CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

By:

Indrie Maulina Utami

Lutfi Miyanti

Sinta Larasati

Construction Management 2010

STATE POLYTECHNIC OF JAKARTA

 INTRODUCTION
There are two general method which is used construction of buildings:

1. Conventional or traditional method

2. Modern or industrialized method

Conventional or traditional method are studied with intention of forming a sound

knowledge base before proceeding to studies of advanced techniques. Initial studies of
building construction concentrate on the smaller type of structure, we should know
conventional or traditional method before we know about modern or industrialized method.
These industrialized methods are usually a rationalized manufacturing process used to
produce complete elements.

THE BUILDING TEAM

Building need team work in which each member has an important role.

• Building owner

The client; An owner-builder is defined as a person who constructs or renovates a

domestic building on his or her own land, who is not in the business of building, the
person or organization who finances and commission the work. The directly or
indirectly employ all the personnel, with particular responsibility for appointing the
planning supervisor (usually the architect) and nominating the principal contractor-see
construction (design and management) regulation 1994. It is important to consult
your building surveyor at the outset to determine if a certificate of consent is
required. This may be a private building surveyor or a municipal building surveyor.

• Architect

Engaged by building owner as agent to design, advise, and ensure that the project is
kept within cost and complies with the design. An architect is a person trained in the
planning, design and oversight of the construction of buildings, and is licensed to
practice architecture. To practice architecture means to offer or render services in
connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and
the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal
purpose human occupancy or use. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin
architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder),
i.e. chief builder.

• Clerk of works

Is a person employed by the architect or client on a construction site. The role is

primarily to represent the interests of the client in regard to ensuring the quality of
both materials and workmanship are in accordance with the design information such
 as specification and engineering drawings, in addition to recognized quality standards.
The role is defined in standard forms of contract such as those published by the Joint
Contracts Tribunal. Historically the Clerk of Work was employed by the architect on
behalf of a client, or by Local Authorities to oversee public works.

Employed on large contract as a architect on site representative. The main function is

to liaise between architect and main contractor and to ensure that construction proceed
in accordance with the design. They can offer advice but directives must be through
the architect.

• Quantity surveyor

Engaged to prepare cost evaluation and bills of quantities, check tenders, prepare
interim valuation, effect cost controls, and advice the architect on the cost of
variations.

in the world of construction especially or in a project in general consist of several big

jobs process, that is: planning process, execution process, supervision process. in this
planning stage is quantity surveyor works. in planning stage there are a lot of team
that impersonate, begin from; architect, civil engineer, geo tech engineer, water
sanitation engineer, mechanical & electrical engineer and quantity surveyor. Job
description from quantity surveyor among others:

1. in earliest stage quantity surveyor will have to do market survey to get

building material materials price that he will use with will threaten technical
specification and beefsteak document. a expert quantity surveyor can
determine ingredient price turn ever he use previous.

2. in stage furthermore quantity surveyor have a duty to do calculation towards

unit price analysis next job unit price appropriate project management
wisdom. Sometimes in projects from government require use standard analysis
appropriate. in private project are used analysis as according to wisdom and
experience self belong labor coefficient and ingredient also very big the
influence in determine job unit price.

3. after all has calculation process price is continued with put into job item in
form bill of quantity standards every corporation. All job items must include
in columns job description and mention materials specification or special
things that must have required. Job item subdividing based on sequence or
sequence job execution is of vital importance to prevent confusion that stump
the interested parties.

4. important stage next that is has done calculation quantity each job from work
pictures that prepared by each part has begun from architect, civil, geo tech,
watsan, mechanical electrical. Calculation quantity must be done with tall
accuracy and not include interest from several the interested parties.
 5. as stage ends after got unit price, job item, and quantity next that is do
multiplication between quantity and unit price in every job item. then add up
each sub total in each lot job and add up sub be grand total most under table
boq.

profession quantity surveyor frequently demanded loyalty existence and integrity

towards company or where does he shelter body. in determine analysis, job item and
quantity very make possible to do mark up that can harm one of the parties. This
matter is of course is easy for quantity surveyor firm in hold commitment towards the
job.

• Consulting engineers

Engaged to advise and design on a variety of specialist installations, e.g. structural,

services security, etc. They are employed to develop that particular aspect of the
design within the cost and physical parameters of the architect brief.

• Principal or main contractor

Employed by the client on the advice of the architect, by nomination or competitive

tendering they are required to administer the construction project within the
architect’s direction. Chief contractor who has a contract with the owner of
a project or job, and has the full responsibility for its completion. A prime contractor
undertakes to perform a complete contract, and may employ (and manage) one or
more subcontractors to carry out specific parts of the contract. Also called main
contractor.

• Contract’s manager or site agent

On large projects the main contractor’s representative on site, with overall

responsibility for ensuring that work proceeds effectively and efficiently, i.e. in
accordance with they design classification and to time. Sometimes known as general
foreman, but this title is more appropriate on small to modest size contracts.

A site manager is the person in charge of all on site operations, working with
contractors and subcontractors and ensuring the building contract runs to schedule. A
site manager controls all aspects of the site including planning work, arranging
delivery of materials and managing a range of subcontractors, and is ultimately
responsible for ensuring a contract is delivered on time. Site managers are employed
mainly by building and construction companies, civil engineering firms and
contractors. Many local authorities also employ site managers for the refurbishment of
council homes and other council owned buildings..
 Typical work activities include:

 ensuring the project runs to schedule and to budget, managing programmers of

work, and finding solutions to problems that may cause delays, such as the late
arrival of materials;

 playing a major role in pre-site and on-site meetings with a range of

professionals who work to ensure a building contract is successful, including
quantity surveyors, contract administrators, site foremen, subcontractors, and
the client who has commissioned the work;

 maintaining strict quality control procedures - this necessitates regular testing

of materials, visual inspections of work, and frequent tours of the site;

 conducting regular site safety checks.

Recent graduates are highly unlikely to be appointed in a full site manager role until
they have the necessary site experience. However there are plenty of opportunities for
assistant site managers or for other roles in the building project team, such as site
engineer, that will allow graduates to gain the necessary skills and experience.

• Surveyor

Employed by the main contractor to check work progress and assist the quantity
surveyor in the preparation of interim valuation for stage payments and final accounts.
May also be required to measure work done for bonus and subcontractor payments.

• Estimator

Prepares unit rates for the pricing of tenders carries out pretender investigations into
the cost aspects of the proposed contract. In statistics, an estimator is a rule for
calculating an estimate of a given quantity based on observed data: thus the rule and
its result (the estimate) are distinguished. This article discusses estimators and
estimates that are point estimators; that is, they yield single-valued results, although
this includes the possibility of single vector-valued results and results that can be
expressed as a single function. This is in contrast to an interval estimator, where the
result would be a range of plausible values (or vectors or functions). Statistical
theory is concerned with the properties of estimators; that is, with defining properties
that can be used to compare different estimators (different rules for creating estimates)
for the same quantity, based on the same data. Such properties can be used to
determine the best rules to use under given circumstances. However, in robust
statistics, statistical theory goes on to consider the balance between having good
 properties, if tightly defined assumptions hold, and having less good properties that
hold under wider conditions.

