INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
Published online 13 July 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.741
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism
Development in Islamic Societies:
The Cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia
Hamira Zamani-Farahani1,* and Joan C. Henderson2
1
Faculty of Business &Accountancy, University of Malaya, Malaysia
2
Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ABSTRACT
This paper is concerned with the effects of
state religion on tourism development in
Muslim countries with particular reference
to Iran and Saudi Arabia. Aspects of the
relationship between Islam and tourism are
investigated overall and issues of tourism
policies, management and marketing and
community involvement within the context
of the two cases are discussed. The
distinctive circumstances prevailing in Iran
and Saudi Arabia are suggested, but more
general insights are also presented into the
interactions between and management of
tourism and Islam. Copyright © 2009 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 2 January 2009; Revised 29 May 2009; Accepted 31
May 2009
Keywords: Islamic societies; Islamic tourism;
tourism management; Iran; Saudi Arabia.
INTRODUCTION
I
slam is the foundation of public and private
life in Muslim nations and its influence
extends to politics, especially in theocracies
where the state and religion are indivisible. In
these countries, society is ordered in confor-
mity with the principles of Islamic law, which
directly and indirectly affect recreation and
travel. Religion thus influences individual host
and guest experiences, but also the operation
*Correspondence to: Hamira Zamani-Farahani, Astiaj
(Tourism Consultancy and Research Center), P.O. Box:
16335-199, Tehran-Iran.
Email: hzfara@gmail.com
of the industry, tourism policy-making and
destination development. However, research
into the impacts of Islam on tourism in Muslim
societies and the ways in which it shapes
formal strategies where it is the state religion
is limited. This paper seeks to improve under-
standing of these issues by exploring the
consequences of Islamic government for inter-
national tourism development with particular
reference to Iran and Saudi Arabia, both theoc-
racies in the Middle East. Comments are
derived from analysis of published material
supplemented by observations made during
fieldwork for other studies in both countries.
The relationship between Islamic doctrine
and tourism in general is first discussed, fol-
lowed by an account of how the former informs
official tourism policies. Conditions in Iran
and Saudi Arabia are then reviewed and ques-
tions of tourism management and marketing
and community involvement within the context
of the cases are examined before a final conclu-
sion. Insights are thus afforded into the atti-
tudes and behaviour of governments and their
citizens with regard to international tourism in
situations where Islam is the state religion and
foundation of the political system. It is hoped
that the paper will be of value to academics
and practitioners and a useful source for further
research into Islamic tourism overall, a subject
of growing importance given the size and
growth of the Muslim population worldwide.
ISLAM AND TOURISM
There are approximately one and a half billion
followers of Islam, making it one of the leading
religions globally. Most Muslims reside in the
57 member countries of the Organisation of
the Islamic Conference (OIC), where it is the
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
80
dominant and often formal or informal state
religion (OIC, 2008a). These are located mainly
in the Middle East, the birthplace of the reli-
gion, which subsequently spread to parts of
Africa and South and Southeast Asia (Esposito,
1999). Several of the former Soviet Republics
of Central Asia are Islamic and there are size-
able Muslim populations in other nations
around the world. Muslim life is directed by
the holy book of the Quran and the Sunnah or
Hadith, containing the sayings and deeds of
the Prophet Muhammad recalled by his com-
panions and family.
