental
disagreement. It is important that you continue to work together in the
other areas.
Situation 4
You want to repeat an order with a supplier but they are trying to
increase prices by 20 %. You cannot agree to this. End your
discussion.
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Situation 5
A customer is asking you to supply goods in a month. This is
physically impossible. End the discussion.
Language Checklist
Negotiations (3)
Rejecting
I’m afraid we can’t …
Before agreeing to that we would need …
Unfortunately …
I don’t think it would be sensible for us to …
I think if you consider our position, you’ll see that …
Ending negotiations
So, can we summarise the progress we’ve made?
Can we go through the points we’ve agreed?
Perhaps if I can check the main points …
So, the next step is …
What we need to do now is …
It’s been a very useful and productive meeting.
We look forward to a successful partnership.
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Breaking off negotiations
I think we’ve gone as far as we can.
I’m sorry, but I don’t think we’re going to agree a deal.
It’s a pity we couldn’t reach agreement this time.
Unfortunately we appear unable to settle our differences.
It would be better if we looked for some independent arbitrator.
Skills Checklist
Negotiations (3)
Don’t … Do …
Be sarcastic ask questions
Attack listen
Criticise summarise
Threaten build on common ground
Blame explain your feelings
Types of negotiators
Hard
Negotiates to win
Makes demands
Principled
Looks for common benefits
Makes offers
Soft
Looks for agreement
Accepts what’s on offer
Rejecting
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Ask for an adjournment.
Discuss options.
Remember your limits.
Decide if your interests are being met: if not, reject the proposal
on offer, or suggest alternatives.
Negotiating Conditions
Conditions Examples
Unit price $8.50 per unit
Minimum quantity at least 10,000 units
Credit period 30 days after invoice
Delivery date 20 June 2003
Bulk discount -2 % if over 10,000 units
Penalty clause 5 % for each month of delay
Cancellation clause 50 % charge if cancelled less
than six weeks beforehand
Exclusivity sole rights over all East Coast
states
Royalty on sales under licence 3 % of turnover on licensed
goods
Commission 5 % on sales in the territory
Early settlement discount -2 % if paid within 20 days
Option period first option for 12 months
after contract
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Method of payment irrevocable letter of credit
Warranty period 18 months warranty from
completion
DATAFILE: Negotiation
Below are the stages of negotiation and some expressions which you
may find useful at each stage:
Conversation (1)
I’m sure/confident we can reach agreement. (optimistic)
I’m sure there’s room for negotiation.
We have a lot to discuss.
Let’s see how we get on. (cautious)
Supplier Well, let’s get started. You know, with this delivery
problem I’m sure there’s room for negotiation.
You (1: cautious)
Supplier Right, well this is how we see it. We can deliver the first
machine in ten weeks, and install it four weeks after that.
You (3: long delivery period)
Supplier Well, these are in fact the usual periods. It’s pretty normal
in this kind of operation. Did you expect we could deliver any
quicker?
You (2: 6 weeks maximum delivery; 4 weeks installation)
Supplier I see what you mean, but that would be very difficult. You
see we have a lot of orders to handle at present, and moving just one
of these machines is a major operation. Look, if I can promise you
delivery in eight weeks, does that help?
You (4: too late)
Supplier Ah-ha! Well, look… er… You want the machine in six
weeks. Now that is really a very short deadline in this business. You
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said that you couldn’t take it any later, but couldn’t your engineers
find a way to re-schedule just a little, say another week?
You (5: refuse)
Supplier Well, you really are asking us for something that is very
difficult. I’ve already offered you seven weeks. I’ll have to consult
with my colleagues and come back to you, but I can’t see what we can
do.
You (6: if deliver in 6 weeks perhaps talk about further order)
Supplier Well, on that basis I suppose we might be able to look at
some kind of arrangement. In fact, if you can promise another order I
think we could accept your terms.
You (7: 6 weeks delivery; 4 weeks installation; decision on next
order by 26th of this month)
Supplier Exactly. If you could confirm this in writing I …
Read Dr Zap’s rules and then look at the remarks in list A. These
remarks are not good for negotiating. Instead, use phrases from list B.
which one would you use in each case?
A. B.
a. You see? I knew I’d win!
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1. If you increase the order, then we may be able to reduce the price.
b. I know what you want to discuss, so let’s start.
2. Very well, but if you can’t give discounts I’m sure you can
extend…
c. I can reduce the price. Does that help?
3. If you can’t accept this, I may have to reconsider my position.
d. Delivery? That’s no problem; no extra charge.
4. I think we can agree on these terms.
f. It’s against your policy to give discounts? OK.
5. I’m afraid that will not be possible.
g. What a ridiculous idea! Don’t be stupid!
6. May we go through the points to be discussed before we begin?
h. Another half per cent? Yes, that’s very generous offer you’re
making.
7. Half per cent is very small amount
i. This is my final offer. If you refuse, I’ll cancel everything.
8. Delivery? Well it may be possible but only if…
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Which expression would you use in the following cases?
Understanding contracts
We’ve checked with our legal department. Yes, we are the patent
holders for the XT7. We are prepared, in fact, to grant you a licence
to make it in your own territory on these conditions: there would be a
fee on agreement and then a royalty of 5 % with a minimum annual
royalty of $50,000. The term would be four years, with the possibility
of renewal on expiry. And, of course, in the event of any infringement,
as our licensee you would have to apply for an injunction on the
infringer’s production.
6. Management
Discussion
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What do you think makes a good manager? Which four of the
following qualities do you think are the most important?
A being decisive: able to make quick decisions
B being efficient: doing things quickly, not leaving tasks unfinished,
having a tidy desk, and so on
C being friendly and sociable
D being able to communicate with people
E being logical, rational and analytical
F being able to motivate and inspire and lead people
G being authoritative: able to give orders
H being competent: knowing one’s job perfectly, as well as the work
of one’s subordinates
I being persuasive: able to convince people to do things
J having good ideas
Reading
This text summarizes some of Peter Drucker’s views on
management. As you read about his description of the work of a
manger, decide whether the five different functions he mentions
require the four qualities you selected in your discussion, or
others you did not choose.
Vocabulary
a. Complete the following sentences with these words.
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1 Managers have to decide how best to allocate the human, physical
and capital …….. available to them.
2 Managers – logically – have to make sure that the jobs and tasks
given to their subordinates are …….. .
3 There is no point in ……. objectives if you don’t ……… them to
your staff.
4 Managers have to ……. their subordinates, and to measure, and try
to improve, their ……… .
5 Managers have to check whether objectives and targets are being
……. .
6 A top manager whose performance is unsatisfactory can be
dismissed by the company’s ………. .
7 Top managers are responsible for the ………. that will allow a
company to adapt to a changing world.
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and by the range of organizational activities for which they are
responsible – so-called functional and general managers.
Management Levels
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or finance. The people and activities headed (a conduce) by a
functional manager are engaged in a common set of activities.
Planning
Plans give the organization its objectives and set up the best
procedures for reaching them. In addition, plans become the guides by
which the organization obtains and commits (a angaja) the resources
required to reach its objectives, members of the organization carry on
activities consistent with (concordant cu) the chosen objectives and
procedures, and progress toward the objectives is monitored and
measured, so that corrective action can be taken if progress is
unsatisfactory.
The first step in planning is the selection of goals for the
organization. Then objectives are established for the subunits of the
organization – its divisions, departments, and so on. Once the
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objectives are determined, programs are established for achieving
them in a systematic manner. Of course, in selecting objectives and
developing programs, the manager considers their feasibility and
whether will be acceptable to the organization’s managers and
employees.
Plans made by top management for the organization as a
whole may cover periods as long as five or ten years. In a large
organization, such as a multinational energy corporation, those plans
may involve commitments (angajamente) of billions of dollars.
Planning at the lower levels, by middle or first-line managers, covers
much shorter periods. Such plans may be for the next day’s work, for
example, or for a two-hour meeting to take place in a week.
Organizing
Once managers have established objectives and developed
plans or programs to reach them, they must design and staff an
organization able to carry out those programs successfully. Different
objectives will require different kinds of organizations. For example,
an organization that aims to develop computer software will have to
be far different from one that wants to manufacture blue jeans.
Producing a standardized product like blue jeans requires efficient
assembly-line techniques, whereas writing computer programs
requires teams of professionals – systems analysts, software engineers,
and operators.
Although they must interact effectively, such people cannot
be organized on an assembly-line basis. It is clear, then, that managers
must have the ability to determine what type of organization will be
needed to accomplish a given set of objectives. And they must have
the ability to develop (and later to lead) that type of organization.
Leading
After plans have been made, the structure of the organization
has been determined, and the staff has been recruited and trained, the
next step is to arrange for movement toward the organization’s
defined objectives. This function can be called by various names:
leading, directing, motivating, actuating (impulsionare, stimulare),
and others. But whatever the name used to identify it, this function
involves getting the members of the organization to perform in ways
that will help it achieve its established objectives.
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Whereas planning and organizing deal with the more abstract
aspects of the management process, the activity of leading is very
concrete; it involves working directly with people.
Controlling
Finally, the manager must ensure that the actions of the
organization’s members do in fact move the organization toward its
stated goals. This is the controlling function of management, and it
involves four main elements:
Vocabulary
Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right
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4 hierarchy D people working under someone else in a
hierarchy
5 line authority E dividing an organization into decision-
making units that are not centrally controlled
6 report to F the power to give instructions to people at
the level below in the chain of command
7 subordinates G to be responsible to someone and to take
instructions from him or her
Reading
Read the text below, about different ways of organizing
companies, and then label the diagrams, according to which of
these they illustrate:
Line structure / functional structure / matrix structure / staff
structure
A.……………… B.………………….
C.………………. D………………..
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Some people in an organization have colleagues who help
them: for example, there might be an Assistant to the Marketing
Manager. This is known as a staff position: its holder has no line
authority, and is not integrated into the chain of command, unlike, for
example, the Assistant Marketing Manager, who is number two in the
marketing department.
Yet, the activities of most companies are too complicated to
be organized in a single hierarchy. Shortly before the First World
War, the French industrialist Henry Fayol organized his coal-mining
business according to the functions that it had to carry out. He is
generally credited with inventing functional organization. Today, most
large manufacturing organizations have a functional structure,
including (among others) production, finance, marketing, sales, and
personnel or staff departments. This means, for example, that the
production and marketing departments cannot take financial decision
without consulting the finance department.
Functional organization is efficient, but there are two standard
criticisms. Firstly, people are usually more concerned with the success
of their department than that of the company, so there are permanent
battles between, for example, finance and marketing, or marketing and
production, which have incompatible goals. Secondly, separating
functions is unlikely to encourage innovation.
Yet, for a large organization manufacturing a range of
products, having a single production department is generally
inefficient. Consequently, most large companies are decentralized,
following the model of Alfred Sloan, who divided General Motors
into separate operating divisions in 1920. Each division had its own
engineering, production and sales departments, made a different
category of car (but with some overlap (suprapunere,
întrepătrundere), to encourage internal competition), and was
expected to make a profit.
Business that cannot be divided into autonomous divisions
with their own markets can simulate decentralization, setting up
divisions that deal with each other using internally determined transfer
prices. Many banks, for example, have established commercial,
corporate, private banking, international and investment divisions.
An inherent problem of hierarchies is that people at lower
levels are unable to make important decisions, but have to pass on
responsibility to their boss. One solution to this is matrix management,
in which people report to more than one superior. For example, a
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product manager with an idea might be able to deal directly with
managers responsible for a certain market segment and for a
geographical region, as well as the managers responsible for the
traditional functions of finance, sales and productions. This is one way
of keeping authority at lower levels, but it is not necessarily a very
efficient one. Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman, in their well-
known book In Search of Excellence, insist on the necessity of
pushing authority and autonomy down the line, but they argue that one
element – probably the product – must have priority; four-dimensional
matrices are far too complex.
A further possibility is to have wholly autonomous, temporary
groups or teams that are responsible for an entire project, and are split
up (a se diviza, a se împărţi) as soon as it is successfully completed.
Teams are often not very good for decision-making, and they run the
risk or relational problems, unless they are small and have a lot of
self-discipline. In fact, they still require a definite leader, on whom
their success probably depends.
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Board of Directors
with a Chairman (GB)
or President (US)
Northern Southern
Region Region
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8. Production and products
Vocabulary
a. Match up these words with the definitions which follow.
Read the text below, and insert the eight words defined in
vocabulary a) in the spaces.
Read the following text, and write a brief heading for each
paragraph.
1 ………………………………
Marketing theorists tend to give the word product a very broad
meaning, using it to refer to anything capable of satisfying a need or
want. Thus services, activities, people (politicians, athletes, film stars),
places (holiday resorts), organizations (hospitals, colleges, political
parties), and ideas, as well as physical objects offered for sale by
retailers, can be considered as products. Physical products can usually
be augmented (a spori, a creşte) by benefits such as customer advice,
delivery, credit facilities, a warranty or guarantee, maintenance, after-
sales service, and so on.
2 ………………………………
Some manufactures use their name (the ‘family name’) for all
their products, e.g. Philips, Colgate, Yamaha. Others, including
Unilever and Procter & Gamble, market various products under
individual brand names, with the result that many customers are
unfamiliar with the name of the manufacturing company. The major
producers of soap powders, for example, are famous for their multi-
brand strategy, which allows them to compete in various market
segments, and to fill shelf space in shops, thereby leaving less room
for competitors. It also gives them a greater chance of getting some of
the custom of brand-switchers (cei care schimbă mărcile pe care le
cumpără).
3 ………………………………
Most manufactures produce a large number of products, often
divided into product lines. Most product lines consist of several
products, often distinguished by brand names, e.g. a range of soap
powders, or of tooth-pastes. Several different items (different sizes or
models) may share the same brand name. Together, a company’s
items, brands and products constitute its product mix. Since different
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products are always at different stages of their cycles, with growing,
stable or declining sales and profitability, and because markets,
opportunities and resources are in constant evolution, companies are
always looking to the future, and re-evaluating their product mix.
4 …………………………………
Companies whose objectives include market share and market
growth generally have long product lines, i.e. a large number of items.
Companies whose objective is high profitability will have shorter
lines, including only profitable items. Yet, most product lines have a
tendency to lengthen over time, as companies produce variations on
existing items, or add additional items to cover further market
segments. Additions to product lines can be the result of either up-
market or down-market, i.e. making items of higher or lower quality.
This can be carried out in order to reach new customers, to enter
growing or more profitable market segments, to react to competitors’
initiatives, and so on. Yet, such moves may cause image problems:
moving to the lower end of the market dilutes (a slăbi, a dilua) a
company’s image for quality, while a company at the bottom of a
range may not convince dealers and customers that it can produce
quality products for the high end. Line-filling – adding further items in
that part of a products range which a line already covers – might be
done in order to compete in competitors’ niches (nişă), or simply to
utilize excess production capacity.
Vocabulary
Find words or expressions in the text which mean the following.
Vocabulary
Match up the words or expressions on the left with the definitions on
the right.
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9 product features I to introduce a new product onto the
market
10 sales representative J wrappers and containers in which
products are sold
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the existence of competitors, who always have to be identified,
monitored and defeated in the search for loyal customers.
Rather than risk launching a product or service solely on the basis
of intuition or guesswork, most companies undertake market research
(GB) or marketing research (US). They collect and analyze
information about the size of a potential market, about consumers’
reactions to particular product or service features, and so on. Sales
representatives, who also talk to customers, are another important
source of information.
Once the basic offer, e.g. a product concept, has been established,
the company has to think about the marketing mix, i.e. all the various
elements of a marketing program, their integration, and the amount of
effort that a company can expend on them in order to influence the
target market. The best-known classification of these elements is the
‘4Ps’: product, place, promotion and price. Aspects to be considered
in marketing products include quality, features (standard and
optional), style, brand name, size, packaging, services and guarantee.
Place in a marketing mix includes such factors as distribution
channels, locations of points of sale, transport, inventory size, etc.
Promotion groups together advertising, publicity, sales promotion, and
personal selling, while price includes the basic list price, discounts,
the length of the payment period, possible credit terms, and so on. It is
the job of a product manager or a brand manager to look for ways to
increase sales by changing the marketing mix.
It must be remembered that quite apart from consumer markets (in
which people buy products for direct consumption) there exists an
enormous producer or industrial or business market, consisting of all
the individuals and organizations that acquire goods and services that
are used in the production of other goods, or in the supply of services
to others. Few consumers realize that the producer market is actually
larger than the consumer market, since it contains all the raw
materials, manufactured parts and components that go into consumer
goods, plus capital equipment such as building and machines, supplies
such as energy and pens and paper, and services ranging from
cleaning to management consulting, all of which have to be marked.
There is consequently more industrial than consumer marketing, even
though ordinary consumers are seldom exposed to it.
Comprehension
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Look at the following diagrams from Marketing Management by
Philip Kotler.
1 The first diagram contrasts the selling and the marketing concepts.
Fill in the four spaces with the following words or expressions:
□ Coordinated marketing □ Market
□ Customer needs □ Profits through customer satisfaction
Starting Focus Means Ends
point
Factory Products Selling & promoting Profits
through sales volume
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Vocabulary
Find the terms in the text which mean the following.
Discussion
Which of the following claims do you agree with?
Summarizing
Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above.
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1 When a new product is launched, the producer has to …..
2 Promotion is one of the four …. ; sales promotions are one of the
four different …….
3 The advantages of publicity include …..
4 The four stages of the standard product life cycle (excluding the pre-
launched development stage) are ….
5 Reasons to offer temporary price reductions include ….
6 Sales promotions need not only be aimed at customers; ….
7 Apart from selling a company’s products, sales representatives ….
Discussion
What kind of sales promotions are you receptive to?
Vocabulary
There is a logical connection among three of the four words in
each of the following groups. Which is the odd one out, and why?
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10. Market structure and competition
24. Market leaders, challengers and followers
Read the following text and write short headings for each
paragraph.
1 ………………………………….
