PRIMEASIA UNIVERSITY

Mordant Dyes

Faisal Ibn Haque

Assignment on Mordant dyes(web collection)

 Mordant Dyes 2010

Mordant Dyes:

The term mordant is derived from the Latin moreo, which means to bite or to take hold of.
The mordant dye is attached to the textile fiber by a mordant, which can be an organic or
inorganic substance. The most commonly used mordant is inorganic chromimum. Other
inorganic mordants, such as aluminium, copper, iron, and tin and organic mordant, such
as tannic acid , are rarely used. Since chromimum is used so extensively , mordant dyes
sometimes called the chrome dyes.

Fibers most readily dyed with mordant dyes are the natural protein fibers, particularly
wool; and sometimes the synthetic fibers modacrylic and nylon. (01)

Mordant dyes can be defined as those dyes that requires a mordant for application as a dye. This
upon combining with a mordant imparts insoluble colour on the substrates. The question now is what
is a mordant? A mordant can be a substance of organic or inorganic nature that can combine with the
coloring matter and is used for fixing in the production of the color.

Most of the natural dyes in use are mordant dyes. The Colour Index classification and naming system
of mordant dyes would be like this- mordant + base colour + number. Commonly used mordant dye
are Hematein (natural black 1), note the numbering system. Other popular mordant dyes are
Eriochrome cyanine R (mordant blue 3), Celestine blue B (mordantblue14) and Alizarin red S (mordant
red 3).

Chromium salts like sodium or potassium dichromate are commercially used for synthetic mordant
dyes. The diagrams below shows C.I. Mordant Black 1 with a chromium (III) ion. (02)

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Features of Mordant Dye:

Mostly mordant dyes have hydroxyl and carboxyl groups. To certain extent they can
possess Amino groups.

They are negatively charged, i.e. Anionic.

Mordant dyes stain by ionic interaction like other ionisable dyes.

They ensure light-and-wash-fastness.

Prevents color bleeding.

Has the ability to brighten or changes some dye colors. (03)

Common Dye Mordants:

Mordants include tannic acid, alum, urine, chrome alum, sodium chloride, and certain salts
of aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, iodine, potassium, sodium, and tin.

Iodine is often referred to as a mordant in Gram stains but is in fact a trapping agent (04)

Dyeing Methods:
The three methods used for mordanting are:

 Pre-mordanting (chrome): The substrate is treated with the mordant and

then dyed.
 Meta-mordanting (metachrome): The mordant is added in the dye bath
itself.
 Post-mordanting (afterchrome): The dyed material is treated with a
mordant.

The type of mordant used changes the shade obtained after dyeing and also affects the
fastness property of the dye. The application of mordant, either pre-, meta- or post-
mordant methods, is influenced by:

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 The action of the mordant on the substrate: if the mordant and dye methods
are harsh (e.g. an acidic mordant with an acidic dye), pre- or post-
mordanting limits the potential for damage to the substrate.
 The stability of the mordant and/or dye lake: the formation of a stable dye
lake means that the mordant can be added in the dye without risk of losing
the dye properties (meta-mordanting). [05]

Mordant dyes (chrome dyes):

Applicability:
Mordant dyestuffs are generally used for protein (wool and silk). They are practically no
longer used for polyamide fibres or for printing.

Properties:
Thanks to their good levelling properties and very good wet fastness after chroming,
chrome dyes are used principally to obtain dark shades (greens, blues and blacks) at
moderate cost. There are disadvantages, however, in their use: long dyeing times,
difficulties with shading, the risk of chemical damage to the fibre during chroming and the
potential release of chromium in waste water.

Chemical characteristics and general application conditions:

The Colour Index classifies these colourants as mordant dyes, but chromium has become
the almost universally used mordant and the class is commonly referred to as chrome dyes.

From a chemical point of view they can be regarded as acid dyestuffs that contain suitable
functional groups capable of forming metal complexes with chrome. They do not contain
chrome in their molecule, which instead is added as dichromate, or chromate salt to allow
dye fixation.

Interaction with the fibre is established through ionic bonds formed between the anionic
groups of the colourant and ammonium cations available on the fibre. In addition
chromium acts as a link between dye and fibre. This gives rise to a very strong bond, which
is reflected in the excellent fastness obtained. Figure shows the ionic and coordination bonds
in the case of wool.

