Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I
slam is the foundation of public and private
that the paper will be of value to academics
life in Muslim nations and its influence
and practitioners and a useful source for further
extends to politics, especially in theocracies
research into Islamic tourism overall, a subject
where the state and religion are indivisible. In
of growing importance given the size and
these countries, society is ordered in confor-
growth of the Muslim population worldwide.
mity with the principles of Islamic law, which
directly and indirectly affect recreation and
ISLAM AND TOURISM
travel. Religion thus influences individual host
and guest experiences, but also the operation
There are approximately one and a half billion
followers of Islam, making it one of the leading
*Correspondence to: Hamira Zamani-Farahani, Astiaj religions globally. Most Muslims reside in the
(Tourism Consultancy and Research Center), P.O. Box:
16335-199, Tehran-Iran. 57 member countries of the Organisation of
Email: hzfara@gmail.com the Islamic Conference (OIC), where it is the
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
80 H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
dominant and often formal or informal state for other reasons such as education and com-
religion (OIC, 2008a). These are located mainly merce. The emphasis is on purposeful move-
in the Middle East, the birthplace of the reli- ment, as one component of more spiritual
gion, which subsequently spread to parts of journeys in the service of God, which contrib-
Africa and South and Southeast Asia (Esposito, ute to fostering unity among the larger Muslim
1999). Several of the former Soviet Republics community or Ummah (Eickleman and
of Central Asia are Islamic and there are size- Piscatori, 1990).
able Muslim populations in other nations Tourism of many sorts is thus compatible
around the world. Muslim life is directed by with Islam and encouraged by its teachings. At
the holy book of the Quran and the Sunnah or the same time, the religion demands adherence
Hadith, containing the sayings and deeds of to stipulations about conduct, dress, food and
the Prophet Muhammad recalled by his com- prayer. Interpretations of religious strictures
panions and family. are not uniform, with variations within and
The verses of the Quran cited below from the among countries that have correspondingly
chapters named in brackets endorse travelling different socio-cultural impacts (Hassan, 2005),
with a view to achieving spiritual, physical and but societies as a whole tend to be conserva-
social goals. Al-Imran (The Amramites): 137; tive. Political factors are also critical and the
Al-An’am (Livestock): 11; Al-Nahl (The Bee): religion has become highly politicised, includ-
36; Al-Naml (The Ant): 69; Al-’Ankaboot (The ing among traditionally moderate regimes.
Spider): 20; Al-Room (The Romans): 42/9; Several have been compelled to assert their
Saba’ (Sheba): 18; Yousuf (Joseph): 109; Al-Hajj Islamic credentials in the face of opposing
(The Pilgrimage): 46; Faater (Initiator): 44; parties claiming the role of religious champion
Ghafer (Forgiver): 82/21; Muhammad: 10; for themselves. The trend has implications for
Younus (Jonah): 22; and Al-Mulk (Kingship): international tourism and certain visitors are
15’ (Pickthall, 1976; Yusuf Ali, 2005). The targets for extremists, exemplified by attacks
lessons are that more complete submission to in Egypt (Aziz, 1995) and Indonesia (Robinson
God is possible through seeing firsthand the and Meaton, 2005). Islamic scholars are partic-
beauty and bounty of His creation; grasping ularly influential in much of the Middle East
the smallness of man reinforces the greatness where governments are rigid in the implemen-
of God. Travel can enhance health and well tation of Islamic law as a consequence
being, reducing stress and enabling Muslims to (Goldsmith, 2007). These can be described as
serve God better. It leads to the acquisition of theocracies, defined by Chambers (1980, p. 1399)
knowledge and is a test of patience and perse- dictionary as states where ‘God or a god is
verance. Family and wider religious fellowship regarded as the sole sovereign and the laws of
ties are affirmed, Muslims also having a duty the realm as divine commands’.