The verses of the Quran cited below from the
chapters named in brackets endorse travelling
with a view to achieving spiritual, physical and
social goals. Al-Imran (The Amramites): 137;
Al-An’am (Livestock): 11; Al-Nahl (The Bee):
36; Al-Naml (The Ant): 69; Al-’Ankaboot (The
Spider): 20; Al-Room (The Romans): 42/9;
Saba’ (Sheba): 18; Yousuf (Joseph): 109; Al-Hajj
(The Pilgrimage): 46; Faater (Initiator): 44;
Ghafer (Forgiver): 82/21; Muhammad: 10;
Younus (Jonah): 22; and Al-Mulk (Kingship):
15’ (Pickthall, 1976; Yusuf Ali, 2005). The
lessons are that more complete submission to
God is possible through seeing firsthand the
beauty and bounty of His creation; grasping
the smallness of man reinforces the greatness
of God. Travel can enhance health and well
being, reducing stress and enabling Muslims to
serve God better. It leads to the acquisition of
knowledge and is a test of patience and perse-
verance. Family and wider religious fellowship
ties are affirmed, Muslims also having a duty
when at home to offer hospitality to visitors
from abroad. Guidance is additionally obtained
from the Qiyas that extend Islamic, or Shariah,
law to ‘new situations by analogy’ and Ijma, or
‘scholarly consensus’ (Hashim et al., 2007, p.
1086). It should also be made clear that religion
is an individual matter in Islamic belief with no
scope for coercion (Quran: 2: 256).
Islam thus endows travel with important
attributes and this has been evident through-
out history (Kessler, 1992; Bhardwaj, 1998;
Aziz, 2001). Hirja incorporates migration and
the Hajj to Mecca, one of the five pillars of
Islam, requires Muslims to make the journey
at least once in their lifetime unless prevented
by physical incapacity (Rowley, 1997). Ziyara
applies to visits to shrines and Rihla to travel
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
for other reasons such as education and com-
merce. The emphasis is on purposeful move-
ment, as one component of more spiritual
journeys in the service of God, which contrib-
ute to fostering unity among the larger Muslim
community or Ummah (Eickleman and
Piscatori, 1990).
Tourism of many sorts is thus compatible
with Islam and encouraged by its teachings. At
the same time, the religion demands adherence
to stipulations about conduct, dress, food and
prayer. Interpretations of religious strictures
are not uniform, with variations within and
among countries that have correspondingly
different socio-cultural impacts (Hassan, 2005),
but societies as a whole tend to be conserva-
tive. Political factors are also critical and the
religion has become highly politicised, includ-
ing among traditionally moderate regimes.
Several have been compelled to assert their
Islamic credentials in the face of opposing
parties claiming the role of religious champion
for themselves. The trend has implications for
international tourism and certain visitors are
targets for extremists, exemplified by attacks
in Egypt (Aziz, 1995) and Indonesia (Robinson
and Meaton, 2005). Islamic scholars are partic-
ularly influential in much of the Middle East
where governments are rigid in the implemen-
tation of Islamic law as a consequence
(Goldsmith, 2007). These can be described as
theocracies, defined by Chambers (1980, p. 1399)
dictionary as states where ‘God or a god is
regarded as the sole sovereign and the laws of
the realm as divine commands’.
MUSLIMS AS HOSTS AND GUESTS
The aforementioned conditions and obliga-
tions about religious observances both in
everyday affairs and when overseas can pose
dilemmas for Muslim visitors and destination
hosts. Islam is all pervasive in societies where
religion and culture are interwoven and Sharia
law may govern much of what is considered
acceptable (halal) regarding leisure. Laws pro-
hibit public displays of affection, shaking hands
or any physical contact between members of
the opposite sex, unmarried couples sharing
rooms, gambling, breaking fast in daylight
during Ramadan, consumption of pork and
other haram (forbidden) foods, selling or
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies
drinking liquor and dressing inappropriately.
Both sexes must cover their torso and upper
legs at all times and only women’s faces may
be exposed (Deng et al., 1994). Frequenting dis-
cotheques and bars and miscellaneous other
entertainments are deemed unlawful. Men and
women may be segregated at events and sites
such as museums and shopping malls. The
amount of recreation time for nationals is also
circumscribed by religious duties (Saudi
Arabia’s Supreme Commission for Tourism,
2002). Local adherence to and enforcement of
these requirements does, however, vary across
Islamic countries. Religious principles and
practices are strictly enacted in certain states
while others are more relaxed.