• Buyer

Orders materials, obtains quotation for the supply of materials and services.

• Accountant

An accountant is a practitioner of accountancy which is the measurement, disclosure

or provision of assurance about financial information that helps managers, investors,
tax authorities and other decision makers make resource allocation decisions.

Prepares and submits accounts to clients and makes payments to suppliers and
subcontractor. May also have a costing the department which would allocate the
labour and material costs to each contract to assist with the preparation of accounts.

• Administrator

Organizes the general clerical duties of the contractor’s office for the preparation of
contract documents and payment of salaries, subcontractor and suppliers invoices,
insurances and all necessary correspondence.

• Assistant contract manager

Often a trainee in the process of completing professional examinations. Assist with

the general responsibility for administering site proceedings.

• Nominated subcontractor

Engaged by the client or architect for specialist construction or installation work, e.g.
lifts, air conditioning, etc.

• Domestic subcontractor

Employed by the principal contractor to assist with the general construction, e.g.
ground workers, bricklayers, etc.

• Operatives

The main work force on site, includes craftsmen, apprentices, and labourers. A
specialist class for Engineers and Infiltrators. Operatives are masters at manipulating
their environment to maximum advantage. Bonuses include reduced recharge on
all tech attacks, and improvements to overload and sabotage. Operatives are often
responsible for keeping the site tidy and looking after tools and equipment. Following
instruction from skilled workers is an important part of the work.
 SITE AND TEMPORARY WORKS
CHAPTER 1.1

SITE WORKS AND SETTING OUT

CLEARING THE SITE

This may involve the demolition of existing building the grubbing out of bushes or
trees or the removal of soil to reduce levels. When the site is located in a wooded area, the
first operation is to clear all timber, standing or fallen. If camouflage is necessary, trees
or bush outside the designated cleared area should not be removed.

Demolition is a skilled occupation and should only be taken by an experience

contractor. Construction equipment operations are usually the most rapid and efficient
means of clearing a site. Use of the equipment is limited only by unusually large trees
and stumps–terrain which hinders their maneuverability and maintenance
requirements. The construction equipment used includes bulldozers, winches, power
saws, rippers, motor graders, and scrapers.

In addition, hand tools are used in certain clearing operations. Bush may be disposed of by
burning on the site; however, check to see if a burn permit is required. This timber should be saved
for possible use in construction of loading ramps. All stumps, roots, boulders, vegetation, and rubbish
must be excavated and moved clear of the site. The site must be clear from vegetable matter; this is
effect to sterilize the ground or so will contain plant life and decaying vegetation. The side easily
compressed and would be unsuitable for foundation.

SETTING OUT THE SITE

 The first task is to establish a base line from which the whole of the building can be
set out. The line must be clearly marked on-site, and can be re-establishing at any time.
Setting out is the process by which is taken from the construction design drawings, and pegs,
profiles or other marks are then set to control the construction works and ensure that each
element of the works is constructed in the right position and to the correct level with a stout
peg.

Learners will work with traditional methods to achieve an understanding of the

essential mathematical and practical skills required for the Setting out process, including the
application of basic principles of techniques to ensure appropriate levels of accuracy.

Construction projects are normally designed on a coordinate grid and calculations are carried
out to convert these into a form useful for setting out. Learners must attain a reasonable standard of
arithmetic and trigonometry in order to successfully complete this unit.

This is essentially a practical unit, through which learners will come to understand
setting out as a key part of the construction process, and be able to carry out the standard
tasks and calculations involved.

After the setting out the main building lines has been completed and checked, profile boards
are set up. These are set up clear of the foundation trench and wall intersections.

ESTABLISHING A DATUM LEVELS

All levels in a building are taken from a fixed point called a datum. This point should
now be establish, must be clearly marked on-site; wherever possible this should be related to
an ordnance benchmark. Benchmarks are found cut or let into the sides of walls and
buildings. Where there are no benchmark could be a post set in concrete or a concrete plinth
set up onsite.

SLOPING SITES
Cut and fill in earthmoving is the process of constructing whereby the amount of material from cuts
roughly equal or matches the amount of fill, so minimizing the amount of construction labor. This is
the usual method and the most economical because the amount of cut can be replaced in the fill side,
and not through away to useless.

Cut The advantage of this method is giving undisturbed soil in the whole of the side. But have the
disadvantage; we must be pay more for removing the cut’s soil from the side. Cut sections are
characterized by the roadway being lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. From an
operational standpoint there are unique environmental effects associated with cut sections. For
example, air pollutants can concentrate in the valleys created by the cut section. Conversely, noise
pollution is mitigated by cut sections since an effective blockage of line of sight sound propagation.
Fill Environmental effects of fill sections are typically favorable with respect to air pollution
dispersal, but in the matter of sound propagation, exposure of nearby residents is generally increased,
since sound walls and other forms of sound path blockage are less effective in this geometry.

There are a variety of reasons for creating fills, among them reduction of grade along a route
or elevation of the route above water, swampy ground, or areas where snow drifts frequently collect.
If the building sited on the filled area, either deep foundation would be needed or the risk of
settlement at a later stage would have to be accepted.

CHAPTER 1.2

ACCOMMODATION, STORAGE AND SECURITY

The builder have to provide the best facilities which are economically possible for any
particular contract, this should make good relationships between management and staff,
should also reduce the loss of materials due to theft, accidental damage. This offers the client
a competitive advantage with regards to creating parity amongst the various sub-contractors'
labour and ex-pat work forces. This interaction with all stakeholders is important. The better
accommodation, storage and security on a building site will make staff feel comfort so that
the client will get better productivity.

ACCOMMODATION
Requirements will vary with regard to the number personnel on site and in some cases
the anticipated duration of the contract.

Unit of staff accommodation usually come in one of two forms. It’s usually called
camp construction:

• Sectional timber huts

Sectional timber huts are prefabricated to allow for ease of dismantling and assembly
to facilitate the re-use on other sites. Huts should be designed, constructed and
maintained with the same care as permanent buildings to ensure their use for many
years. The anticipated use of each hut will govern the construction and facilities. Main
work necessary like in the permanent building must be filled up.

• Mobile caravans or cabins

Caravans and cabins are fully equipped with all necessary furniture. Transportation of
caravans or cabins can be suitable vehicle, so it may move from place to another
 place. Whichever method is used the time taken to load, offload and position on site is
considerably shorter than the time required to dismantle, transport and reassemble a
sectional timber hut, but the initial capital outlay is higher.

Supply and build camps in accordance with each client's unique or specific
requirements. Various camp options are offered, ranging from soft-walled tents to hard-
walled permanent structures. Services that have an overriding goal of creating a 'home away
from home' environment for all camp residents. Services include all aspects of cleaning and
maintenance and HR administration.