In most markets there is a definite market leader: the firm
with the largest market share. This is often the first company to have
entered the field, or at least the first to have succeeded in it. The
market leader is frequently able to lead other firms in the introduction
of new products, in price changes, in the level or intensity of
promotions, and so on.
2 ………………………………
Market leaders usually want to increase their market share
even further, or at least to protect their current market share. One way
to do this is to try to find ways to increase the size of the entire
market. Contrary to a common belief, wholly dominating a market, or
having a monopoly, is seldom an advantage: competitors expand
markets and find new uses and users for products, which enriches
everyone in the field, but the market leader more than its competitors.
A market can also be expanded by stimulating more usage: for
example, many households no longer have only one radio or cassette
player, but perhaps one in each room, one in the car, plus a Walkman
or two.
3 …………………………..
In many markets, there is often also a distinct market
challenger, with the second-largest market share. In the car hire
business, the challenger actually advertises this fact: for many years
Avis used the slogan ‘We’re number two. We try harder.’ Market
challengers can either attempt to attack the leader, or to increase their
market share by attacking various market followers.
4 …………………………..
The majority of companies in any industry are merely market
followers, which present no threat to the leader. Many market
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followers concentrate on market segmentation: finding a profitable
niche in the market that is not satisfied by other goods or services, and
that offers growth potential or gives the company a differential
(distinctiv, deosebit) advantage because of its specific competencies.
5 ……………………………
A market follower, which does not establish its own niche is
in a vulnerable position: if its product does not have a ‘unique selling
proposition’ there is no reason for anyone to buy it. In fact, in most
established industries, there is only room for two or three major
companies: think of soft drinks, soap and washing powders, jeans,
sports shoes, and so on. Although small companies are generally
flexible, and can quickly respond to market conditions, their narrow
range of customers causes problematic fluctuations in turnover and
profit. Furthermore, they are vulnerable in a recession when, largely
for psychological reasons, distributors, retailers and customers all
prefer to buy from big, well-known suppliers.
Vocabulary
Find words in the text which mean the following.
Vocabulary
Match up these words with the definitions below.
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Backward integration to diversify (diversification) synergy
Forward integration horizontal integration to merge (a merger)
to innovate (innovation) a raid a takeover bid
vertical integration
Reading
Leveraged buyouts
One indication that the people who warn against takeovers
might be right is the existence of leveraged buyouts.
In the 1960s, a big wave of takeovers in the US created
conglomerates – collections of unrelated businesses combined into a
single corporate structure. It later became clear that many of these
conglomerates consisted of too many companies and not enough
synergy. After the recession of the early 1980s, there were many large
companies on the US stock market with good earnings but low stock
prices. Their assets were worth more than the companies’ market
value.
Such conglomerates were clearly not maximizing stockholder
value. The individual companies might have been more efficient if
liberated from central management. Consequently, raiders (persoană
agresivă, acaparatoare) were able to borrow money, buy badly-
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managed, inefficient and under-priced corporations, and then
restructure them, split them up, and resell them at a profit.
Conventional financial theory argues that stock markets are
efficient, meaning that all relevant information about companies is
built into their share prices. Raiders in the 1980s discovered that this
was quite simply untrue. Although the market could understand data
concerning companies’ earnings, it was highly inefficient in valuing
assets, including land, buildings and pension funds. Asset-stripping –
selling off the assets of poorly performing or under-valued companies
– proved to be highly lucrative (avantajos, profitabil).
Theoretically, there was little risk of making a loss with a
buyout, as the debts incurred (datoriile făcute) were guaranteed by the
companies’ assets. The ideal targets for such buyouts were companies
with huge cash reserves that enabled the buyer to pay the interest on
the debt, or companies with successful subsidiaries that could be sold
to repay the principal, or companies in fields that are not sensitive to a
recession, such as food and tobacco.
Takeovers using borrowed money are called ‘leveraged
buyouts’ or ‘LBOs’. Leverage (raportul dintre creanţe şi capital)
means having a large proportion of debt compared to equity capital.
(Where a company is bought by its existing managers, we talk of a
management buyout or MBO.) Much of the money for LBOs was
provided by the American investment bank Drexel Burnham Lambert,
where Michael Millken was able to convince investors that the high
returns on debt issued by risky enterprises more than compensated for
their riskiness, as the rate of default (rata neonorării plăţii) was lower
than might be expected. He created a huge and liquid market of up to
300 billion dollars for ‘junk bonds’ (obligaţiuni cu risc). (Millken was
later arrested and charged (a fi acuzat) with 98 different felonies
(crime, acte penale), including a lot of insider dealing (operaţiuni ale
unui iniţiat, a unei persoane angajate în respectiva firmă), and Drexel
Burnham Lambert went bankrupt (a da faliment) in 1990.)
Raiders and their supporters argue that the permanent threat of
takeovers is a challenge to company managers and directors to do
their jobs better, and that well-run businesses that are not undervalues
are at little risk. The threat of raids forces companies to put capital to
productive use. Fat or lazy companies that fail to do this will be taken
over by raiders who will use assets more efficiently, cut costs, and
increase shareholder value. On the other hand, the permanent threat of
a takeover or a buyout is clearly a disincentive (mijloc de intimidare)
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to long-term capital investment, as a company will lose its investment
if a raider tries to break it up as soon as its share price falls below
expectations.
LBOs, however, seem to be largely an American
phenomenon. German and Japanese managers and financiers, for
example, seem to consider companies as places where people work,
rather than as assets to be bought and sold. Hostile takeovers and
buyouts are almost unknown in these two countries, where business
tends to concentrate on long-term goals rather than seek instant stock
market profits. Workers in these companies are considered to be at
least as important as shareholders. The idea of a Japanese manager
restructuring a company, laying off (a concedia temporar) a large
number of workers, and getting a huge pay rise (as frequently happens
in Britain and the US), is unthinkable. Lay-offs in Japan are instead a
cause for shame for which managers are expected to apologize.
Summarizing
Complete the following sentences, which summarize the text
above.
1 The fact that many large conglomerates’ assets were worth more
than their stock market valuation demonstrated that …
2 Raiders bought conglomerates in order to …
3 Raiders showed that the stock market did not …
4 Raiders were particularly interested in …
5 Investors were prepared to lend money to finance LBOs because …
6 Raiders argue that the possibility of a buyout …
Vocabulary
Find words or expressions in the text which mean the following.
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services. This is a wide definition and, over the centuries, money has
appeared in all shapes and sizes; cowrie shells in ancient China, huge
stone discs on a South Pacific Island or beads (Wampum) for the
North American Indians.
Jingle = a zornăi
Rustle = a foşni
Clink = a zăngăni
Piggy-bank = puşculiţă
Cowrie = scoică, ghioc
Beads = mărgele, mătănii
Wampum = colier de scoici
Bartering (troc)
Before metal money become the usual means of exchange,
people would swap (schimba) goods and services in a process known
as bartering – “I’ll swap you ten chickens for your goat”. This kind of
exchange does not really encourage trade, as all sorts of problems
arise; are all the chickens of the same size? If I’ve only got five
chickens, can I buy half a cow? Obviously, precious metals are a
practical alternative to payment in kind (în natură).
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Portability – in some parts of Africa your wealth is measured in cattle.
This is fine if you’re trading locally, but if money isn’t easy to carry,
how can trade develop?
Divisibility – small units make life much easier – imagine trying to
buy a hot dog in New York if the $100 bill was the lowest unit of
currency!
Intrinsic value – money should have some worth in itself, otherwise it
won’t inspire confidence.
Coins
We first read of coins in the Kingdom of Lydia in the 7th
century BC. Their coins were of equal weight and therefore of equal
value, simplifying trade. Stamping a design onto the coins is called
“minting”; Alexander the Great introduced the practice of stamping a
picture of the sovereign’s head on the coins, an idea that was soon
copied.
Coins however, were not always as valuable as they seemed –
they were often clipped or shaved by unscrupulous individuals or
debased by the state. The Romans, with the economic pressure of the
Punic wars, began a long process of debasement, mixing more and
more copper in with the silver, so that the intrinsic value of the coin
was far lower than the marked face value.
Paper Money
Bank notes were first introduced by the Chinese in the 10 th
century. They were later used by governments in dire financial straits
(în dificultăţi mari financiare) – caused by things like having to
finance a war, for example. The English colonies in North America
made important strides in the use of bank notes. For various political
and economic reasons, the Colonists often found themselves short of
coinage. To get round this problem, they used first wampum, then
tobacco, rice and whisky or brandy – not exactly the most practical
solution. The first paper money issue was by the Massachusetts Bay
Colony in 1690. The practice was frowned upon and eventually
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banned by the mother country, but the inventive money-making
instincts of the new United States of America meant that, during the
19th century, most of the money used was in the form of paper dollars.
The first fully printed note in England was issued in 1855 – until that
time the cashier had to write the name of the payee and sign each note
individually.
At first, bank notes were redeemable for gold – on Bank of
England notes you will see written “I promise to pay the bearer on
demand the sum of…” If you took a ten-pound note to the Bank they
used to have to give you ten pounds in gold coin. Britain left the gold
standard in 1931 and thus the notes are no longer backed by gold.
Plastic money
Nowadays many transactions are carried out with “plastic
money” such as credit cards. The newest are called “smart cards” and
carry small silicon chips that can record every transaction on the card.
Research into the cards of the future continues, but the latest
development is e-cash, cash to be used across the Internet – you’ll be
able to spend money from the comfort of your armchair. If only
earning the damn stuff was so easy!
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Money is so important to us – people even say it makes the
world go round – that it has acquired many nicknames, such as bread,
dough, dinero, mazuma, spondulicks, rhino, gravy, dosh, lucre or
simply the necessary. Small amounts of it are chickenfeed or peanuts.
(în slang: lovele, biştari, parale, bani, câştig)
So what are you thinking about now? A penny for your thoughts! Oh,
I see, you like the look of that new jacket – it’ll cost you an arm and
a leg. I’m afraid, or, to put it another way, you’ll have to pay through
the nose for it.
You may like it so much you insist that money’s no object –
but don’t forget: money doesn’t grow on trees, so don’t live beyond
your means! If you do go ahead and buy that jacket, your friends will
tell you that you might as well flush it (the money) down the toilet.
So, if you can’t afford it, buy the cheapo version: you can bet your
bottom dollar that nobody will be able to tell the difference.
Of course your attitude to money depends, to a certain extend,
on how well off you are. You may be experiencing a liquidity
problem or a cashflow problem at the moment; in other words, you’re
strapped for cash, broke, or even flat broke. Perhaps you don’t have
a dollar to your name, you don’t have a red cent and you haven’t got
a bean, in which case you’re as poor as a church mouse!
If, on the other hand, you’ve got plenty of money then you’re
filthy rich, or stinking rich or rolling in it – perhaps you had some
good business ideas and put your money where your mouth is or
cashed in on a golden business opportunity and managed to get rich
quick, so now you’re laughing all the way to the bank.
You’ve got money to burn; you’re earning megabucks and,
now that you know its power, you believe what people say – money
talks! In spite of this, you might be so careful with money that people
think you’re mean or stingy (zgârcit). Perhaps they’ll call you a miser
behind your back; in the US you’d be called a tightwad (calic, avar).
You might reply that money doesn’t grow on trees – but then
others might say that you can’t take it with you (when you die) and so
they spend money as if it were going out of fashion. In this case,
money burns a hole in their pocket, and you would be the first to
remind them that a fool and his money are soon parted. If, on the
other hand, you look after the pennies, then the pounds will look
after themselves.
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28. The profits of labor
125
White-collars workers = funcţionari
On the dole = ajutor de şomaj, subvenţie de la stat
On welfare = ajutor social
Share options =
Fringe benefit / perks = beneficiu suplimentar
In lieu of money = în loc de bani
Incur = a face, a crea
Lump sum = sumă globală / unică, plată unică
Borrowing
Many of us go to the bank at some point to ask for a loan – it
is often said that a bank manager is someone who lends you an
umbrella when the sun is shining and who asks for it back when it
starts to rain.
The simplest way to borrow is with an overdraft, or by using
the facilities offered by a credit card; but to borrow large sums you’ll
probably negotiate a loan with your bank; you can either borrow a
fixed amount or agree a credit limit.
If you’re buying a house, then you’ll want a mortgage. If the
bank refuses to lend you money, you might resort to borrowing from a
finance company or even the local loan shark to pay off your IOUs
(I Owe You). For any loan, you should look at the Annual Percentage
Rate which takes into account the various charges which will be
included in your repayments.
Borrowing from a loan shark can involve exorbitant interest
rates. If you’re being gouged in this way, then you may end up being
unable to make the repayments. Your debt may be sold to a debt
collector or you may receive a visit from the bailiffs in the UK. If
you’ve been buying something in instalments or on a hire purchase
(HP) scheme, defaulting on the repayments will probably lead to a
visit from the dreaded repo (repossesssion) man.
Forgery
With the invention of money came forgery. Modern
counterfeit notes can be extremely difficult to spot and new
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developments in the production of notes are soon copied by the
forgers. Here’s a quick guide to recognizing a counterfeit Bank of
England note:
The feel of the paper: it should be crisp and slightly rough in the
heavily printed areas.
The watermark: you shouldn’t be able to notice it until you hold the
note up to the light; then you can see a picture of the Queen.
The thread: all genuine notes have a thread embedded in the paper.
Recent notes have a “windowed” thread which does not appear as a
continuous line until the note is held up to the light.
Quality of printing: pure, clear colours and sharp, well-defined lines.
IDIOMS
Hard Times
If you’ve fallen on hard times, you might tell people that you
need to watch your spending, your money or your pennies. In the
States, you might say that you have to watch every dime. Perhaps
your bank account is in the red, so you decide to control your
spending and keep track of your expenses more closely. This will
certainly involve cutting down on expenses in general, budgeting
your money, tightening your belt and saving your pennies.
Almost certainly you will have to cut the frills (unneccessary
expenditure), trim (reduce) the budget and go back to basics. If an
unexpected expense comes up that you have to meet, you might
decide to dip into your savings, or scrounge the money somehow.
If, on the other hand, you splash out on something
extravagant, you might justify the expense by telling people that
you’ve got enough saved up, that you’ve been saving for a rainy day
or that you’re lucky enough to have a nest egg that you’ve finally
decided to use.
Vocabulary
a. Match up the terms on the left with the definitions on the
right.
1. Bookkeeping
A calculating an individual’s or a company’s liability for tax –
2. Accounting
B writing down the details of transactions (debits and credits) -
3. Managerial accounting
C keeping financial records, recording income and expenditure,
valuing assets and liabilities, and so on
4. Cost accounting
D preparing budgets and other financial reports necessary for
management
5. Tax accounting
E inspection and evaluation of accounts by a second set of accountants
– audit
6. Auditing
F using all available accounting procedures and tricks to disguise the
true financial position of a company
7. ‘creative accounting’
G working out the unit cost of products, including materials, labour
and all other expenses
1. Assets
A a company’s owners
2. Depreciation
B all the money received by a company during a given period
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3. Liabilities
C all the money that a company will have to pay to someone else in
the future, including taxes, debt, and interest and mortgage payments
4. Turnover
D the amount of business done by a company over a year
Reading
Insert the words in vocabulary b) in the gaps in the text below.
Vocabulary
There are ten gaps in the two statements which follow. According
to the information in the previous text, decide where the following
headings should appear:
1994 1993
₤ ₤
[1 …………………….] 21,471,680 15,341,689
(income from football and related
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activities: gate receipts, broadcasting,
ground advertisements, prize money)
1994 1993
₤ ₤
Fixed Assets 28,478,922 18,982,931
(including [4 ……………….],
leasehold properties, plant and
equipment, and motor vehicles;
all recorded at [5 ……………]
minus depreciation)
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Total Assets less Current Liabilities 28,223,057 18,218,528
While reading the text, decide which paragraph could be given the
following headings.
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or undervalued currencies could only be adjusted with the agreement
of the International Monetary Fund. Such adjustments are called
devaluations and revaluations. The Bretton Woods system of gold
convertibility and pegging against the dollar was abandoned in 1971,
because following inflation, the Federal Reserve did not have enough
gold to guarantee the American currency.
Gold convertibility was replaced by a system of floating
exchange rates. (Today, the US dollar – the unofficial world currency
– is merely a piece of paper on which is written ‘In God We Trust.’
God, not gold!) a freely (or clean) floating exchange rate is
determined purely by supply and demand. Theoretically, in the
absence of speculation, exchange rates should reflect purchasing
power parity – the cost of a given selection of goods and services in
different countries. Proponents of floating exchange rates, such as
Milton Friedman, argued that currencies would automatically establish
stable exchange rates, which would reflect economic realities more
precisely than calculations by central bank officials. Yet, they
underestimated the impact of speculation, and the fact that companies
and investors frequently follow short-term money market trends even
if these are contrary to their own long-term interests.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the American, British and
other governments deregulated their financial systems, and abolished
all exchange controls. Residents in these countries are now able to
exchange any amount of their currency for any other convertible
currency. This has led to the current situation in which 95% of the
world’s currency transactions are unrelated to transactions in goods
but are purely speculative. Enormous amounts of money move round
the world, chasing high interest rates or capital gains, as investors –
including rich individuals, companies and pension funds – seek to
maximize the value of their assets. In London alone, over $300 billion
worth of currency is traded on an average day – the equivalent of
about 30% of the value of the goods Britain procedures each year.
Banks make a profit from the spread (marjă) between a currency’s
buying and selling prices.
Few governments, however, leave exchange rates wholly at
the mercy of market forces. Most of them attempt to influence the
level of their currency when necessary. Managed (or dirty) floating
exchange rates are more common than freely floating ones. In 1979,
most Western European governments joined the EMS (European
Monetary System), with its ERM (Exchange Rate Mechanism). This
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established parties between member currencies, and a margin of plus
or minus 2 ¼ %. If the rate diverged by more than this amount from
the central parity, governments and central banks had to intervene in
exchange markets, buying or selling in order to increase or decrease
the value of their currency.