A greater degree of liberalism is likely to
make travel easier for non-Muslims, although
it must be remembered that Muslims have
obligations as hosts and a tradition of offering
hospitality to strangers, which many Western
travellers have appreciated. Nevertheless,
tourists are advised to be respectful of local
norms and abide by rules such as the wearing
of a head covering by women and modest
dress by men in public. What are perceived to
be excessive curbs on freedoms of dress, con-
sumption of food and beverages, personal and
social relations and entertainment are likely to
depress international arrivals. An additional
constraint is that Islam is often associated with
ultra-conservatism, terrorism, oppression and
anti-Western sentiment by outsiders (Arm-
strong, 2002), and the marketing of Islamic
destinations can be a daunting task (Hender-
son, 2008). The political tensions between the
West and some Muslim countries have also
reinforced mutual suspicions, which may be
aggravated by media reporting. Practical
hurdles regarding accessibility, mobility and
visa rules have also to be negotiated.
Muslim as tourists are required to adhere to
the customary restrictions where possible and
‘abstain from profligate consumption and
indulgence’ (Hashim et al., 2007, p. 1085). They
may, however, delay Ramadan fasting and
curtail regular prayers when they are on the
move (Timothy and Iverson, 2006). Individuals
may also elect to ignore religious teachings
and Bahrain’s ‘relatively open atmosphere and
liberal attitude towards alcohol and entertain-
ment’ (EIU, 2008a: p. 30) is popular with Saudi
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
81
Arabians who have easy access by the cause-
way connecting the two states.
Some tourism industry practitioners in non-
Muslim locations have taken steps to satisfy
the special needs of Muslim visitors, illustrated
by the provision of halal meals and hotel
signage pointing to Mecca for prayer as well as
information about mosques. Efforts have been
censured for their inadequacy (Syed, 2001) and
the topic merits further research. Given the
potential problems, Muslims may prefer to
remain within a familiar culture when travel-
ling and this has been labelled Islamic tourism.
Islamic tourism can be defined as tourism
mainly by Muslims, although it can extend to
unbelievers motivated to travel by Islam, which
takes place in the Muslim world (Al-Hamarneh,
2008; OIC, 2008b; Henderson, 2009). Purposes
are: ‘first, the revival of Islamic cultures and the
spread of Islamic values; second, economic
benefit for Islamic societies; and third the
strengthening of Islamic self-confidence, iden-
tity and beliefs in the face of negative stereo-
typing in comparison to other cultures and
lifestyles’ (Al-Hamarneh, 2008, p. 2).
Islamic tourism is agreed to be a powerful
commercial force (Euromonitor, 2008), espe-
cially within the Middle East, with excellent
prospects (Mintel, 2005). Nevertheless, OIC
territory in total accounts for only about 12%
of global tourist arrivals who are very unevenly
distributed (OIC Journal, 2008). Turkey, Malay-
sia and Egypt record the highest volumes due
in part to their popularity with non-Muslim
holidaymakers (UNWTO, 2008). Statistics hint
at unrealised potential among Muslim and
non-Muslim markets and significant obstacles
to destination development, although the often
substantial scale of domestic tourism should
not be forgotten (Bogari et al., 2003). Circum-
stances can be explained by less advanced
stage of economic development (UNDP, 2008),
which inhibits both demand and supply and
aforementioned doubts about safety and secu-
rity. Lack of political commitment or ineffec-
tive policies are also observable as elaborated
on hereafter.
THE STATE, RELIGION AND TOURISM
Government has an essential role in tourism
development and the operation of the tourism
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
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82
industry through specific and related policies
and spending (Pearce, 1989; Oppermann and
Chon, 1997; Page, 2003). It provides the infra-
structure and various services and amenities as
well as overall direction (UNESCO, 2007).
Responsibilities include liaison with and coor-
dination of diverse stakeholders, planning, reg-
ulation, industry stimulation and promotion.