Health, Safety and Welfare

General safety principles can help reduce workplace accidents. These include work
practices, ergonomic principles, and training and education. Whether moving materials
manually or mechanically, employees should be aware of the potential hazards associated
with the task at hand and know how to exercise control over their workplaces to minimize the
danger. When manually moving materials, employees should seek help when a load is so
bulky it cannot be properly grasped or lifted, when they cannot see around or over it, or when
a load cannot be safely handled. When an employee is placing blocks under raised loads, the
employee should ensure that the load is not released until his or her hands are clearly
removed from the load. Blocking materials and timbers should be large and strong enough to
support the load safely. Materials with evidence of cracks, rounded corners, splintered pieces,
or dry rot should not be used for blocking. Handles and holders should be attached to loads to
reduce the chances of getting fingers pinched or smashed. Workers also should use
appropriate protective equipment. For loads with sharp or rough edges, wear gloves or other
hand and forearm protection. To avoid injuries to the hands and eyes, use gloves and eye
protection. When the loads are heavy or bulky, the mover should also wear steel-toed safety
shoes or boots to prevent foot injuries if the worker slips or accidentally drops a load.

STORAGE
The efficient handling and storing of materials is vital to industry. These operations
provide a continuous flow of raw materials, parts, and assemblies through the workplace, and
ensure that materials are available when needed. Yet, the improper handling and storing of
materials can cause costly injuries.

The type of storage facilities required of any particular material will depend upon the
following factors:

• Durability – will it need protection from the elements?

• Vulnerability to damage

• Vulnerability to theft
 Cement, plaster, and lime supplied in bag form require a dry store free from draughts
which can bring in most air and may cause an air set of material. These materials should not
be stored for long periods on site. Aggregates such as sand and ballast require a clean firm
base to ensure that foreign matter is not included when extracting materials from the base of
stock pile. Different materials and grades must be kept separated so that the ultimate mix
batches are consistent in quality and texture. Bricks and blocks should be stacked in stable
piles on a level and well-drained surface in a position where double handling is introduced to
a minimum. Roof tiles have a greater resistance to load when it is imposed on the edge, for
this reason tiles should be stacked on edge and in pairs, head to tail, to give protection to the
nibs. Drainage goods, like tiles maybe stored in an open compound: they should be stackled
with their barrels horizontal and laid with spigot and socket alternately reversed or placed in
layers with the spigots and sockets reversed in alternate layers. Timber is hygroscopic
material and therefore to prevent undue moisture movement it should be stored in such a
manner that is moisture content remains fairly constant. Ironmongery, hand tools and paint
are some of the most vulnerable items on a building site.

When mechanically moving materials, avoid overloading the equipment by letting the
weight, size, and shape of the material being moved dictate the type of equipment used for
transporting it. All materials handling equipment has rated capacities that determine the
maximum weight the equipment can safely handle and the conditions under which it can
handle those weights. The equipment-rated capacities must be displayed on each piece of
equipment and must not be exceeded except for load testing. When picking up items with a
powered industrial truck, the load must be centered on the forks and as close to the mast as
possible to minimize the potential for the truck tipping or the load falling. A lift truck must
never be overloaded because it would be hard to control and could easily tip over. Extra
weight must not be placed on the rear of a counterbalanced forklift to offset an overload. The
load must be at the lowest position for traveling, and the truck manufacturer's operational
requirements must be followed. All stacked loads must be correctly piled and cross-tiered,
where possible. Precautions also should be taken when stacking and storing material. Stored
materials must not create a hazard. Storage areas must be kept free from accumulated
materials that may cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may contribute to the harboring
of rats and other pests. When stacking and piling materials, it is important to be aware of such
factors as the materials' height and weight, how accessible the stored materials are to the user,
and the condition of the containers where the materials are being stored. All bound material
should be stacked, placed on racks, blocked, interlocked, or otherwise secured to prevent it
from sliding, falling, or collapsing. A load greater than that approved by a building official
may not be placed on any floor of a building or other structure. Where applicable, load limits
approved by the building inspector should be conspicuously posted in all storage areas. When
stacking materials, height limitations should be observed. For example, lumber must be
stacked no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually; 20 feet is the maximum stacking
height if a forklift is used. For quick reference, walls or posts may be painted with stripes to
indicate maximum stacking heights. Used lumber must have all nails removed before
stacking. Lumber must be stacked and leveled on solidly supported bracing. The stacks must
be stable and self-supporting. Stacks of loose bricks should not be more than 7 feet in height.
When these stacks reach a height of 4 feet, they should be tapered back 2 inches for every
foot of height above the 4-foot level. When masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, the
stacks should be tapered back one-half block for each tier above the 6-foot level.
Bags and bundles must be stacked in interlocking rows to remain secure. Bagged material
must be stacked by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least every ten
layers. To remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first. Baled paper and rags
stored inside a building must not be closer than 18 inches to the walls, partitions, or sprinkler
heads. Boxed materials must be banded or held in place using cross-ties or shrink plastic
fiber. Drums, barrels, and kegs must be stacked symmetrically. If stored on their sides, the
bottom tiers must be blocked to keep them from rolling. When stacked on end, put planks,
sheets of plywood damage, or pallets between each tier to make a firm, flat, stacking surface.
When stacking materials two or more tiers high, the bottom tier must be chocked on each side
to prevent shifting in either direction. When stacking, consider the need for availability of the
material. Material that cannot be stacked due to size, shape, or fragility can be safety stored
on shelves or in bins. Structural steel, bar stock, poles, and other cylindrical materials, unless
in racks, must be stacked and blocked to prevent spreading or tilting. Pipes and bars should
not be stored in racks that face main aisles; this could create a hazard to passers-by when
supplies are being removed.

SECURITY AND PROTECTION

Fencing

Builders, including Owner Builders and Contractors, have a duty of care under the
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1989 (the Act) to protect the public as well as workers
from hazards associated with the building work. (Maximum penalty $1,000,000 or 7 years
jail, or both.)

The builder or person responsible for the worksite must ensure that all hazards are
identified, and risks are assessed and controlled during each stage of building work. A fence
should be erected before building activities start, particularly if the site is located near a
school or in a residential area, and is unattended outside work hours. A fence should be
erected before building activities start, particularly if the site is located near a school or in a
residential area, and is unattended outside work hours.
The fence fulfils two functions:
1. Defines the limit of the site or compound
2. Acts as a different to the would-be trespasser or thief

A perimeter fence can prevent unauthorised persons gaining access to the site, where they
could be exposed to hazards such as building debris, exposed steel reinforcing, trenching and
excavations. The main group of people exposed to hazards on building sites during non-work
hours are children and adolescents.
A fence will not always stop those who are determined to gain access to a site, i.e.
vandals or thieves, however it will discourage most people and may demonstrate that you
have taken reasonably practicable steps to meet your responsibilities under the Act.
Hoardings
These are closed boarded fences or barriers erevted adjacent to a high way or public
footpath to prevent unauthorized persons obtaining access to the site and to provide a degree
of protection for the public from the dust and noise associated with building operations.