when at home to offer hospitality to visitors
from abroad. Guidance is additionally obtained MUSLIMS AS HOSTS AND GUESTS
from the Qiyas that extend Islamic, or Shariah,
law to ‘new situations by analogy’ and Ijma, or The aforementioned conditions and obliga-
‘scholarly consensus’ (Hashim et al., 2007, p. tions about religious observances both in
1086). It should also be made clear that religion everyday affairs and when overseas can pose
is an individual matter in Islamic belief with no dilemmas for Muslim visitors and destination
scope for coercion (Quran: 2: 256). hosts. Islam is all pervasive in societies where
Islam thus endows travel with important religion and culture are interwoven and Sharia
attributes and this has been evident through- law may govern much of what is considered
out history (Kessler, 1992; Bhardwaj, 1998; acceptable (halal) regarding leisure. Laws pro-
Aziz, 2001). Hirja incorporates migration and hibit public displays of affection, shaking hands
the Hajj to Mecca, one of the five pillars of or any physical contact between members of
Islam, requires Muslims to make the journey the opposite sex, unmarried couples sharing
at least once in their lifetime unless prevented rooms, gambling, breaking fast in daylight
by physical incapacity (Rowley, 1997). Ziyara during Ramadan, consumption of pork and
applies to visits to shrines and Rihla to travel other haram (forbidden) foods, selling or
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies 81
drinking liquor and dressing inappropriately. Arabians who have easy access by the cause-
Both sexes must cover their torso and upper way connecting the two states.
legs at all times and only women’s faces may Some tourism industry practitioners in non-
be exposed (Deng et al., 1994). Frequenting dis- Muslim locations have taken steps to satisfy
cotheques and bars and miscellaneous other the special needs of Muslim visitors, illustrated
entertainments are deemed unlawful. Men and by the provision of halal meals and hotel
women may be segregated at events and sites signage pointing to Mecca for prayer as well as
such as museums and shopping malls. The information about mosques. Efforts have been
amount of recreation time for nationals is also censured for their inadequacy (Syed, 2001) and
circumscribed by religious duties (Saudi the topic merits further research. Given the
Arabia’s Supreme Commission for Tourism, potential problems, Muslims may prefer to
2002). Local adherence to and enforcement of remain within a familiar culture when travel-
these requirements does, however, vary across ling and this has been labelled Islamic tourism.
Islamic countries. Religious principles and Islamic tourism can be defined as tourism
practices are strictly enacted in certain states mainly by Muslims, although it can extend to
while others are more relaxed. unbelievers motivated to travel by Islam, which
A greater degree of liberalism is likely to takes place in the Muslim world (Al-Hamarneh,
make travel easier for non-Muslims, although 2008; OIC, 2008b; Henderson, 2009). Purposes
it must be remembered that Muslims have are: ‘first, the revival of Islamic cultures and the
obligations as hosts and a tradition of offering spread of Islamic values; second, economic
hospitality to strangers, which many Western benefit for Islamic societies; and third the
travellers have appreciated. Nevertheless, strengthening of Islamic self-confidence, iden-
tourists are advised to be respectful of local tity and beliefs in the face of negative stereo-
norms and abide by rules such as the wearing typing in comparison to other cultures and
of a head covering by women and modest lifestyles’ (Al-Hamarneh, 2008, p. 2).
dress by men in public. What are perceived to Islamic tourism is agreed to be a powerful
be excessive curbs on freedoms of dress, con- commercial force (Euromonitor, 2008), espe-
sumption of food and beverages, personal and cially within the Middle East, with excellent
social relations and entertainment are likely to prospects (Mintel, 2005). Nevertheless, OIC
depress international arrivals. An additional territory in total accounts for only about 12%
constraint is that Islam is often associated with of global tourist arrivals who are very unevenly
ultra-conservatism, terrorism, oppression and distributed (OIC Journal, 2008). Turkey, Malay-
anti-Western sentiment by outsiders (Arm- sia and Egypt record the highest volumes due
strong, 2002), and the marketing of Islamic in part to their popularity with non-Muslim
destinations can be a daunting task (Hender- holidaymakers (UNWTO, 2008). Statistics hint
son, 2008). The political tensions between the at unrealised potential among Muslim and
West and some Muslim countries have also non-Muslim markets and significant obstacles
reinforced mutual suspicions, which may be to destination development, although the often
aggravated by media reporting. Practical substantial scale of domestic tourism should
hurdles regarding accessibility, mobility and not be forgotten (Bogari et al., 2003). Circum-
visa rules have also to be negotiated. stances can be explained by less advanced
Muslim as tourists are required to adhere to stage of economic development (UNDP, 2008),
the customary restrictions where possible and which inhibits both demand and supply and
‘abstain from profligate consumption and aforementioned doubts about safety and secu-
indulgence’ (Hashim et al., 2007, p. 1085). They rity. Lack of political commitment or ineffec-
may, however, delay Ramadan fasting and tive policies are also observable as elaborated
curtail regular prayers when they are on the on hereafter.