Yet, government policy can easily be defeated by the
combined action of international speculators. For example, on a single
day in September 1992 the Bank of England lost five billion pounds in
a hopeless attempt to support the pound sterling. For weeks, all the
world’s financial institutions and rich individuals had been selling
their pounds, as everyone except the British Government believed that
ever since it joined the ERM in 1990, the pound had been seriously
overvalued. When the British central bank ran out of reserves and
could no longer buy pounds, the currency was withdrawn from the
ERM and allowed to float, instantly losing about 15% of its value
against the D-mark. The next year, speculators attacked the French
franc, the Belgian franc, the Danish krone and the Spanish peseta. In
August 1993, the European Monetary System was more or less
suspended.
Many manufacturers are in favour of fixed exchange rates, or
a single currency. Although it is possible to some extend to hedge
against (a se asigura împotriva) currency fluctuations by way of
futures contracts, forward planning is difficult when the price of raw
materials bought from abroad, or the price of your products in export
markets, can rise or fall by 50% in only a few months. (Since
exchange controls were abolished, currencies including the US$ and
the pound sterling have in turn appreciated by up to 100% and then
depreciated by more than 50% against the currencies of major trading
partners.)
Other supporters of fixed exchange rates or a single currency
include extreme conservatives who want to return to something like
the gold standard, as well as people on the left who believe that
speculators have too much power. Supporters of flexible rates include
monetarists who want countries to follow strict monetary rules, as
well as Keynesians who want to be free to devalue in the attempt to
reduce unemployment. These are both rather surprising alliances,
which put into doubt the planned timetable for the introduction of a
Single European Currency.
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Comprehension
Are the following statements True or False?
Vocabulary
Vocabulary
Match up these terms with the definitions below.
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5 an instruction to a bank to pay fixed sums of money to certain
people or organizations at stated times
6 a loan, usually to buy property, which serves as a security for the
loan
7 a plastic card issued to bank customers for use in cash dispensers
8 doing banking transactions by telephone or from one’s own personal
computer, linked to the bank via a network
9 one that generally pays little or no interest, but allows the holder to
withdraw his or her cash without any restrictions
10 one that pays interest, but usually cannot be used for paying
cheques (GB) or checks (US), and on which notice is often required to
withdraw money
Read the text below and write short headings (one or two words)
for each paragraph
5 ……………………………..
Commercial or retail banks are businesses that trade in
money. They receive and hold deposits, pay money according to
customers’ instructions, lend money, offer investment advice,
exchange foreign currencies, and so on. They make a profit from the
difference (known as a spread or a margin) between the interest rates
they pay to lenders or depositors and those they charge to borrowers.
Banks also create credit, because the money they lend, from their
deposits, is generally spent (either on goods or services, or to settle
debts), and in this way transferred to another bank account – often by
way of a bank transfer or a cheque (check) rather than the use of notes
or coins – from where it can be lent to another borrower, and so on.
When lending money, bankers have to find a balance between yield
and risk, and between liquidity and different maturities.
5 ……………………………
Merchant bank in Britain raise funds for industry on the
various financial markets, finance international trade, issue and
underwrite securities, deal with takeovers and mergers, and issue
government bonds. They also generally offer stockbroking and
portfolio management services to rich corporate and individual clients.
Investment banks in the USA are similar, but they can only act as
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intermediaries offering advisory services, and do not offer loans
themselves. Investment banks make their profits from the fees and
commissions they charge for their services.
5 ……………………………..
In the USA, the Glass-Steagall Act of 1934 enforced a strict
separation between commercial banks and investment banks or
stockbroking firms. Yet, the distinction between commercial and
investment banking has become less clear in recent years.
Deregulation in the USA and Britain is leading to the creation of
‘financial supermarkets’: conglomerates combining the services
previously offered by banks, stockbrokers, insurance companies, and
so on. In some European countries (notably Germany, Austria and
Switzerland) there have always been universal banks combining
deposit and loan banking with share and bond dealing and investment
services.
5 ………………………………
A country’s minimum interest rate is usually fixed by the
central bank. This is the discount rate, at which the central bank makes
secured loans to commercial banks. Banks lend to blue chip borrowers
(very safe large companies) at the base rate or the prime rate; all other
borrowers pay more, depending on their credit standing (or credit
rating, or creditworthiness): the lender’s estimation of their present
and future solvency. Borrowers can usually get a lower interest rate if
the loan is secured or guaranteed by some kind of asset, known as
collateral.
5 ……………………………
In most financial centres, there are also branches of lots of
foreign banks, largely doing Eurocurrency business. A Eurocurrency
is any currency held outside its country of origin. The first significant
Eurocurrency market was for US dollars in Europe, but the name is
now used for foreign currencies held anywhere in the world (e.g. yen
in the US, DM in Japan). Since the US$ is the world’s most important
trading currency – and because the US has for many years had a huge
trade deficit – there is a market of many billions of Eurodollars,
including the oil-exporting countries’ ‘petrodollars’. Although a
central bank can determine the minimum lending rate for its national
currency it has no control over foreign currencies. Furthermore, banks
are not obliged to deposit any of their Eurocurrency assets at 0%
interest with the central bank, which means that they can usually offer
better rates to borrowers and depositors than in the home country.
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Commercial / retail bank – bancă comerciale / bancă de depozit
Merchant bank / Investment bank – bancă comercială / de investiţii
Vocabulary
a. Find the words or expressions in the text which mean the
following.
Charge advice
Do bonds
Exchange business
Issue currencies
Make deposits
Offer funds
Pay interest
Raise loans
Receive profits
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Underwrite security issues
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General Information:
When do/are you open?
How late do you stay open?
When do you close?
What are your opening hours?
In the US: Does this bank have an ATM (Automatic Teller Machine –
bancomat)
In the UK: Do you have a cash point/dispenser?
The ATM ate/kept my card.
The cash dispenser won’t give me my card back.
If you want to use bank services you may have to queue (UK) or stand
in line (US) and wait for the next available teller (US) – or clerk (UK):
When their desk is free, a light will come on:
Next, please.
Please step down (US).
I’m open over/down here.
Means of payment.
I’d just had a phone call from the bank. They couldn’t cash in D’s
cheque. They were told there were insufficient funds on his account.
I’m surprised. That would be the first time. Can you remind me of the
amount?
It’s not a large sum: only 135 pounds.
This is all the more surprising. He is not the kind of person to
overdraw his account. What sort of a cheque did he make out?
I’m looking into his file… Now… It was a giro cheque. Usually he
pays us by bank cheque for small amounts, and by draft for large
sums.
It makes more sense. Just give him a ring, will you? I’m sure he’ll
settle immediately.
I’ll do that. Something else. I’ve had very bad information about B,
you know, the reseller (vânzător) who wanted immediate delivery.
I see who you mean. It’s his first order with us?
That’s it. He’s already had a current account cancelled and has a
reputation for being a slow payer.
If so, insist on payment with the order (plata la comandă). Delivery is
out of the question until the sum has been paid into our account.
Well, I think that’s all. Oh yes! One more thing, the drafts to be
discounted…
Definition
A cheque is signed by the payer and payable to the payee or to his
order. A draft (or bill of exchange) is drawn by the creditor on the
debtor and payable to the drawer or to a third party after acceptance
by the drawee.
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Nu uitaţi să înregistraţi toate retragerile pe talonul carnetului
dumneavoastră de cecuri.
6. They offered me to refund a 2,000 personal loan over a 30-month
period.
Ei mi-au propus să rambursez un împrumut personal de 2.000 de
lire în treizeci de rate lunare.
7. When writing out or endorsing a cheque, one must be careful to
avoid any erasure.
Când se redactează sau se andosează un cec, trebuie să se evite
orice ştersătură.
8. She made out so many dud (bad) cheques that no bank will trust
her with a cheque-book.
Ea a întocmit atâtea cecuri fără acoperire, încât nici o bancă nu-I
va mai încredinţa un carnet de cecuri.
9. Don’t forget to have these bills discounted by the end of this
month.
Nu uitaţi să scontaţi aceste efecte la sfârşitul lunii.
10. Recently a trader sued his banker after he could no longer have his
bills discounted.
Recent, un comerciant a intentat un proces băncii sale după ce n-
a mai avut posibilitatea să-şi sconteze efectele de comerţ.
11. The clearing-house will centralize all the operations dealing with
the exchange of bills and cheques between banks.
Camera de decontări/oficiul de cliring va centraliza toate
operaţiunile care se referă la schimbul interbancar de efecte de
comerţ şi cecuri.
12. The U.S. investment banks have just raised their prime rate by ¼
point to 6,75%.
Băncile de investiţii americane tocmai au crescut rata de bază (a
dobânzii) la 6,75% mărind-o cu un sfert de punct.
13. The increase in the price of short-term money has been confirmed
whereas longer term rates remain stable.
S-a confirmat creşterea preţului pentru împrumuturile pe termen
scurt, în timp ce ratele (dobânzii) pe termen lung rămân stabile.
14. The Prime Rate (fine rate, blue-chip rate, [B.E.] base rate) is the
rate granted by U.S. banks to their clients with the highest rating.
Rata de bază reprezintă rata acordată de băncile americane
clienţilor care prezintă cel mai mic risc.
15. The spell of monetary stability has lasted since the begining of the
year.
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Această perioadă de stabilitate monetară durează de la începutul
anului.
16. The policy of expensive money is meant to fight inflation.
Politica dirijată împotriva creşterii preţurilor este destinată
combaterii inflaţiei.
17. …but it has immediate repercussions on corporate income
statements.
…dar acest lucru are repercursiuni imediate asupra conturilor de
venit şi pierderi ale întreprinderilor.
18. The Central Bank acts as banker to the government and to other
banks, and as the central note-issuing authority.
Banca centrală funcţionează în calitate de bancher pentru guvern
şi alte bănci şi ca autoritate centrală de emisiune monetară.
Vocabulary
Which terms do the following sentences define?
Reading
Comprehension
According to the text, are the following statements True or False?
Vocabulary
Find words in the text that mean the following.
Companies
Individuals and groups of people doing business as a
partnership, have unlimited liability for debt, unless they form a
limited company. If the business does badly and cannot pay its debts,
any creditor can have it declared bankrupt. The unsuccessful business
people may have to sell nearly all their possessions in order to pay
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their debts. This is why most people doing business form limited
companies. A limited company is a legal entity separate from its
owners, and is only liable for the amount of capital that has been
invested in it. If a limited company goes bankrupt, it is wound up and
its assets are liquidated (i.e. sold) to pay the debts. If the assets don’t
cover the liabilities or the debts, they remain unpaid. The creditors
simply do not get all their money back.
Most companies begin as private limited companies. Their
owners have to put up the capital themselves, or borrow from friends
or a bank, perhaps a bank specializing in venture capital. The founders
have to write a Memorandum of Association (GB) or a Certificate of
Incorporation (US), which states the company’s name, its purpose, its
registered office or premises, and the amount of authorized share
capital. They also write Articles of Association (GB) or Bylaws (US),
which set out the duties of directors and the rights of shareholders
(GB) or stockholders (US). They send these documents to the registrar
of companies.
A successful, growing company can apply to a stock exchange
to become a public limited company (GB) or a listed company (US).
Newer and smaller companies usually join ‘over-the-counter’ markets,
such as the Unlisted Securities Market in London or Nasdaq in New
York. Very successful businesses can apply to be quoted or listed (i.e.
to have their shares traded) on major stock exchanges. Publicly quoted
companies have to fulfil a large number of requirements, including
sending their shareholders an independently-audited report every year,
containing the year’s trading results and a statement of their financial
position.
The act of issuing shares (GB) or stocks (US) for the first time
is known as floating a company (making a flotation). Companies
generally use an investment bank to underwrite the issue i.e. to
guarantee to purchase all the securities at an agreed price on a certain
day, if they cannot be sold to the public.
Companies wishing to raise more money for expansion can
sometimes issue new shares, which are normally offered first to the
existing shareholders at less than their market price. This is known as
a rights issue. Companies sometimes also choose to capitalize part of
their profit, i.e. turn it into capital, by issuing new shares to
shareholders instead of paying dividends. This is known as a bonus
issue.
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Buying a share gives its holder part of the ownership of a
company. Shares generally entitle their owner to vote at a company’s
Annual General Meeting (GB) or Annual Meeting of Stockholders
(US), and to receive a proportion of distributed profits in the form of a
dividend – or to receive part of the company’s residual value if it goes
into liquidation. Shareholders can sell their shares on the secondary
market at any time, but the market price of a share – the price quoted
at any given time on the stock exchange, which reflects (more or less)
how well or badly the company is doing – may differ radically from
its nominal value.
Vocabulary
Find words in the text which mean the following
Alternative terminology
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Another name for stocks and shares is equities, because all the stocks
or shares of a company – or at least all those of a particular category –
have equal value.
Two terms for nominal value are face value and par value.
Other names for a bonus issue are a scrip issue (short for ‘subscription
certificate’) and a capitalization issue, and in the US, a stock dividend
or stock split.
Vocabulary
Match up the following words and definitions.
157
36. Bonds
Vocabulary
Match up the words or phrases on the left with the corresponding
ones on the right.
Vocabulary
159
Match up the expressions on the left with the definitions on the
right.
Vocabulary
Match up the following words and definitions.
1 Futures
A contracts giving the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a
security, a currency, or a commodity at a fixed price during a certain
period of time
2 Options
B contracts to buy or sell fixed quantities of commodity, currency, or
financial asset at a future date, at a price fixed at the time of making
the contract
3 Commodities
C a general name for all financial instruments whose price depends on
the movement of another price
4 Derivatives
D buying securities or other assets in the hope of making a capital
gain by selling them at a higher price (or selling them in the hope of
buying them back at a lower price)
5 Hedging
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E making contracts to buy or sell a commodity or financial asset at a
pre-arranged price in the future as a protection or ‘insurance’ against
price changes
5. Speculation
F raw materials or primary products (metals, cereals, coffee, etc.) that
are traded on special markets
Reading
Select ten or eleven of the following words that you would expect
to find in an introductory text about futures and options.
Now read the text, and see if you find the words you selected.
Futures
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Hedging and speculating
Options
Swaps
Summarizing
Complete the following sentences
Vocabulary
163
Find words in the text that are in an obvious sense the opposite of
the terms below.
Glossary
Cheia exerciţiilor
Module 1
Module 2
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Reception: I’m sorry, but Mr. Bird is not in at the moment.
Lara Camden: I see. Er… when do you think I could contact him?
Reception: Well, at the moment he’s away. Would you like to leave
a message?
Lara Camden: Yes, perhaps you would ask Mr. Bird to call me? My
name’s Camden, Lara Camden, on 0181 299 462.
Reception: Right, that’s Lara Canden on 0181 299 462. Okay?
Lara Camden: Yes, er… Camden. C…A…M…D…E…N.
Reception: Oh yes, sorry! I’ve got that now.
Lara Camden: Thank you. I look forward to hearing from Mr. Bird.
Reception: It’s a pleasure. Thanks for calling. Bye for now.
Practice 2 – a model example of the conversation
Intership: Intership, good morning.
Computech: Hello, my name’s Alex Hall from Computech Arcos in
Singapore.
Intership: Sorry, did you say Alex Hall from Computech Arcos?
Computech: Yes, that’s right.
Intership: Okay, how can I help you, Mr. Hall?
Computech: Well, I’d like an appointment with Mr. Dionis.
Intership: Can you tell me what’s about?
Computech: Certainly. I’d like to discuss the transporting of goods
from Singapore to Athens.
Intership: I see. When would be a good time for you to come here?
Computech: May I suggest next week?
Intership: I’m sorry, next week’s not possible – Mr. Dionis is away
next week. How about the beginning of the next month?
Computech: Yes, that would be okay. Could we say Monday 3 rd of
May?
Intership: Er, unfortunately Mr. Dionis is busy all day on that
Monday. He could make it Tuesday 4th.
Computech: That’s fine. Shall we say ten a.m.?
Intership: Yes, that’s a good time for us. Erm… can I ask you to
confirm by fax? And would you like us to book you a hotel?
Computech: I’ll fax – and thank you but no, the hotel booking isn’t
necessary. I think that’s everything, for now –
Intership: Right, many thanks, we look forward to your fax to
confirm the meeting. Goodbye, Mr. Hall.
Computech: Bye for now.
Module 3
Practice 1
Tokyo medical congress
a. Probably very formal.
b. High expectations in terms of technical support, a fair amount of
detail and clearly a lot of expertise.
c. High level of specialist knowledge – audience are experts.
d. Depends on congress organization – probably less then an hour.
e. Depends on congress organization – probably questions follow.
f. Use of visual supports with key information, plus later publication
of Congress Proceedings
Purchasing and Product Managers of a Taiwanese company
a. Probably semi-formal.
b. High expectations in terms of technical support, a fair amount of
detail and clearly a lot of expertise.
c. High level of specialist knowledge – at least the Product Manager
will be very expert, the Purchasing Manager perhaps less so.
d. Depends on objectives and on complexity of equipment. Could be
a very long presentation, even a whole day or a one hour
presentation might be enough.
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e. Probably interruption are encouraged to make everything clear as
the presenter goes along.
f. Use of visual support, photographs, diagrams, or the actual
machine itself. Follow-up documentation will also be available.
Internal meeting / administrative staff
a. Informal.
b. Reasonably high expectations in terms of speaker’s knowledge.
c. The audience will probably have good background knowledge but
have come to learn about a new system.
d. Probably short – thought it might be half a day!
e. Interruptions encouraged.
f. Probably illustrations, possibly handouts.
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Highlight information
Cause audience to employ another sense to receive information
Bring variety and therefore increase audience’s attention
Save time
Clarify complex information
b.
Presenters sometimes place the major emphasis on visual aids and
relegate themselves to the minor role of narrator or technician
Visuals must support what the speaker says
It is not enough just to read what the visual says
Reading
Find out about the audience.
Find out what they need to know.
Plan what you’re going to say.
Say it clearly and concisely.
Introduce information using lists.
Give a link between parts of the presentation.
Provide a logical sequencing of information.
Use careful repetition of key information.