Two forms of hoarding are in common used:

1. Vertical hoardings
2. Fan hoardings

a. Hoarding of 2 meters height and continuous down to the ground, made of 12 mm

sheet ply or sheet metal 0.5 mm thick, with timber or steel vertical and horizontal
structural members, and including hinged lockable gates that open inwards.
b. Hoarding/fencing of 1.8 meters height and continuous down to the ground made of
50mm chain wire mesh 2.5 mm thick and including hinged lockable gates that open
inwards. The support structures should enable it to withstand any foreseeable loads or
impacts that could be imposed.
c. Hoarding/fencing of 1.5 meters height consisting of chain wire mesh panels, or
fencing with top and bottom strainer wires, and supported by star pickets at maximum
3 meters centers. Maximum 150mm clearance from ground if materials cannot
protrude. Provision to secure the site with material providing the same security as the
fence at all access points.
d. Hoarding/fencing of 1.5 meters height. Maximum 150mm clearance from ground if
no protruding materials risk. Must be able to withstand reasonable side forces and
remain upright. For example, chain wire mesh supported by star pickets at a
maximum spacing of meters, or panel fencing with star pickets at a spacing
consistent with panel width.
e. Barricades of 900mm height with horizontal guardrails from the ground, which can
withstand reasonable side forces and remain upright. A plastic safety mesh barrier
attached to star pickets is an acceptable alternative.
f. Visual barricade, such as orange plastic mesh, of greater than 900mm height with
bottom of barricade no more than 150mm from ground. Should be installed at least 1
meters from excavations up to 2 meters deep, or from potentially unstable ground for
deeper excavations. Where a person is likely to fall 1.8metres or more, edge
protection must consist of a handrail at 900mm height, a mid rail, a toe board and
stanchions.
CHAPTER 1.3

SUBSOIL DRAINAGE
Subsoil drainage systems are used in architectural, sewage and irrigation applications
to remove excessive water from the soil surrounding a building, provide water to crops or
drain sewage away from a building. Subsoil drainage systems are governed by necessary
restrictions dependent on the intended purpose of the system.

The ideal site will not require any treatment but sites with a high level water table will
require some from of subsoil drainage. The water table is the level at which water occurs
naturally below the ground and this level will vary with the seasonal. So, as according to
climate in Indonesia that tropical, in building that has a high water table must made drainage
system. So, when rain, superlative water can be throw away or kept for plants irrigation

The object of subsoil drainage is to lower the water table to a level such that it will
comply with the above building regulation, i.e. not rise to within 0,25m of the lowest floor of
the building. So, it also has the advantage of improving its horticultural properties.

MATERIALS
The pipe used in subsoil drainage are usually dry jointed and are either porous or
perforated pipes. The pipe used in subsoil drainage are usually dry jointed and are either
porous or perforated pipes. Because, the porous pipes can absorb the water through walls and
thus keep out the fine of soil or silt, whereas perforated pipes, which are laid with the
perforations at the base, allow the water to rise into the pipe leaving any silt behind.

Size, Shape and Material Specifications

 In most applications, the specifications on size and shape of subsoil drainage systems
are similar. Most applications, such as simple water drainage for home placement and sewage
uses, require shaped drainage pipes circular pipes. Also, to prevent excessive clogging, the
drainage pipes are required to be 3 inches or more in diameter. The pipes can be made of
clay, cement or plastic; this is dependent upon the intended use.

Geographical Placement

Placement of the drainage system is dependent upon many factors including: use,
delivery of drained substance and surrounding subsoil features. For many applications,
regulations specify that the drainage system must have a specific surrounding zone in which
there may not be any other types of piping. For example, in the sewage application, the
subsoil drainage system, also known as a leach bed system, must have an 8-foot bunker
where no other piping, such as a water line or electrical line, may pass.

Options and Variations

Specifications on placement and types of subsoil drainage systems vary from place to
place. Although suburban drainage systems must empty into a sewer or larger city-owner
drainage system, rural residents may drain their sewage subsoil system into the ground and
their water waste and groundwater into nearby streams. In rural areas, drainage systems for
water do not have to be constructed of pipes but may also be in the form of trenches filled
with gravel.

Warnings and Preventions

Problems with subsoil drainage systems can arise--and are usually costly to repair--so
proper installation is a necessity. Having drainage system technicians install the piping may
be expensive, but their expertise will prevent you from spending extra money later to repair
your system. Before attempting the project yourself, consult a drainage specialist to give you
the specifications and advice on installing your drainage system properly.

DRAINAGE LAYOUTS
The pipes are arranged in pattern to cover as much of the site as is necessary. Water
will naturally flow towards the easy passage provided by the drainage runs. The system is
terminated at a suitable outfall such as a river. The banks of streams and river will need
protection against the turbulence set up by the discharge and if the stream is narrow the
opposite bank may also protection. One large schemes sediment chambers or catch pits are
sometimes included to trap some of the silt which is the chief cause of blockages in subsoil
drainage work. The collected silt in the catch pit must be removed at regular intervals.
CHAPTER 1.4

EXCAVATIONS AND TIMBERING

Excavation is removal of earth to form a cavity in the ground. Before the foundation can be
laid it is necessary to excavate a trench of the required depth and width. On small project
like build a house better done by hand, but on large project it will be more economic and
must be done with mechanical excavator.

When earth has been excavated to a considerable depth the vertical faces of the
excavations need supporting by timber, to prevent the soil from falling in the injuring the
workmen or the work upon which there are engaged.

The strength of the timbering used for this purpose necessarily depends upon the nature of the
soil, the depth of the excavation, and the length of time it is likely to be kept open.

When excavated as deep as possible without the earth falling in. Vertical sheeting from 9 by 1
inch to 9 by 2 1/2 inches, according to the nature of the soil, is temporally strutted against the faces of
the excavation.

TYPES OF EXCAVATION:

1. Over site
o the removal of top soil
o depth varies from site to site (usually in a 150 to 300 mm range)
o required since top soil often contains plant life, animal life and decaying matters making
soil compressible and thus unstable for supporting building
 2. Reduce Level (R. L.)
o required in irregular sites to form a level surface
o consists of both cutting and filling operations
o the level to which the ground is reduced is called the formation level

3. Trench Excavation
o excavation of trench of required depth and width before laying out foundation
o done both manually (with use of spade, pick axe, rammer, etc. and for small buildings)
and mechanically (with use of bulldozers, trench diggers, etc. and for large buildings)

Typical examples of trench excavation

i. Battered / Sloped face excavation
Advantage: no temporary support required to the sides of excavation

Disadvantage: extra cost and time required for over excavation and back filling

ii. Vertical / Straight face excavation

Advantage: only required amount of soil is removed and thus min. amount of back filling

Disadvantage: side of excavation require some degree of temporary support

Problems in deep excavation (excavation beyond 1.5m deep is deep

excavation):
• collapsing of the sides of trenches
• water coming out of the sides or bottom of the excavation

Dewatering
o ground water can cause problem by its natural tendency to flow into the voids created by
excavation
o water in excavation should be removed since it can :
o undermine sides of excavation
o make it impossible to adequately compact the bottom of excavation to receive
foundation
o bearing capacity of the soil is reduced with water stored in voids of the bottom of
excavation

FAILURE OF TIMBERING

Serious accidents happen from time to time owing to the failure of timbering in
excavations. This failure is usually due to one of the following two reasons:
1. The struts fail under the pressure of the earth; or,

2. The struts drop out by the shrinkage of the soil.

• This is perhaps the most frequent cause of failure, as the pressure from soils is often
underestimated, particularly that of clay soils, which sometimes swell when exposed
to the atmosphere. When excavations are made in soft soil in around of heavy
buildings the lateral pressure of the soil is usually very great.
• To prevent such failures the timber should be of ample size, and should be examined
before being inserted in the excavations, while in very deep trenches the struts in the
lower parts of the trenches should be larger than those near the surface.
• To prevent struts dropping out of place they should be examined from time to time
and tightened when necessary; but a better plan is to spike them to the walings. The
struts supporting stages should always be spiked or fixed in some way, as they are
very likely to become loosened by the weight and motion of the excavator, who
stands upon them to work.

