THE

CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT SERIES

Studies VOL. JQ:.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR

OF THE

SANSKRIT LANGUAGE
FOR THE USE OF

EARLY STUDENTS.
BY

H. H. WILSON, M.A. F.R.S. &c. &c.

BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

THE

CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT SERIES OFFICE ( INDIA) VARANASI-l Post flOx. No. 8.

d

3rd Edition.

Rs. 20-00

....."

1961

PUBLISHER'S NOTE
So far we have published several out-of-print and rare Thus of works, and all .if them have been greatly welcomed. the-Sanskrit Language by Prof. H. H. Wilson. work, too, was long out-of-print, reason for this is that although

encouraged we are now bringing out this famous Grammar

"

This valuable The main

and, fabulous prices were

charged for the rare copies available here and there. mars written by Western and Indian authors,

there are several other Gramyet the present

. work has its own importance for the early Students of Sanskrit. Besides being very comprehensive in its treatment of the sujbect ma{ter~t also includes a chapter on Vedic Grammar, is usually not found in other similar works. the author'sstyle, which The lucidity of

a well thought out plan of the subject-matter

..

and the meanings givenJlf:.J].iI:ir!t. the, ~~~:gl~~, ~tedby ,the ~ original Grammarians make ~tl'k, .. Qtl.r~impl~·& useful. ~ Therefore we hope that our this effort too would be

welcqmed like our previous ones.

AN

INTRODUCTION TO TEE GRAMMAR

OF THE

SANSKRIT

LANGUAGE.
FOR THE USE OF

EARL Y STUDENTS.

BY

.H. H. WILSON, M.A. F.R.S. &0. &c.

BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

LONDON,
PUBLISHED BY

J. MADDEN
1847.

AND CO.,

LEADENHALL

STREET.

PREFACE.
,

THE design of the present Grammar of the Sanskrit Language has been suggested by the experience which I have now had in teaching the language. and by the want which I have repeatedly felt of some such elementary work as that which I have here attempted to compile. Of the Sanskrit Grammars published in Calcutta, the works of Mr. Colebrooke, Dr. Carey, and Mr. Forster are too volunJinous and difficult for beginners. The Grammar of Mr. Yates is better adapted to such a class of students, but it is not readily procurable in this country. The Grammar eof Professor Bopp, being composed in German and in Latin. ~~ not universally acceptable to English students: and the only Grammar within their reach, therefore, haf been that of Sir C. Wilkins. This work, however admirable in many respects, is exceptionable in some parts of its arrangement, and is mconvenieut in use from its extent; it is also growing scarce. "A'"new Grammar, therefore, on a somewhat different plan, had become necessary; and as I found no one disposed to engage in its preparation, I have thought it incumbent upon me to undertake the task. The structure of a highly elaborated form of speech, such .as is Sanskrit, abounding with grammatical inflexions, cannot be explained with that brevity of which more simply ~nstituted languages permit: much cannot be described in a vePIY few phrases. The present work has exceeded the limits which I originally contemplated; but I found it impossible to be more

iy

PREFACE.

concise, without being obscure, or without omitting something that was essential. As the eXtent of the book, however, is in great part attributable to 'the multiplication of examples, rather than of rules, it will be useful for occasional reference, without being cumbrous to the memory of the student. I have endeavoured to make reference easy, by the headings of the pages and other supplementary means. The first topic of all Sanskrit Grammars is necessarily the euphonic combination of concurrent letters, the analysis of which must be performed before the words can be separated and read. In the chapter upon the combination of letters, or Sandhi, as it is termed, I have rather added to, than diminished, the number of the rules which are to be found in the Grammar of Sir C. Wilkins: but, on the other hand, I have not imitated Professor Bopp in the copiousness with which he has explained the changes, as, however serviceable the rules which he has assembled with singular industry and correctness, they ate not in all cases confined to modifications of a euphonic character : they comprise many that Occur as the consequence of I.'erbal or nominal inflexion: and although a knowledge of (hem will no doubt facilitate the stundent's subsequent acquirement of thesprinciples of declension and conjugation, I have not found him content to be detained so long upon what appears to him to be but the threshold of the edifice, into the interior of which he is eager to enter.

..

The general outline of the chapter on Declension is in t;;11 ~ essential respects the same as that followed in the Grammars of Wilkins and Bopp ; but I have thought it advisable to put more prominently forward than they have done the scheme of technical terminations, devised by native grammarians for the construction of the 'cases of a noun; as, notwithstanding; the s~stitutions which they partially undergo, they are applioable in all nOUDS a considerable portion of the cases, and to in some nouns to all. They are easily acquired, and so are their substitutes; and familiarity with them once attained, the

PREFACE.

subject of Declension, however complicated it may appear, becomes exceedingly simple, and is mastered with facility • It is in the chapter on Conjugation that I have departed most widely from the course pursued by my European predecessors. Professor Bopp has followed in the main the example set by Sir C. Wilkins, of exemplifying, under the head of each class or conjugation, only those tenses of the verb to which the conjugational characteristics are confined; and of illustrating the remaining tenses of verbs in general in one collective division, under the head of each several tense., I have found this arrangement peculiarly embarrassing to beginners. An entire verb is nowhere presented to them; and although the whole of the inflexions of most of those of which the conjugational tenses are exhibited are to be found in the Grammar, yet they can only be collected by a diligent and protracted search. It rarely happens that the young student is not disheartened by the labour thus imposed upon him, and a competent knowledge of the conjugation of Sanskrit verbs is in consequence comparatively seldom acquired. In the hope of removing some of the difficulties inherent in the subject: I have brought the several tenses of the verb together, and explained their formation in consecutive order. I have then detailed an entire verb in its different voices and derivative forms: and finally, under the head of each conjugation, I have given complete paradigms of a number of the most useful verbsr arranged in alphabetical succession. in the several conjugations to which they respectively belong. An example of .this classification of the verbs was set. by Mr. Colebrooke. In the first volume of his Grammar, the only one published, he has assembled all the verbs of the first conjugation, with paradigms more or less complete. The limits of the present: work rendered it impossible to represent all the verbs of each 'conjugation, but I have endeavoured to make such a select::-:>n as comprehends those which are of most frequent occurrence, or anomalous construction. The forms are chiefly taken from the native Grammar, the Siddhanta Kaumudi, and from a MS.
('

..

vi

PREFACE.

collection of verbs I had compiled in India. The first part only of Mr. Westergaard's very valuable work, 'Radices Lingue Sanscrite,' had reached me before my collection was completed, or it would have saved me some labour. The usefulness of the series will have been materially enhanced by the alphabetical Index to all the verbs specified, which will be found at the end of the volume, and for the preparation of which I am indebted to the promptly tendered assistance of Professor Johnson, whom I have also to thank for the careful revision of the proof sheets, with exception of those of the last hundred pages, and for the correction of many errors. ascribable to typographic inaccuracy, or to my own inadvertencies. The chapter on Derivation does not attempt to follow the detail with which the subject is illustrated in the Grammar of Sir C. Wilkins. The same copiousness was no longer necessary. as my dictionary, however incomplete, offers many of the same examples, and sufficiently exhibits the principles of etymologisal developement. By the alphabetical arrangement, however, of the technical affixes employed in eliminating derivative from primitive words, a plan adopted from the example of Professor Bopp, reference to any particular form of derivatives will have been facilitated, and the process of their development, perhaps, ha ve been rendered more intelligible. The formation of compound words is described mech in the same manner, but with some slight difference of arrangement, as by Sir C. Wilkins, In the succeeding chapter on Syntax, also, I have followed much the same course, being guided. as he was, by the authority of native grammarians, although appealing to diffe~ent works, and endeavouring to illustrate the rules hy more diversified examples. The subject, however ...is yel"'but imperfectly investigated. The native authorities restrict their remarks to the application of the cases of the nouns, and the tenses of the verbs; and to have supplied their deficiencies would have demanded a longer period, and ampler space, than

PREFACE.

vii

were compatible with the plan and purposes of the present publication. My guides have been principally the Siddnnta Kaumudi and the poem of Bhatti, but I have drawn examples also from other printed Sanskrit books. The Prosody of Sanskrit has been much more successfully illustrated than its Syntax; and in the Dissertation of Mr. Colebrooke, in the tenth volume of Asiatic Researches, and in the remarks and annotations of various continental scholars and critics upon the metres prevailing in the Sanskrit works which they have edited, abundant materials exist for a comprehensive treatise upon the laws of Sanskrit metre. In the chapter upon the subject which I have added to the Grammar, nothing more has been intended than a brief explanation of the fundamental principles by which poetical metre is regulated, and an exemplification of a few of its most frequently recurring and popular varieties . A~ the especial object of the present work is the introducti(')D of the juvenile student to an elementary knowledge of the Sanskrit language, I have but rarely adverted to the affinities whfch .. connect it with other languages; and in the few allusions which I have admitted, I have purposed rather to intimate that such affinities exist, than to explain their nature, or inquire into their origin Or extent. The more advanced student, who may take an interest in the investigation, will find in the writings of different .. ontine,ntal scholars and grammarians, and especially in the c Comparative Grammar of Professor Bcpp, numerous and undeniable proofs of the close connexion which subsists between the sacred language of the Hindus and the" language of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those of the Celtic, Teutonic, and Sc1avonic nations. • It were superfluous in the present day to offer any observations upon the value and interest of Sanskrit literature. ';". he T ~tudy constitutes an era in the branch of intellectual inquiry Just referred to, and has given an entirely new character to Philology. The principles of etymological affinity have been