move (Timothy and Iverson, 2006). Individuals
may also elect to ignore religious teachings THE STATE, RELIGION AND TOURISM
and Bahrain’s ‘relatively open atmosphere and
liberal attitude towards alcohol and entertain- Government has an essential role in tourism
ment’ (EIU, 2008a: p. 30) is popular with Saudi development and the operation of the tourism
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
82 H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
industry through specific and related policies hosting non-Muslim foreign tourists, choosing
and spending (Pearce, 1989; Oppermann and a ‘rejectionist’ or ‘isolationist’ position (Din,
Chon, 1997; Page, 2003). It provides the infra- 1989, p. 557). Reasons are economic, oil-rich
structure and various services and amenities as nations having had little call for extra revenue,
well as overall direction (UNESCO, 2007). and socio-cultural, with fears about the erosion
Responsibilities include liaison with and coor- of religious devoutness and conventions.
dination of diverse stakeholders, planning, reg- Hegemonic motives cannot be ignored and
ulation, industry stimulation and promotion. those in power may resist an opening up for
An effective tourism policy should set realistic modern tourism because it could precipitate
aims and objectives (Fennell, 1999) and devise political changes and challenges. Investment
suitable strategies (Mill and Morrison, 1985), in tourism and its marketing has thus been
which can be documented in a tourism plan restricted, frustrating development and
(Wilkinson, 1997). Contemporary policies and destination awareness.
plans are usually presented within a framework Some authorities have been more amenable
of sustainability, but focus heavily on maximis- and welcomed tourists, irrespective of their
ing the economic returns from tourism. origin (Kelly, 1998; Henderson, 2003), but there
Policy-making is a political process shaped are still reservations about the undesirable
by the political ideologies and socio-cultural influence of un-Islamic visitor lifestyles. There
values of ruling elites (Jenkins, 1997; Gunn, have been attempts to check adverse outcomes
1998; Hall, 2000) and others with power and by isolating tourists, one instance being the
influence. Such underlying dynamics mean Maldives where self-contained resorts are con-
that the type and amount of government fined to uninhabited islands (Domroes, 2001).
involvement in tourism differs from country to Concerns about the harmful effects on Muslim
country according to their distinctive profiles. residents of exposure to non-Muslim tourists
The spectrum of intervention ranges from a have, however, to be balanced against the pro-
laissez-faire stance to extensive controls, and spective economic rewards of the industry,
some rulers may wish to discourage particular which are increasingly appreciated. While
types of tourism and avoid or minimise contact Muslims might be favoured and constitute a
between residents and tourists because of the large audience, including extremely wealthy
damaging social changes that can ensue. Poli- citizens, many have very low incomes, which
cies are thus determined by political structures, limit their participation in tourism and its
value systems, institutional machinery and economic contribution.
power distribution (Hall and Jenkins, 1995; Economic imperatives have prompted a shift
Elliot, 1997). in thinking about international tourism, even
There is an additional dimension of religion among richer states where it was formerly
at work in theocracies where government is shunned (Sharpley, 2003). For example, Brunei
conducted in alignment with religious dictates is seeking to utilise tourism as an economic
or at least authorities profess this to be the case. diversification and job creation tool in antici-
Contrary to the economic and commercial ori- pation of the exhaustion of the sultanate’s oil
entation of much public sector tourism, travel and gas deposits in the next 20–30 years (Brunei
and the relationship between hosts and guests Tourism, 2008). The same rationale underlies
is conceived of by Islamic officials primarily in moves in this direction by some Persian Gulf
terms of surrender to the way and will of God States, perhaps inspired by the achievements
and other aspects are secondary. Iran and of Dubai that has transformed itself into a
Saudi Arabia are examples of this approach to modern and cosmopolitan destination (Hen-
tourism policy-making that are discussed sub- derson, 2007). There have been signs of greater
sequently, and Islam has also impacted on atti- support for the tourism industry in Iran and
tudes of OIC members that are not theocratic Saudi Arabia, but they and many OIC members
such as Indonesia and Malaysia. confront serious obstacles to enticing more
There is sometimes a marked preference for leisure tourists from around the world. Some
targeting fellow Muslims and some govern- of the inhibiting factors have already been
ments have demonstrated little enthusiasm for referred to in this general discussion and others
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies 83
are outlined in the next sections devoted to the (2007) identifies the country’s archaeology,
cases. cultural heritage, traditions and natural fea-
tures as key tourist attractions. It is also known
as a centre for Shia pilgrimage. Inbound
IRAN, SAUDI ARABIA AND TOURISM
tourism has seen some growth, averaging 5%
annually, and a total of 2.2 million foreign visi-
Economic and political background
tors were recorded in 2007. Receipts for 2005
Iran and Saudi Arabia are located in the Middle were almost US$830 million (UNWTO, 2008).