TIMBERING

This is a term used to cover temporary supports to the side of excavations and is
sometimes called planking and strutting. The sides of some excavations will need support to:

Protect the operatives while working in the excavation.

Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the side of the trench.

The type and amount of timbering required will depend upon the depth and nature of the
subsoil. Over a short period many soils may not required any timbering but weather
conditions, depth, type of soil and duration of the operations must all be taken into account
and each excavation must be assessed separately.

METHODS OF TIMBERING
o methods depend upon the nature of the soil
o timbering is defined as providing temporary timber supports to stop the sides of trenches
from falling

1. Stay Bracing
o open timbering
o for firm / stiff / rocky hard soil
o for excavation not exceeding about 2m in depth
o consists of placing vertical sheets called polling boards, opposite to each other against the
walls and holding them in position by one or two rows of struts
o polling boards are placed at an interval of 2 – 4m and extend to full height of trench
o polling board : 200 x 40 – 50 mm., struts : 100 x 100 mm for up to 2m wide excavation
and 200 x 200 mm for up to 4m wide excavation
2. Box Sheeting
o closed timbering, box like structure
o two types of box sheeting : Vertical Sheeting and Horizontal Sheeting
Vertical Sheeting
o for loose / loamy / dry sandy soil
o for depth of excavation not exceeding 4m
o consists of vertical sheets placed very near to each other / touching each other
and keeping them in position by longitudinal rows (usually two) of wales
o struts are then provided across the wales

Vertical sheeting for deep trenches

o for up to 10m deep trenches
o for soft ground
o excavation is carried out in stages and at the end of each stage offset is
provided so that the width of the trench goes on decreasing as the depth
increases
o each stage is 3m in depth
o offset : 25 – 30 cm per stage
o separate vertical sheeting for each stage supported by horizontal wales and
struts

Horizontal Sheeting
o for loose soil
o horizontal sheets are provided longitudinally and supported by vertical waling
and horizontal struts
o if height is more, braces are also provided along with struts

3. Runner System
o closed timbering
o for extremely loose, soft and wet soil
o for soil needing immediate support after excavation
o similar to vertical system except for, runners are provided in place of vertical sheets
o runners with iron shoes at the end
o runners are driven 30 cm in advance by hammering
o wales and struts are provided as in vertical sheeting
CHAPTER 1.5

SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a temporary platform constructed for reaching heights above arms' reach
for the purpose of building construction, maintenance, or repair. Scaffolding is generally
made of lumber and steel and can range from simple to complex in design, depending on its
use and purpose. Scaffold planking must be able to support, without failure, its own weight
and at least four times the intended load. Solid sawn wood, fabricated planks, and fabricated
platforms may be used as scaffold planks following the recommendations by the
manufacturer or a lumber grading association or inspection agency. The platform must not
deflect more than 1/60 of the span when loaded.

Basically there are two forms of scaffolding:

1. Putlog scaffolds.

2. Independent scaffolds.

Putlog Scaffolds

This forms of scaffolding consist of a single row of uprights or standards set away
from the wall at a distance which will accommodate the required width of the working
platform. The standards are joined together with horizontal members called ledgers and are
tied to the building with cross called putlogs.

Independent Scaffolds
 An independent scaffold has two rows of standards which are tied by cross members
called transoms. Every scaffold should be securely tied to the building at intervals of
approximately 3.600 m vertically and 6.000 m horizontally. This can be achieved by using a
horizontal tube called a bridle bearing on the inside of the wall and across a window opening
with cross members connected to it; alternatively a tube with a reveal pin in the opening can
provide a connection point for the cost members. If suitable openings are not available then
the scaffold should be strutted from the ground using raking tubes inclined towards of
building

MATERIALS
 Tubular steel

Steel tubes are nearly three times heavier than comparable aluminium alloy tubes but
are far stronger and since their deflection is approximately one-third of aluminium
alloy tubes, longer span can be used.

 Tubular alluminium alloy

No protective treatment is required unless they are to be used in contact with materials
such as damp lime, wet cement, and sea water, which can cause corrosion of the
aluminium alloy tubes. A suitable protective treatment would be to coat the tubes with
bitumastic paint before use.

 Timber

The timber used is structural quality softwood in either putlog or independent format.
The members are lashed together with wire or rope instead of the coupling fitting used
with metal scaffolds.

SCAFFOLD BOARDS
They should be formed out of specified softwoods of 225 x 38 section and not exceeding
4.800 m in length. To prevent the ends from splitting they should be end bound with not less
than 25 mm wide x 0.9 mm galvanized hoop iron extending at least 150 mm along each edge
and fixed with a minimum of two fixings to each end. The strength of the boards should be
such that they can support a uniformly distributed load of 6.7 kN/m 2 when supported at 1.200
m centers.

Each scaffold platform and walkway must be at least 18 inches (46 centimeters) wide.
When the work area is less than 18 inches (46 centimeters) wide, guardrails and/or personal
fall arrest systems must be used.
SCAFFOLD FITTINGS
Fittings of either steel or aluminium alloy are covered by the same British Standard as
quoted above for the tubes. They can usually be used in conjunction with either tubular metal
unless specified differently by the manufacturer. The major fittings used in metal scaffolding
are:

 Double coupler: the only real load bearing fitting used in scaffolding and is used to
join ledgers to standards.

 Swivel coupler: composed of two single couplers riveted together so that it is possible
to rotate them for connecting two scaffold tubes at any angle.

 Putlog coupler: used softly for fixing putlogs or transoms to the horizontal ledgers.

 Base plate: a square plate with a central locating spigot used to distribute the load
from the foot of a standard on to a sole plate or firm ground. Base plates can also be
obtained with a threaded spigot and nut for use on sloping to make up variations in
levels.

 Split joint pin: a connection fitting used to joint scaffold tubes end to end. A centre
bold expands the two segments which grip on the bore of the tubes.

 Reveal pin: fits into the end of a tube to form and adjustable strut.