Don’t give too much information or too many fact.
Reading
a. The main body of the presentation contains the details of what
was introduced in the introduction.
b. See figure included in the text.
Practice 4 – a model of presentation
Good morning, everyone. I’d like to talk about the advertising mix for
the new Cheri range of beauty products. We are planing two
categories of advertising, above-the-line and below-the-line. I’ll talk
first about above-the-line advertising. There are three kinds: these are
television commercials, secondly, newspapers – newspaper
advertising. The third kind is magazines. There are two basic types we
aim at: youth magazines and those aimed specifically at the women’s
market. Now, below-the-line advertising: there are three methods here
also: the first is in-store advertising, then there’s on-pack promotions
and finally targeted mailing. So, in-store advertising: what does it
mean? Basically, displays in the shop, merchandising, and that sort of
thing. The second below-the-line advertising is on-pack promotions –
there are many kinds, most obviously things like coupons,
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competitions, joint promotions and free samples. The last kind of
below-the-line advertising is targeted mailing, using a mailing list.
That completes the overview of what we can do to launch the product,
so…
Reading
a. No response from the audience.
b.
A truly successful and interesting talk will avoid the problem.
The speaker can give an instruction to the audience – especially in
sales presentations.
To have question prepared to ask the audience, or identify
someone whom you know will have something to say.
Handling questions
Difficulties may arise because:
5 questions / discussion is relatively unstructured
5 the speaker has less control
5 speaker has to switch into listen and answer mode
5 it may be difficult to hear, to understand, to answer or to
distinguish between an opinion and a question.
Practice 5 – model answers
1. So, that concludes what I want to say, so now I’d like to ask you
for your comments, opening up discussion, or perhaps you have a
question or two?
2. Er, in fact what I said was this process has been going on for a
very long time. I’m sorry if I was not clear on this point.
3. I wonder if anyone can suggest why this has happened or if
anzone has any comments on it?
4. Yes, you’re right, but can I suggest one or two other factors? One
is the increasing number of take-overs of smaller companies…
5. So are you saying that in the USA or Europe that could not
happen?
6. Yes, I agree, but the situation is changing.
7. Sorry, I don’t quite follow you. Can you say that again … put it
another way …?
Exercise 1 – The new product
Introducing yourself
Good morning ladies and gentlemen; we haven’t all met before so I’d
better introduce myself. I’m Luis Lopez from the development
182
department of Citrus Incorporated… I should say before we start that I
hope you’ll excuse my English. I’m a little out of practice…
Preparing the audience
Anyway, I’m going to be talking this morning about a new product
which we are planning to launch in two months’ time; it’s called
KOOL-OUT, that’s K-O-O-L dash O-U-T, and it’s a lemon-flavoured
drink…
Well, I’ll start with the background to the product launch; and then
move on to a description of the product itself, I’m going to list some
of the main selling points that we should emphasize in the advertising
and sales campaign. I think if you don’t mind, we’ll leave questions to
the end…
Delivering the message
Now firstly, as you all know, we had a gap in our soft-drink product
range for the last two years; we have been manufacturing mixed-fruit
drinks and orange drinks for the last ten years, but we stopped
producing lemonade two years ago; I think we all agreed that there
was room on the market for a completely new lemon-flavoured drink
… Secondly, the market research indicated that more and more
consumers are using soft drinks as mixers with alcohol, so in other
words, the market itself has expanded.
This brings me to my next point which is that we have rather new
customer-profile in mind; I must emphasize that this product is aimed
at the young-professional, high-income, market and not the traditional
consumer of old-fashioned lemonade. At this point we must consider
the importance of packaging and design, and if you look at the video
in a moment, you’ll see that we have completely re-vamped the
container itself as well as the label and slogan…
Now to digress for just a moment, the more sophisticated packaging
means a high unit cost, and this may be a problem in the selling area,
but we’ll have a chance to discuss that aspect later… so … to go back
to my earlier point, this is a totally new concept as far as Citrus
Incorporated are concerned; as you see we are using both the new-size
glass bottle and the miniature metal cans.
Finally, let’s look at the major attractions of the product. In spite of
the higher price it will compete well with existing brands; the design
is more modern than any of the current rival products, and incidentally
the flavour is more realistic and natural… it’s low calorie, too.
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Winding-up
O.K., so just before closing, I’d like to summarize my main points
again… We have KOOL-OUT, a new design concept, aimed at a
relatively new age and income group; it’s designed to be consumed on
its own, as a soft drink, or to be used as a mixer in alcohol-based
drinks and cocktails. It comes in both bottle and can and this will
mean a slightly higher price than we are used to; but the improved
flavour and the package design should give us a real advantage in
today’s market… well, that’s all I have today for the moment, thank
you for listening, now if there are any questions, I’ll be happy to
answer them…
Exercise 2 – The product presentation
See the model presentation and use the words in italics.
Exercise 3 – Can I interrupt here?
A 2; b 3; c 4; d 5; e 1
Exercise 4 – Anticipating questions
(suggestions) a. I can hear you say… b. Now you may well ask, what
does he mean by… c. An obvious problem is the cost of the
accessories. d. You will have noticed that… e. Now you may well
ask…
Module 4
Practice 1
a. Welcome, everybody. Thank you for coming.
b. We are here today to talk about … (and to decide …; to look at)
c. We have an agenda with three points. (You’ve all seen the agenda.
I’d like to ask if anyone has any comments on it.)
d. I think Mr. Kano is ready to tell us something about … (Can I ask
… to open with his remarks.)
e. If you don’t mind, can we let Mr. Kano finish? (Sorry, …, I can’t
allow us to consider that question just yet…)
f. Thank you for that …
g. Now, can I ask Ms Perez de Sanchez to tell us her views…
h. Er, can we try to keep to the topic – I think we have gone away
from it a little.
i. I’d like to sum up the main points. (So let me summarize that.
You say that …)
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j. Would anyone like to say anything else on this? (Does anyone
have anything to add to that?)
k. I think we ought to move on to the next topic on the agenda.
l. So, before the next meeting, I’ll send out a report on this one, Mr
Kano will prepare (…) and will then fix a new date, some time
next month.
m. Thank you. that’s everything. That’s it for today.
Practice 2
1. A model of Agenda
Time: Finish:
Place:
Participants:
Agenda
1. Apologizes for absence
2. Minutes of previous meeting
3. Chair’s opening address
4. Personnel changes
5. Review of marketing performance in the current year
6. New products
7. Marketing plans for next year
8. Any other business
9. Date of next meeting
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Mr. Smith has prepared a statement on the personnel changes so I’ll
hand over to him.
Practice 3 – a model conversation
A: The fall in sales is mainly due to the recession affecting world
markets.
B: Er, can you tell us exactly how much sales have gone down?
A: Well, it’s a general fall of around 5 % in sales for most product
areas. Also, specifically in the oil processing sector, we have much
lower sales, mainly because we sold our UK subsidiary, Anglo Oils.
B: Can we talk about the decision to sell Anglo Oils …
A: Well, no, I’d rather not go into that. We discussed that in previous
meetings. I’d prefer to talk about future prospects. The outlook is very
good just now…
B: What? I’d say things look quite bad.
A: I’m very surprised you say that. In fact, sales forecasts are much
better now. Anyway, let me tell you …
B: Sorry, I think I’d like to hear more about new markets.
A: New markets? Yes, but can we talk about new markets later? I
have some important information on that. But first…
B: Wait, don’t you think we should take a short break – have a
coffee?
A: Take a break? We’ve only just started!
Reading
1.
a. Decision making meetings.
b. The structure of decision making: see the bulleted points in the
second paragraph.
c. Communication has to be a two-way process to be successful.
2.
a. Not all meetings are to make decision – as implied in the first
sentence of the text. Decisions may already have been made, so a
meting is called to tell people about the decision (an information
giving meeting).
b. An alternative description of the structure of decision making is
the DESC model, which is included in the Skills Checklist.
c. In many instances of communication, a message is given and it is
sufficient that it is comprehended, without even an
acknowledgement (a recorded message, for example). However,
this may be slitting hairs: the point is that in meetings at least an
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acknowledgement or agreement is expected. It seems fair to say
that in most cases, communication is a two-way process.
d. It is true that often an agreement, or a consensus, can be arrived at
without a formal vote: it is the leader’s responsibility to make
clear what the consensus is and ask if everyone accepts it.
3.
a. consensus
b. time- and cost-effective manner
c. goal
d. set an objective
e. imperatives
f. desirables
g. evaluate alternatives
h. perception
i. awareness / empathy
j. evolve
k. verbalize
Reading
a. – a restatement of objectives
5 a summary of what has been accomplished
5 a summary of what action must be taken after meeting
b. Meetings should be part of a learning experience, so future
meetings can be improved by asking participants to evaluate
meetings.
Practice 4 – a model conversation
A: Can we reach a decision on this?
B: Well, I … I think … er, I think we need more information.
A: Hmm. Can you explain – say exactly what sort of detail you think
we need?
B: Well, I feel first of all, we need to know more about the effects of
a price increase.
A: Perhaps we should, er, commission some market research?
B: Yes, I agree. That’s right. We could ask Hamid to recommend
someone.
A: Well, I think before that we could look at our own experience of
price rises. Then later we can perhaps ask a marketing consultancy.
Does everyone agree with that proposal?
All: (murmur of agreement)
A: Okay, let’s move to the next item on the agenda.
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Practice 5 – a model example
So, we’ve almost finished. Does anyone have anything else to say?
Well, we had to decide on action regarding training courses. To
summarize, to confirm our decision, we’ve agreed a $10,000 budget.
And also that Peter is going to identify three possible training
organizations. Is everyone happy? Is that okay? Now, Peter will
organize a presentation for next week, on the 14 th at 2 p.m. until then,
thanks everyone for coming. That’s it for today.
Exercise 1 – Chairing a meeting
Chairman I’d like us to reach a decision today about item 1. The
issue is falling sales in the Italian market. Henry will explain the
background to this, and the present situation.
Henry Thanks. Well, as you know, in Italy we’ve always… so that’s
how things are at the moment.
Chairman Thank you, Henry. Now, let’s look at possible courses of
action.
Bob Could I just say something ? The Italian market isn’t as
important to us as the Russian orders. I was in Moscow last week, and
learnt some pretty interesting things about the way things are moving
out there.
Chairman Let’s keep to the immediate subject, which is the Italian
market.
Arnold Sorry to interrupt, but if we launch a new advertising
campaign in Italy it would cost a fortune! You said yourself that we
haven’t enough money to advertise on every television in Europe!
Chairman Let’s not jump too far ahead at this stage.
Bob My own feeling is this : in years of experience, in many
different markets throughout the world, I’ve often found that, when…
and you know, if I could pass on my experience to the younger people
here, I’d say that the only way to sell in Italy is to go there and see the
market for yourself, instead of asking your agents to do it.
Chairman Sorry to interrupt you, Bob, but I’d like to know if the
others agree. What do you think about this, Walter?
Walter I’m not too sure about this . My own feeling is that if…
Bob I don’t know why you don’t ask me. I’ve been to Italy so many
times recently.
Chairman Could you let Walter finish? I’d like to have his view on
this .
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Walter Well, I’d like to say that for the last two years we haven’t had
a stand at the Milan Trade Fair. I understand that the Fair has
produced lots of contracts in the past.
Chairman That’s an interesting point, Walter . Let’s summarize what
we’ve said so far. Bob thinks we depend on the agents too much, and
Walter suggests that the Trade Fair is important.
Exercise 2 – Formal meetings
a. address; approve; move; second; carried; casting; on
b. true: 1, 2, 6, 7
false: 3, 4, to second means to give formal support to the motion
for presentation to the board, 5 to abstain means to decide no to
vote
Exercise 3 – Could I ask you a question?
You: I’m afraid I can’t comment at the moment.
You: A statement will be issued shortly.
You: I’m sorry, but I can’t comment at this stage.
You: Yes, I’m pleased to be in your country.
You: I can’t tell you anything before the statement is issued.
You: I would rather not answer that question at present.
You: I did not say that at all.
Module 5
Practice 1 – a model
a. Well, welcome to … It’s very good that you could come to see us
here.
b. I hope you had a good trip? Not too long …? Did you get a taxi
when you arrives here?
c. At lunchtime we’ll be able to show you a little bit of the city –
have something to eat in a local restaurant.
d. Well, shall we make a start?
e. Okay, well, can I ask Luke Fox, from our Marketing Department,
to begin our discussion with some opening remarks. I think
you’ve met James already this morning, and a little while ago too?
f. Firstly, we see this meeting as an exploratory session, I think it’s
best for both of us that we look at some general questions.
g. We’d like to establish the beginnings of a partnership … It would
be particularly interesting for us to learn about your supply
systems … about price variations and about supply costs.
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Practice 2
1.
Identify your minimum requirements. 2
Prepare your opening statement. 7
Decide what concessions you could make. 3
Know your own strengths and weaknesses. 4
Know your role as part of a team. 6
Prepare your negotiation position – know your aims and objectives.1
Prepare any figures, any calculations and any support materials you
may need. 5
2.
a. Knowing your aims and objectives
ii. helps clear thinking and purpose.
b. Knowing your own strengths and weaknesses
iv. helps you to know the market, the context in which you want to
work.
c. Preparing any figures, calculations and other materials
5 means you can support your argument.
d. Preparing an opening statement
iii. creates reasonable expectations.
Reading
1.
a. T
b. F Better not to guess (though privately you might to some extend).
c. T
d. F Issues are best dealt together with other issues, in a package.
e. T One should usually be prepared to make concessions.
f. T
g. F No, one can keep on talking and find a way round the problem.
2.
a. Check what they say without commenting, at least not
immediately.
b. Vary the quantity or the quality, or bring in third parties.
c. Be prepared, think about the whole package, be constructive.
Practice 3
5 We can give you free delivery with a larger order.
5 We provide free on-site training for only a small price increase.
d. We can give 5 % discount if you agree to payment on delivery.
e. We can offer you an extra £50,000 compensation in exchange for
your agreement not to go to law.
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f. We promise to improve safety for staff provided that we reach
agreement on new contracts.
g. The company will introduce better working conditions if the staff
accept shorter breaks.
Practice 4
Ojanpera: Well, we’re happy to buy a machine if you can give us a
good price.
Beck: I’m sure we can. As you know our prices are very competitive.
Ojanpera: Even so, I’m sure you can allow us a discount?
Beck: Okay, well a discount could be possible if you agree to pay for
the shipping costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds okay, if the discount is a good one.
Beck: How about 4 %?
Ojanpera: 6 % would be better.
Beck: I’m sorry, we can’t manage that unless you pay for the
installation.
Ojanpera: Okay, our engineers will take care of that.
Beck: Okay then, so to confirm: a 6 % discount but you pay all the
shipping and installation costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds all right.
Practice 5
Neil Finch
Ministry of Urban Development
140- 144 Whitehall
London WCI 4RF
May 2 200—
Dear Neil,
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Re: Meeting in Bristol, April 30 --- ‘Railway Land Sale’
We would like to confirm through this letter and the (c) enclosed
drawings that the property (d) included in the above sale consists of
the land presently occupied by the station buildings and also the
former car parks to the east of the station, the offices to the west and
the warehouse alongside the tracks. The government-owned housing
on the north side of the railway lines is (e) excluded .
Your sincerely,
Jill Kearne
Chief Negotiator
Encs. (I)
Reading
a. emphasize the benefits available to both sides
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b. invent new options for mutual gain
c. change the package
d. adjourn to think and reflect
e. change location
f. change negotiator (personal chemistry?)
g. bring in a third party (mediator?)
h. fix an off-the-record meeting
Practice 6
Situation 1
The problem is that we have never offered the kind of warranty you
are looking for.
Since we have a difficulty here, may I suggest we leave the problem of
the warranty and come back to it later? Perhaps we could talk about
training for our technical staff?
Situation 2
There’s a number of issues on the table. We seem to be a long way
from an agreement.
Can I suggest a lower price, but link this with us paying the shipment
costs or agreeing to different payment terms?
Situation 3
The price you are asking is rather high, quite a lot higher than we were
expecting.
Well, if it would help, we could agree to longer payment terms
Situation 4
There are several problems. We think there is quite a lot of negotiation
ahead before we can agree on a common strategy.
The benefits of reaching agreement are considerable. We will have
more global influence and better prospects for the future.
Strategies in dealing with conflict
Strategy 1
I think we’re not really making much progress. Perhaps it would be
better to leave this point for a while and come back to it later. Could
we talk about a different aspect to the deal, perhaps the question of
delivery?
Strategy 2
I think it is important to think about what could happen if we do not
reach agreement. The most obvious consequence will be that we will
both lose market share. The only winners will be our competitors. It
could be serious for both of us.
Strategy 3
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There seem to be a number of problems, but I’d like to summarize the
positive elements – issues where we have made progress. First, we
agree that we have to settle the dispute between us, we understand
how important this is. Second, we agree that the terms of our original
agreement need to be changed. Third, we also agree that the change
will depend on the different market conditions which affect our
products… These are important points of progress.
Strategy 4
Can I suggest we take a short break? I think it will help if we look at
some of the issues that are dividing us. Perhaps we will see areas
where we can make a fresh offer.
Strategy 5
The point at issue, Mr. Cinis, is quite simple. We can offer you an
extra 5 % discount, but only if the order is increased by 20 % over the
next three years.
Practice 7
Situation 1
Let me make a suggestion. If you agree to buy 100 units every month
for the next twelve months, we’ll agree a 10 % discount.
Unfortunately, I can’t say how many we’ll need in six months and
certainly not in twelve. I can’t take the risk on such a large order at
this stage.
Situation 2
The price we are offering excludes installation costs but does include
a twelve month’s guarantee.
I’m afraid that’s not really acceptable. You know that other suppliers
offer free installation and two year parts and labour warranty?
Situation 3
I think the absolute minimum investment in advertising must be
$40,000, otherwise we cannot reach enough of our market. It’s not
much to ask for.
It’s a pity but it’s still more than our budget. I can’t go that high.