An effective tourism policy should set realistic
aims and objectives (Fennell, 1999) and devise
suitable strategies (Mill and Morrison, 1985),
which can be documented in a tourism plan
(Wilkinson, 1997). Contemporary policies and
plans are usually presented within a framework
of sustainability, but focus heavily on maximis-
ing the economic returns from tourism.
Policy-making is a political process shaped
by the political ideologies and socio-cultural
values of ruling elites (Jenkins, 1997; Gunn,
1998; Hall, 2000) and others with power and
influence. Such underlying dynamics mean
that the type and amount of government
involvement in tourism differs from country to
country according to their distinctive profiles.
The spectrum of intervention ranges from a
laissez-faire stance to extensive controls, and
some rulers may wish to discourage particular
types of tourism and avoid or minimise contact
between residents and tourists because of the
damaging social changes that can ensue. Poli-
cies are thus determined by political structures,
value systems, institutional machinery and
power distribution (Hall and Jenkins, 1995;
Elliot, 1997).
There is an additional dimension of religion
at work in theocracies where government is
conducted in alignment with religious dictates
or at least authorities profess this to be the case.
Contrary to the economic and commercial ori-
entation of much public sector tourism, travel
and the relationship between hosts and guests
is conceived of by Islamic officials primarily in
terms of surrender to the way and will of God
and other aspects are secondary. Iran and
Saudi Arabia are examples of this approach to
tourism policy-making that are discussed sub-
sequently, and Islam has also impacted on atti-
tudes of OIC members that are not theocratic
such as Indonesia and Malaysia.
There is sometimes a marked preference for
targeting fellow Muslims and some govern-
ments have demonstrated little enthusiasm for
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
hosting non-Muslim foreign tourists, choosing
a ‘rejectionist’ or ‘isolationist’ position (Din,
1989, p. 557). Reasons are economic, oil-rich
nations having had little call for extra revenue,
and socio-cultural, with fears about the erosion
of religious devoutness and conventions.
Hegemonic motives cannot be ignored and
those in power may resist an opening up for
modern tourism because it could precipitate
political changes and challenges. Investment
in tourism and its marketing has thus been
restricted, frustrating development and
destination awareness.
Some authorities have been more amenable
and welcomed tourists, irrespective of their
origin (Kelly, 1998; Henderson, 2003), but there
are still reservations about the undesirable
influence of un-Islamic visitor lifestyles. There
have been attempts to check adverse outcomes
by isolating tourists, one instance being the
Maldives where self-contained resorts are con-
fined to uninhabited islands (Domroes, 2001).
Concerns about the harmful effects on Muslim
residents of exposure to non-Muslim tourists
have, however, to be balanced against the pro-
spective economic rewards of the industry,
which are increasingly appreciated. While
Muslims might be favoured and constitute a
large audience, including extremely wealthy
citizens, many have very low incomes, which
limit their participation in tourism and its
economic contribution.
Economic imperatives have prompted a shift
in thinking about international tourism, even
among richer states where it was formerly
shunned (Sharpley, 2003). For example, Brunei
is seeking to utilise tourism as an economic
diversification and job creation tool in antici-
pation of the exhaustion of the sultanate’s oil
and gas deposits in the next 20–30 years (Brunei
Tourism, 2008). The same rationale underlies
moves in this direction by some Persian Gulf
States, perhaps inspired by the achievements
of Dubai that has transformed itself into a
modern and cosmopolitan destination (Hen-
derson, 2007). There have been signs of greater
support for the tourism industry in Iran and
Saudi Arabia, but they and many OIC members
confront serious obstacles to enticing more
leisure tourists from around the world. Some
of the inhibiting factors have already been
referred to in this general discussion and others
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
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Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies
are outlined in the next sections devoted to the
cases.
IRAN, SAUDI ARABIA AND TOURISM
Economic and political background
Iran and Saudi Arabia are located in the Middle
East and are two of the world’s foremost oil
producers. Oil and gas account for over 80% of
their export earnings, indicative of a heavy
reliance on hydrocarbons, which has resulted
in efforts at diversification (EIU, 2008a,b) with
often positive repercussions for the tourism
industry. Both are ruled by theocratic govern-
ments of an authoritarian character, but they
display contrasts politically. Relations between
the two neighbours are not very close, partly
because they espouse different ideologies and
are rivals in their aspirations to lead the Islamic
world.