 Putlog end: a flat plate which fits on the end of a scaffold tube to convert it into a
putlog

Millions of construction workers, painters, and building maintenance crews work on

scaffolding every day, and due to the nature of its use, scaffolding must be properly
constructed and used to ensure the safety of those who use it. The US Department of Labor
Occupational Safety and Health Organization (OSHA) has very specific standards for the
construction and use of scaffolding in the workplace, and many large commercial and
government construction projects require all workers to have scaffold training and OSHA
certification. Some of OSHA's regulations regarding construction of scaffolding include
using specific types of lumber when not using steel, weight limitations based on the design of
the scaffolding, and regular checks for weakened or broken sections. OSHA places stringent
safety regulations on the construction and use of scaffolding not only to reduce serious
workplace injury or death, but also to save employers millions in lost time and workers'
compensation OSHA can issue fines to any company, large or small, that they find to be in
violation of scaffolding regulations. Commercial construction accounts for the largest use of
scaffolding, but even residential construction and home improvement projects can sometimes
require scaffolding. Professional painters are equipped to quickly and properly construct
scaffolding on the job, as are other professionals such as bricklayers and carpenters.
Unfortunately, many homeowners attempt to construct scaffolding for personal use without
the proper knowledge, which often results in injury. To avoid personal injury when
attempting to repair, paint, or maintain your home, be sure you know how to properly and
safely erect a scaffolding platform that will provide a stable work surface and will bear the
weight you place on it. If you are unsure how to construct or use scaffolding, consult a
professional contractor.

OSHA's scaffolding standard has several key provisions:

• Fall protection or fall arrest systems -- Each employee more than 10 feet above a
lower level shall be protected from falls by guardrails or a fall arrest system, except
those on single-point and two-point adjustable suspension scaffolds. Each employee
on a single-point and two-point adjustable suspended scaffold shall be protected by
both a personal fall arrest system and a guardrail.
• Guardrail height -- The height of the top rail for scaffolds manufactured and placed in
service after January 1, 2000 must be between 38 inches (0.9 meters) and 45 inches
(1.2 meters). The height of the top rail for scaffolds manufactured and placed in
service before January 1, 2000 can be between 36 inches (0.9 meters) and 45 inches
(1.2 meters).
• Cross bracing -- When the cross point of cross bracing is used as a top rail, it must be
between 38 inches (0.97 m) and 48 inches (1.3 meters) above the work platform.
• Mid rails – Mid rails must be installed approximately halfway between the top rail
and the platform surface. When a cross point of cross bracing is used as a mid rail, it
must be between 20 inches (0.5 meters) and 30 inches (0.8 m) above the work
platform.
• Footings -- Support scaffold footings shall be level and capable of supporting the
loaded scaffold. The legs, poles, frames, and uprights shall bear on base plates and
mud sills.
• Platforms -- Supported scaffold platforms shall be fully planked or decked.
• Guying ties, and braces -- Supported scaffolds with a height-to-base of more than 4:1
shall be restained from tipping by guying, tying, bracing, or the equivalent.
• Capacity -- Scaffolds and scaffold compponents must support at least 4 times the
maximum intended load. Suspension scaffold rigging must at least 6 times the
intended load.
• Training -- Employers must train each employee who works on a scaffold on the
hazards and the procedures to control the hazards.
• Inspections -- Before each work shift and after any occurrence that could affect the
structural integrity, a competent person must inspect the scaffold and scaffold
components for visible defects.
• Erecting and Dismantling -- When erecting and dismantling supported scaffolds, a
competent person must determine the feasibility of providing a safe means of access
and fall protection for these operations.

Kind of fall protection to provide for a specific-type of scaffold

The chart on the next page illustrates the type of fall protection required for specific
scaffolds.

Type of Scaffold Fall Protection Required

Aerial lifts Personal fall arrest system

Boatswains' chair Personal fall arrest system

Catenary scaffold Personal fall arrest system

Crawling board (chicken ladder) Personal fall arrest system, or a guardrail system, or by a 3/4
inch (1.9 cm) diameter grab line or equivalent handhold
securely fastened beside each crawling board

Float scaffold Personal fall arrest system

Ladder jack scaffold Personal fall arrest system

Needle beam scaffold Personal fall arrest system

Self-contained scaffold Both a personal adjustable scaffold arrest system and a

guardrail system

Single-point and two-point Both a personal fall arrest system and a guardrail system
suspension scaffolds

Supported scaffold Personal fall arrest system or guardrail system

All other scaffolds not specified Personal fall arrest system or guardrail systems that meet the
above required criteria
 SUBSTRUCTURE

CHAPTER 2.1

TRENCH AND BESEMENT EXCAVATION

TRENCING AND EXCAVATION SAFETY

Safety requirements in subsurface excavation, including basement, are strictly
enforced through the construction. Material must not be placed near the edge of any
excavation, so that persons working in the excavation are endangered.

Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations. OSHA
defines an excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth’s
surface formed by earth removal. A trench is defined as a narrow underground excavation
that is deeper than it is wide, and is no wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters).

Dangers of Trenching and Excavation

Cave-ins pose the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation related
accidents to result in worker fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads,
hazardous atmospheres, and incidents involving mobile equipment. Trench collapses cause
dozens of fatalities and hundreds of injuries each year.
Protect Yourself
Do not enter an unprotected trench! Trenches 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep or greater require a
protective system unless the excavation is made entirely in stable rock. Trenches 20 feet (6.1
meters) deep or greater require that the protective system be de-signed by a registered
professional engineer or be based on tabulated data prepared and/ or approved by a registered
professional engineer.
Protective Systems
There are different types of protective systems. Sloping involves cutting back the trench wall
at an angle inclined away from the excavation. Shoring requires installing aluminum
hydraulic or other types of supports to prevent soil movement and caveins. Shielding protects
workers by using trench boxes or other types of supports to prevent soil cave-ins. Designing a
protective system can be complex because you must consider many factors: soil
classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to weather or climate,
surcharge loads (eg, spoil, other materials to be used in the trench) and other operations in the
vicinity.
Competent Person
OSHA standards require that trenches be inspected daily and as conditions change by a
competent person prior to worker entry to ensure elimination of excavation hazards. A
competent person is an individual who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or dangerous to employees and
who is authorized to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards
and conditions.

Access and Egress

OSHA requires safe access and egress to all excavations, including ladders, steps, ramps, or
other safe means of exit for employees working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or
deeper. These devices must be located within 25 feet (7.6 meters) of all workers.

1. General Trenching and Excavation Rules

2. Keep heavy equipment away from trench edges.

3. Keep surcharge loads at least 2 feet (0.6 meters) from trench edges.

4. Know where underground utilities are located.

5. Test for low oxygen, hazardous fumes and toxic gases.

6. Inspect trenches at the start of each shift.

7. Inspect trenches following a rainstorm.

8. Do not work under raised loads.

TRENCH EXCAVATION
Long narrow trenches in firm soil may be excavated to the full depth by mechanical
excavator. In the latter method the runners can be driven to a reasonable depth of
approximately 1.500 m followed by an excavation cut of 1.200 m and then the operation
easier and enable a smaller driving appliance to be used.
 In medium depth trenches different soil conditions are very often encountered trough
out the depth of the excavation and therefore the method of timbering must be changed to suit
the new soil conditions.