..

viii

PREFACE.

placed upon secure grounds, and the history of languages, and through them the histery of man, has received novel and important elucidation. Nor is this the only service which it has rendered to general literature. The history of philosophy and science is also largely indebted to it; and in the civil and religious codes which it has laid open to our knowledge, and in the mythological and legendary traditions, and the dramatic and heroic poems, which it offers to our curiosity, it presents a series of new, interesting, and instructive pictures of society, in which the features of a highly artificial, but original civilization are singularly blended with the characteristics of primitive manners and archaic institutions. The history of mankind can be but imperfectly appreciated without some acquaintance with the literature of the Hindus. It is, however, to the educated youth whose manhood is to be spent in India, and who is there destined to discharge high duties, and sustain heavy responsibilities-e-who is to execute trie offices of civilized government over millions of subject Hindus, anlflto make that government a blessing, not a curse, to India~ f! glory, not a shame, to Britain ;r-it is to him that the study of Sanskrit commends itself, by considerations of peculiar utility · .,. an d Importance.

A careful examination of the different dialects which are spoken in various parts of India is yet to be effected; but enough is known to admit of their being distinguished as belonging to two great families, that of India proper, and that of the Dakhin.Of the former, the members are, as far as we are familiar with them, recognised as Sanskrit. They have undergone great changes; have simplified !heir grammatical structure; have suffered in a greater or lesser degree admixture and adulteration from foreign words. They probably also comprehend a small por-r t}on 1t a primitive, unpolished, and scanty speech, the relics of a period prior to civilization: but in the names of things of the most ordinary observation, in terms for the functions of life, as well as the relations of society, as much as in those

PREFAGE.

ix

words which are the offspring of civilization, and which spring from science, philosophy, law, and r~1igion, they are almost wholly dependent upon Sanskrit; a knowledge of which consequently places the members of this family, Bengali, Hindi, Panjabi, Guzerati, Marhatha, and others, almost without effort within the power of anyone to whom it may become a duty to acquire either or all of them. In the south of India the case is somewhat different. Cultivated languages of local origin are there met with, largely supplied with words which are not of Sanskrit origin. There, however, as in the north, the introduction of Sanskrit was the precursor of civilization, and deeply impressed it with its own peculiarities. The spoken languages were cultivated in imitation and rivalry, and but partially aspired to an independent literature. The principal compositions in Tamil, Tel ugu, Canara, and Malayalam, are translations or paraphrases from Sanskrit works, and largely borrow the phraseology of their original: and hence S0 large a proportion of the language of education and of society is Sanskrit, ,that a knowledge of it is absolutely essential to a correct understanding of the spoken dialects of the peninsula. There is, however, a higher point of view from which the advantages to the servant of the East India Company in India or a knowledge of Sanskrit are to be contemplated, than the aid which it is calculated to afford them in their executive functions. It will not only enable them to understand the uttered words of those with whom they hoi A official intercourse; it will not only teach them to interpret the language of represcntation or complaint, or to express the decree? of justice, Or the commands of power ;-it will enable them to understand the people, and to be understood by them. The popular prejudices of the Hindus, their daily observances, their occupations, t..cir amusements, their domestic and social relations. their local legends, their national traditions, their mythological fables. their metaphysical abstractions, their religious worship, all

PREFACE.

spring from, and are perpetuated by, the Sanskrit language. To know a people, these)hings must be known. Without such knowledge, revenue may be raised, justice may be administered. the outward shows and forms of orderly government may be maintained; but no influence with people will be enjoyed, no claim to their confidence or attachment will be established, no affection will be either felt or inspired, and neither the disposition nor the ability to work any great or permanent improvement in the feelings, opinions, or practices of the country will be attained. It fortunately happens, it is true, that much of this indispensable information may now be acquired through the English language, in consequence of the valuable translations and dissertations of various of the Company's most distinguished servants; but knowledge from the fountain head is more precise and effective than when gleaned from subordinate, and not always pure or profound, rivulets: and in proportion as it is effective and precise, will be the respect and trust native population, masters. the influence and power of the of their F.nglfsh

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In preparing the present Edition, the tions which I have thought it advisable to sation of the general rules regarding verbs, or the principles, of conjugation, among the preliminary rules of all the only material alteramake, are the condenthe inflexions of th~ and their insertion conjugations, instead

of the place which, they formerly occupied among the introductory rules of the second conjugation. They will now, it is hoped, be more commodiously referred to. I have also made ,..so~ additions of minor importance to the paradigms of the verbs. In this, as well as in the correction of the errors of the text, I have again to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professor Johnson.

ADVERTISEMENT.

xi •

The growing attention which has" been lately paid, on the continent especially, to the literature of t~e Vedas. has induced me to think that a specification of some of the principal peculiarities of construction which are met with in those works might be of service. The illustrations are those which are given by the original Grammarians. The examples are cited by them without any references, and their signification could scarcely be rendered with any confidence without verifying them in the passages where they occur, and without adverting to the interpretation of a commentary; a task of no ordinary trouble in the absence of every thing like an index. I have been enabled, however, by my own researches, and by the valuable help of Dr. Max Muller, to verify a considerable number of the passages, and to supply the recognised sense. The rest are open.to correction. In a few more years we may expect to read the texts of the Vedas with as much certainty as those of alJYother Sanskrit compositions.
MAY 5,1847.

CONTENTS.

~-

CHAP.I. Letters. Pronunciation Classification CHAP.II. Sect. Sect. Sect. Sandhi-Combination of letters 1. Conjunction of vowels 2. Conjunction of consonants 3. Changes of Visarga

P. 1

4
6 8 8 16

23 28 28 30 ..30 34 38 44 46 47 48 48 .. 49 ~O 50 55
I•

CHAP·III. Declension General rules Sect. 1. Nouns in vowels CI. 1. Nouns ending in at and OTT CI. 2. Nouns ending in ~ and ~ Cl. 3. Nouns ending in t and :a; Cl. 4. Nouns ending in =a:, ~, ~, ~ • CI. 5. Nouns ending in ~ ct 6. Nouns ending in q cr. 7. Nouns ending in ::iTT Cl, 8. Nouns ending in ::iT~ Sect. 2. Nouns ending in consonants C1. 1. Nouns ending in <P, ~, iT, 'C{ • Cl. 2. Nouns ending in '<I, ~, ;;r, fa • Cl, 3. Nouns t!nding in <!, Q, :g, G Cl, 4. Nouns ending in (T, ~, ~,I:f • Cl. 5. NO'Unsending in q, 1li, cr, +r • CI. 6. Nouns ending in '50, Sf, or, if il' Nouns in ar.J.. Nouns in ~'I.. CI. 7. Nouns ending in ~, ~, (l';, q CI. 8. Nouns ending in er, 1!f,« CI. 9. Nouns ending in ~

55

60 60 b! 64 66 66 72

CONTENTS. Sect. 3. Adjectives .: Sect. 4. Pronouns and pronominal nouns Sect. 5. Numerals Ordinals • CHAP. IV. Indeclinables Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections Expletives Particles •

xiii

75 79
86

90 92 93 98 103
103

CHAP. V. Conjugation Sect. 1. Roots and indicatory Sect. 2. Classes of verbs Sect. 5. Moods and tenses Sect. 4. V Dices Sect. 5. Numbers and persons

letters

104 104 105 105 lC9

112 115 116

General principles of conjugation Of the augment ~ Sect, 6. Formation of the verb Passive voice. . Sect. 7. Derivative verbs Causals Desideratives Frequentatives • Ditto inserting ~ Ditto rejecting \!f .mpersonals Norninals Se-t, 8. Conjugations. -First conjugation Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

• 13S.
14'i

117

'_

143 145 146

149
151

..

152 153

161
161 163

"" 204

2tJ.

227 240 245

xiv

CONTENTS. Seventh • .IJ Eighth Ninth Tenth Changes of voices

CHAP. VI. Derivation

. Sect. L Verbal derivatives Infinitive . Participles Present participles Past participles Participles of the second Indefinite past participles Future participles active Ditto passive or neuter Indeclinable participles Adverbial participles Sect. 2. Verbal nouns Sect. 3. Nominal derivatives CI. 1. Miscellaneous affixes CI.~. Possessives • Cl. 3. Degrees of comparison; numerals Cl, 4. IndecIinables

Preterite

252 257 260 267 276 285 285 286 287 287 289 289 290 296 297 303 • 3()7 308 328 330 343

pronominals;

347 349 ..
3.5~

CHAP. VII. Compound words Sect. 1. Dwandwa compounds Sect. 2, Tatpurusha compounds Karmmadharaya Tatpurusha compounds. , Dwigu=Tatpurusha compounds Tatpurusha comp, with particles and prep. ,.sect. 3. Bahuvrihi compounds Sect. 4. Avyayi-bhava or indeclinable Sect. 5. General rules
CHAP. VIII. Syntax

355 356 360 362 363 " 365

371

compounds.