Situation 4
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Now, some excellent news: we’d like to increase our order. Right now
you are sending us 350 boxes a month. We need at least 500, demand
is very high …
Well, I’m glad you’re having a lot of success with our products, but
the bad news is that our order books are full, and the plant is working
at full capacity. We’re a bit stuck I’m afraid
Practice 8
Situation 1
It’s been a long meeting, but finally I’m very glad we’re able to reach
agreement. I think it would be good if we could go on to a restaurant
now, we’d be pleased if you can join us.
Situation 2
I’m sorry our efforts to reach agreement have not been successful. I
suggest we stop here, but I hope that in the future we might work
together on something.
Situation 3
Unfortunately I feel it would be better if I don’t join you on this
project, but no doubt there’ll be plenty of other things we’ll work on.
Situation 4
I’d like to repeat our order, but not on those terms. I’m sorry, we can’t
agree to this. I think we’ll go elsewhere, but thanks anyway.
Situation 5
I’m sorry, but it really is physically impossible. We cannot supply
goods in so short time. It’s just impossible. Sorry we can’t help you.
Exercise 1 – Your turn to negotiate
Suggested replies: Let’s see how we get on. Why such a long delivery
period? This is our position. We need delivery of six weeks
maximum, with four weeks for installation. I’m sorry, but I can’t
accept eight weeks. You’ll have to do better than that, I’m afraid. I’m
afraid I can’t increase the delivery period any further. I have my
instructions. May I make a suggestion? If you can promise delivery in
six weeks, then we may be able to talk about further order. Let’s go
through the terms: six weeks for delivery and four weeks for
installation; and the decision about the next order to be taken by the
26th. Agreed?
Exercise 2 – Ten rules for negotiating
a 4; b 6; c 1; d 8; e 2; f 5; g 7; h 3.
Exercise 3 – When things get difficult
5 Would you like me to go through that again? B. I’ll have to come
back to you on this. C. Could you give me a moment to do some
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calculations? D. What is the basis of calculation for transport? E.
I’m just looking. Could you bear with me a moment? F. The
figure for installation costs? What is the basis for calculation? G.
I’m sorry, could you go through it again?
Exercise 4 – Vocabulary for contracts
5 agreement; parties; sections; clauses; conditions. b. provides for,
binding; abide by/comply with; breach c. arbitration; litigation;
compromise; court; out of court d. term; terminate.
Exercise 5 – Licensing terms
(in order): have the legal rights over; let you have; permission;
country; an immediate payment; 5 % to pay; yearly bottom limit;
period; further years; when it ended; illegal copying; official
manufacturer; ask for a ban; copier’s.
Module 6
Discussion
A personal choice of qualities: D, F, H, and J.
Vocabulary
a. 1 resources 2 manageable 3 setting, communicate
4 supervise, performance 5 achieved 6 board of directors
7. innovations
5 Common collocations include: allocate resources (or people);
communicate information or decisions; develop strategies (or
people or subordinates); make decisions; measure performance;
motivate people; perform jobs; set objectives; and supervise
subordinates.
Module 7
Vocabulary
1 C; 2 E; 3 B; 4 A; 5 F; 6 G; 7 D
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Reading
A functional structure
B matrix structure
C line structure
D staff position
Describing company structure
Here is a short description of the organization chart illustrated.
The chief Executive Officer reports to the President and the Board of
Directors. The company is divided into five major departments:
Production, Marketing, Finance, Research & Development, and
Human Resources. The Marketing Department is subdivided into
Market Research, Sales and Advertising & Promotions. The Finance
Department contains both Financial Management and Accounting.
Sales consists of two sections, the Northern and Southern Regions,
whose heads report to the Sales Manager, who is accountable to the
Marketing Manager.
Module 8
Vocabulary
a. 1 subcontractor 2 component
3 outsourcing or contracting out 4 capacity 5 plant
6 location 7 inventory 8 lead time
b. 1 A and E 2 C 3D 4 A and E 5 A and E 6D
7F 8E 9F 10 E 11 B 12 E 13 B 14 C and E
15 B and F
Reading
1 component 2 subcontractor 3 inventory 4 outsourcing
5 location 6 plants 7 capacity 8 lead times
Reading
1. What is a product? / The definition of a product.
2. Brand names.
3. Product lines and product mixes.
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4. Line-stretching and line-filling.
Vocabulary
1 credit facilities 2 warranty or guarantee 3 shelf
4 brand-switchers 5 (product) life cycle 6 profitability
7 opportunities 8 market share 9 image 10 niche
Module 9
Vocabulary
1A 2I 3F 4H 5D 6J 7E 8B 9C
10 G
Reading
Paragraph 1 – the selling and marketing concepts
Paragraph 2 – identifying market opportunities
Paragraph 3 – the importance of market research
Paragraph 4 – the marketing mix
Paragraph 5 – company-to-company marketing
Comprehension
8. Customer needs; 2. Market; 3. Coordinated marketing; 4. Profits
through customer satisfaction
Vocabulary
1 word-of-mouth advertising 2 institutional or prestige advertising
3 advertising agencies 4 an account 5 an advertising budget
6 a brief 7 advertising campaign
8 target customers or target market 9 media planners
10 the threshold effect 11 the comparative-parity method
12 counter-cyclical advertising
Discussion
The numbers of respodents who agreed with the statements were as
follows:
1. 90% 2. 72% 3. 85% 4. 51% 5. 41% 6. 49% 7. 60% 8. 57%
Reading
1 target 2 awareness 3 medium 4 tactics
5 trial 6 maturity 7 aimed 8 loyalty 9 advertising
10 channel
Summarizing
1 When a new product is launched, the producer has to inform
customers about its existence and develop brand awareness.
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2 Promotion is one of the four elements of the marketing mix; sales
promotions are one of the four different promotional tools.
3 The advantages of publicity include the fact that it is much cheaper
than advertising, and can have a better impact, because it seems that
people are more likely to read and believe publicity than advertising.
4 The four stages of the standard product life cycle (excluding the pre-
launched development stage) are introduction, growth, maturity and
decline.
5 Reasons to offer temporary price reductions include attracting price-
conscious brand-switchers, offsetting a promotion by a competitor,
and, for stores, attracting customers by way of ‘loss leaders’.
9. Sales promotions need not only be aimed at customers; they can
also be used with distributors, dealers and retailers, and with a
company’s sales force.
10. Apart from selling a company’s products, sales representatives
bring information back to a company from its customers,
including ideas for new products.
Vocabulary
1. competitors 2 word-of-mouth advertising 3 brand-switchers
4 points of sale 5 brand name 6 line-stretching 7 packaging
8 product improvement 9 media plan 10 packaging
Module 10
Reading
1 Market leaders
2 Expanding markets
3 Market challengers
4 Market followers
5 Establishing a niche / Dangers faced by market followers
Vocabulary
1 market share 2 promotions 3 monopoly
4 competitors 5 slogan 6 market segmentation 7 niche
8 differential advantage 9 turnover 10 recession
Vocabulary
1 to innovate (innovation) 2 to diversify (diversification)
3 to merge (a merger) 4 a raid 5 a takeover bid
6 horizontal integration 7 vertical integration 8 backward
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integration 9 forward integration 10 synergy
Summarizing
1 The fact that many large conglomerates’ assets were worth more
than their stock market valuation demonstrated that they were clearly
not maximizing stockholder value, i.e. giving their stockholders the
maximum possible return on their investment.
2 Raiders bought conglomerates in order to strip them of their assets,
i.e. to restructure them, split them up, and resell the pieces at a profit.
3 Raiders showed that the stock market did not necessarily value
companies’ assets correctly, especially land, buildings and pension
funds.
4 Raiders were particularly interested in companies with large cash
reserves, companies with successful subsidiaries that could be sold,
and companies in fields that are not sensitive to a recession.
5 Investors were prepared to lend money to finance LBOs because
they received a high rate of interest which more than compensated for
the risk that the bonds would not be repaid.
11. Raiders argue that the possibility of a buyout forces company
managers and directors to do their jobs well, and to use their
capital productively.
Vocabulary
1 charities 2 legitimacy 3 perfect competition 4 welfare
5 threatening 6 vitality 7 free enterprise 8 conforming
9 embodied 10 proponents
Module 11
Vocabulary
1B 2C 3D 4G 5A 6E 7F
Vocabulary
1 shareholders or stockholders 2 earnings or income 3 liabilities
4 turnover 5 assets 6 depreciation or amortization
7 debtors or accounts receivable 8 creditors or accounts
payable 9 stock or inventory 10 overheads or overhead
Reading
1 assets 2 stock or inventory 3 depreciation or
amortization 4 shareholders or stockholders 5 earnings or income
6 turnover 7 overheads or overhead 8 liabilities
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9 debtors or accounts receivable 10 creditors or accounts
payable
Vocabulary – Financial statements
1 turnover 2 overheads 3 depreciation 4 freehold properties
5 historical cost 6 debtors 7 cash in hand and at bank
8 corporation tax 9 net assets 10 called-up share capital
Reading
A The period of gold convertibility.
B Floating exchanges rates.
C The abolition of exchange controls.
D Intervention and managed floating exchange rates.
E The power of speculators and the collapse of the EMS.
F Why many business people would prefer a single currency.
G The introduction of the single European currency.
Comprehension
1 False 2 False 3 True 4 False
5 True 6 True 7 True 8 False
Vocabulary
1. 1B 2D 3A 4C 5F 6E
2. 1 adjust 2 convert 3 abolish 4 suspend
5 fluctuate 6 diverge
Module 12
Vocabulary
1 overdraft 2 credit card 3 cash dispenser or ATM
4 loan 5 standing order or direct debit 6 mortgage 7 cash card
8 home banking 9 current or checking account 10 deposit or
time or notice account
Reading
1 Commercial banking
2 Investment banking
3 Universal banking
4 Interest rates
5 Eurocurrencies
Vocabulary
201
1. 1 deposit 2 foreign currencies 3 yield 4 liquidity
5 maturity 6 underwrite 7 takeover 8 merger
9 stockbroking 10 portfolio management 11 deregulation
12 conglomerate 13 blue chip 14 solvency 15 collateral
12. Common collocation include: charge interest; do business;
exchange currencies; issue bonds; make loans; make profits; offer
advice; offer loans; pay interest; raise funds; receive deposits;
underwrite security issues
Vocabulary
1B 2A 3A 4B 5C 6A 7B 8C 9C
10 B
Reading
A The functions of taxation.
B Advantages and disadvantages of different tax systems.
C Tax evasion.
D Avoiding tax on salaries.
E Avoiding tax on profits.
Comprehension
1True
2True
3True
4False
5False
6 False
7True
Vocabulary
1 depreciation 2 disincentive 3 regressive 4 consumption
5 self-employed 6 national insurance 7 perks
8 tax shelters 9 tax-deductible 10 tax havens
Module 13
Vocabulary
1 liability 2 creditor 3 bankrupt 4 assets
5 to liquidate 6 liabilities 7 to put up capital
8 venture capital 9 founders 10 premises
11 underwrite 12 dividend
Vocabulary
1 mutual fund 2 portfolio 3 stockbroker 4 blue chip
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5 defensive stock 6 growth stock 7 market-maker
8 institutional investors 9 inside share-dealing
Vocabulary
1H 2B 3A 4C 5I 6E 7F 8D 9J
10 G
Vocabulary
1F 2E 3A 4B 5G 6C 7D
Vocabulary
1B 2A 3F 4C 5E 6D
Summarizing
1 The difference between futures and forward contracts is that futures
are standardized deals and forwards are individual ‘over-the-counter’
agreements between two parties.
2 Producers and buyers often choose to hedge because this allows
them to guarantee prices for several months.
3 Speculators can make money on currency futures if they correctly
anticipate exchange rate appreciations or depreciations or interest rate
changes.
4 If you believe that a share price will rise, possible option strategies
include buying a call, which you will be able to sell at a profit, and
writing (selling) a put, which will never be exercised, so you earn the
premium.
5 On the contrary, if you think a share price will fall, possible option
strategies include buying a put, so you will be able to sell your shares
at above the market price, and writing a call, which will never be
exercised, so you earn the premium.
6 The risk with currency and interest rate swaps is that the exchange
and interest rates may change unfavourably.
Vocabulary
Appreciate – depreciate
Call – put
Discount – premium
Drought – flood
Floating – fixed
Hedging – speculation
Spot market – futures market
Strike price – market price
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The word ‘premium’ is used twice with two different meanings in the
text. ‘At a premium’ means above the nominal or market price;
premium also means the price of an option contract.
Extra Readings
(Industry Profile and Career Overview from WetFeet.com)
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or services, to vote for a political cause or candidate, or to invest in a
company. They often base advertising or publicity campaigns on
market research, which is typically gathered by independent
companies that specialize in customer interviews, focus groups, and
surveys.
Trends
Consolidation
Like so many other industries, advertising and public relations firms
have experienced a lot of consolidation in recent years, as companies
join forces to lower costs and stay competitive in the global
marketplace. In advertising, bigger size means more clout with media
outlets, and therefore lower advertising costs. This trend is also a
result of the fact that by owning several different advertising agencies,
a single holding company can control several competing accounts
without conflict of interest.
Account Planning
Account planning—also known as strategic planning—was
developed in English ad agencies in the 1960s and 1970s. It took a
while, but in recent years the American advertising industry has
discovered account planning in a big way. Account planning is a
discipline that aims at increasing understanding of the consumer.
Today, account planning is such an integral part of many American ad
agencies that it’s the account planners who do most of the strategizing
on behalf of clients, rather than the account management staff.
Targeted Marketing
Computer databases let advertisers store detailed information about
each of their customers. On-demand printing lets advertisers
customize brochures to individual customers. E-mail and automated
direct mailing let advertisers reach individual customers
economically. So, for the first time, the advertising industry is
learning how to create ads like smart bombs, capable of delivering a
customized message to a precise target. That means that technological
expertise is increasingly important within advertising agencies and, to
a lesser extent, PR firms.
Though boutique agencies are growing in number and revenue, the big
names continue to handle most of the accounts—and earn most of the
dollars. They also are the primary source of employment
opportunities. In addition to the size of the firm, you'll need to think
about its location, its client list, and the kind of advertising it does:
branding vs. promotional, general vs. specific industries, all media
versus specific media.
In the old days, being big meant being corporate and account-driven.
Though that’s still often the case, it’s not the rule it once was. One
reason is that advertising has changed, with many advertisers now
recognizing the value of catchy creative work. Another is that big
companies now own what were until recently independent shops
known for strong creative. Omnicom, for instance, owns Goodby
Silverstein, and Interpublic owns the Lowe Group.
Smaller Shops
While a lot of hot shops have been snatched up by the big global
holding companies, there are still plenty of smaller shops—some with
as few as five employees. Often these are creative boutiques—
agencies started by people from bigger agencies who have hung out
their own shingle in order to follow their vision of what makes good
advertising.
Interactive Agencies
Interactive agencies specialize in online marketing and advertising.
This includes everything from concepting, designing, and placing
banner ads to designing corporate websites to developing e-commerce
solutions for corporations. This segment of the industry has been
devastated in recent times. As Corporate America cut back on
advertising expenditures, online-ad click-through rates plummeted—
resulting in dismal online-advertising revenues. But the segment looks
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to be on the rebound, as advertisers try out new online strategies with
a newly realistic perspective on what advertising on the Internet can
and cannot do.
Public Relations
Firms that specialize in providing PR services include Edelman,
Ketchum PR, and Hill and Knowlton (owned by WPP). Internally, one
difference between PR and ad agencies is that PR firms tend to
organize themselves around practice areas, such as public affairs,
investor relations, labor relations, crisis management, entertainment,
media relations, consumer-product marketing, and corporate-
reputation management. Smaller PR firms, like ad agencies, may
specialize in a particular field, such as the Internet, health care,
telecommunications, or consumer-product marketing.
Nonagency Opportunities
Beyond the traditional ad and PR agencies, there are a number of
other job sources in this field. Research firms, such as IRI
(Information Resources, Inc.), Nielsen (of TV-ratings fame), Gallup,
and J.D. Powers all measure the success of agency campaigns. Other
firms specialize in certain aspects of the advertising world, such as
direct marketing or promotions. Although some of these are
independent, others are owned by big players.
Job Prospects
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The advertising industry has taken a big hit due to recent economic
events, particularly the decline of the dot coms and the overall
recession. Remember all those expensive dot-com Super Bowl ads
from a few years back? A lot of those companies are no longer in
business—and, like their more-traditional bricks-and-mortar
Corporate America cousins, those that are still around are much less
willing to plunk down millions of dollars on advertising.
The first thing job seekers should know about advertising: It isn't easy
to break into, and it doesn't pay well when you start. Second, expect to
work in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, or Los Angeles,
where the biggest agencies are headquartered. In PR, too, you'll
typically start at the bottom (an internship is a favorite way to break
into the industry), and you probably won't make a huge salary to start,
but the work can be interesting and rewarding.