Hand trimming is usually required in the trench bottom to form an accurate line and
level; this process is called bottoming of trenches. Approximately 5 mm should be allowed
for trimming by hand and it is advisable to cover the trimmed surface with hard core to
protect the soil.

Trench excavation shall consist of the removal and satisfactory disposal of all
materials, the removal of which is necessary for the proper completion of the work, to the
dimensions shown on the plans or as ordered, and backfilling, all in accordance with these
specifications for the following:

1. The construction of pipe culverts, end walls, catch basins, drop inlets, manholes,
under drains and outlets, sewers, service pipes,

2. The removal of drainage structures and appurtenances beyond the limits of roadway
and structure excavation,

3. The removal of miscellaneous items such as abandoned underground tanks, pipelines,

etc.

Trench excavation will be allowed only for the construction of the structures and the
removals definitely specified above; and no compensation will be made for any other class of
excavation, as specified elsewhere herein, that may be necessary for construction or removal.

Trench excavation shall be made in conformity with the requirements of the plans or as
ordered. The Contractor shall furnish and employ such shores, braces, pumps, etc., as may be
necessary for the protection of property, proper completion of the work and the safety of the
public and employees of the Contractor and the Department. All bracing, etc., shall be
removed when no longer required for the construction or safety of the work.

For minor ditches or trenches, simply using a shovel and setting about digging is
sufficient, but for excavating a deep trench, often needed for sanitary sewer installation or
other projects, special consideration should be made.

Choose a route that will not damage valuable plants or appurtenances on the property.
Trees, shrubs and other plants may suffer injury or die if their roots are damaged in
excavation. Driveways, sidewalks, and structures can collapse if they are undermined.

Determine the type of soil which will be digging in. Sandy soils, loose stony soils, and
wet, mucky material will make excavating a straight, deep ditch difficult and dangerous.

Shoring. This process uses a support structure for ditch sides so they do not cave in and injure
anyone, or undo the digging that have done before the project is complete. Examples may be
sheets of plywood with posts to support them for small excavations, or steel trench boxes or
sheet piling for very large ones.
Dewatering. This will remove the excess water from the soil to help stabilize it while
working. This can be accomplished either with a well point system pipe to remove the water
as it seeps into the excavation.

Benching the excavation. This is the technique for dealing with loose soils illustrated in this
article. As the trench is excavated, the sides step down so the banks do not have to support
more material than they are capable of.

Determine the depth the utility or other function of trench will require. Some
plumbing systems are gravity operated, and require a slope so the waste or water will flow
unaided to the discharge location in this situation.

Call the local or government utility location service so that underground gas, electric,
water, and communications pipes and cables can be spotted, to protect worker from injury or
liability in the event they are damaged.

Remove any vegetation will want to save and replace when the project is finished.
Small plants, even turf grasses, can be removed and stored for replanting with proper care.

Remove the topsoil to a depth of 10-20cm, depending on depth of the topsoil layer.
Store the topsoil away from other spoil material to avoid contamination. Ensure that the
topsoil heap does not exceed 1 - 1.5m in height to avoid compaction. For the same reason the
topsoil heap should either be demarcated or placed away from frequent foot or vehicular
traffic if the topsoil is going to be stored for prolonged periods of time over-seed with non-
invasive grass species to reduce erosion.

BASEMENT EXCAVATION
A basement excavation is a construction dig performed for the purpose of roughing
out a basement. There are several settings in which basement excavation may be performed.
This procedure is usually supervised by an experienced contractor or a basement excavation
company, because it can be complicated in addition to labor intensive. While it is possible to
excavate by hand, there are some serious risks which must be carefully evaluated before
taking the plunge.

The best time to do a basement excavation is when a home site is being prepared. In
this case, the site is already being excavated in preparation for laying the foundations. If
people want a basement, the depth of the excavation can be deepened to rough out the
basement so that the basement and foundations can be established at the same time. This can
be a way to add room to a structure without adding height, and some people leave the
basement unfinished to cut costs while ensuring that they will have that space available at a
later time if they need it.

Once a home is already built, basement excavation can be done for a number of
reasons. If a home needs foundation work, it may be necessary to excavate under the home or
in the basement in order to get the work done. As long as excavation is being done, some
people may opt to rough in a basement at the same time, or to make improvements to an
existing basement. Another reason for a basement excavation is the desire to add a basement
to an existing structure.

Excavating under a building can be tricky. The structure needs to be supported during
the excavation to avoid compromise to the structural integrity which could make it unsafe.
People also need to provide an area to store excavated materials, usually with the goal of
eventually hauling them away. It is also possible to encounter unexpected hazards such as
mold or mildew. In older homes, people sometimes find materials of historical interest during
a basement excavation because it was not uncommon to build directly on top of debris.

Specialty companies focus entirely on doing basement excavation and they can be a
good choice for this type of construction project. These companies have a great deal of
experience in making excavations go smoothly and they can coordinate with other companies
who may be involved to make the process as efficient as possible. People should be aware
that permits are generally required for a basement excavation and that a building inspector
will want to visit the site to confirm that safety procedures are being followed.

There are three methods which can be used for excavating a large pit or basement:

1. Complete excavation with sloping sides

2. Complete excavation with timbered sides

3. Perimeter trench method

Excavation of a basement on an open site can be carried out by cutting the perimeter back
to the natural angle of repose of the soil. This method requires sufficient site space around the
intended structure for the over-excavation.

In firm soils where poling boards can be placed after excavation an economic method is
to excavate the bulk of the pit and then trim the perimeter, placing the poling boards with
their raking struts in position as the work proceeds.

The perimeter trench method is used where weak soils are encountered; a trench wide
enough to enable the retaining walls to be constructed is excavated around the perimeter of
the site and timbered according to the soil conditions. This method could be also be used in
firm soil when the mechanical excavation required for bulk excavation are not available.
Chapter 2.2

FOUNDATION
Whenever construction workers begin work on a new building, they must first assess where
and how they will build the foundation. The foundation is a structure, commonly made of concrete for
home that transfers the weight of the building onto the earth below. There are different types of
foundation designs and each serves a different specific purpose, but generally, every foundation
works to transfer the weight load of a structure to the soil beneath.

Most small and medium homes are built upon a shallow foundation. These are usually
comprised of concrete strips that are laid about a meter beneath the soil, or of a single large concrete
slab that is also set about a meter under the soil. When applicable, the foundation will extend beneath
the frost line. When engineers design the foundation of a building, they must keep in mind how much
the soil will settle beneath the foundation, as well as how much weight will go on top of the
foundation. If calculated incorrectly, the foundation may fail and place the entire structure in peril.

Larger buildings use a deep foundation rather than a shallow foundation. A deep foundation
uses long pylons of steel or concrete to penetrate deep beyond the weaker surface soils into the deeper
and more stable soils or bedrock beneath. The loads from walls above are transferred deep into the
earth, thereby providing support for the intense weight above. Much like the considerations for a
shallow foundation, engineers must consider weight and settlement, as well as scour -- or, water
eroding soil beneath the structure.