375 377 379

Sect. 1. Nouns

CONTENTS. Sect. Sect. Sect. Sect. Sect. Sect. 2. Adjectives 3. Pronouns . 4. Indeclinables 5. Verbs 6. Derivative verbs 7. Participles

xv

."

" ..

403 405 407 410 424 426 432 432 435 444 446 449

CHAP.IX. Prosody Sect. 1. General rules Sect. 2. Varna-vritta class of metres Sect. 3. Gana-vritta class of metres Sect. 4. Matrachhandas class of metres SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. the grammar of the Vedas On

SANSKRIT
Initial. Medial. Equivalent and pewee,

Al.PHABET.
Equivalent

a, os in America.

';f

n, as in singe.

and power,

~(U t_
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

a
I

casa (Italian). chi cosi

t 1~
(,.

f
I
u
(I

G G
~

1 th

true. dim. none. tongue.

furore fui
rlCCO

ah
n
t

a-

co..

1.!I

n
fl
f

~ ~ ~

nso
I

th d dh
II

hi hi
e ai
0

G.
l.l
~

den.
not.

:sm .

"" ~l"" s,

1! "" l!

.....
~
.:::-.

ch~

"" T
T

--

mai cosa paum

(ang)

'tl
1:fU
~ ~ ~

p ph b b::
m
of

nnint.
bind. abhor. man. young.

81..1 --

a~

~:
~ ~

ah
! as l?~ l' . ltlng .. {, khan, kh g gun. gh - afghan. 0

':!i
~ (i5

r I

rain/lion, ' voice. session. shun. son. house. or ~ r6.

Tfi'

s:
~

"tr

9'
~

v
s
I

ch -

sn~g, church.

"''Sf
~

enh
J jet.
\3f

:a
.~ <it

sh
s h
II'
~€\

jh
a, ~. ri,

Varieties:

r:r J, ~
~ 4

e, ~jh, UT 6, l'.i ru,

Numerals:

~~ .... 1 2 .)

4
5

€f -9 t
()

Q. ~o 9 10

SANSKRIT

GRAMMAR.

CHAPTElt
LETTERS.

I.

Sanskrit "language is written in diffe.rel;lt perts of India in the characters which are in use for the spoken dialects; but the alphabet which is regarded as most appropriate to h, and from which the local alphabets are derived, is that which, is termed Nagari or Devan8gari, the alphabet o~' the city: or of' the city of the gods,' being a derivative from Nagam, a city: compounded in the second form with t: deus/ , a god.' It appears to have undergone various modification. froin a period of remote antiquity down to the seventh or eighth century, when the letters assumed the form in which they now occur. • As usually enumerated, the N6.gari alphabet comprises forty~ seven letters, the long vowels being considered distinct from the short; the vowels are thus fourteeu : the eODsonanbil, "among which the aspirated nrc distinguished from the COrresponding unaspirated letters, are thirty~three. The conwn't&ts " are classified according to the organ chiefly concerned in tlleir articulation; and in order to effect their utterance, the Ihort vowel ' a' is attached to their respective sounds.
C

T~

neva,

LETTERS.

Vowels• .. a, • a, ~ i, ~ l,.-~ u, ~ ~ e, ~ ai, 'lit 0, 1ft au.

u, ... p, ,p,

11:

lri, '" Ip,

Consonants. Gutturals,
Palatals, Cerebrals, Dentals, Labials, Semivowels,
11 ka,
l§'

kha,

J'f

ga,
if

1f

gha, ..
111

Da.
1f

"" eha, 'it ehha, 1i ja, lfijha,

l' ta, i' tha, 11'

na.

~ tla,

aba,

fta.

ta,

'I!f

1!l pa, 111 phil, 'If

1(

tha, ~ da, \I' dha, "na. ba, \i bha, 1t mao

(iIJ

ya, t. ra,

Sibilants and aspirate, ~

sa,

Ia, ~ va, 11 aha, V sa, '{ ha.

To these are to be added two signs, which are occasionally attached to vowels, termed Anuswara and Visarga. The first is a dot over and after a letter; the second consists of t'Yo dots after it. The first denotes a slight nasal; the second, a s.qft aspirate; as,"; an (ang), Yo ab. Another additional e character is CG, with a sound partaking of' l' and' r/ but it is peculiar to the Vedas. Some lists add", ksha and V jna, but these are oompounds; the first of 11 ka and, 1f sha, and the second of 1f ja and '51' 00. The first is sometimes expressed in English by S x.' In designating a letter; the word 1R. kara is added to...it; as, '\lAiR a-k8ra, the letter 'a.' 1R1t. ka-kara, the le~< 'k,' &C. When a vowel is" th~ initial of a word, it retains the form above given. When it follows a consonant, or occurs as a medial or final, it' assumes a different form, which is written before or after, above or below, the consonant with which it is.lfSSOciated; with exception of. ~a: which, as a medial or ,. final, is always left unwritten, being understood to be combined with the consonant, and articulated with it, as in the above alphabet, unless the consonant be final, which is denoted by a

COMPOUND

LETTERS.

mark at its foot, a Virama or G rest/ as ~ k; or unless it be conjoined with another consonaat, as below. The forms of the vowels as medials and finals are, -,
T~

f i, 'H,

u,

C\.

u, ~ ri, ~ fi,
'\II'1Ii

¢'a

Iri, <'a Ip, iki, .. flO, akah,

'" a, ~ ai, )

0,

"f au :
ak, aka,
'WT01i1'

or in combination, ~

aka, ~

n eke,

'S1 uku, ?ti<f uku, ~ pkri, 'iI{if rlkp. ~

~ aikai, ~ oko, ~ aukau, ~

lrik1ri, ~ akan, ~

lp1dp,

When two or more consonants come together, without any intermediate vowel, they are combined into one compound consonant--in which in general the component members may be recognised without much difficulty-one consonant being subjoined to the other, as in q akka, 'III'f'.I' aehcha, where the transverse line of the lower is omitted; or one consonant following the other, as ~ agga, ~ ajja,' where the perflendicular line of the first of the two is rejected. In some cases the elements of the combination are not so obvious. The letters most frequently recurring in conjunction \vitb ceding consonants are ti ya and '{ ra, The first is euil! discernible in ,.
1M kya,
'a(

pre-.

ehya,

ill tya, II' dya, 1ll

pya, 1Rl my a, &c. :

the second is usually designated by a short transverse stroke at the foot of the letter or letters; as,
• 11 or • kra, U' gra, if or "Ii tra, l' dra, lI' pm, •

krya.

When ~ precedes a consonant, it is p'lactd at the top of it in the shape of a crescent; as, ~ rka in ri arka, ' the sun ;' or ~ rmma in ~ dharmma, < duty.' The difficulties from this source soon disappear with practice. Some of the most useful combinations are i!lubj~ned. It may be also here observed, that some of the single lettel1'l may be written in a different manner, of which examples are given at the foot of the Table at the bead of this chapter.
B2

LETTERS.

1likka ~ktrya. a:El'grya If nghra ~jya

Compound consonants • wkma likna lf1kta ~ ~kshwa 1I{ksha. "aY'kshya lfnka 'Sfghma lfgbna "G{chma "II'chcb8. ._chchha

~jra

"if jwa

ilia

wlhya

J: ahra.
1!.It fiya

~ fiaha ~ :&iia '{Il ttya ~ttra i(f tan r<f twa lrddha ~dda lIldbhya Vdma 'it dhna urdhma ;c{nda ~ndra 1:q ppa If pnn ~bbha 'IISl'bja Wimma ~msa _8chya 'Wsna 1!ifshlya 'If shira ". '\irsta. "'wskha ~sma \IIi spha .1r hma ~hna
I

(,ftna illii'tsna 'If ddhya 1I'dya &{ dhwa ";\f ndha .pma lqbhya '@ilpa , 'Wsm l!iI' shtrya. ijf stra ~smya II hya

itliiiha ~flla ~:&wa iIf tma

iW tsya

lJikwa ~khya r If nga ... chhra 1Q' neba ~:&tha i'lIitka ~tmya

wktwa ~gra lfngha '9 jja ,. 'lnJ8. ~:&aa "({tta

1Iftrya If dgha 1t dbha

wdga
'l'dba 'l'dwa .... ntya lInna 'tI!fpwa
11' rona
111(

dna '{ dra 'iii' nta .ndhra lI' pIa ~bhwa ~ Ima "IIIrswa 1l!fsMa ~stha ~sya
If
I

vya

lCtf

8~

'IS{ shma.