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Press Release = sheet giving news about something which is sent
to newspapers and TV and radio stations so they can use the
information
Speech writing = scrierea discursurilor
Ghost writing = the writing of a book or a story for another person
who then says it is their own work
Investor relations = the relations with investors – the person who
gives money to a company, business or bank in order to get profit
Holding company = companie holding / a company which owns
more than 50 % of the shares in another company / company
which exists only or mainly to own shares in subsidiary
companies (Am. Proprietary company)
Strategic planning = previziune strategică / planning the future
work of a company
Boutique – agency = agenţie tip boutique (de mici dimensiuni)
Marketing collateral = auxiliare de marketing
Dot coms = a company that primarily does business via the
Internet
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Customize = to lok special or unique
To a lesser extend = într-o mai mică măsură
Revenue = venit
Fold up = if an organization folds or folds up it closes becose it does
not have enough money to continue
Snatched up by = a fi apucat, înhăţat
To hung up your own shingle = to start your own business, especially
as a doctor or a lawyer
Cut back = a micşora, a reduce
Click-trough = care se accesează prin click-ul mouse-lui computerului
Rates = cotaţii
Plummet = to suddenly and quickly go down in value or amount
To be on the rebound = a-şi reveni
Come up with = a concepe, a veni cu ceva (o idee)
In-house = interior
Due to = datorită
To plunk down = a arunca
Bricks-and-mortar corporates = “clădiri”, companiile care îşi
desfăşoară activitatea în mod tradiţional
Add in = a adăuga
Currently = în prezent, acum
Exceedingly = grozav de, extrem de, foarte
Hires = slujbă, angajare
Grunt work = the hard, uninteresting part of a piece of work (donkey-
work)
Mock = model, simulare
Mock-up = model of a new product for testing or to show to possible
buyers
Internship = poziţie internă
Rewarding = plin de satisfacţii
Advertising
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Careers in advertising can be lucrative. You might go into the
business side of account or account planning; the creative side, where
you'll create ads (many people interested in visual arts, design—
particularly graphic design—and editorial and writing careers join ad
agencies as creatives) or media planning or production. Some people
interested in advertising may find they prefer public relations, where
you'll have a similar goal, though your means will be quite different.
Advertisers play a role in shaping the ads that shape our culture. The
work you do will be determined partly by the type of agency you're in
and your role within it. You'll work in one of five departments—
account management, account planning, media, production, or
creative.
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Account management is the clients' primary contact. There you'll
juggle a number of projects, and ensure that they come in on time, on
budget, and on strategic target.
Lucrative = profitabil
214
Suntan lotion = loţiune pentru bronzat
Extol = a preţui foarte mult
Juggle = a jongla
Devise = a inventa a plănui / to plan or invent a way of doing
something, especially something complicated and clever
Pitches = to try to make a business agreement, or to sell something by
saying how good it is
Sales pitch = what a person says about a product to persuade people to
buy it
Resilient = rezistent
Public Relations
"Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some hire public
relations officers," said the historian, Daniel J. Boorstin. His point? In
public relations, your job is to make your client seem great without
anybody knowing you were trying.
Usually, you'll spend much of your day working with the media.
You'll make phone calls, issue press releases, and plan events.
Reporters will complain, perhaps, but in a world glutted with
information, they rely on public-relations practitioners for information
they don't have the time or budget to gather themselves.
Account Management
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Account management combines sales with customer service. Account
management professionals work with clients to ensure they’re getting
the most out of the products and services their employers sell—and to
persuade clients to continue to do business (preferably more and more
business) with their employers over time. In high tech as well as in
more traditional manufacturing industries, this means making sure that
clients are happy with your company’s products. And many service-
oriented businesses such as advertising and public relations agencies
provide similar support to their customers.
What You'll Do
Account management acts as a liaison between a company and its
clients. Account managers work closely with customers to determine
the customers' needs. Then they make sure their company develops
products or services to meet those requirements.
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In advertising, a business hires an agency to come up with an ad
campaign. The account manager works with the client to determine
the type and scope of the campaign. He or she then communicates
those concepts to the ad agency's creative team. As the project
progresses, the account manager makes sure the campaign meets the
client's specifications.
Promises made to customers must be kept. You can't offer more than
your company can deliver. You need to know exactly what services
you can provide and how quickly a project can be completed.
You will need to learn as much as you can about your clients. The
more industry insight you bring to the table, the better. Read up on
changing business trends and strategies. Your knowledge base will
attract new accounts and keep the ones you already have.
Some clients will be harder to work with than others. You may need to
hold a client's hand as you walk him or her through a project. When a
deadline looms, long hours may be required. Whatever the case, an
account manager seeks the best solution for his or her client and
employer.
Business Development
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Business development (also known as biz dev) is exactly what it
sounds like: It involves figuring out how to build or develop a
business. You can find business development jobs in all industries—at
everything from tech start-ups to huge pharmaceuticals companies.
What the work entails depends on how established a company is and
what its business model is.
What You'll Do
Business development people constantly ask: "What ten things will
have the biggest positive impact on my company's business, and how
can we make them happen?" Their objective is to expand the market
reach or revenue of their companies in ways that make the most of
their companies' resources and capabilities.
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General Management
What You'll Do
For the most part, general managers control how an organization
operates. They develop corporate structures and policies, direct and
coordinate employee activities, find and develop alliances with
suitable business partners, raise money to grow their organizations,
and make systematic changes, as needed, to keep their businesses
profitable.
GMs are expected to see and understand the big picture. The health of
a company rests firmly on their shoulders. They develop strategies
that will make their organizations successful, year after year.
While the CEO and president remain committed to the overall mission
of the organization, other positions have more specialized
responsibilities. Some examples are the chief operations officer
(COO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief technical officer (CTO),
and general manager (GM). Underneath them are department heads
who run specific areas of an organization, such as marketing or human
resources. They in turn hire and oversee managers who handle the
day-to-day supervision of lower-level employees.
GMs can expect to be in the spotlight most of the time. Every decision
they make and every policy they set is subject to scrutiny by those
around them. There will be no place to hide. CEOs and presidents of
large organizations are the stars of the corporate world. They are given
as little privacy as their Hollywood movie-star counterparts.
The trade press follows a GM's every move closely. Employees and
shareholders want to know what makes GMs tick, what they do in
their spare time, and how much money they made last year. As long as
profits are up, they can do no wrong. But even a slight blip in the
markets can change public perception. They are often the first to be let
go. However, the public dismissal of a GM will be padded by a large
settlement offer and the GM's equity in the company—the so-called
"golden parachute."
Marketing
When you think about cola, what do you think? Coke? Pepsi? That's
due to marketing. What comes to mind when you think of computers?
Dell? Apple? IBM? That's no coincidence. Those companies have
spent a lot of money so that you'll associate a generic product such as
a computer with a brand name.
What You'll Do
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Broadly speaking, marketing is the intermediary function between
product development and sales. In a nutshell, it's the marketer's job to
ensure that consumers look beyond price and functionality when
they're weighing consumption options.
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Project Management
What You'll Do
Project managers live and breathe by their schedules. In most cases, a
project is planned down to the daily or even hourly level, and a formal
schedule is developed using the Critical Path Method (CPM), a
precedence-based technique that determines the sequence in which
things must happen. Milestones punctuate most project schedules,
indicating the required completion of various steps.
All project managers are familiar with at least one CPM scheduling
software application, such as Microsoft Project, Primavera, Scitor
Project Scheduler, AEC FastTrack, CA-SuperProject, or Kidasa
Milestones. Many scheduling applications are tailored to specific
industries or project types, but all use CPM precedence methodology.
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Most scheduling programs also help allocate resources, another big
part of a project manager's job. If you are running a software
development project, for example, you have to know how many
engineers will be available and how many hours they'll need to work.
Likewise, if you're running a construction project involving cranes and
excavators that must be leased on an hourly basis, you'll need to know
when to have those machines on site to get the most work done for the
least money. Balancing limited labor, materials, and other resources is
a difficult task that earns a good project manager top dollar.
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HR has come a long way since the ’60s and ’70s when it was labeled a
“touchy-feely” job. At the time, clerical staff tended to be assigned
human resources tasks; they became proficient in these tasks, and
moved up through the ranks sans business strategy skills. Although
HR is about working with employees, a successful HR manager’s
mission is to balance the overall company’s business requirements
with individual employee needs. It’s often the case that HR is charged
with making the company’s goal of profitability central to his or her
business planning.
Because all workplaces need at least some HR support, the need for
HR staff exists in virtually all industries. HR employees can be hired
directly into a company or organization, or they can work for a third-
party outsourcing company.
Trends
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Growing Reliance on Technology
HR departments are increasingly relying on software applications and
Internet access for two main reasons: to streamline administrative
tasks (reduce clerical tasks or paperwork) and gain access to more
information key to recruiting and setting employee policy. Many
companies now rely on public websites as an important recruiting tool
for collecting resumes and disseminating information to potential hires
about the company’s management, history, and culture. Company
networks and e-mail also make it simpler and faster for HR to
communicate with and distribute information to employees.
Automating systems that were once clunky and slow paper processes
has freed up HR administrators to focus on tasks more directly tied to
the company’s business goals.
In-House HR Staff
HR employees deal with all of these issues: staffing (everything from
sourcing to orientation to retention), employee relations,
compensation and benefits, training, and information systems. In
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larger organizations, several HR people may work on each of these
functions, further subdivided into specialty areas—for example, the
comps and benefits staff may include specialists in fields such as
payroll, health insurance, and 401(k) plans. In smaller organizations,
the HR person may wear many hats, but almost every company in the
country has somebody on board to handle HR issues. As a job seeker,
one thing you'll want to evaluate is the relative importance of the HR
department to the companies you're considering. If the HR office is
still down in the basement, right next to the furnace, you may want to
cross that company off your list.
Staffing Firms
These firms replace or supplement in-house HR functions. They
include companies such as Manpower, Kelly, Interim, and smaller
organizations that focus on temporary positions, adding a fee to the
hourly rates of the candidates they place. It also includes the
executive-recruitment firms (Heidrick & Struggles, Spencer Stuart,
and others) that place higher-level candidates into full-time positions
and charge clients a hefty percentage of the candidate's first-year
salary. Jobs in these organizations usually require you to be a sharp
judge of people and a good salesperson and negotiator. You also need
the ability to think beyond the client's immediate needs. HR
outsourcing providers may specialize in functional areas. For example,
Manpower and Adecco provide temporary staffing; Korn-Ferry
International and Heidrick & Struggles offer executive recruitment;
ADP provides payroll processing; Right Associates offers
outplacement consulting.
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Players here include service bureaus, such as ADP and Paychex for
payroll, and IT firms such as PeopleSoft and Resumix that offer
software and systems for operating the company's payroll, employee
information, human resources management, and recruitment systems.
HRIS has much in common with IT jobs elsewhere in a company,
requiring the ability to work with users in defining needs and with
vendors in understanding the capabilities and weaknesses of their
wares. Success in this division also requires technical knowledge
about systems and software and an ability to plan and implement
training.
Job Prospects
Another area of expected growth isn’t an industry per se, but rather
the area of specialized HR business services. The staffing industry is
rated fourth by the BLS as an area of expected growth by the end of
the decade. Both BLS statistics and studies by SHRM indicate that
specialized third-party firms dealing in compensation, legal services,
and benefits will also grow.
Human Resources
What You'll Do
Chances are, the first thing that comes to mind when you think of an
HR administrator is someone responsible for screening and
interviewing potential employees. Well, this is one of those times
when perception is reality. Ninety-nine percent of HR workers
responding to a 2001 industry survey said they both conducted
searches for new staff and ran interviews. Most of the survey’s
respondents were in-house HR staff, but when you add to this the
more than 6,000 people working in personnel outsourcing companies,
you’ve accounted for a healthy chunk of what the majority of HR
experts do.
Trends
Blog-a-Thon
Back in the 1990s, Web pundits hyped the ability of the Internet to
bring people together on a one-to-many basis—to give Internet users a
voice they didn’t have previously, and thus make the world a smaller
place. It might not be doing quite that, but the promise of one-to-many
connections is being fulfilled these days by the weblog phenomenon.
Weblogs—“blogs,” for short—are a kind of online diary, in which the
author, or “blogger,” writes regular postings about whatever interests
him or her, often including hyperlinks to other Web pages containing
information about the topic at hand. Now Web pundits are making the
claim that blogs are going to change the face of journalism; again,
we’ll have to wait and see on that claim. But there’s no doubt blogs
are proliferating—and that even journalists and newspapers are getting
in on the act.
Publishers
Online publications make money by selling advertising or
subscriptions or both. Most of the players are losing money, and
widespread profitability seems unlikely in the near future. Many
players in this field are online ventures of already-established media
brands. Some examples include The Wall Street Journal Interactive
Edition, a subscription-based version of the leading business
newspaper; and ESPN.com, an extension of the sports cable channel.
Vendors
Vendors make money by selling goods or services. The best-known
online seller of goods is Amazon.com. Mail-order companies with
websites—Lands' End, for example—fall into this category. Other
sellers provide services: E*TRADE and Charles Schwab act as
stockbrokers, Expedia acts as a travel agent, and FreeMarkets creates
customized business-to-business online auctions for large buyers of
industrial parts, raw materials, and commodities.
Communities
Online communities serve as centers for people who share special
interests. GeoCities is one of the largest, hosting a number of
communities with interests as varied as fashion, golf, and government.
Other examples of community sites include Motley Fool for small
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investors; BabyCenter, a site for parents; iVillage, a site for women;
and PlanetOut, a site for gays and lesbians. All of these sites
encourage users to sign up for free memberships by offering access to
chat, newsletters, and bulletin boards; some offer members the
opportunity to construct Web pages, which then reside in the
community's site and serve as a draw for more members. Like many
other Internet concerns, these sites used to make money from
advertising and alliances, but are trying to pump up revenue streams
like e-commerce and subscriptions.
Job Prospects
This industry is in the doldrums. All those jobs that were created by
hot start-ups a few years back? Well, most of those start-ups have
disappeared, and even those that haven’t have cut back on staff. The
result: A tough road to hoe for job seekers. But while there’s little
demand for new hires in business development, marketing, research,
and operations in today’s tight job market, there is still a need for
good programmers and engineers.
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Publishing is changing awfully fast for a well-established industry that
began several thousand years ago, five hundred years ago, or in the
1880s, depending on whether you date it from the first use of papyrus
and stone tablets, the standardization of movable type, or the invention
of the Linotype machine.
Trends
Pop Journalism
As circulation numbers become increasingly important in today's tight
market, even the most prestigious news publications are being accused
of pandering to popular taste. Breaking from the legendary editorial
tradition of choosing worthwhile topics in spite of general appeal,
online journals and print publications alike are deferring to the
numbers in setting layout, content, and tone standards. USA Today
was a pioneer in the easy-to-swallow strategy: Peppered with brightly
colored photos and accessible information in graph form and sold in
coinboxes designed to look like television sets, the daily newspaper
achieved immediate success (and disdain) as a prototype of the
TV/newspaper/comic book hybrid.
Consolidation
At the same time as the Web is making it easier for unique journalistic
voices to be heard, the companies at the top of the heap in the industry
are getting ever-larger. In recent years, AOL swallowed Time Warner,
Tribune acquired Time Mirror, Gannett acquired Central Newspapers,
and McGraw-Hill acquired Tribune Education. Often this M&A
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activity is accompanied by a lowering of costs (read: layoffs)—so be
aware that in publishing, as in most any other industry these days,
there are very few jobs whose future is 100 percent secure.
Newspapers
Newspapers remain the biggest segment of the publishing world,
accounting for nearly 40 percent of the industry's revenue. The big
players here are Gannett, Knight-Ridder, Times Mirror, Dow Jones,
The New York Times, and The Washington Post. Most of these also
own substantial interests in broadcasting, cable, and new media.
Traditional newspapers, like all traditional publications, are entering a
new era: Most conventional newspapers boast online content on their
own websites or those of partners. Insiders even foresee personalized
news services in which customers will subscribe to writings by
particular journalists.
Magazines
This is a multibillion-dollar industry that expands each year, with top
publishers such as AOL Time Warner (Time, People, Sports
Illustrated, Fortune), McGraw-Hill (Business Week) and the
Washington Post (Newsweek) leading in the Fortune rankings. TV
Guide still outstrips them all in sales, and television news programs'
increasing influence on the magazine format of glitzier features
suggests the possibility of more links between the two media (to the
chagrin of serious readers). Niche publications focusing on health,
nutrition, travel, golf, and such are a growing presence, too—they've
been thriving for the past 20 years and are slated for even more
impressive growth.
Books
In the past, book publishers acted as gatekeepers, offering authors the
only viable means of producing books and persuading stores to sell
them. But the proliferation of the Web and the publishing alternatives
it offers are challenging this staid Goliath. As technology forges
ahead, this segment lags behind—reluctance to embrace new media is
common among traditional publishers—and cynics allege that the
death of print is approaching. But having recovered from similar
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catastrophes, such as the introduction of radio, television, and CD-
ROM, the book publishing industry is realistically predicted to
weather the storm.
Online Information
This is an ever-expanding universe. A quick browse on the Web will
produce a spectrum of publications, including encyclopedias, daily
journals, interactive newspapers, and even novels. The rapid
dissemination rate and global capabilities of this far-reaching medium
exceed traditional methods and offer information that can be easily
updated. Revenue is generated by advertisements, subscriptions, and
e-commerce partnerships, but long-term profitability is yet to be
determined. The biggest players are well-established publications that
support an online presence, such as the Wall Street Journal Interactive
Edition, and focused content-based sites like CNet.
Job Prospects
Publishing is still one of the bright and shining career options for
humanities majors and people who love to read, think, and discuss
their ideas, but it will continue to be one of the more difficult
professions to break into. An internship or apprenticeship is often the
best idea for recent grads—you'll gain valuable experience and make
industry connections. Seasoned reporters concede that whatever one's
education, on-the-job experience is where most skills are cultivated.
Once you enter the field, there are myriad possibilities due to the
diverse interests of corporate employers.
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The diversification of the media giants has had interesting
repercussions on the job market. As recently as 15 years ago, if you
began life as a print reporter, you did not generally end up in
television or book publishing. If you covered hard news stories, you
did not moonlight in PR and other promotional copy. The mix is much
more fluid now. And although a few old-school journalists decry these
developments, they make your job prospects more interesting than
they once would have been.
Broadcasting
What Broadcasting Is
From world news to local weather and the Top 40 countdown,
broadcasting generally encompasses any audio or visual programming
that is disseminated to a large number of radio or television receivers.
Although that definition could be expanded to include Web-based
media outlets, this career profile focuses on opportunities in radio and
television news production and station management.
What You'll Do
Broadcasting is a lot like other entertainment sectors. At the end of the
day, a station's success depends on its ability to entertain its audience,
or satisfy its audience's hunger for information, or both.
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Announcers, producers, directors, and everyone else must work
together to tailor a station's programming to attract the largest possible
audience, which in turn attracts advertising revenue or, in the case of
nonprofit stations, public funding and support. In smaller markets,
stations may also be responsible for producing ads.