In Iran, the Islamic Republic dates from 1979
when the monarchy was overthrown and Aya-
tollah Khomenei installed a form of political
Islam. Currently, there is a complex political
framework with a dual power structure involv-
ing the supreme religious leader and an elected
president. A Guardian Council exists to ensure
that president and parliament abide by Islamic
principles and the judicial system is based on
Sharia law. The population is mainly Muslim
(Shia), but there are small communities of
Christians and Zoroastrians as well as Jews.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an absolute
monarchy and the Al Saud dynasty has ‘oper-
ated in partnership with senior clerics’ since
the foundation of the modern Saudi state in
1902 (EIU, 2008a: p. 4). There is a small minor-
ity of Shia Muslims in the kingdom, but Sunni
predominate and practice an austere interpre-
tation of Islam labelled Wahhabism beyond
Saudi Arabia after a preacher of that name. The
judiciary is made up of clergy who are respon-
sible for the administration of Islamic law and
jurisprudence. Religion can be a source of
domestic tensions and Saudi Arabia has had to
contend with Islamic dissidents alongside mis-
trust between Shia and Sunni.
Tourism resources
Iran has a very old civilisation and a wealth of
historic sites (Alavi and Yasin, 2000). O’Gorman
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
83
(2007) identifies the country’s archaeology,
cultural heritage, traditions and natural fea-
tures as key tourist attractions. It is also known
as a centre for Shia pilgrimage. Inbound
tourism has seen some growth, averaging 5%
annually, and a total of 2.2 million foreign visi-
tors were recorded in 2007. Receipts for 2005
were almost US$830 million (UNWTO, 2008).
Statistical data are unreliable, but most visitors
appear to be from Central and South Asia and
the Middle East and former Soviet countries
with only an estimated 10 000 Westerners (EIU,
2008b). Culture- and nature-based vacations
and study tours are popular with the last group
and itineraries combine heritage sites, several
linked to the historic Silk Road trade route, and
the natural scenery with traditional villages
and shopping. Tehran, Shiraz, Esfahan, Yazd,
Kerman and Hamadan are the most visited
destinations. Its complex climate also means
that the country is famed for appearing to have
four distinct seasons at the same time.
Known as the birthplace of Islam and home
of the Prophet Mohammad, Saudi Arabia has
immense symbolic importance for Muslims. It
is guardian of the holy sites and most of the 8.6
million arrivals reported in 2006 were pilgrims
from across the world taking part in the Hajj
or Umrah (EIU, 2008a). The authorities have a
strict quota to keep the number of religious
visitors to a manageable level and the holy
cities of Mecca and Medina are closed to non-
believers. Travel from outside the region is
primarily for business, centred on the capital
Riyadh, and vacationers have been actively
discouraged in the past. Nevertheless, there
are outstanding attractions of ancient archaeo-
logical sites, the natural scenery of desert,
mountains and valleys and Red Seas beaches
and coastline that offer excellent diving
(Seddon and Khoja, 2003).
Official policies
Appreciation of these resources has been
growing among officials who are now more
enthusiastic about exploiting the kingdom’s
untapped potential as a destination (Sadi and
Henderson, 2005a). Tourism’s economic role
has been allocated greater priority and is seen
as a means of lessening reliance on finite oil
reserves. It is anticipated that the industry will
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
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84
be a major employer of the future, helping to
resolve the urgent problem of rising youth
unemployment (Sadi and Henderson, 2005b).
Visas have been issued for vacation travel since
2006, although these are subject to tight restric-
tions, and selected tour operators are licensed
to bring foreigners on tourist visas into the
country. Pilgrims are also being enticed by
new leisure programmes to stay longer on
completion of their religious duties (Al-
Hamarneh, 2008).