'Vsna

II'dwya ';I' ntra .. pta. "IIIipsa ~mpa. .. sche. 'I'shla .. aka 'E'fspa
'@swa

vsra

'lhra

Whla

d( hwa.

PRONUNCIATION.

Few observations are required regarding the pronunciation of the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. AJJ a general rule, ~ " vowels are to be sounded like those of the Italian 'alphabet, except the first, the~short' 8,' which has the obscure sound of that letter in such English verbs as ' adorn,' 'adore,' or in the word 'America &.' The vow-els p and hi di1fer not in
•JP-is is the only cause of embarrassment in the system ~xpl'essing Sanskrit words in English cbaractel1l. It is practice to pronounce «ban' as if it was written • bun ;' Bandhana, 'binding,' is to be pronounced Bundhunu; but' restricted to its propel' office, as in Italian,' furore;' 'full; 'bull: and the like. here followed of difficult to our as in Sanskrit. u' is necessarily or in English,

fui: •

PRONUNCIATION.

sound feom. the syllables so compounded. They take their place among vowels as subject to eupbonic changes, of which as syllables they would not be susceptible. The consonants are in general pronounced as in English, and we have, it may be suspected. several of the soands for which the .Sanskrit alphabet has provided distinct signs, but of which signs are wanting )"\!ithWI. This seems to be the case with the nasals and the eerebrals, We write but one 'n,' but we vary its articulation, according to the consonants it preeedea.ae a. gutturaI, palatal, cerebral, and dental, in such words as' conquer: , singe/ 'none,' and 'content: So we write but one ' and one' <4' but their sounds differ in such words as '.trumpet' and 'tongue,' , drain' and' den:' in the first of which they are eerebrals, in the second dentals, The term • cerebral' bas been adopted to express the Sanskrit Murddhanya, from Murddhan ~ 'the head; as these letters are articulated by touching th€' palate with the tongue farther back in the mouth than is practised in other articulations. The '<t v when compounded • with another consonant is pronounced and written 'w; as in. ii' dwi, • two.' Of the three sibilants, the first ' 8' ~ is lessdecidedly , sh' than the second, as in our' S8 • in ' Mssion f it is a palatal letter: 11: aha is a cerebral, as in ' shore ;' and ~ is a dental sibilant, as in 'sun: Anuswara is a slight nasal, rather st;_ronger than the' n' of the French' bon.' The term Anuswka ~gnifie5 'post-vocal/ and accordingly the sign always follows a vowel, and closes a syllable, whether in the middle or at the end of a word. In this situation it may be imbstituted for any of the other nasals, and then retains the sound of the original, being influenced by the letter that follows; as, ~ for ~ ahmikara, • pride ;' 'l!i:rl for q aziga, t body;' wi for ~ ahsm, ~I.' It is especially appropriate as the Il\.bmtute of ' m • b(ore the semivowels, retaining its own nasal !IOnnd. except before 1iIt which by its analogy to the labiil '1ft cnUI8e8 the retentlon of the labial nasal sound ' m:' thus 1IP( 'snn.' compounded with ~ 'yama' &c. makes m sanyama, • restralnt j" 1ftrir saiu'iiva,

LETTERS.

, clamour;' UN sanla~a, I conversation:' but ~ samvatsara, 'a year: Anuswam is the nasal sign exclusively employed before the sibilants and the aspirate; as, q ansa, , a part;' ftm hIDsa, 'injury;' ~ sanhita, , combination :' discharging to this class the office of the other nasals to their respective classes of consonants. The soft aspirate denoted by Visarga is seldom audibly articulated: in practice there is no perceptible difference between lJlI': Ramah and lJ1i Rama.
CLASSIFICATION.