In truth, the glamour jobs in broadcasting are few and far between,
and the competition for entry-level jobs is fierce. Many jobs in fact are
unpaid internships, and even permanent positions don't often pay very
well, and require grueling hours. If it's money you're after, you might
have more luck teaching in a public school.
Those with more realistic goals, however, can find creative and
engaging careers in broadcasting. Not everyone in the business gets
the chance to interview the president, but many more are satisfied by
the opportunities to speak with local political figures, produce new
programs and commercials, and get intimately involved in their
communities.
What You'll Do
Editors and writers tell stories. Business writers tell stories about
companies and their management teams, organizational structures, and
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economic successes and failures. Feature writers tell stories about
celebrities, movies, and people doing different, sometimes unusual
things. Copywriters use language to convey a story about the benefits
of a brand or product.
Editors often start out as writers, and in many cases their role involves
substantial writing. However, their role also bridges the space between
writer and publication. They help writers craft stories, make sure
writers adhere to style guidelines and rules of grammar, and ensure
that every article is suitable for a particular publication. In their role,
they straddle management and production, managing writers and
budgets, setting deadlines, scheduling what will run and when, and
enforcing general editorial standards of quality.
Writing and editing careers vary widely. The subject, length, and style
of what one writes or edits are variables that depend on where one
works and what one has chosen to do.
Varieties of Opportunity
Editorial and writing careers span industries. Advertising agencies
hire copywriters to create compelling copy that will sell readers on a
brand. PR agencies use writers to create press releases, write annual
reports, draft speeches, and create op-eds (opinion pieces that PR
firms try to "place" in newspapers to reach target groups). Computer
software and hardware companies use technical writing and editors to
develop documentation and technical information on software and
hardware products.
Most jobs require both writing and editing skills, though people
generally start off in a role more primarily writing-based or editing-
based. As a truism goes, all good editors are writers, and all good
writers are editors.
Bottom line, though, is that even if your job does not bring you into
contact with the creative members of the industry, the glamour rubs
off, lending an aura of excitement to mundane tasks that would be
boring in any other industry. Poring over Nielsen ratings all day
doesn't sound so bad when you describe it to your dinner companions
as analyzing the relative sex appeal of Jerry Springer, Oprah Winfrey,
and Dan Rather.
Trends
Vertical Integration
A few enormous conglomerates dominate the entire entertainment
industry, each controlling television, film, publishing, new media, and
music businesses under one umbrella. Often, they own professional
sports franchises as part of the package. Congress has encouraged this
integration by easing restrictions on how many television stations one
company can own and by passing the 1996 Telecommunications Act,
which lifted an important ban on telecom companies developing new
media content.
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In terms of online music file-sharing, the industry has now turned its
sights on technologies such as those offered by KaZaa and
Audiogalaxy, hoping to prevent them from allowing the sharing of
copyrighted songs. In addition to citing the legal protections due to
copyrighted materials and initiating legal battles with file-sharing
providers, some big entertainment companies have resorted to taking
over or partnering with these companies to ensure they make money
from the sharing of copyrighted files: BMG, for instance, partnered
with Napster, and Vivendi took over MP3. Others are banding
together to provide their own online services: AOL, EMI, and
Bertelsmann, for instance, formed MusicNet. And a good chunk of
new music products these days come with copyright-protection
software that limits users’ abilities to copy files.
Despite the blurring lines between sports, music, movies, cable, and
publishing—and the media behemoths that preside over them all—
these various forms of entertainment are distinct domains. And though
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at Time Warner you could conceivably enjoy a career that includes
working for the Atlanta Braves, Home Box Office, Six Flags theme
parks, and the Atlantic record label, most people choose one area and
stick with it. These worlds are closely knit, and whom you know and
whom you owe—and who owes you—counts for a great deal,
particularly when you're looking for work.
Film
In the days of celluloid movie factories, the major studios controlled
the project from the earliest script draft to the opening night at Radio
City. Most films were completed in under a month and cost as little as
$200,000 to produce. Today there are six major entertainment
companies: News Corp, AOL Time Warner, Vivendi, Sony, Viacom,
and Walt Disney. Known as the Big Six, they all have their roots in
the original Hollywood studios: MGM, Warner Brothers, Paramount,
and others. But the modern studios control Hollywood in a different
way now: They solicit projects, provide the financing, and make the
deals with thousands of smaller production companies. The indies
(independents) remain only marginally profitable—and are often
owned by one of the Big Six. (Miramax, for example, is a Disney
subsidiary.)
Music
Like most movies, music is often created by committee and on the
whim of the record label. But the artists retain some control. At least,
some do; the Billboard charts always seem to have room for packaged
products like Menudo, the Monkees, and N'Sync. The 1996
Telecommunications Act lifted restrictions on how many radio
stations a company can own and the ensuing domination by
conglomerates resulted in more standardized (and oft-criticized)
playlists nationwide.
Beyond the Top 40, music is also big business in conjunction with the
advertising industry: Whoever owns the rights to songs used in big
national ad campaigns stands a good chance of making even more
than the record company or the artist. Sony is currently the
acknowledged leader in the business. Other top music companies are
Time Warner (Atlantic), EMI (Virgin, Capitol), Vivendi (PolyGram,
Universal), and Bertelsmann (Arista, RCA).
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Television
The old news in television is the emergence of cable, the decline in
network viewership, and the surprising success of Fox TV, the only
new network to date that has threatened the supremacy of reigning
giants CBS, NBC, and ABC. The more interesting and pertinent news
for job seekers is the slow but inexorable digital convergence of
computer technology, the Internet, and television, and also the 1996
Telecommunications Act, which allows phone companies and power
utilities, among others, to create and distribute entertainment content.
These developments opened the floodgates for telecommunications
and technology companies to enter the competition—Pacific Telesis
(NYNEX and SBC), AT&T (TCI), Intel, and Compaq have become
strong players. Also building on this technology, Microsoft and other
companies are melding broadband cable and electronic media to
enhance Internet capabilities.
Sports
When world-class athletes cry, "Show me the money," team owners,
managers, agents, and sponsors dance to the tune. The popularity of
professional sports teams is phenomenal, and sky-high revenues are
pulled in through a variety of avenues including advertising,
sponsorships, team name and logo licensing, ticket sales, and
worldwide broadcasts.
Job Prospects
Keep in mind that this could be the most competitive industry out
there. Getting a job in sports or entertainment is a difficult undertaking
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that requires persistence, intense networking, and good luck. Unless
your dad knows Ted Turner, don't count on landing even an entry-
level slot easily. Every year, hundreds upon thousands of job seekers
flood New York and Los Angeles hoping to become celebrities, and
the majority of them wind up waiting tables to make ends meet And, if
they decide to stay in show biz, they eventually end up taking jobs in
production or administration. Take heart in the fact, though, that
companies can't ignore talent. If you prove that you've got the skills to
thrive in a challenging and nontraditional work environment, then
you're in for a thrilling ride.
Careers in this industry usually start at the entry level; agents, personal
managers, and studio executives usually got their start as lowly
assistants. Once launched on their careers, people in the entertainment
industry tend to change jobs frequently, and contacts in the industry
are crucial.
To get a job in the music industry, you'll have to follow a path almost
as long and complex as that from the first stirrings of a tune in a
musician's head to the final song you hear every time you turn on the
radio. The important support jobs in the music industry are cover-art
production, promotional video production, publishing rights,
marketing and sales, and publicity—and then more publicity, and then
different publicity for radio, clubs, and both the mall stores and anti-
mall stores such as Tower Records and Virgin Records. If you're
interested in marketing to an online audience or the challenge of
developing better online audio, these are also job areas to explore. So
are MP3 players and DVDs, which are growing apace and are
gradually replacing CDs and videocassettes.
What It Is
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Manufacturing and production are relatively interchangeable terms for
making a product, including all of the processes involved in making it.
All products are manufactured and produced. The clothes you wear,
books you read, and computers you use were manufactured. So were
the textiles for the clothes, the paper for the books, and the
components of the computers.
What You'll Do
While the introduction of industrial automation technology has
reduced the number of blue collar and semiskilled positions in
manufacturing, the evolution of the manufacturing process itself has
opened up a wide range of opportunities for technicians, mechanical
and electrical engineers, industrial designers and managers.
But PLCs are just the beginning: Sophisticated robots and "intelligent"
computer software programs can now run entire factories, and skilled
programmers and software engineers are required to develop human-
machine interfaces (HMIs), which allow robots to communicate with
their human masters. That may sound like science fiction, but some of
the most advanced technology on earth is now used to produce vast
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quantities of consumer goods and industrial products for an exploding
global economy.
Sales
What You'll Do
The goal of today's salesperson is the same across all industries:
provide customers or clients with goods and services, thereby earning
money for the company that produces those items. What varies are the
seller's product, technique, income, and title. For example, people who
sell for their livelihood may go by the name of account executive,
broker, manufacturer's representative, or merchandiser (even the term
"relationship manager" is used in certain West Coast sets).
Wages vary greatly in the world of sales. Base pay may be literally
$0.00 per year for those confident enough to take a commission-only
position. But salaries fall all along the income spectrum, and earnings
at the high end can be in the six-figure range. Most sales positions
offer a small base salary and pay a commission on each deal.
Management positions generally command a reasonable base salary
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and don't earn commissions because managers usually aren't directly
responsible for sales.
Research
What You'll Do
All researchers share one primary objective: to uncover the meaning,
significance, causes, and effects of whatever subject they're
investigating. The work they do can have academic, commercial,
political, or scientific impact.
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researchers develop experiments and conduct trials to test their
hypotheses and gather new data.
That's no longer the case. Today's quality assurance (QA) and quality
control (QC) specialists can hold their heads high. In fact, QA and QC
professionals have the power to stop production, stop a shipment,
delay a website launch, and even demand personnel changes if quality
standards slip.
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What You'll Do
Quality assurance professionals work with business managers and
clients to develop policies, procedures, and programs to ensure the
quality of manufactured products. QC specialists are responsible for
employees' day-to-day adherence to quality programs. In Web
companies and software firms, quality assurance specialists diagnose
problems, recommend solutions, and determine if program
requirements have been met.
Asset Management
What You'll Do
Asset managers manage money—other people's money, and gobs of
it. Generally, they convert that money into assets—stocks, bonds,
derivatives, and other types of investments—and try to make that
money make more money as fast as possible. Mutual funds, for
instance, hire asset managers; so do corporations with lots of money
sitting around, banks, and high net-worth individuals.
Asset managers have one simple goal: to invest other people's money
wisely and profitably. Asset managers use a combination of
investment theory, quantitative tools, market experience, research, and
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plain dumb luck to pick investments for their portfolios, ranging from
high-risk stocks to commercial real estate to cash accounts.
Competition for jobs is fierce at all levels, but if you have strong
quantitative and analytical skills, good nerves, and can consistently
beat the market, then there's probably a place for you. Networking and
a single-minded pursuit of your goal are big helps, too.
Recommended Reading
The Mutual Fund Business, by Robert C. Pozen and Sandra D. Crane,
MIT Press (1998) is the first textbook devoted to the mutual fund
industry. It includes articles by various industry experts as well as case
studies and other exercises for the student. Coauthored by Fidelity
CEO Robert C. Pozen, the book includes an introduction to funds, a
history of funds and the laws that regulate them, a look into how fund
managers make and execute investment decisions, an explanation of
the marketing and back-office servicing of funds, and a series of
specialized topics, including fund globalization, technology issues,
and institutional investing. It makes an excellent introduction to the
industry as a whole.
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Mutual Funds & Brokerage Industry
But why lump together two previously distinct areas of the financial
services industry—securities brokerage and asset management?
Principally because the way your parents invested is not how most
people do it these days. More people invest in securities today than
ever before, and they have more choices. Not only are there more
investments to choose from, including stocks, bonds, real-estate trusts,
limited partnerships, and an ever-growing diversity of mutual funds;
there are also more ways to invest: full-service brokerages, discount
brokerages, and electronic trading for most of us; exclusive
opportunities such as hedge funds and venture capital funds for so-
called high net-worth individuals, such as multimillionaires, and
institutional investors, such as pension funds, insurance companies,
and university endowments.
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steeply during the 1990s. Brokerages and mutual funds are the two
primary means by which all these investments are made.
Trends
Fearful Investors
The struggling economy, an increasing number of examples of
corporate financial shenanigans, and a plummeting stock market have
combined to give investors cold feet—quite a change from the late
1990s, when everyone from the guy behind the counter at the corner
deli to your neighborhood pedicurist was talking about corporate
earnings and upcoming stock splits and looking forward to tearing
open the envelope containing their next brokerage-account statement.
Nowadays, individual investors are staying away from the market.
Which means fewer trades and fewer commission dollars for brokers,
and less money going into mutual funds, and thus lower commission
revenues for them as well. Unless the market turns around, the
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corporate-accounting scandals dry up and blow away, or the Bush
administration starts doing a better job of reassuring investors about
U.S. business prospects, it appears the new paradigm of softer
investment-services earnings will be around for a while. Which is not
good news for job seekers.
Brokerage
A broker acts as the intermediary between the buyer and seller in a
securities transaction. The buyer and seller, not the brokerage firm,
assume the risk. (If the firm acts as the principal or dealer, it deals
from its own account and assumes some of the risk itself.) Brokers
charge their clients a commission. A full-service firm such as Merrill
Lynch charges commissions up to several hundreds of dollars for
transactions but offers extras such as tailored research, strategy and
planning, and asset-management accounts—checking, credit
(including lending on margin), and brokerage, all in one convenient
package.
Mutual Funds
Whereas brokers act on investors' orders, mutual-fund managers raise
cash from shareholders and then invest it in stocks, bonds, money-
market securities, currencies, options, gold, or whatever else seems
likely to make money. Mutual funds often have a specific investment
focus—be it income, long-term growth, small cap, large cap, or
foreign companies. And managers are restricted in what kinds of
investments they can make. Compared to individual portfolios, funds
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hope to persuade investors they offer several advantages: professional
money management; liquidity; and more diversification than most
individuals can create or afford in a personal portfolio, particularly
now that switching between funds is allowed.
All investors share equally in the gains and losses of a fund, and
probably the most important factor in choosing one—whether to work
for or invest in—is your tolerance for risk. Bull markets tend to make
many funds look good, but a downward turn or a jump in interest rates
can have a significant negative impact that may take longer to correct
for a fund than in the nimble independent investor's portfolio.
Job Prospects
Corporate Finance
What You'll Do
Corporate finance includes two key functions: accounting and finance.
Retail Industry
Most of the retail industry's employees are salespeople and clerks, but
the industry also has opportunities for people interested in determining
what goods will be sold, getting these goods to the right place at the
right time, and managing the operations, finances, and administration
of retail companies. Retail executive-training programs are crammed
with energetic 20-somethings, all hoping to perform those functions as
sales and merchandise managers, buyers, and marketers at major retail
organizations, such as Ann Taylor, Macys, J.C. Penney, The Limited,
and Saks.
Trends
E-commerce
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Though websites carry only a miniscule percentage of retail
transactions, the number is growing. Many, though not all, major retail
organizations have online stores. Companies like Amazon.com, which
helped pioneer retail e-commerce, are being followed by bricks-and-
mortar and catalog retailers like J. Crew, which are expanding retail e-
commerce into new markets.
Department Stores
A few years ago, names like Sears, J.C. Penney's, Macy's, and
Montgomery Ward's dominated malls and downtowns all over
America. Over the last decade or so, however, department stores have
suffered. In part this is a result of changing shopping patterns and
increased competition from discount stores. It has also come from
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financial burdens incurred by companies that acquired competitors
and grew too fast. It's unlikely that these players will disappear from
the market. However, expect more bumps as the strong get stronger
and the weak get absorbed.
Discount Stores
These are giants such as Wal-Mart, the largest retailer in the world,
and warehouses such as Costco. Originally set up to serve members
only, the deep discounters now face competition from category killers,
non-membership warehouses, and mass merchandisers like Ross.
Even more alarming is the growing realization among their harried
shoppers that traipsing through endless aisles of merchandise just to
buy a roll of tape and some underwear isn't worth the savings.
Category Killers
These are the giant retailers that dominate one area of merchandise
(Office Depot, Tower Records, and The Sports Authority). They are
able to buy bathroom tiles, file cabinets, electronic goods, or pet food
in such huge volume that they can then sell them at prices even fairly
large competitors can't match. The outlook for this category is better
than for many of the more general discounters, but the same
employment caveats apply. For most job seekers, these companies
offer earn-and-learn experiences with vendors and distributors before
you move onward and upward.
Specialty Stores
These include Crate & Barrel, the Body Shop, and Victoria's Secret.
These stores concentrate on one type of merchandise and offer it in
some manner that makes it special. Some are very high-end (Louis
Vuitton); others cater to the price-conscious masses (Old Navy). Many
are so successful that department stores have started to emulate their
buying, marketing, and merchandise display strategies. Industry
experts predict growth in this segment, particularly for home
furnishings and home improvement, and it seems to attract many of
the best and brightest in retail. Promotion and responsibility come
quickly to those willing to work hard, and in many of these stores the
hand of bureaucracy is not heavy.
E-tailers
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While most retailers have online storefronts, strictly online purveyors
with no bricks-and-mortar counterparts are hoping to snare a
percentage of the retail profit. And major players, such as
Amazon.com, have generated enough business to cause top bricks-
and-mortar competitors to follow up with their own Internet sites.
Traditional retailers like Wal-Mart and Starbucks, hugely successful
in their own right, have also set up online stores so as not to miss out
on the revenue opportunities that the Internet offers.
Job Prospects
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Insurance Industry
If you want to impress your friends and family with a job full of
glamour, sizzle, and prestige, insurance is the wrong game for you.
But while no industry offers genuine job security these days,
insurance comes closer than most.