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 Mordant Dyes 2010

Figure : Representation of possible ionic and coordination bonds between wool and chrome
dyes [69, Corbani, 1994]

The use of chrome dyes in dyeing processes requires the use of the following chemicals and
auxiliaries:

 potassium and dichromate or chromate

 formic or acetic acid as pH regulators
 other organic acids such as tartaric and lactic acid. They are used to enhance the
degree of conversion of Cr VI to Cr III
 sodium or ammonium sulphate [ 06]

Metachrome Method:
This is one one stage process in which the dye and the mordant are applied to the fiber.
This method can only be used with dyes which do not form the dye mordant complex
immediately on coming together; that is , the mordant and the dye anion do not form the
complex until they have entered the polymer system of the fiber. To minimize the
formation of the complex of the dye liquor, the mordant is added and the textile material
treated with the dye liquor and temp. raised to about 500 C. At this point the mordant is
added and the temp. of the dye liquor raised to the boil for 60 minutes. The method of
attachment of the dye to the fiber is the same as for the chrome mordant method.[07]

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After-Chrome Method:
This method involves a two-stage process which reverse of the chrome mordant method.
The after-chrome involves the application of the dye followed by mordanting. This method
involnes the use of certain mordant dye, which are actually acid dyes which can be
mordanted.

The dye are applied to the textile material is a aqueous solution which contain the dye and
sodium sulphate. The textile material treated in this liquor by slowly raising the
temperature of the dye liquor to the boil where it is kept for about an hour. At this point,
the mordant is added and the temperature maintained at the boil for another 45 minutes to
one hour. During this period the dye complexes are formed within fiber polymer system;
the mode of attachment of the dye to the fiber is the same as for the chrome mordant
method.[08]

Properties of mordant dye:

Light-fastness: The light fastness rating of mordant dyes is about 5. The presence of the
chromimum in the dye molecule contributes to the very good light fastness of mordant
dyed textile material.

Wash-fastness: The wash fastness rating of mordant dyes is about 4-5. The very good
wash fastness of textile material dyed with mordant dye is due to the large dye molecules or
lakes that are formed within the polymer system.

Dull and limited range of colours:

There is a limited range of colours in the mordant dye class and these are also relatively
dull. It is through that it is the presence of the metal chromimum which is responsible for
the dullness of colour and the limited colour range.[09]

Effect on the final colour:

Dye results can also rely on the mordant chosen as the introduction of the mordant into the
dye will have a marked effect on the final colour.

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 Mordant Dyes 2010

Cotton:
Since metallic mordants are soluble in water and are loosely held by the cotton fibres, these
mordants have to be precipitated on the fabric by converting them into insoluble form, or
by first treating the fibres with oil or tannic acid and then impregnating treated fabric with
solution of mordant, whereby the metallic mordants are held on to cotton via oil or tannic
acid.

Wool:
Unlike cotton, wool is highly receptive toward mordants. Due to its amphoteric nature wool can
absorb acids and bases equally effectively. When wool is treated with a metallic salt it hydrolyses
the salt into an acidic and basic component. The basic component is absorbed at –COOH group
and the acidic component is removed during washing. Wool also has a tendency to absorb fine
precipitates from solutions; these cling to the surface of fibres and dye particles attached to these
contaminants result in poor rubbing fastness.

Silk:
Like wool, silk is also amphoteric and can absorb both acids as well as bases. However, wool has
thio groups (-SH) from the cystine amino acid, which act as reducing agent and can reduce
hexavalent chromium of potassium dichromate to trivalent form. The trivalent chromium
forms the complex with the fibre and dye. Therefore potassium dichromate cannot be used as
mordant effectively.

Animal and Plant Tissues:

In Histology, mordants are indispensible in adhering dyes to tissues for microscopic
examination.

Methods for mordant application depend on the desired stain and tissues under study;
pre-, meta- and post-mordanting techniques are used as required.

The most commonly used stain used in diagnostic histology of animal tissues is Harris'
haematoxylin as part of a haematoxylin and eosin stain.[10]

Disadvantage of using mordant dyes:

This class of dye is now used to a lesser extent , for the following reasons:

i. Colour matching is difficult as the process of mordanting means that the colour
builds up gradually.