East and are two of the world’s foremost oil Statistical data are unreliable, but most visitors
producers. Oil and gas account for over 80% of appear to be from Central and South Asia and
their export earnings, indicative of a heavy the Middle East and former Soviet countries
reliance on hydrocarbons, which has resulted with only an estimated 10 000 Westerners (EIU,
in efforts at diversification (EIU, 2008a,b) with 2008b). Culture- and nature-based vacations
often positive repercussions for the tourism and study tours are popular with the last group
industry. Both are ruled by theocratic govern- and itineraries combine heritage sites, several
ments of an authoritarian character, but they linked to the historic Silk Road trade route, and
display contrasts politically. Relations between the natural scenery with traditional villages
the two neighbours are not very close, partly and shopping. Tehran, Shiraz, Esfahan, Yazd,
because they espouse different ideologies and Kerman and Hamadan are the most visited
are rivals in their aspirations to lead the Islamic destinations. Its complex climate also means
world. that the country is famed for appearing to have
In Iran, the Islamic Republic dates from 1979 four distinct seasons at the same time.
when the monarchy was overthrown and Aya- Known as the birthplace of Islam and home
tollah Khomenei installed a form of political of the Prophet Mohammad, Saudi Arabia has
Islam. Currently, there is a complex political immense symbolic importance for Muslims. It
framework with a dual power structure involv- is guardian of the holy sites and most of the 8.6
ing the supreme religious leader and an elected million arrivals reported in 2006 were pilgrims
president. A Guardian Council exists to ensure from across the world taking part in the Hajj
that president and parliament abide by Islamic or Umrah (EIU, 2008a). The authorities have a
principles and the judicial system is based on strict quota to keep the number of religious
Sharia law. The population is mainly Muslim visitors to a manageable level and the holy
(Shia), but there are small communities of cities of Mecca and Medina are closed to non-
Christians and Zoroastrians as well as Jews. believers. Travel from outside the region is
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is an absolute primarily for business, centred on the capital
monarchy and the Al Saud dynasty has ‘oper- Riyadh, and vacationers have been actively
ated in partnership with senior clerics’ since discouraged in the past. Nevertheless, there
the foundation of the modern Saudi state in are outstanding attractions of ancient archaeo-
1902 (EIU, 2008a: p. 4). There is a small minor- logical sites, the natural scenery of desert,
ity of Shia Muslims in the kingdom, but Sunni mountains and valleys and Red Seas beaches
predominate and practice an austere interpre- and coastline that offer excellent diving
tation of Islam labelled Wahhabism beyond (Seddon and Khoja, 2003).
Saudi Arabia after a preacher of that name. The
judiciary is made up of clergy who are respon-
Official policies
sible for the administration of Islamic law and
jurisprudence. Religion can be a source of Appreciation of these resources has been
domestic tensions and Saudi Arabia has had to growing among officials who are now more
contend with Islamic dissidents alongside mis- enthusiastic about exploiting the kingdom’s
trust between Shia and Sunni. untapped potential as a destination (Sadi and
Henderson, 2005a). Tourism’s economic role
Tourism resources
has been allocated greater priority and is seen
Iran has a very old civilisation and a wealth of as a means of lessening reliance on finite oil
historic sites (Alavi and Yasin, 2000). O’Gorman reserves. It is anticipated that the industry will
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
84 H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
be a major employer of the future, helping to Account exercise in conformity with UNWTO
resolve the urgent problem of rising youth standards (Arab News, 2008b).