Besides the classification of the letters of the alphabet specified above, there is another which it may be sometimes useful to refer to. In this system the letters are thus arranged :

~~~~~~I~~~I~~~~I~~~~~~I~~~
~ '!If "IIi ~

,,~~~ I .. '(i ~ Il! -wr ~ I it we ~ I ~1f l{ 't. ~ J<'!S ~ I

The object of this arrangement is to provide a convenient mMe of designating any particular set of letters to the exelu°llion of all others, which is done by combining any prior letter with the consonant at the end of a series, so as to form a Pratyahara or syllable, denoting all the letters that intervene: thus, ~ means the whole alphabet; ~ the vowels only; ~ the consonants only; 1l!PD, means 'W ~ ~, inclusive of their corresponding long vowels; ~ denotes the simple vowek; ~ the diphthongs; 1fI!I', the semivowels ; and ~ all tht! ' censonants, exclusive of~the nasals and semivowels, Other combinations may b; formed on the same principle, with a like purport. There are some distinctions also affecting the vowels and consonants generally, which it is advisable to particulariae, ,., It"V owels have three times or quantities: they are, ~ Lagbu, ' light' or ' short;' ~ Guru, 'heavy' or 'long;' and tw Pluta, 'prolated.' They have also three accents, and are, ~ Udatta, , grave;' ~ Anudatta, 'acute;' and ~ Swarita, 'compounded' or ' circumflex.' The long and short

lI'"

<4i

'l,

I~

1f ~ ~

I ~~.

..

CLASSIFICATION.

vowels are separately represented, as 'II' a, .,. a.: the prolated is tl,e lr l')g a witb three lines underneath it, or a figure of three behind it, as "m or 'II'T~. The accents art; thus severally marked ; W,l1, Th':y are rarely used, except in MSS. of the Vedu. In combination and in inflexion the vowels are subject to two changes, or rather substitutions, in which other vowel or diphthongal forms take their places. These arc called ~ Gu:fla and ~ Vriddhi, rendered by Dr. Wilkins' conversion'

I.

and 'augmentation.' The vowels (the long being com-} '<51' !t ~ " prised in the short) are . . The Gu:fla substitutes severally. - ~~) ~ The Vriddhi substitutes Wi ~ 'eft ~

...
~.

~.

Thus the verb ,_ bhii, 'to be,' in its inflexions is subject to GuAa; that is, it becomes ~ bho, '0' being substituted for '·u.' In some- of its secondary derivatives the 'u' is subject to Vriddhi: thus ~ bhiita, 'a being; 'an element,' furIlis~s the adjective ~ bhautika, 'elementary.' This will be more.intelligible as we proceed. It is only at present essential to recollect the purport of the terms Gulia and Vriddbi. It may be added that, according to the native Grammars, the Guila substitutes are only .. '@' 'I'ir, and the Vriddhi 'WT V .,Ql; the .. mW. 'IIIIl, in connexion with the semivowels t. and c;s', being the ., Gufla and Vriddhi representatives of '!If (1£.Z. Consonants. It is at present ~()re important to notice a distinction of the consonants into two classes, Some of them are hard, some soft. Wilkins calls the former surds 7 the latter, sonanta ; in which he is followed by Professor Bopp. rThe hard or surd consonants are the two :6ret letters of the five first classes of the alphabet and the sibilants; the so..""\ or Ii> sonant consonants are the three last letters of each claa", the semivowels, and the aspirate. Hard or surd letters, Cll'I' "If .. ~ ~ "iT ", If 11 .. 1[ •• Soft; or sonant, 11' '1[ '1'1' 1r .. " lr cr 1Ir ~ \f 11' 1f a:r II' 1f t. 'R' "If 11.

COMBINATION OF LETTERS.

Cl{APTER
SANDHI-COMBINATION

n.
OF LETTERS.

CONTRIVANCE; for avoiding the concurrence of harsh or incongruous sounds, or the unpleasing hiatus which arises from keeping sounds apart that are disposed to coalesce, are not wanting in all languages. They are in general, however, rather poetical or prosodial than grammatical; such as the elision of a final 'e' before an initial 'e' in such a concurrence as «the etherial height ef heaven," which it was formerly the fashion to write, as the measure demanded, ~'th' etherial ," to say nothing of the synalepha and ecthlipsis of Latin verse, "Monstr' horrend' inform' ingens," &C. Other instances of a regard for euphony, however, do occur, independent of prosody, and especially in Greek, in which many of the euphonic changes are analogous to those provided for in Saxrsmt. In no language has the subject, however, been 80 • 8y~tematically investigated as in Sanskrit: and the changes to \vhich letters are subject for the sake of euphony are nume. reus, and sarefully defined; forming that part of Sanskrit grammar which ',,:\termed ~ Sandhi, , a holding together; , a junction;' or '~ Saiiliita, 'an association,' a conjunction; either being derived from a verb compounded of the preposition ~ sam, 'cum,' and \fT dhii, 'to have: 'to hold."·
C

~ ~ECTION I.
Conjunction

of vowels.

both

1. When a vowel terminating a word is followed by a similar . vowel beginning another word, whether they both be short or " long, or one be short and one long, they combine into one long homogeneous vowel: thus a with a makes a. as, ~ Daitya +~ ari ==~ ~a foe of the demons,' a name of VlShfl:u. Daityari,

CONJUNCTIOX

OF VOWELS.

Ii .~ith a makes a; as, 1ft sa +~ agaehhat sagachhat, 'she went.' • i with i makes 1:; 8.S, ~ iti + ~ iva == ~ itfva, • so indeed.'

=~

1 with I: makes 1; as, ~ S'ri + W lISa== ~

of

S'risa.. 'the lord

udaya

u with u makes u; as, ~ , bhamidaya,' sun-rise.' ri with ri makes ri; as, 'l nri man- (a mortal) sage.'

8'n.'

bhlinu + ~

==~

+ "I.lflf

rishi

== ~

nrishi, ' a

The concurrence of a final and initial '<.i never perhaps takes place. 1l may however follow "lfl~ and as they arc coneidered as homogeneous, a long "Iii! rl may be the 'result; as, hotri + ~ lrikiira makes ~ 'the letter lri (a sort of incantation) of the Hotri: or officiating priest. The concurrence of llfl, however, either with another ""f( or with 1[, is not liable to any very strict rule, and the substitute may be either a short or long 'iiIl; as, with either 'iIf'[II'I't or ~ may be either~or~. 2., If a word which ends in either .. a or "" a he followed by a word beginning with a different vowel, then a Gufi.a clement r. is Bubstituted for both; that is, if .. or "" precedes ~ or __ the , substitute is ~; if ~ or ~, it is 'Ii\'; if '" or iIII(, it it ~; if ~ or 'l'{, ~; as,

itII

upa+~

Indra=~

1r.f Jana
'II.

+~
king.'

rswam ==~

Upendra, a name of Kril)hfta. Janeswara, ~II. lord of men,' '

+ t:m fpsitam =~ yathepsitalD, , alii desired: 111fT Ganga + ~ udakam :::::: .I:wt~~ Gangodnkam,' Gange6
1Nf

yatha

~ maha

= qfIl maharshi, ' a great iR tava +~ Jrlkka = ~ tavalkttrn, 'thy

+~
rishi

water.'

sage,'

letter If.'

3. If a word ends, as in the last case, with ... or ...., and is followed by one beginning with II. diphthong, a Vriddhi o

10
letter is substituted for both; that is, if 'W be followed by ~ 01' ~, the substitute is ~; if by or it is ~; as, Krishila + ~ ekatwam::::: ~ Krishnaikatwam: , oneness with KPshiia.: ftmT vidya + " eva fdj" vidyaiva, • knowledge, verily.' ~ deva +"iij aiswaryam = ~ devaiswaryam, 'the divinity of a god: We!l alpa + ~ ojas= "i!ieaii1l!( alpaujas,.' of little radiance.' ,.

.n ..m,

'4imT

autsukyam = 'the maiden's sorrow.'

brua + ~

ii1IJi~

b6lautgukyam~

There are some exceptions to these two last rules, which it may be convenient here to insert. With regard to these and to other anomalies and exceptions, however, it may be advisable once for all to recommend to the student, in an early stage of his studies, to content himself with a passing noticp of them, and not to allow them to divert his attention from the geaeral rules. Familiar with the rules, he will find no diffi."'&Ulty the occasional deviations from them which occur. in a. ~ aksha before ~ uhiM makes wtfln,!ijft akshauhiiii, • a large a.rmy; instead of "l!(_'f~, as it should do by rule 2. b. When ~ 11', a radical signifying 'go,' or any of its derivatives, follows the 'a.' of l! 8Wa, the substitute is not , e,' but' a.i;' as, Wt' self-going: 'independence;' ~'an. independent female servant,' i. e. not a slave. c. Verbal derivatives }rom the roots ~ if!, 'go,' and ~ edh, 'incrcasc,' regullirly take the Vriddhi substitute after the vowel wof a preposition; as, ~ + =~ ,he approaches;' " + =~ 'it increases:' but, in general, verbs beginning with 1! or Wt retain their own vowel, and cause the elis~ of the final " of a preposition; as, 1f before makes he trembles;' 1i before ~ makes 1i'retftr' he sprinkles.' The "S which is substituted for the 'In of"", vah, 'who bears,' takes Vriddhi after the short '8,' as " ... t~ 'all-sustaining,' beomes first and then in the ace, plur.~.

i1rV,

CONJUNCTION

OF VOWELS.