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 Mordant Dyes 2010
ii. Lengthy period s of application are both detrimental to protein and polyamide fiber
and rather costly.
iii. Dichromate salts such as sodium and potassium become pollutants once they are
discharge into the sewerage.[11]

Ancient Dyes(red anthraquinonoid mordant dye):

Techniques for dying ancient textiles were described by classical authors such as Pliny the Elder and
Aristotle (Koren 270). Today the Edelstein Center for the Analysis of Middle Eastern Textiles and
Related Artifacts at Shenkar College of Textile Technology in Ramat-Gan Tel Aviv specializes in
studying those processes and analyzing ancient textile dyes.

People have been dying cloth for at least 6000 years. Archaeologists have found a number of ancient
pieces of dyed fabric and other evidence for ancient textile dying. One of the most important finds
was a 6000 year-old 23-foot long red-dyed linen cloth that was recently discovered in the "Cave of
the Warrior," a major Neolithic site in Israel. Ancient dyed garments were also found at Masada
(Orna 373). Sheep’s wool that was dyed red with madder and blue with indigo was found at Kahun, an
Egyptian town for pyramid workers, dating to 1890 BC (Bahn 318). Egyptian tomb paintings at Beni
Hasan also show nomadic people wearing multi-colored garments and shoes, and a model dating to
2000 BC from the tomb of Meketra at Thebes shows a weaving workshop where cloth was dyed.

Ancient dyes can be classified chemically into three groups: blue and purple indigoid vat dyes, red
anthraquinonoid mordant dyes, and yellow flavonoid dyes (Koren Historico).

As seen in Table 2, red anthraquinonoid mordant dyes came from henna and madder. These dyes
were water-soluble, so they ran and washed out of fabric unless a mordant was added to fix the dyes.
The mordant reacted with the dye to produce a "lake," which was a large chemical complex that was
not soluble in water.

As early as 1000 BC, people began to use potassium alum mordants (K(Al(SO 4).12H2O) (Salzberg 3). The
aluminum ion from the mordant formed a large complex with madder that was brick-red in color and

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would not wash out of fabrics (Cronyn 286). By using different mordants of chromium, tin, and iron
salts, ancient dyemakers could make chocolate-purple and pink complexes (Orna Coordination 175).
Acidic mordants, such as tannic acid (gallotannic acid) were also used (Koren Historico 272). [12]

Environmental issues:

The environmental properties of chrome dyes are assessed under the following parameters.
Note, however, that does not consider the environmental issues related to chemicals and
auxiliaries employed in the dyeing process because these issues are dealt with in a specific
annex.

Parameters of concern:
 Bio-eliminability

 Organic halogens (AOX)

 Eco-toxicity

 Heavy metals

 Aromatic amines

 Unfixed colourant

 Effluent contamination by additives in the dye formulation[13]

What's the difference between mordants and other chemical

assistants used in dyeing?
 Sodium carbonate is not a mordant! Neither are vinegar or salt. A mordant is a
metal ion which attaches to the fiber, usually by being boiled together for a length of
time. A dye which has no natural attraction to the fiber can then attach to the metal
ion. Most but not all natural dyes are mordant dyes, which require the metal ion to
be in the fiber in order for them to have any attraction to the fiber. There are also
some synthetic dyes that are mordant dyes.

 Mordants include alum, chromium, copper, iron, and tin. Some of these metals are
quite toxic and hazardous, in addition to be environmentally damaging. Chromium
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is the most hazardous of mordants. The hexavalent form of chromium, in potassium
dichromate, which called for in some recipes, is a known human carcinogen. Alum is
the least toxic of the mordants, though it can be irritating and should be used with
care.

 Tannic acid is another important mordant, a large, complex, metal-free molecule,

used mainly in dyeing cellulose fibers, such as cotton. Tannic acid can be obtained
from many plant sources, such as the galls on oak trees. A typical recipe for using
tannic acid as a mordant calls for boiling cotton first with alum, then tannic acid,
then alum again, each in a separate boiling water bath, followed by boiling with the
mordant-requiring dye. I think that the alum attaches to the cotton, the tannic acid
attaches to the alum, and the dye attaches to either the tannic acid or to another
alum ion attached to the tannic acid. This is much more complex, and much less
resistant to washing out, then the bonds formed by reacting a modern synthetic
fiber reactive dye directly with the fiber.