For structures being built in colder climates, engineers must consider frost heaves as well.
Frost heaves occur when moisture in the soil freezes, thereby changing the density of the foundation's
support. A frost heave can cause damage to the foundation, thereby compromising the structural
integrity of the entire building. Drier, warmer climates are not entirely exempt from such worries,
however: certain soils will expand and contract when moisture is added or taken away, and engineers
must factor in such movement when considering where and how to lay a foundation.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Deep Foundation
 A type of foundation distinguished from shallow foundations by the depth they are
embedded into the ground. There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would
recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons
are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints (like property
lines). There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations
including piles, drilled shafts, caissons and piers. The naming conventions may vary between
engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel,
reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned concrete. Deep foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass or
reinforced.

Driven Foundations

Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles are
either wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from trunks of tall trees.
Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections. They are
reinforced with rebar and are often pretressed. Steel piles are either pipe piles or some sort of
beam section (like an H-pile). Historically, wood piles were spliced together when the design
length was too large for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel piles, though
concrete piles can be spliced with difficulty. Driving piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is
advantageous because the soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil,
causing greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus increasing their load-bearing
capacity.

Shallow Foundation

A type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near the surface,
rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep foundation. Shallow
foundations include spread footing foundations, mat-slab foundations, slab-on-grade
foundations, rubble trench foundations, and earth bag foundations.

Spread Footing Foundation

In ground reinforced concrete foundation in cyclonic area, Northern Spread footing
foundations consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other materials) which transfer the loads from
walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Embedment of spread footings is controlled by several
factors, including development of lateral capacity, penetration of soft near-surface layers, and
penetration through near-surface layers likely to change volume due to frost heave or shrink-swell.

These foundations are common in residential construction that includes a basement, and in
many commercial structures.

Mat-slab foundations
 Mat-slab foundations are used to distribute heavy column and wall loads across the
entire building area, to lower the contact pressure compared to conventional spread footings.
Mat-slab foundations can be constructed near the ground surface, or at the bottom of
basements. In high-rise buildings, mat-slab foundations can be several meters thick, with
extensive reinforcing to ensure relatively uniform load transfer.

Slab-on-grade foundation

Slab-on-grade foundations are a structural engineering practice whereby the concrete

slab that is to serve as the foundation for the structure is formed from a mold set into the
ground. The concrete is then placed into the mold, leaving no space between the ground and
the structure. This type of construction is most often seen in warmer climates, where ground
freezing and thawing is less of a concern and where there is no need for heat ducting
underneath the floor.

The advantages of the slab technique are that it is cheap and sturdy, and is considered less
vulnerable to termite infestation because there are no hollow spaces or wood channels leading
from the ground to the structure (assuming wood siding, etc., is not carried all the way to the
ground on the outer walls).

The disadvantages are the lack of access from below for utility lines, the potential for
large heat losses where ground temperatures fall significantly below the interior temperature,
and a very low elevation that exposes the building to flood damage in even moderate rains.
Remodeling or extending such a structure may also be more difficult. Over the long term,
ground settling (or subsidence) may be a problem, as a slab foundation cannot be readily
jacked up to compensate; proper soil compaction prior to pour can minimize this. The slab
can be decoupled from ground temperatures by insulation, with the concrete poured directly
over insulation (for example, Styrofoam panels), or heating provisions (such as hydronic
heating) can be built into the slab (an expensive installation, with associated running
expenses).

Slab-on-grade foundations are commonly used in areas with expansive clay soil,
particularly in California and Texas. While elevated structural slabs actually perform better
on expansive clays, it is generally accepted by the engineering community that slab-on-grade
foundations offer the greatest cost-to-performance ratio for tract homes. Elevated structural
slabs are generally only found on custom homes or homes with basements.

Care must be taken with the provision of services through the slab. Copper piping,
commonly used to carry natural gas and water, reacts with concrete over a long period,
slowly degrading until the pipe fails. Copper pipes must be lagged (that is, insulated) or run
through a conduit or plumbed into the building above the slab. Electrical conduits through the
slab need to be water-tight, as they extend below ground level and can potentially expose the
wiring to groundwater.

Rubble Trench foundation

The rubble trench foundation, a construction approach popularized by architect Frank

Lloyd Wright, is a type of foundation that uses loose stone or rubble to minimize the use of
concrete and improve drainage. It is considered more environmentally friendly than other
types of foundation because cement manufacturing requires the use of enormous amounts of
energy. However, some soil environments (such as particularly expansive or poor load-
bearing (< 1 ton/sf) soils) are not suitable for this kind of foundation.

A foundation must bear the structural loads imposed upon it and allow proper
drainage of ground water to prevent expansion or weakening of soils and frost heaving.
While the far more common concrete foundation requires separate measures to ensure good
soil drainage, the rubble trench foundation serves both foundation functions at once.

To construct a rubble trench foundation a narrow trench is dug down below the frost
line. The bottom of the trench would ideally be gently sloped to an outlet. Drainage tile,
graded 1":8' to daylight, is then placed at the bottom of the trench in a bed of washed stone
protected by filter fabric. The trench is then filled with either screened stone (typically 1-
1/2") or recycled rubble. A steel-reinforced concrete grade beam is poured at the surface to
provide ground clearance for the structure.

aIf an insulated slab is to be poured inside the grade beam, then the outer surface of the grade
beam and the rubble trench should be insulated with rigid XPS foam board, which must be
protected above grade from mechanical and UV degradation.

The rubble-trench foundation is a relatively simple, low-cost, and environmentally-

friendly alternative to a conventional foundation, but may require an engineer's approval if
building officials is not familiar with it. Frank Lloyd Wright used them successfully for more
than 50 years in the first half of the 20th century, and there is a revival of this style of
foundation with the increased interest in green building.

Earth bag foundation

The basic construction method begins by digging a trench down to undisturbed

mineral subsoil. Rows of woven bags (or tubes) are filled with available material, placed into
this trench, compacted with a pounder to around 1/3 thickness of pre-pounded thickness, and
form a foundation. Each successive layer will have one or more strands of barbed wire placed
on top. This digs into the bags weave and prevents slippage of subsequent layers, and also
resists any tendency for the outward expansion of walls. The next row of bags is offset by
half a bag's width to form a staggered pattern. These are either pre-filled with material and
delivered, or filled in place (often the case with Super adobe). The weight of this earth-filled
bag pushes down on the barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below. The
same process continues layer upon layer, forming walls. A roof can be formed by gradually
slope the walls inward to construct a dome. Traditional types of roof can also be made.

By far the most common structural foundation in today's construction industry is the shallow
foundation. Other types of foundations, such as piles, piers, caissons, and similar deep foundations,
are used primarily for major structures, not for ordinary building that constitute the overwhelming
majority of all constructions.

ADVANTAGES OF USING SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• Cost (affordable)

• Construction Procedure (simple)

• Materials (mostly concrete)

 • Labor (does not need expertise)

DISADVANTAGES OF USING SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• Settlement

• Limit Capacity * Soil * Structure

• Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining wall)

• Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion, moment.