Responsibility for tourism in Saudi Arabia
rests with the General Commission for Tourism
and Antiquities, incorporating the Supreme
Council for Tourism, which has a mission to
‘facilitate the sustainable growth and success
of the tourism industry in the Kingdom’,
deemed to be an ‘important pillar of the
national economy’. It is headed by one of the
Prince Sultans who reports directly to the king
and is seeking to attract 1.5 million tourists,
excluding Haj and Umrah pilgrims, by 2020 as
well as boost domestic tourism (Arab News,
2008a). The marketing chief has commented
that Saudi Arabia would not be ‘providing the
things that are incompatible with our Islamic
customs and traditions’, but an ‘original
tourism experiment that is based on traditional
Arab hospitality’ (Reuters, 2008).
A national tourism development strategy for
the next 20 years is underway, founded on
‘value based tourism’, which ‘follows the basics
and fundamentals of Islam and is economi-
cally, socially, culturally and environmentally
feasible and also entertaining to be able to
attract the tourist’ (General Commission for
Tourism and Antiquities, 2008). Classification
of accommodation has begun and there has
been talk of launching a chain of heritage
hotels. Training colleges in partnership with
major multinational companies such as Accor,
airport expansion and investment in accom-
modation and exhibition and conference facili-
ties are all planned (Asia Travel Tips.com,
2008). Saudi Arabia is also working with the
United Nations World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO) on its Capacity Building Programme
designed to ensure adequate tourist informa-
tion systems across the region and upgrade
human resources and institutional capacities.
The kingdom was the first country in the
Middle East to complete the Tourism Satellite
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
Account exercise in conformity with UNWTO
standards (Arab News, 2008b).
Iran has a longer history of tourism planning
that is characterised by a high degree of state
intervention. A series of five-year socio-
cultural and economic development plans
have been in operation since 1978, the fourth
running until 2009. Among wider objectives,
the intentions are to disseminate awareness of
the culture and civilisation of Islamic Iran,
increase foreign exchange earnings, stimulate
local commerce and industry and generate a
favourable image of the country worldwide.
The efficacy of the plans is debatable and tour-
ism’s contribution to the economy remains
relatively minor. A 20 Year Outlook Tourism
Plan of Iran was introduced in 2005, consisting
of a 10-year plan and two subsequent five-year
plans to address existing challenges. The target
is 20 million tourist arrivals by 2025 with pro-
jected investment of over US$32 billion, US$5
billion from the government and the remain-
der from private enterprise (Faghri, 2007).
Administrative structures have evolved over
the years and formal responsibility for tourism
now lies with Iran’s Cultural Heritage, Handi-
craft and Tourism Organisation (ICHHTO)
under the President. The main goals of
ICHHTO are to inform about the country’s
history, protect its heritage and promote
tourism. Cultural concerns are at the forefront
with a partiality for visitors who respect the
Iranian people and are knowledgeable about
cultural and religious traditions. Promotional
literature and collaterals are produced in 17
languages and ICHHTO undertakes some
advertising campaigns directed at individuals
and the travel trade, but there is not a consis-
tent brand and the amount and distribution of
materials is limited. International trade fairs in
26 countries were attended in 2007, mainly in
priority markets of Middle Eastern Muslim
neighbours (ICHHTO, 2008; ITTO, 2008).
Among recent endeavours to encourage
tourism is the streamlining of the cumbersome
entry arrangements by granting visas on
arrival, albeit valid for only one week. Visas
are no longer required for stays of less than
three months by certain nationalities. A com-
puterised hotel reservations system has also
been introduced. The ICHHTO has signed
several letters of understanding and bilateral
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
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Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies
tourism agreements with other states covering
a range of issues, which include the exchange
of tourists. Eight overseas tourism offices have
been opened with private sector support and
plans were announced in 2008 to open Foreign
Investing Offices in Malaysia, Turkey, China
and several Middle Eastern and European
countries in a bid to raise investment in tourism
from overseas (IRTAT News, 2008).