 Most synthetic dyes have no requirement for mordants. Fiber reactive dyes, such as
Procion MX dye, have no need whatsoever for a mordant, because they form
chemical bonds directly to the fiber. The dyeing process for these other dyes does
make use of other chemicals, but not mordants. In some cases a mordant will
improve the washfastness of an acid dye on wool, but there is no need to use a
mordant with most synthetic acid dyes.

 A low pH is useful for dyeing protein fibers such as wool, and a high pH is useful for
dyeing cellulose fibers with reactive dyes. In neither case is this achieved by using a
mordant. Instead, pH-adjusting chemicals (which are NOT mordants) are used,
such as sodium carbonate or vinegar, though they have opposite effects from each
other and are used on different fibers.[14]

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SOME EXAMPLES OF HOW USING MORDANTS CAN

AFFECT MUSHROOM DYE COLORS:

SOME EXAMPLES OF HOW USING MORDANTS CAN AFFECT MUSHROOM DYE COLORS

No Mordant Alum Mordant Iron Mordant

MUSHROOM SPECIES
(“ no knot “ ) (“ 1 knot “ ) (“ 5 knots “ )

light yellow gold burnt sienna

Phaeolus schweinitzii

pink rose maroon

Dermocybe phoeniceus
var. occidentalis

lavender purple dk.forest green

Omphalotus olivescens

Ref: International Mushroom Dye Institutes

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List of MORDANT DYES

Sr. No. Colour indicators DYCROCHROM C. I. NAME
YEL
1 MORDANT YELLOW 1
LOW G
2   YELLOW H MORDANT YELLOW 10

3 ORANGE G MORDANT ORANGE 6

4 RED WR MORDANT RED 3

5   RED B MORDANT RED 7

6   BRILL RED BR MORDANT RED 15
7   BROWN R H/C MORDANT BROWN 33
8   GREEN G MORDANT GREEN 17
9   BLACK A MORDANT BLACK 1
10   BLACK T MORDANT BLACK 11
11   BLUE BLACK RSS MORDANT BLACK 17
[15]

Ref:[15] JAGSON COLORCHEM LIMITED

CHROME AND CHROMATES

by Dr. Erik Sundström, Sweden

Sodium or potassium dichromates have been suggested as mordants, ever since they were
used with the first synthetic mauvein dye in 1856. Potassium dichromate was preferred,
since sodium dichromate absorbs moisture and becomes slimy. The dichromates are orange
to brownish red and will stain the wool themselves without helping the natural dyes to
fasten, and they may produce interesting color combinations.

Water soluble chrome compounds are generally either green chrome(III) salts where the
chrome is the positive ion, or chromates where the negative ion is chrome(VI) with oxygen.

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Chromates were once regarded as innocent and even tried as medicines, but in the 1970's
they were found to be so dangerous and the occupational health regulations became so
severe, that they may only be handled in closed systems by personnel in full protective
suits.

The main reason is that the cells of our body are only prepared to handle water soluble ions
of the kinds occurring in nature. This means among negative ions: carbonate, sulphate,
chloride and hydroxyl, but not chromate, and among positive ions hydrogen, ammonia and
most metals except lithium, caesium and some of the heaviest like lead, cadmium or
mercury. The cell walls will keep an equilibrium by shuttling sodium, potassium,
magnesium and calcium back and forth, and failure to do so leads to nervous problems.
Among other metals, iron is needed for blood and muscles in rather large amounts, and
zinc in small amounts for tissue repair. Metals which could be mistaken for iron must be
kept out so as not to disturb the iron process, and among them are copper and chrome, and
tin will be kept out so it will not be mistaken for zinc.

There is no defense against chromate ions, however, since they do not occur in nature, and
they can easily enter into the cells. Once they get in, they can attach as mordants to protein
to make it water repellent. Chromates are also strongly oxidizing with their oxygen
burning or breaking other cell component.. When this occurs, chrome(VI) turns to
chrome(III) which disturbs the action of iron. By then the immune system becomes aware
that something is wrong, but has no indication of any dangerous stuff passing through the
cell membrane, so it starts looking for some probable enemy to fight. You may then become
allergic to something close-by, but not chromates. If you are a dyer you might become
allergic to wool, a tanner might be allergic to leather, etc. Chromates are also carcinogenic
and may start fires. They will also disturb the micro-organisms in water purification
plants, so it is not permitted to dump chromates in the drains.