d. The causal of ~,ish, 'to go,' 'to send: requires the rejection of the .. of the inseparable .preposition If, as lf + ~ makes mfir, not~. In nouns derived from it the compound may be regular, as ita; or itai preshya or praishya, • a, messenger.' ~,' to reason,' after .. takes Vriddhi, as praudha, • proud,' 'arrogant.' ~,~ glean,' with 1i is regular, admitting the Gufta substitute only, as W:r presha, ' a gleaner/ e. Roots beginning with ... after a preposition ending in , a: substitute the Vriddhi form ~ art as "+ ~ makes lSfU4fi'l uparchehhati, 'approaches;' by rule z, it should have been ~ uparchchhati, The V!'iddhi ~ is also substituted for an initial ... when the word it commences is compounded with a preceding word ending in ' a,' and having the sense of the instrumental case: thus ~ sukha and 1I'lif rita may be joined ~gether, as sukh3.rtta, 'affected by joy;' ~ 51ta and "iif rita, as 1t'ri sltartta, 'affected by cold.' If the first member have not the sense of the instrumental case, tp.e words combine agreeably to rule 2; as, ~ parama and "4!Q'1r_ rita make ~ paramartta, 'last-gone:' the same if the' first word retain; the sign of the instrumental CIlSI!", the words coalescing in virtue of their juxta-position, but not forming a compound: thus 1Ifi'I' m~k," ~ sukhenartta, f. The word .. :rilla doubled or preceded by 1i, ~, ~,~, or W, substitutes the Vriddhi syllable~, not the Gufu:t.~; as, ~ :rit\arfta. 'debt of a debt;' ~ prarfia, • principal debt;' ~ i4.'I iRlai vatsatamifta~ 'debt of a mule;' ~ vasan8rt.a, • debt of a cloth;' ~ Das'arl\a~ name of a country; ~ Da88rila, name of a river, the Dosaron of . Ptolemy.

'flMi

~+

9· 'Verbs formed from nouns beginning with 'til take e:i!:ber the Gutia or Vriddhi substitute after the "\'II' of a preposition:~ rishabblyati, 'he resembles or acts like a rishabba,' i. e. a bull. with 1i pra makes either ~ or ~. So with an initial'll(, as R@iiili<'J:qfl'l or QI@iiiI.(~hdir. When the

cz

1!

COMBINATION

OF LET'.l'ERS.

initial is the long vowel '''' either DO coalescence takes place, or the change is to the GUlla syllable; as, 'S"ti and ~ make either stl'iiji!iilihlf!l or :$"q~laqrlt. h, When "i as the initial a noun follows an inflected noun ending in a short vowel, it may remain unaltered" or follow rule z: thus if{ and ~ may make either ~ or ~. i: Verbs formed from nouns beginning with t! or 'tit following a preposition ending in ~, either cause- its elision, or substitute the Vriddhi letter; as, ~ and ~!~~fir eaaklyati make either is qs~4rd or 41ti£<W:tIfi!' ( he is sheepish.' k. When the particle ~, 'verily: 'indeed,' is used to intimate' uncertainty,' it causes the elision of a preceding w; as, lJ kwa and ~ eva make i-'l¥ kweva in such a sentence as ~ • Where indeed will you dine?' When' certainty' is affirmed, the combination follows rule 3; as, q ~ ~ l1lnm ' I shall certainly dine with you, my friend.' 1. The words om, 'a cat,' and • oaMha, 'the lip; when compounded with a preceding word ending in", either ~ ro"llow rule 3. or cause the elision of the preceding vowel; 'as, ~ st~Ula+q="'l~ or ~'a fat cat;' ~ vimba is either ~ or fqjhr , cherry-lipped: If the 'words coalesce without forming a new compound, the rule is adhered to: ir<f make 'the lip .of thee.' .

of

+. +.
~ + ~=

4. When a word ends with any simple vowel, except w or and is followed by a word that begins with a dissimiia'ivowel, or with a diphthong, the latter iii unaltered, but the former is changed to its analogous semivowel: thus '( and .. are changed to, y~~ and ?Jl to , v, '" , to ~ r, and (if to ~l; as, .
W,

""'+~=
~+~=~
1f+Y~=~ fl·

I.,

ityakamya~ 'thus having heard.' !iIfi.III4iJ rijwliyata, 'simple-minded: hhratl'aiu~a, 'a brother's portlon,' lanubandha, , the adjunct [anubandha]

CONJUNCTION

OF VOWEL

s,

18

a. There are various rules for the correct orthography of words coalescing in this form, out ~hey are emoogst the inconveniences of Sanskrit grammar, and are little observed in practice: it is enough here to remark, that under them the first word may be also spelled 3('(IIII@, !ti'U4ICRl1, or 3('@U4I"A:ii, doubling the first conjunct consonant, the second, or both. In general, however, the simplest form is used, unless the first of the conjunct consonants be z, when the second should be doubled; as, mit 'Gaun' (the goddess) + q ,here,' is most correctly written ~ Gauryyatra. So also in uncompounded words the letter ~ doubles the consonant conjoined with it, as edT kartta, _ karmma, ~ dharmma, although it is not uncommon to omit the duplication in writing. b. In some instances, when the 'words are not compounded, and not inflected, a final simple vowel followed by a dissimilar vowel may either conform to the rule, may remain unaltered, or, if long, may be changed to its short vowel: thus U cham wc:r atra, 'The discus-armed (Vishllu)~ here!' may make either ~ or 'if'li '\!I(?f or liIilSt q. If a new compound be formed, the rule must be followed, and the semivowel substituted; as, ~ Hari ri artha makes ~ Haryyartha, 'for the sake of Han:' and so it must an inflective termination be added to the word to form a case, as ~ Gauryya:h~ 'of the goddess Gaurf.'

iP

5. When a diphthong ending a word is followed by any vowel or diphthong-even though the" latter be the samebeginning a word, the following syllables are severally subsHtuted for the antecedent diphthong:
For

- wr-~
-

chayana, c gathering:' ~--","" ay, as 'it + 1IAimakes ~ nayaka, a leader..... . av, as fifarit+~=~Vi8hlla"e, 'to Vish6.u.' W}-~ av, as ~+~=9t4lf1tit putravimau, ,these two children.'
1!'-~
'I'(1'ffl
I

ay, as 'If + w.rr makes

COMBINA'1'IIJN OF LETTERS.

These syllables may be substituted for diphthongs before the semivowel 1:1' when it "is the initial of the affix ~, forming participial nouns •. n certain senses. i
it.

m from li'+ lI1(_ = ~

tlt.+ ~

it from fir +~ =~

=~

jayya, 'what may be conquered.' bhavya, 'what may be' or ' is to be: navya) « relating to a ship: 'naval.'

b, 1ft before 1:I"i't substitutes ~ for the final, 7f1q' gavya, (relating to a cow;' also before the affix 1J!W, as ~ •a measure;' but this is peculiar to the Vedas. In ordinary use, the words are 1ft. ~ , a measure of two kos,"

6. Concurrent heterogeneous letters in some cases do not follow any of the preceding rules, or they follow them optionally; or one of the two vowels becomes quiescent, or is ejected. These are termed ~ pragrihya, litemlly • what must be taken out; 'excipienda:
a. The finals ~ ~ and lI!', when they are the terminations of nouns in the dual number, are unchanged before other vowels or diphthongs: ~ ~"i 'these two Haris ,' ~ ~ c these two suns t' ~ 1II1li 'these two women.' The duals ~. ~, ~,and ~ form compounds with ~,as~, ~, &c. b. 'mit, the nom. plnr, masc, of the pronoun ~ 'that,' does not coalesce with a following vowel: _ ~ 'those lords.' c. The "lf of ~ may be unchanged. or may substitute the semivowel 'v' before ~a vowel, as ~ q or ~'What is said ?' d. ~ or ~. substituted, as they sometimes irregularly are, for the proper ending of the locative case, are unchanged, as Soma relying on Gaur!:' ~ for ~. " e. Prolated vowels. pluta, are incapable of combination: 1!f( ,~ ~'Come, Kl,'ishnl! (as if in calling), here.' f. ~and lit being the terminations of an inflected word,

~ mtt ~

CONJUNCTION

OF VOWELS.

15

cause a following • to be ejectea; its elision is however usually denoted by a peculiar character; as, ~$ilf 0 fire I here;' ~$1I" 0 Vishflu! here.' ' g. The WI' of is subject to various modifications before w; both may be unchanged, "ill' may be elided. or 'til may be changed to ~ ava s thus and q make 'flti, or ~. .~ is changed to W1i ava before ~ and ~, making by rules I. and 2. :I'I<m!if • a lattice,' and :rP.t~ a name of Krishlla; also before making ~; or it may be changed before this word to 1i!i« av, by rule ,5, regularly making ~ ~lord of kine.' k. When the short vowel w is followed by the sacred monosyllable ~ OM, it is rejected; as, ~ +~ makes fttJql:r(t~ (iil1r.) 'Om! namas, or adoration, to Slva: It is also rejected before a verbal inflection compounded with the preposition 'lIT; as, ~+ ~ (from 'lIT +~) makes ~ l 0 S'i~a, come!' i. Particles, when single vowels, are not changed before other vowels; as, ~ ~-~ ~ , 0 Jndra! 0 lord of U~ !' • is an exception, if it implies 'diminution:' 'IIlrr + 1J1lIR makes 'lIT ~ oshflam, 'a little warm.' As an interjection it is 1l1Jchanged: 'm' ~ • Ah, indeed P The final 'IIif of a particle ill unchanged: ~ W. ' Ho, deities!' k. The final 'IIif of a vocative case takes various ~l'm$ before the particle~; as, ftrariT~, ~~, or ~ql\d}j. 1. In a particular class of compound words the initial of the second word is preserved, and the last vowel of pre~ding word is rejected; in one case, along with the consonant by whirh it is followed: thus
l

ms:~,

tIT,

sakandhu, 'a sort of potherb: karkandhu, ' the juju~e: 'mp +~ = ~(I'<'S1*1 J.a:rlgall$a, ' the handle of a plough.' 'Iiri +.. marttaM.a, 'the sun.' ~ + ~ =~ manisha, ' intellect."

~ +~

=~ 'ai'i + 'r-'! =~

-,

=~

16

COMBINATION

OF LETTERS.