Deregulation
Deregulation is redefining who can offer insurance. Repeal, in late
1999, of the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act (which formerly separated all
arenas of financial services) promised a major facelift for the
insurance industry. Insurers, banks, and securities brokers are now
free to merge and cross-sell each others' products. This clears the way
for financial service superstores that will offer insurance as well as
investment and savings options. Commercial banks have been making
modest inroads on traditional insurance markets for several years, but
repeal of Glass-Steagall could lead to much greater and quicker
changes in the role of traditional insurance agents.
Shift in Demand
The shape of the life insurance sector has morphed over the past
generation. Nowadays, demand goes beyond straightforward life
insurance. Rather, the market is looking to the insurance industry to
provide investment products, such as annuities, which provide the
consumer with regular payments for life or for a fixed period. What
this means in macro terms is that the life insurance sector has had to
shift its primary capability from analyzing and predicting mortality
rates to a more investment-management capability. The recent
collapse of the stock market has made annuities relatively even more
attractive. And in a creative move insurers are building a market for
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products that protect the investor against a variety of risks
simultaneously while allowing them to draw down a death benefit
while still alive.
Technology
The Internet promises to cut costs in a competitive market, provide a
new way for consumers to compare quotes and choose policies, and
make for a more convenient service—the ideal customer-friendly
combination. This transition is having an impact on the job market,
with companies increasingly seeking tech-savvy candidates who can
support the move to e-commerce.
Consolidation
Continuing the trend that essentially began 30 years ago, insurance
companies are responding to global competition and the need for cost
efficiency by forming strategic alliances, merging into conglomerates,
and buying smaller companies. This trend is doing away with the
independent agencies that used to define the industry. Consolidation
also means that companies will offer a full range of insurance
products instead of specializing in certain realms such as property or
casualty.
Insurance Brokers
Brokers act as go-betweens, uniting buyers and sellers of insurance
and creating the contracts that bind them. Furthermore, they play the
role of risk consultants for large clients, researching industry
information to advise companies how to manage risk exposure. Major
players include Aon and Marsh & McLennan Companies.
Reinsurance
In the most simple terms, reinsurance is the insurance of insurance
companies. Insurance companies pay reinsurers to assume some or all
of the risk the insurers have taken on in writing policies for their
clients. Insurers use reinsurance to protect against the risk of unusual
losses. Reinsurers write reinsurance because their business allows
them to pool enormous numbers of individual insurance risks, making
their risks even more predictable than the risks faced by primary
insurers.
Job Prospects
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Want to work abroad? There are opportunities in insurance. Europe
and Canada are still a focus for claims processing and investment and
actuarial services, but Asian markets—particularly Japan, Taiwan, and
South Korea—are even more attractive places to land new business. If
international financial markets are something you understand, and you
speak a foreign language, you're someone insurance companies will
want to talk to.
Insurance
What you don't know about insurance can hurt you—at least, it can
hurt your career. Insurance is full of jobs that pay well, usually
without the long hours required in some other financial services
sectors. Yet many job seekers who want to use their analytical skills
or get into financial services never seriously consider these attractive
career options.
What You'll Do
Careers in insurance are varied. Actuaries, for instance, assess the
relative likelihood of various types of accidents by performing a
statistical analysis of anything they deem relevant to the subject. They
use the resulting information to determine policy prices, as well as to
whom they should sell which policy.
Agents fill a sales function, and actually sell the policies. Underwriters
determine how much overall risk a buyer will add to the company's
business and figure out the premium at which to insure a buyer.
Money managers invest the money the insurance company takes in
through premiums. Claims adjusters decide what, if anything, the
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company will pay on claims. Risk managers determine and help
implement policies and processes to help clients avoid making claims.
Accounting Industry
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intrigue, that the public would open the newspaper each morning to
eagerly read about the inner workings of accounting firms?
Critics of the industry think they know what that problem is. In the
1990s, they say, accounting firms became overly reliant on revenue
generated by their consulting arms. Indeed, in 2000, KPMG, General
Electric’s auditor, was paid $23.9 million to audit GE’s books—a
fraction of the $79.7 million GE paid KPMG for IT and other
consulting work in that same year. How, critics ask, can auditors
maintain their objectivity if their firms are so beholden to clients for
consulting revenue? Because IT consulting has recently become less
lucrative (since companies cutting costs often cut back on tech
consulting purchases), accounting firms have already been moving
away from their reliance on consulting revenue; indeed, Ernst &
Young, KPMG, and PwC have all sold off their IT consulting arms.
But due to the crisis in accounting and the markets, the clamor to split
accounting and consulting is louder than ever. A number of states are
going so far as to consider legislation barring accounting firms from
doing consulting work for audit clients.
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As you step into the wonderful world of accounting, you have three
obvious career options: 1) work for a Big Four public accounting firm;
2) work for a smaller national or regional public accounting firm; or 3)
work in the accounting department of a private or government
organization.
Trends
Ethics
In terms of how would-be accountants are being affected by the
accounting scandals, the accounting industry is refocusing on ethics.
A number of schools have beefed up ethics-related aspects of their
accounting programs. The Big Four, the American Accounting
Association, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
(AICPA), and the Institute of Management Accountants have all
announced plans to join with universities to develop changes in
accounting curricula. And the AICPA is considering changing the
CPA exam to better gauge test-takers’ ability to think independently
as accountants. So if you interview for an accounting job, expect to be
asked to shed light on your high ethical standards. (Of course, there
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are those who are cynical about this new focus on ethics. One insider
says that the accounting industry put a similar focus on ethics
following the Savings & Loan crisis, only to have ethics become a
secondary consideration during the 1990s.)
Cutting-Edge Technology
As recently as 1990, you'd go into an audit with nothing but a legal
pad and a couple of sharp pencils, according to one senior accounting
recruiter. Now, auditors arrive with far more serious electronic
artillery in tow, in some cases boasting expertise in various
specialized software applications that automate accounting tasks, from
spreadsheets to ledger packages. To do well in this field, you'll still
need to have your journal entries down pat, but increasingly you'll
need to be able to use computers. Big Four firms are renowned for
their technology. These firms have been among the most savvy and
aggressive users of intranets, extranets, and e-commerce technologies.
One insider says, “I take a lot of it for granted, but we really have an
unreal amount of information at our fingertips. The intranet, external
Web, the research capabilities—it’s almost information overload at
times.”
Globalization
Like so many other facets of economic life, accounting is increasingly
immune to international borders. As corporations become
multinational, so do their accounting firms. While each country still
has its own canon of standard accounting practices, there is a
gathering movement toward international accounting rules. Numerous
issues have been raised by globalization, but few if any have been
resolved. One thing is sure, however; international accounting bodies,
such as the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), the
International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC), and perhaps
the Institute of Social and Ethical Accountability (ISEA), will have
more influence than in the past.
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or tax. In private accounting there's a wider range of jobs, including
in-house accounting.
Big Four firms’ central focus is audit services: The verification of the
accuracy of clients’ books. They also include non-audit lines of
business, including actuarial work (risk analysis and management), tax
consulting, human resources management, and merger and acquisition
advice.
In the wake of the Andersen collapse, the other big public accounting
firms are picking at the Andersen carcass. By mid-fall 2002, Ernst &
Young had picked up more than 200 ex-Andersen clients, while the
other Big Four firms had picked up in excess of 100 each. In some
cases, the Big Four have acquired entire Andersen offices; in other
cases, teams of accountants have gone from Andersen to the other
firms, bringing clients with them.
In-House Accounting
Whether publicly traded or not, every company has internal
accountants to set budgets, manage assets, and keep accurate track of
payroll, accounts payable and receivable, and other financial matters.
For medium-sized and large firms, the internal staff works closely
with the public auditors at the fiscal year-end and with senior
management and IT staff year round.
Most accountants in the private sector stay in one place, in one job,
working with the same colleagues, for extended periods. However,
should you choose to move around, accounting skills are very
portable.
Government
Although it’s not the biggest blip on the radar screen for aspiring
accountants, the government hires a lot of people with accounting
skills. The biggest federal employers are traditionally the Department
of Defense, the General Accounting Office, the Securities and
Exchange Commission, and the Internal Revenue Service. In addition
to monitoring individual and corporate tax returns, government
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accountants at the state and federal levels formulate and administer
budgets, track costs, and analyze publicly funded programs.
Independent
As an accountant, you can always hang out your own shingle,
individually or in partnership with other accountants, especially once
you have your CPA. There is plenty of business preparing tax returns
and advising small businesses, provided you have the relevant
expertise, such as a thorough knowledge of tax laws. You also will
need to be able to market your services and manage your own
business—time-consuming activities that not everyone enjoys.
Job Prospects
Accounting
What You'll Do
Accounting concerns itself with the day-to-day operations of
bookkeeping. Accountants balance the books, track expenses and
revenue, execute payroll, and pay the bills. They also compile all of
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the financial data needed to issue a company's financial statements in
accordance with government regulations.
Accountants are taking a step away from the ledger sheets and are
becoming essential to every successful business team. They're the
ones who understand the language of money and a company's
complex financial situation. Consequently, accountants are
increasingly being called on to offer advice and even make business
decisions based on hard facts rather than on speculation or gut instinct.
Trends
Since 1995, more than 200 large and small banks have merged.
Several of these and a handful of recently consolidated giants—
Citigroup, Bank of America, Bank One—dominate the banking
industry. The new behemoths are entering new markets, while at the
same time closing branches and replacing service personnel with
online and other technologies. However, hiring by a growing number
of nonbanks compensates for this trend to a degree. These firms,
which are pioneering new ways of delivering financial services,
include MBNA and Capital One, which are credit card lenders;
transaction processing and data services like First Data and Fiserv;
and bill-payment-services marketers like MFSDC and Integrion.
Deregulation
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The Glass-Steagall bill, passed by Congress in 1933, served as the
backbone of banking regulation. During the late '90s, however, banks
and other financial institutions found ways around the restrictions
placed on them by Glass-Steagall and related legislation. Finally, in
late 1999, Glass-Steagall was repealed, eliminating the legal
framework for Depression-era boundaries that had already been
abandoned by large financial services firms, including banks.
Nontraditional Options
Increasingly, a number of nonbank entities are offering opportunities
to people interested in financial services. Players include credit card
companies such as American Express, MasterCard, and Visa; credit
card issuers like Capital One and First USA; and credit-reporting
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agencies such as TRW. Although people at these firms are still in the
money business, the specific jobs vary greatly, perhaps more widely
than jobs at the traditional banks do. In particular, given the volume of
transactions that many of these organizations handle, there are
excellent opportunities for people with strong technical skills.
Job Prospects
Banking and bank-related work are a good fit if you know something
about finance and you like software development; if you're interested
in marketing and sales; if you're a business school grad and you want
a solid career start; if you're not a B-school grad but you're looking for
work experience the equivalent of an MBA; if you're fluent in
Spanish, Japanese, or another language and you want to live overseas
for a few years; or if you just want the know-how to eventually start
your own business. One thing about banking skills: They are
extremely useful and portable. So even if you join a bank that gets
gobbled up by a competitor and you end up a merger casualty, you can
usually transfer your expertise somewhere else with relative ease.
Commercial Banking
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Banks used to be the dorky cousins of the hot and flashy investment
banks and brokerages. No longer. The legislation that kept banks and
investment banks separate—Glass Steagall—was struck down by
Congress in 1999. So banks are now moving into highly visible
spheres of activity, such as investment banking, mutual funds, and
brokerage.
What It Is
Commercial banks hold customers’ money and supply loans, in
exchange for check-writing fees and interest collected from loans. The
work of commercial bankers is critical—retail consumers get their
credit lines extended, their checking accounts upgraded, their
mortgages, cars, and home improvement loans approved.
What They Do
Commercial bankers perform core financial analysis to assess risk,
creditworthiness, and the likelihood a business will succeed. They
play a key part in deciding the best business initiatives, expanding
existing businesses, developing new markets and clients, and creating
new products for e-commerce, the Internet, international markets, and
consumers.
Trends
Many commercial banks are consolidating in order to branch out and
provide other services such as mortgage, mutual funds, investment
banking, and insurance. As other financial firms expand their services,
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commercial banks are diversifying to keep up, and often a merger with
a peer company is the best way to do this. Since 1995, more than 200
large and small banks have merged. Consolidation usually results in
layoffs and fewer job opportunities, but jobs in banks that are more
diversified offer more opportunities for career development. And a
growing number of non-banks are pioneering new ways of delivering
financial services, providing more jobs in the finance industry.
Many banks have lost profits trying to recoup loans. The recent spate
of corporate accounting misdeeds has resulted in seriously diminished
funds for some corporations and bankruptcy for others, leaving banks
holding an empty bag. On the consumer side of the business, in
January 2002, 4.9 percent of all home loans were past due, a full point
higher than the year earlier. Profits for deposit-taking banks declined 5
percent in 2001, and in the current economic environment, banks’
performance could get even worse.
Not surprisingly, the center of this industry rests in the lofty aeries
above Wall Street and Midtown in New York City. Other hot spots
include London, San Francisco, and Silicon Valley. Firms also
compete in Frankfurt, Tokyo, Hong Kong, and other foreign markets
24 hours a day.
Trends
Cooldown
As the global economic climate cools down, so has investment
banking. In 2001 and 2002, I-banking heavyweights Credit Suisse
First Boston, Merrill Lynch, JPMorgan Chase, and Goldman Sachs all
laid off a significant chunk of their employees. But the bulge-bracket
firms were not the only ones to feel the pinch of thinner profits—or to
react by cutting costs via layoffs. In 2001 alone, approximately 30,000
Wall Street workers were laid off. Also, I-banking bonuses, which can
comprise half or more of some employees’ total annual compensation,
fell by some 30 percent in 2001. I-banks have also pulled back on
college and MBA recruiting—but, because it’s cheaper to employ a
recent grad than someone with more experience, there are still jobs to
be had for the cream of the crop from the best schools. More than
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ever, though, those who do I-banking internships will have the best
shot at full-time openings.
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Of course, a lot of the details still need to be worked out, such as when
this regulatory settlement is to take effect and what makes a research
firm truly “independent.” These types of issues and other potential
quagmires put into question how effective this settlement will be.
According to the New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, all
changes will take place before the end of 2003.
Job Prospects
Investment banking is one of the best ways a young person can learn
about finance and make a lot of money right out of school. Even if
you ultimately decide to reclaim your personal life by pursuing other
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options, the skills you learn on Wall Street will be valuable in most
business careers.
But before you can cash in on those potential returns, you’ll have to
put up with some very substantial hardships, including high pressure,
long days and nights of hard work, a few difficult personalities, and
the expectation—no, the requirement—that all personal plans are
subject to the demands of work.
In addition, you’ll find that life on the Street is very much at the
mercy of the markets. Bull markets bring more work to do than is
humanly possible, but you’ll be rewarded with a paycheck that can
sometimes double year-to-year. Bear markets can leave you sitting at
your desk with a pile of deals on hold, hoping that the rumored layoffs
and smaller-than-usual bonuses don’t come to pass. Despite this
inherent uncertainty, the field remains a popular destination for
undergraduates and MBAs. And, because of the current difficult
economic environment, count on competition for open spots in
investment banking to be especially stiff.
Still, firms are always looking for new (read: cheaper) bodies; even
though they certainly aren’t hiring to the extent they did a couple of
years back, banks are still bringing on best-and-brightest hires for
analyst and associate programs by way of summer internships for the
most part. As one recruiter puts it, “We’ll never not hire new talent,
even during a merger, even during a downturn.”
Investment Banking
You’ve heard about the long hours, the big bonuses, and the
megabillion-dollar deals. You can recite the names of the big firms by
heart. You can even write a good enough cover letter or bid enough
points to land a coveted first-round interview slot with one or more of
these firms. But suddenly it dawns on you. What the heck is
investment banking? You panic. What do investment bankers do?
What’s the difference between sales and trading and corporate
finance? More to the point, why do you want to be a banker?
What I-Banking Is
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The intensely competitive, action-oriented, profit-hungry world of
investment banking can seem like a bigger-than-life place where deals
are done and fortunes are made. In fact, it’s a great place to learn the
ins and outs of corporate finance and pick up analytical skills that will
remain useful throughout your business career. But investment
banking has a very steep learning curve, and chances are you’ll start
off in a job whose duties are more Working Girl than Wall Street.
What You'll Do
Traditionally, commercial banks and investment banks performed
completely distinct functions. When Joe on Main Street needed a loan
to buy a car, he visited a commercial bank. When Sprint needed to
raise cash to fund an acquisition or build its fiber-optic network, it
called on its investment bank. Paychecks and lifestyles reflected this
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division too, with investment bankers reveling in their large bonuses
and glamorous ways while commercial bankers worked nine-to-five
and then went home to their families. Today, as the laws requiring the
separation of investment and commercial banking are reformed, more
and more firms are making sure they have a foot in both camps, thus
blurring the lines and the cultures. The action and players are still
centered in New York City and a few other money centers around the
world, but the list of players is getting smaller as the industry
consolidates. Today, leading banks include Merrill Lynch, Goldman
Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Salomon Smith Barney, Credit Suisse First
Boston, and JPMorgan Chase. These and other firms are regular
visitors to campus career centers.
Investment bankers issue financial products; sell and trade them (see
WetFeet's profile on securities sales and trading), invest in them,
research them, and advise others on financial transactions. A full-
service investment bank includes three major professional divisions:
investment banking (which includes corporate finance, mergers and
acquisitions, and public finance), sales and trading, and research.
Nearly all banks have a staff of research analysts who study economic
trends and news, individual company stocks, and industry
developments in order to provide proprietary investment advice to
institutional clients and in-house groups, such as the sales and trading
divisions. The research division also plays an important role in the
underwriting process, both in wooing the client with its knowledge of
the client’s industry and in providing a link to the institutions that own
the client’s stock once it’s publicly traded.
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The activities of the CorpFin department can range from providing
pure financial advice to leading a company through its first equity
issue (or IPO). As a result, industry or product knowledge is key, and
many investment banks divide their corporate finance departments
into industry subgroups, such as technology, financial institutions,
health care, communications, entertainment, utilities, and insurance, or
into product groups like high-yield, private equity, and investment-
grade debt.
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