(Dr. Erik Sundström, has a Doctorate in the Science of Materials and is a Mycologist. He is
co-author of
"Färga med svampar", and the author of a new Swedish book about pigments of Natural
Dyes.)

Manufacturer(mordant dye):
Cas Number
Producer or
Reference
Colour Index
ORANGE BLACK POUR CUIR
BAYER  
SOLIDE TU 141 %
DIAMANT BLUE FBG BAYER MORDANT BLUE47
DIAMANT BLUE SOLIDE BL 133% BAYER MORDANT BLUE7

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DIAMANT ORANGE BLUE FBG BAYER  

DIAMANT ORANGE RED SOLIDE BL BAYER MORDANT RED30
DIAMANT ORANGE RED SOLIDE BT BAYER MORDANT RED74
DIAMANT ORANGE BROWN R 154 % BAYER  
DIAMANT ORANGE BROWN
BAYER MORDANT BROWN21
SOLIDE TBL
DIAMANT ORANGE MARINE RRS BAYER  
DIAMANT ORANGE ORANGE GR BAYER MORDANT ORANGE6
DIAMANT ORANGE GREEN B BAYER MORDANT GREEN25
DIAMANT MARINE RRN BAYER  
DIAMANT BLACK KW BAYER  
DIAMANT BLACK PLC BAYER MORDANT BLACK8
DIAMANT BLACK PV 200 % BAYER MORDANT BLACK9
DIAMANT RED SOLIDE 3BG BAYER MORDANT RED63
ORANGE BLUE SOLIDE R CIBA  
ORANGE ORANGE 2G CIBA MORDANT ORANGE23
ORANGE RED SOLIDE BL CIBA MORDANT RED33
ORANGE RED SOLIDE GR CIBA MORDANT RED40
ERIOORANGE BLUE 2GK CIBA MORDANT BLUE49
ERIOORANGE BROWN DKL CIBA MORDANT BROWN19
ERIOORANGE BROWN DKL 150 % CIBA MORDANT BROWN19
ERIOORANGE BROWN FONCE R CIBA MORDANT BROWN27
ERIOORANGE BROWN K CIBA MORDANT BROWN15
ERIOORANGE FLAVINE 3R CIBA MORDANT YELLOW8
ERIOORANGE FLAVINE 3R 150 % CIBA MORDANT YELLOW8
ERIOORANGE FLAVINE A CIBA MORDANT YELLOW5
ERIOORANGE GRIS A2BL CIBA  
ERIOORANGE YELLOW O CIBA MORDANT YELLOW34
ERIOORANGE BLACK AZ CIBA MORDANT BLACK1:1
ERIOORANGE BLACK BLUE B CIBA MORDANT BLACK3
ERIOORANGE BLACK BLUE RSS CIBA MORDANT BLACK17
ERIOORANGE BLACK BLUE RSS
CIBA MORDANT BLACK17
140%
ERIOORANGE ORANGE R 165 % CIBA MORDANT ORANGE6
ERIOORANGE RED G CIBA MORDANT RED17

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ERIOORANGE RED PE CIBA MORDANT RED9

ERIOORANGE VERDON S CIBA  
ERIOORANGE GREEN BL 180 % CIBA  
ERIOORANGE GREEN BRILLANT
CIBA  
BL
ERIOORANGE VIOLET BRILLANT B CIBA MORDANT VIOLET28
ERIOORANGE VIOLET BRILLANT B
CIBA MORDANT VIOLET28
300 %
NAPHTOORANGE AZURINE B CIBA MORDANT BLUE28
CLARIANT
CHROMAZURINE NB NEW CONC  
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
LUXINE ORANGE YELLOW PUR 6G  
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
METOMEGA ORANGE BROWN RLL MORDANT BROWN63
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
METOMEGA ORANGE GRIS GL MORDANT BLACK38
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
METOMEGA ORANGE GREEN BLL MORDANT GREEN29
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
NOVOORANGE RED GR MORDANT RED68
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
OMEGA ORANGE AURINE GLS MORDANT YELLOW6
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
OMEGA ORANGE BROWN EB MORDANT BROWN1
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
OMEGA ORANGE ORANGE G CONC MORDANT ORANGE6
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
OMEGA ORANGE RED BN  
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
PANDURANE YELLOW 2RL  
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
PANDURANE BLACK PT  
SANDOZ
CLARIANT
POLYTROPE BLUE R  
SANDOZ
ANTHRACENE TURQUOISE DIVERS  
ORANGE BLUE L2878 DIVERS  
ORANGE BLUE SOLIDE GRA DIVERS  