unemployment (Sadi and Henderson, 2005b). Iran has a longer history of tourism planning
Visas have been issued for vacation travel since that is characterised by a high degree of state
2006, although these are subject to tight restric- intervention. A series of five-year socio-
tions, and selected tour operators are licensed cultural and economic development plans
to bring foreigners on tourist visas into the have been in operation since 1978, the fourth
country. Pilgrims are also being enticed by running until 2009. Among wider objectives,
new leisure programmes to stay longer on the intentions are to disseminate awareness of
completion of their religious duties (Al- the culture and civilisation of Islamic Iran,
Hamarneh, 2008). increase foreign exchange earnings, stimulate
Responsibility for tourism in Saudi Arabia local commerce and industry and generate a
rests with the General Commission for Tourism favourable image of the country worldwide.
and Antiquities, incorporating the Supreme The efficacy of the plans is debatable and tour-
Council for Tourism, which has a mission to ism’s contribution to the economy remains
‘facilitate the sustainable growth and success relatively minor. A 20 Year Outlook Tourism
of the tourism industry in the Kingdom’, Plan of Iran was introduced in 2005, consisting
deemed to be an ‘important pillar of the of a 10-year plan and two subsequent five-year
national economy’. It is headed by one of the plans to address existing challenges. The target
Prince Sultans who reports directly to the king is 20 million tourist arrivals by 2025 with pro-
and is seeking to attract 1.5 million tourists, jected investment of over US$32 billion, US$5
excluding Haj and Umrah pilgrims, by 2020 as billion from the government and the remain-
well as boost domestic tourism (Arab News, der from private enterprise (Faghri, 2007).
2008a). The marketing chief has commented Administrative structures have evolved over
that Saudi Arabia would not be ‘providing the the years and formal responsibility for tourism
things that are incompatible with our Islamic now lies with Iran’s Cultural Heritage, Handi-
customs and traditions’, but an ‘original craft and Tourism Organisation (ICHHTO)
tourism experiment that is based on traditional under the President. The main goals of
Arab hospitality’ (Reuters, 2008). ICHHTO are to inform about the country’s
A national tourism development strategy for history, protect its heritage and promote
the next 20 years is underway, founded on tourism. Cultural concerns are at the forefront
‘value based tourism’, which ‘follows the basics with a partiality for visitors who respect the
and fundamentals of Islam and is economi- Iranian people and are knowledgeable about
cally, socially, culturally and environmentally cultural and religious traditions. Promotional
feasible and also entertaining to be able to literature and collaterals are produced in 17
attract the tourist’ (General Commission for languages and ICHHTO undertakes some
Tourism and Antiquities, 2008). Classification advertising campaigns directed at individuals
of accommodation has begun and there has and the travel trade, but there is not a consis-
been talk of launching a chain of heritage tent brand and the amount and distribution of
hotels. Training colleges in partnership with materials is limited. International trade fairs in
major multinational companies such as Accor, 26 countries were attended in 2007, mainly in
airport expansion and investment in accom- priority markets of Middle Eastern Muslim
modation and exhibition and conference facili- neighbours (ICHHTO, 2008; ITTO, 2008).
ties are all planned (Asia Travel Tips.com, Among recent endeavours to encourage
2008). Saudi Arabia is also working with the tourism is the streamlining of the cumbersome
United Nations World Tourism Organization entry arrangements by granting visas on
(UNWTO) on its Capacity Building Programme arrival, albeit valid for only one week. Visas
designed to ensure adequate tourist informa- are no longer required for stays of less than
tion systems across the region and upgrade three months by certain nationalities. A com-
human resources and institutional capacities. puterised hotel reservations system has also
The kingdom was the first country in the been introduced. The ICHHTO has signed
Middle East to complete the Tourism Satellite several letters of understanding and bilateral
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies 85
tourism agreements with other states covering religious and socio-cultural ends than income
a range of issues, which include the exchange and employment generation.
of tourists. Eight overseas tourism offices have In terms of policy implementation, certain
been opened with private sector support and management principles are perhaps universal
plans were announced in 2008 to open Foreign and relevant to all types of organisation (Certo,
Investing Offices in Malaysia, Turkey, China 2003). Competent managers must possess appro-
and several Middle Eastern and European priate technical, human and conceptual skills
countries in a bid to raise investment in tourism and have the right personal qualities (Dessler,
from overseas (IRTAT News, 2008). 1998). Personnel with the most suitable skills and
However, tourism development has been character are likely to perform well and contrib-
impeded by the revolution, which commenced ute to organisational success, and these attributes
in 1979, and later war with Iraq from 1980 to become the criteria for recruitment. The assign-
1988 and their legacies. Disadvantages persist ment of posts in public sector tourism in Iran and
of a ‘strict social code, shortage of adequate Saudi Arabia follows a different pattern. The
accommodation, bottlenecks in internal trans- selection of top-level managers and key figures
portation and poor marketing’ (EIU, 2008b in authority appears to be commonly decided by
p. 26). The limited promotional efforts outside their devotion to Islam (belief and practice) and
the region mean that the country remains rela- Islamic appearance alongside political allegiance.