However, tourism development has been
impeded by the revolution, which commenced
in 1979, and later war with Iraq from 1980 to
1988 and their legacies. Disadvantages persist
of a ‘strict social code, shortage of adequate
accommodation, bottlenecks in internal trans-
portation and poor marketing’ (EIU, 2008b
p. 26). The limited promotional efforts outside
the region mean that the country remains rela-
tively unknown as a tourist destination glob-
ally. It does receive publicity in the news
media, but this is often negative. Such observa-
tions resonate in the case of Saudi Arabia,
although it is more cautious about develop-
ment and modest in its growth targets.
Iran and Saudi Arabia are thus unique as
political and tourist entities, but they do exhibit
some similarities in terms of destination
strengths and weaknesses, tourism policies
and the strong influence of Islam. The implica-
tions of theocratic structures and processes are
evident in stances adopted, tourism manage-
ment and marketing and the involvement of
residents and these core areas are discussed in
the final section.
TOURISM MANAGEMENT, MARKETING
AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Tourism administration encompasses multiple
tasks related to managing resources and tourist
interactions with the physical environment
and resident community in ways that are effec-
tive, efficient and correspond to notions of sus-
tainability (Doswell, 1997; Mason, 2003; Page,
2003). The purpose is to exercise some control
over tourism supply and demand in order to
pursue defined policy goals (Middleton, 1994).
Despite a growing commitment to environ-
mental stewardship, economic motives still
dominate official tourism agendas in general.
However, policies in Iran and Saudi Arabia
can be directed as much, if not more, towards
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
85
religious and socio-cultural ends than income
and employment generation.
In terms of policy implementation, certain
management principles are perhaps universal
and relevant to all types of organisation (Certo,
2003). Competent managers must possess appro-
priate technical, human and conceptual skills
and have the right personal qualities (Dessler,
1998). Personnel with the most suitable skills and
character are likely to perform well and contrib-
ute to organisational success, and these attributes
become the criteria for recruitment. The assign-
ment of posts in public sector tourism in Iran and
Saudi Arabia follows a different pattern. The
selection of top-level managers and key figures
in authority appears to be commonly decided by
their devotion to Islam (belief and practice) and
Islamic appearance alongside political allegiance.
Gender is a consideration and males are strongly,
if not exclusively, favoured as they are in many
Arab States (Sonmez, 2001). Proximity to people
of religious and political influence is another
factor and the skills remarked upon above may
be neglected. Tourism may therefore not be as
well managed as it could be, with development
impeded as a result.
Destination marketing is an essential tourism
management tool that is employed to inform
and influence tourist and industry attitudes
and behaviour (Ryan, 1991) with attention con-
centrated on markets judged to be most profit-
able. In Iran and Saudi Arabia, stress is placed
on tourists who are familiar with Muslim soci-
eties and preferably adherents of the religion.
There is an additional shared interest in domes-
tic tourism, outside the ambit of this paper,
where there are no risks of importing undesir-
able forces. Saudi Arabia is less active and
ambitious in its promotion than Iran, but over-
seas advertising of both is mainly regional in
nature and centres on OIC members of the
Middle East and South Asia. The tendency to
ignore lucrative Western generators could be
viewed as a missed opportunity for earning
revenue, as well as for countering the negative
images of Muslim nations and their inhabit-
ants circulating in the West (Said, 1981;
Shaheen, 1987; Din, 1989). Tourism develop-
ment is thus again hampered, although it must
be recognised that growth driven by business
from Europe and North America is not offi-
cially sought.