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ORANGE BROWN SOLIDE RL DIVERS  

ORANGE MARINE 3R 75 % DIVERS  
ORANGE VIOLET 2R EXTRA DIVERS  
ORANGE VIOLET 4B DIVERS  
PONTAORANGE BLACK BLUE RM
DUPONT MORDANT BLACK17
CONC
ICI
ORANGE BLUE 2J  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE BLUE BRILLANT 3R  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE FLAVINE SOLIDE J MORDANT YELLOW5
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE GRIS SOLIDE BRL MORDANT BLACK79
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE YELLOW JSN MORDANT YELLOW34
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE YELLOW SOLIDE J2RL  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE ORANGE SOLIDE RL MORDANT ORANGE3
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE RED SOLIDE J MORDANT RED17
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE RED SOLIDE NL MORDANT RED94
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE RED SOLIDE NL 50 % MORDANT RED94
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE GREEN N MORDANT GREEN36
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE GREEN SOLIDE B  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE VIOLET R MORDANT VIOLET5
FRANCOLOR
ICI
ORANGE VIOLET RL MORDANT VIOLET44
FRANCOLOR
ICI
FRANCOLANE BLACK BLUE RF MORDANT BLACK17
FRANCOLOR
ICI
FRANCOLANE ORANGE 2R  
FRANCOLOR
SOLOORANGE BLUE FONCE B ICI MORDANT BLACK17

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FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE BLUE RH  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE BROWN RH MORDANT BROWN33
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE YELLOW O MORDANT YELLOW34
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE MARINE BFD  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE MARINE BND  
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE ORANGE R MORDANT ORANGE3
FRANCOLOR
ICI
SOLOORANGE VIOLET R MORDANT VIOLET16
FRANCOLOR
ICI
VERILAN GRIS 2BS  
FRANCOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE GRIS B 85 %  
SACOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE YELLOW R 125 % MORDANT YELLOW8
SACOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE YELLOW R 55/180 MORDANT YELLOW8
SACOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE MARINE 2B  
SACOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE MARINE 2B 135/170  
SACOLOR
SAIA /
ORANGE RED BG 70 % MORDANT RED9
SACOLOR
CHROMACIDE BROWN SOLIDE 2R STEINER MORDANT BROWN33
CHROMACIDE MARINE SOLIDE B STEINER  
CHROMACIDE BLACK BLUE
STEINER MORDANT BLACK17
SOLIDE RF EXTRA
CHROMACIDE ORANGE SOLIDE N STEINER MORDANT ORANGE1
CHROMACIDE RED ECB STEINER MORDANT RED7
CHROMACIDE VIOLET SOLIDE R STEINER MORDANT VIOLET5
[16]

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Ref: 01.Textile Science_E.P.G. GOHL & L.D. Vilensky

02&03. www.dyes&pigments.com .

04&05. www.answers.com/topic/mordant

06. unknown source

07. Textile Science_E.P.G. GOHL & L.D. Vilensky

08. Textile Science_E.P.G. GOHL & L.D. Vilensky

09. Textile Science_E.P.G. GOHL & L.D. Vilensky

10. www.answers.com/topic/mordant

11. Textile Science_E.P.G. GOHL & L.D. Vilensky

12. Cronyn J. M. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation. London: Routledge, 1990.

Koren, Zvi. "Historico—Chemical Analysis of Plant Dyes Used in Textiles from Ancient Israel."
Archaeological Chemistry: Organic, Inorganic, and Biochemical Analysis. Washington DC: American
Chemical Society, 1996.

Salzberg, Hugh W. From Caveman to Chemist: Circumstances and Achievements. Washington D.C.:
American Chemical Society, 1991.

Orna, Mary Virginia. " Doing Chemistry at the Art/Archaeology Interface." Journal of Chemical
Education vol. 74. Apr. 1997: 373-6

Orna, Mary Virginia, Adrienne W. Kozlowski, Andrea Baskinger, and Tara Adams. "Coordination
Chemistry of Pigments and Dyes of Historical Interest." American Chemical Society, 1994.

13. unknown source

14. http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/FAQ/mordants_and_assists.shtml

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