tively unknown as a tourist destination glob- Gender is a consideration and males are strongly,
ally. It does receive publicity in the news if not exclusively, favoured as they are in many
media, but this is often negative. Such observa- Arab States (Sonmez, 2001). Proximity to people
tions resonate in the case of Saudi Arabia, of religious and political influence is another
although it is more cautious about develop- factor and the skills remarked upon above may
ment and modest in its growth targets. be neglected. Tourism may therefore not be as
Iran and Saudi Arabia are thus unique as well managed as it could be, with development
political and tourist entities, but they do exhibit impeded as a result.
some similarities in terms of destination Destination marketing is an essential tourism
strengths and weaknesses, tourism policies management tool that is employed to inform
and the strong influence of Islam. The implica- and influence tourist and industry attitudes
tions of theocratic structures and processes are and behaviour (Ryan, 1991) with attention con-
evident in stances adopted, tourism manage- centrated on markets judged to be most profit-
ment and marketing and the involvement of able. In Iran and Saudi Arabia, stress is placed
residents and these core areas are discussed in on tourists who are familiar with Muslim soci-
the final section. eties and preferably adherents of the religion.
There is an additional shared interest in domes-
TOURISM MANAGEMENT, MARKETING tic tourism, outside the ambit of this paper,
AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT where there are no risks of importing undesir-
able forces. Saudi Arabia is less active and
Tourism administration encompasses multiple ambitious in its promotion than Iran, but over-
tasks related to managing resources and tourist seas advertising of both is mainly regional in
interactions with the physical environment nature and centres on OIC members of the
and resident community in ways that are effec- Middle East and South Asia. The tendency to
tive, efficient and correspond to notions of sus- ignore lucrative Western generators could be
tainability (Doswell, 1997; Mason, 2003; Page, viewed as a missed opportunity for earning
2003). The purpose is to exercise some control revenue, as well as for countering the negative
over tourism supply and demand in order to images of Muslim nations and their inhabit-
pursue defined policy goals (Middleton, 1994). ants circulating in the West (Said, 1981;
Despite a growing commitment to environ- Shaheen, 1987; Din, 1989). Tourism develop-
mental stewardship, economic motives still ment is thus again hampered, although it must
dominate official tourism agendas in general. be recognised that growth driven by business
However, policies in Iran and Saudi Arabia from Europe and North America is not offi-
can be directed as much, if not more, towards cially sought.
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 12, 79–89 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
86 H. Zamani-Farahani and J. C. Henderson
cases outlining tourism development and Bogari NB, Crowther G, Marr N. 2003. Motivation
management in individual states as well as for domestic tourism: a case study of the Kingdom
international comparisons would be useful, as of Saudi Arabia. Tourism Analysis 8920: 137–141.
would analyses of motivations of Muslim trav- Brunei Tourism. 2008. Concept statement, Brunei
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Impact assessments encompassing environ- 2008).
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matters, would yield valuable data to assist in Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.
sustainable management. Other worthwhile Chambers. 1980. Chambers Twentieth Century Dic-
topics include levels of religious intervention tionary. AM Macdonald : Edinburgh, UK.
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Islamic countries and views about the conse- Malaysia: a cultural perspective. International
quences, not least among destination residents, Journal of Advertising 13(2): 153–66.
and tensions between Muslim and non-Muslim Dessler G. 1998. Management: Leading People and
tourists sharing the same destination. Such Organizations in the 21st Century. Prentice Hall:
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
questions and those raised in this paper are
Din K. 1989. Islam and tourism: patterns, issues
important and the subject constitutes a rich and options. Annals of Tourism Research 16: 542–
field for continued research. 563.
Domroes M. 2001. Conceptualising state-controlled
resort islands for an environment-friendly devel-
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