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
86
Finally, community participation is now
acknowledged to be another crucial compo-
nent of sustainable tourism development. The
rationale is to give a voice to locals affected by
tourism, utilise their knowledge, reduce con-
flicts and foster resident support (Swarbrooke,
1999). Proponents maintain that destination
communities are important stakeholders who
should be involved and empowered in tourism
policy-making, but such arguments may not
be sympathetically received in Iran and Saudi
Arabia. Theocratic governments portray them-
selves as vehicles for the communication of
divine edicts, and being a Muslim entails wilful
submission to God and living in accordance
with His messages. Questioning government
authority can be interpreted as an expression
of doubt about God’s omnipotence as well as
civil disobedience. Ideas with origins in liberal
democracies of the West may not be compati-
ble with Islamic philosophy or political prac-
tice and government has also become centralised
so that local people have little say in decisions
about tourism.
Whether residents of Iran and Saudi Arabia
would make use of the chance to engage in the
policy process is unknown, but there are signs
that they may not always concur with Islamic
officialdom. For instance, officials frequently
make reference to guarding residents from the
adverse socio-cultural impacts of Western style
international tourism when explaining their
opposition to it. Research on tourism in Iran
conducted by one of the authors in 2006 and
2007 (Zamani-Farahani and Musa, 2008),
however, revealed that a majority of respon-
dents have no preference regarding a tourist’s
religion and are interested in reducing visitor
unease about the Islamic religion. A number of
superior standard hotels managers were found
to be reluctant to accommodate large family
parties of Middle Eastern Muslim tourists due
to past experiences of misconduct and vandal-
ism. It was also observed that some of the less
affluent Muslim travellers and pilgrims resort
to begging to cover the cost of their trip, creat-
ing crime and health risks. Issues of the socio-
cultural impacts of tourism in theocracies is an
avenue to be explored further and are particu-
larly pertinent if destinations are set to see a
rise, however modest, in longer haul inbound
tourists.
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
CONCLUSION
This paper has investigated aspects of the rela-
tionship between Islam and tourism, focusing
on the religion’s implications for tourism policy
and development in the theocratic states of
Iran and Saudi Arabia. The Islamic religion has
been shown to have profound consequences
for destination conditions and inbound and
outbound tourists and be influential in deter-
mining the content, direction and implementa-
tion of tourism policy. The impacts on tourism
of Islam as the state religion do, however, vary
across diverse Muslim societies, and Iran and
Saudi Arabia are perhaps among the countries
where it has the greatest effects. Islamic
government power is very strong in the two
theocracies and religion dictates the conduct
of political affairs as well as the functioning of
societies and economies.
One result may be that such countries, despite
a wealth of unique tourist attractions, draw
relatively few inbound tourists from the devel-
oped countries that are the major generators of
international flows. They are thereby denied
the full benefits of tourism in economic and
other domains. It seems that a state religion can
be a serious barrier to tourism development,
but at the same time it must be admitted that
certain types of development are not always
wanted and the absence of large numbers of
Western tourists might be hailed as highly
desirable by officials and residents. Neverthe-
less, there is awareness of the economic value
of these markets, and tensions therefore arise
among religious, political and commercial
imperatives. These pose a dilemma for authori-
ties and it will be interesting to monitor attempts
at resolution in the years ahead.
It is hoped that this paper has succeeded in
providing some original insights into the inter-
actions between the Islamic religion and
tourism which are of value to authorities, the
industry, academics and local communities in
both the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds.
Nevertheless, its shortcomings are recognised
by the authors and there are restrictions
on comparing the findings of this account
with previous work. Tourism research into
conditions in many Muslim countries is still
limited and some features of Islam and Islamic
governance can be especially sensitive. More
Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies
cases outlining tourism development and
management in individual states as well as
international comparisons would be useful, as
would analyses of motivations of Muslim trav-
ellers and their expectations and experiences.
Impact assessments encompassing environ-
mental and economic, as well as socio-cultural,
matters, would yield valuable data to assist in
sustainable management. Other worthwhile
topics include levels of religious intervention
in tourism development within and across
Islamic countries and views about the conse-
quences, not least among destination residents,
and tensions between Muslim and non-Muslim
tourists sharing the same destination. Such
questions and those raised in this paper are
important and the subject constitutes a rich
field for continued research.
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