SEG,TION U. Conftinclion of con..<ionanf!t. We must now recollect the distinction which has been pointed out (p. 7) with regard to the two classes of consonants, as hard 01' .surd, and soft or sonant; as, in addition to such rules as affect peculiar letters, there are one or two general rules which it ,.. ll be of great usc to bear in mind. i 7. When two consonants come together, and are affected by no special rule, there will be no change, if they are both hard or both soft; but if they are of different enunciation, and one is hard, and the other is soft, then the first of the two must be changed to a letter of the same quality as the second, which will be the hard or fooft. letter ot the class to which it belongs; as, 15 to 31'. or 11 to .. ; 'IIIf to W, or W to 'IIIf ; ~ to 11', or T to~; 'if to (f, or ~ to 11'; li to '1r, or "f to lis The further exemplification of this rule may thus be stated :-'- • a. If the consonants be both hard, there is no change: ilius, before the termination "R 8U, the nouns 'ssl"'\"asak, harit, ~ ap,' retain their finals, as .... 1*1, ~,....,-. ~ before -qflr is ~ Yakpati, 'lord of speech.' b. If both are soft, there is no change: ~ before ~ is ~ adbhis, 'by waters.' c. A hard before a soft cODSOnani ~wrt.' be cb anged to the soft consonant of its 6wn class: .thus ~ 1ihn, 'the song of the lord,' becomes o:j3l1ilsitril bhagavad-gita, < t' being char.¢ed *.0-" , d:~ ~ ap, before ~ changes its final to '1f. and becomes "J"I!if, abja, 'water~bom: 'a lotus.' d. A soft consonant before a hard consonant must be changed to the hard consonant of its own class: ~ ad, 'to " <>.1\1,' before fir, changes ~ to W, ~'eats;' so it does before'"'~ as ~ kravyad., 'a cannibal; is in the 7th ease plural ~ kravyatsu, 'in or on eannibals,' 8. If the antecedent consonant be an aspirated letter, it is not only modified by the preceding rule, but whatever limn it

CONJUNCTION

OF CONSONANTS.

17

takes it is the unaspirated letter; an aspirate cannot precede any unaspirated letter except a na~al Qr a semivowel, nor can two aspirated consonants come together. Thus in the combination ~ + q dadhi-atra, where by rule 4. it makes ~ dadhyatra, and by the following remark a. the \T dh may be doubled, the duplication requires that the first member shan be unaspirated, and the word must be written, not ~ dadhdhyatra, but ~ daddhyatra: so ~ and \T become 'lp'; ~ and 'f, ~; ~ and~, ~; and f'ta rt;s~and ~, ~; the '@, which is a hard letter, being first changed to the soft aspirate 'V, and 'V being changed to 'IT before the aspirate ~. 9. A hard consonant, when final, is changed to a soft consonant; and a final aspirated consonant to an unaspirated: ,thus ~ becomes lI'P(; and f-t(af(;;s(!t" r",af(;;sl~. When however it occurs before a pause, that is, when it is not followed immediately by any letter, the change to a soft consonant is optional: thus the nom. sing. of ~ is either 'ffl'!i or CffJT; of f... fi;s., l\ia f(;;stllli r - f;;;7r • a o " \, 10. Final hard consonants, followed by 'words beginning with vowels, are changed to soft (the vowels being soft or sonant letters); as, 'q'~ + becomes ~ Vagi's"!, 'god of speech: a name of Vrihaspati j not' the god of 'wine/ as Sir Wm. Jones conjectured, from the accidental resemblance of Vaglsa and Bacchus. When hard and aspirated consonants are followed by the te;minations 'of the cases of nouns or persons of verbs which open with vowels, they are no longer regarded as final, for then they do not terminate a syllable, but begin another, and they are therefore not subject to .change: ~ makes ~, ~ ; f"l a f(;;s....r"'afc;s\lit. ., ~,,' to cook; before 'Iri1r makes l:f'iIIlt1r. " 11. A final palatal is changeable to a guttural, which will be hard or soft according to the" consonant that follows] I\~,

-,

..

""" vach, 'speech,' becomes ~ or ~, ~; ~ ascij. , blood,' ~fun(. 'Rf${, pran, left from ~, ' east,' becomes ~. After certain verbs, "'I' 1{ " and ~ may be changed, when final,
D

18
to

COMBINATION OF LETTERS.

1f, which again becomesz or ~; as, f'q\Q1iif;" 'the creator of the universe,' makes.~, and then ~ -~. 12. A consonant of the dental class, 'if ~ G \f 'ii, preceding a consonant of the palatal class, '" ~ iI' t1i. 'q'~, or of the cerebral class, ~ ~ 'i G m, ~xclusive of the sibilant (1f), is changed to the corresponding letter of that class; that is, if ~ are changed to '" or ~; G \i to iI' or 'i; and 'ii to 'q' or .1lJ'. '«i'{, + ~ 'pure reason.' ~ +~ = n-nf\'<i ' that life.~ ~ + iI'1r = ~IIfj¥AtI a name of Vish:£iu. ~ + tI<IiT njtcIir ., a comment on that.' ~, +~ = ""f_4i1 '0 discus-armed! thou goest.' Before the cerebral sibilant, the dentals are unchanged, as ~ '1t'f ' being the sixth.' 13. Dentals are also changed to cerebrals, when following cerebrals, if they are part of adjunct syllables, as the personal affix fir with fr'Ef dwish, 'to hate,' makes dweshfi, ' who hates.' They are not so changed when they are radical letters, or .. as ~ it ' they six.' " 14. Dental consonants before the letter c;s are changed to 1'f; as, il'1I:, r;- ~ II f€l .... Pit' he writes that;' ~ + f~ makes ~;.ufii'l<1!llfll; as (J'VII and X'",/(/) make (TtJXXl",/«J. A peculiar mark is sometimes inserted to denote the change of the nasal, as ~e(l'f1i<1!llfl1. . 15. A nasal of the same class may be substituted for any"" final consonant before a word beginning with a nasal; 8S, ~ +~ = ~ ~ van nayati, ' speech guides.' ~ + -;prt'it =~ shaftbvati, ' ninety-six: ~ + 1mf = 1t~ shaftmasa, ' six months.' ~ +p o "'ll:IR: etan-Murari, 'that Vishftu.' • This rule does not preclude the operation of the general ~e, by which concurrent consonants must be assimilated; it only makes it optional: thus for ~ 1I1IiiI w~ may also write 1I'Pt_ ~; and for ~ ~, tnt(]ft; the nasals being

=~

'\

8Onants •.

CONJUNCTION OF CONSONANTS •

19

b. The rule is absolute in one when the following word is a technical affix; such as 'I1f, implying, when conjoined with nouns, 'consisting of;' and amR', implying 'so much,' , merely;' as, ~with 'I1f makes only ~ vanmaya, 'made of speech,' , eloquent;' and ~ with ~ is ~ tan-: matra, , merely that: ' a primary element.' 16. if is changed to 1If in the genitive case of ~ 'six;' also in the words iAflr and ;prtt after ~; as, 'III1IIi sha:tlMm, ~ sha~~i, ~ shaii:tlagarf; the ~ of ~ being changed to l!]' by rule 15. 17. Before a sibilant, 'r: and ~ may insert respectively the letters ~ and ~; as, ~ before 1('1' makes ~ ~ 'IIfI' or ~ lIfI' 'sixth anterior,' and ~ + W = R ~ sixth numerator:' V' and ~ or 't or ';f, before the dental sibilant, may insert the dental iI'; as, ~ ~ or ~ ~ 'the bee endures ;' and ~ \T: or 'WOi i{_ ~ , he being.' 18. The nasals w, ~,';f, terminating a word, when preceded by a short vowel, and followed by any vowel as the initial of a subsequent word, must be doubled; as,-

case,.

~ +~ =~

~+.m- -: iiiil,i~

19. 'if

'he sits facing the west..' , the lord of an excellent class: +~ ustfllfir' 0 king! thus.' following """ l:, or 'If, either immediately or separated

• b}>ap intervening guttural or labj~l ccnsenant, a vowel, '<If, 'I!f, ~, Visarga, or Anuswara deduced from if. or Jt, is changed to l!.I'; as, "iitl'if becomes "'P!I' ' debt;' 'Il + 1fTftr == ~; '1IIft + ';Ifif=~ ~.bowed;' '1lt+~=~ Nariya:6.a, a name of Vishftu; lJ1i + 'Wil'if Ramayda, a p~em SO named. If :!lnalit is unchanged, as ~.

=~

20. A final ¥i terminating an inflected word may be changed to Anuswara before a eonsonant ; as, q "he made a sacrifice;' W lI'JAI: ~ he asked him:' especially before semivowels, sibilants, and t; as, for ~ read ~ ~ • I salute Harl;' for "' read 1f ~ 'he laughs nt him.' Before U1{ the final of ~ is unalternble , as, QTi( 'a uuirerss!

D2

COMBINATION

OF LETTERS.

monarch.'

It is unchanged before a vowel; as,

.(IUlla:

'I

(am) come.' . 21. 1; is optionally changed to Anuswara before '( in conjunction with 1;, as ~ or N ~; but Anuswara derived from If may become 1i, iiS, or ~, before '{ combined with these semivowels severally; as, N or ~ 11', N or ~ II~ttfit, N or ~ ~. It may become" before '{ combined with if, asNor~p. 22. Anusw~ra followed by any consonant, except the semivowels; sibilants, and ,(, is changed, if in the middle of a word, to the nasal of that class to which the consonant followjng it belongs: + =~ «marked;' .. + 'Wt'l!i?r , worshiPped.' a: If it be the final of an inflected word, the change is optional; as, ~ + 'aIiTt= ~ or 'WQTt ' egoism;' Fi or ~'thou doest ;' i<l or '"" ~'thou givest.' h. If the following consonant be a semivowel, the Anuswara jIlay be optionally changed to the nasal form of the semivowel, which is denoted by a peculiar mark above it; as, 1:fllli or ~ 'restraint;' ~ or ~ 'to what world;' ~ or ~ 'a"year.' 23. Anuswara may be substituted for a medial " or 1;, when followed by a sibilant; as, "bows;' ~ '. reputations;' oaR a proper name.

..r m

m=

'"1f1f

24. A final 11' or ~ preceded by " or '"' may be dropp~ before any letter except a hard consonant or a sibilant; it becoming "" by rule ~,5, before "IJ!I'11TiI'T! makes 'if "If1711l'T! ' th~y are come;' ~ changed to ~ before ~ becomes ~; and it changed to iI'T'(_ before ~ becomes ill ~ 'those two.'

as~

m
r-

25. nasal, ~ heard

When ~ follows any consonant, except a semivowel, a or a sibilant, it is changed to .. ; as, ~ + ~ S'iva == " tach chhiva, 'that, S'iva;' ~ + 1RT =~ 'having that.' 110
12. ~

a. For by rule

has been changed, before the palatal .. ,

CONJUNCTION

OF CONSONANTS.

to the analogous palatal 1l'; but the ~oft consonant 1f, again, has been changed to the hard consonant '" before the bard consonant 11:. h. Although, according to the present rule, ~ may not be changed to 11: after a nasal, yet seeming exceptions occur in regard to a final ';f; as, fit f'4tSlf. .. '"t: 'overwhelming with arrows;' ~ for l1'i. ~ 'the existent S'ambhu or alva.' In these cases a 11;. has beer. interposed, making ~ 11;.~, ~ iI;, ~:, and.jr is changed to 11: after iI'; but by rule 12. 'If is changed to '" before the palatal, and 'if to 1i before'll(, making r.:rfCR"'('llC,~. The middle of the three consonants is rejected by a rqJe to be subsequently quoted (r. 34. a); leaving therefore fqr4~'b &c. The insertion of ~ between a nasal and a sibilant is very common in the Vedas, as ~ + 1is read
"'(4'11 • ., •.

.26. The augment ~ may be inserted after a word ending in a sbort vowel, before one beginning with ._, as ilr1l ~ 1nlIT; but as if must be changed to", in such a position, the form ~ 11"";1141 'the shadow of S'iva.' a. The sam~ augment , is optionally inserted aiter a long vowel, whether ~a~§fI final; as, p;.hu~1 8tEft_lql or 'the shadow of La ~. ' '~~. a barbarian.' b. It is also .inserte~ op after the particles ~ and ~ (leaving 1!I'T and lIfT) prefixed to verbal inflexione or den va.. ti~es beginning with ... (iI' is in like manner changed to 'If);
"hIOG~rri or ~~ him not divide.'
8S,

'he covers ;'. ~

or "It\a;~'t'let

27. 'IF is changed to 15 before tI', 8S ~ f~r~,' see,' make. with ~tir, ~tr' will see:' .(for tI' after a guttural (rule 29.) becomes 'IF, and <Ii and 'IF form the compound "If.) A final 11 is usually changed to z, becoming w before 8, 80ft consonant; .,_ ~, 'light,' becomes ~ or ~J~. It is eometilUe$ changed to 'liIi; as, ~ becomes prou~1 28. Before .8, palatal consonnnt, including ~, the dental .. is changed to and before a. cerebral, including 1f" it is

m'

-.r;

COMBINATION OF LETTERS.

+ '!Urns sleeps;' ~ + ~ = tI.u1hl'ift , n.t • , Rama goes; , ~ -it q JL\.ama, IX th,' S • !i:l9. ~, not being 'final, is changed to 'III' after any vowel except. or 'I!IT, and after a guttural consonant, a semivowel, and ,{, though the augment Of, Visarga, or a sibilant intervene; thus ~ becomes in the plural ~ , bows;' and f\N and l' make ~ 'in' or ' on S'ivas.' It is not so changed after ~, 'W, or "I{, if radical; as, ~ 'who goes wen;' ~) &c. 80. When" in the verbs wr ' to stay: and ~ ~to' stop,' and their derivatives, is preceded by the preposition ~, it is rejected; and as the final If becomes the hard consonant 11' before a hard consonant, then ~ +~ =~ , uprising,' and ~ + 'upholding.' ' 81." When " follows any consonant, except a nasal, semi- ' vowel, or sibilant, the aspirate of the preceding letter may be substituted for it, that letter, if a hard consonant, being fiest changed to its corresponding 80ft letter; as, ~ -+ ~ be~mes first '"'t llftr, and then ..11 'speech seizes:' so

changed to '11; as, ~

~,==~

+~

tl4ij~"'n.'

Rama gathers ;'

=~

~=

'1m

~~makes~. 32. '{ ~hen final, or before any consonant except a nasal or a semivowel, is changed to 11', as ~ ushnih, a sort of metre, becomes ~; or to cr, as ~ 'a bee; ~. The aspirates are changed to the unaspirated lettets (rule 9), and the words are therefore ~ or ~, ~ or ~. /, The final 'I' evolved from '{ is also- changeable to 11' before i, before which '!If becotp.eS-1IIi, with it (rules f},7. f},9) 11{; hence and "'l 'to bear: with ~ makes ~; ~'to bnrn,' ~. 88. Any cousonant may be optionally doubled after 1:. or '{ preceded by a vowel; as, ri or ... 'the sun;' ~ or fire.' 34. Any cousonant, except ,{, followed by a consonant,' ~! be doubled; as,11( + 1:. may be ~. a son;' ~ + 1:. may be ~ , a friend,'

trl'a- '

a. But when three or more consonants are joined together, by virtue of a grammatical rule, one or more of the intermediate

CHANGES

OF VISARGA.

ones, if similar, may be rejeeted-; therefore ~

and ~

are

more usually written ~ and ~. b. A semivowel following any consonant, except a semivowel, a sibilant, 'i, or ~, may be doubled; as, ~ or ~ 'the sun.' c. But when two semi vowels are preceded by a different consonant, one of them may be rejected; so ~tUi becomes as before.

~,

35. When a conjunct consonant is final, whether terminating a syllable or a word, the second member is rejected, as ~~, 'a lame man,' becomes ~; and ~, 'what injures/ iT"(. So after nouns ending in consonants, the sign of the nominative case, lr, is rejected, as ~, 'goiqg; not ~. If the first letter be 't., the final is retained, as ~ 'strong;' but not if the second member be a sibilant, as ~, 'who wishes to do,' becomes ~. " 36. When a word ending with 't. is followed by one beginning with 't., one is rejected, and the preceding vo,,,·cl,..-it short, is made long; as, ~ + ~;'liolif 'he again sports i' ~ + 'Gii = iifl'Gii ' unimpassioned,' There are other rules affecting the mode of-combining consonants, and the changes to which the combinations are subject; but their validity is matter of dispute: accordingly, as different rules are followed, the derivatives of the compound of ~ , cum,' and ~ , to make,' may be 'written in a variety of manners: qm, for instance, may be written in a hundred and eight ways. These are, however, ~atters merely of orthoepieal conceit, and in practice the simplest spelling, consistent with the essential elements of a word, is to -be preferred.

m::

SECTION

III.

Changes of V'uarga.
As preliminary to the rules for those changes to which the soft aspirate termed Visarga is subject, may be useful to premise, that they contemplate the reciprocal equivalency of

it .

COMBINATION

OF

LETTERS.

(:) Visarga, ~, and 't.; th;se kigns being, according to circum .. stances, mutually interchangeable. There are, as is well known, indications of similar reciprocity in the classical Ianguages. The Greek t~, g7f'Ta, /lAs, become in Latin '~ex, septem, sal.' In the older Latin writers a final's' was commonlyelided, at least for, prosodial purposes; and Pott suggests that its place may have been supplied by something like Visarga. Lucilius, according to Quintilian, wrote "Serenu' fnit et dignu' loco;" and Cicero observes, U Plures antiquorum sic locutos." The substitution of 'r' for C 8' was also common in Latin, and' arbor, labor. clamor,' were originally written 'arbos, labos, clamos,' The' 8' was also sometimes preserved in the nominative, but changed in other inflexions, as 'flos, floris,' and the like. The meaning of Visarga mit is literally 'abandoning,' , ejecting;' and that of its synonyme Ilillhi;fi4 Visarjjanlya i,s , that which may' or ' is to be ejected or abandoned.' It has b~n a question, therefore, whether the symbol to which it is of1pplied be a simple mark of elision, kind of apostrophe, (:) or whether designates a sound. It would be out of place to discuss the question at present. It is usually considered to denote a very 80ft and almost imperceptible breathing, and it is, sufficient for our purpose so to regard it. 87. A final 'Il' is changed to Visarga: ~ Ramas becomes ~: Ramah; and ~ Ramais, tiit: Ramaih. 38. Before a hari! consonant Visarga again becomes 'Il'; ~ + wm f'l4!1g(a iii i , VishflU the preserver: a. It is not 80 ~anged before a hard letter followed by a sibilant, as 11: ~ 'Which (is) the sword-hilt P' h. Before a sibilant the change is, optional, as '@If! itrW or ~. (The dental sibilant is changed to the sibilant of the class of the consonant by which it is followed: see rule 28.) c. Before the hard consonants of the guttural and labial classes Visarga may be unchanged: 11: 1IiOftr' who does;' 'lIE, ~ , Who cooks?'

it

CHANGES

OF VISAJtGA. X

d. Before these letters a different sign

called Arddha~~.

visarga, 'a halfVisarga; is sometimes ti.s,!'!d, 1IiX ~, as

The sign before a guttural is described as r.vGiEI"lMl4, 'proceeding from the root of the tongue;' and before a labial, ~ • to be gently blown or aspirated.' Modifications of aspiration are no doubt intended, which might have been of consequence when the language was spoken, but are now of no importance. e. The permanence of Visarga before 'iii! is liable to excep:iv:!~and it is changed to If before, I. the pronoun li, as 1IRiJi: , quisquis ," z. the affix 15" as ~ 'famous;' and the particles 1R!T and 'aIiTRf, as 4ltl@l~ & of little fame;' :ql{l@lIRl' desirous of fame.' It is also changed before ~, as tl~I~I:tf' of slight renown.' I. But it is not changed before li~, if that follows an indeclinable word; as, tmr: ~ 'nigh to morning;' DOl' before 1IiTRI', if it be derived from a radical final; thus fttt ~ makes 7ft: ' speech,' whence :rft: ~ ( desirous of speech.' g. It is changed before verbs and verbal derivatives cOJUmencing with 'iii! when compounded with If'{:, ~, wtf1i:, and" J:; as, ~ 'salutation;' ~('I!!il'Of1I f he places before;'flre...,fi 'manifested;' ~. evil-doing/ ~ h; The numerals fr., 'fti:, and ~, change Visarga to If before 1&, as frIilKII'l1,~....uffl, ""gCClii)f1I, , he makes two, three,' four.' But if repetition is implied, the change is optional. ae flr:lII€tAr .or 'fILilior.. he does (any thing) twice.' i. 'fin:: optionally changes its final, as fIn:'IIBn:: or fl1(E!Ia<: • abuse.' •• j. ~ becoming fir: also optionally changes Viaatga. to " before 1Ii, as fol: 'IIIiTft:nr or ,." _I fa II ' expelled,' k, Visarga is changed to V after ~: compounded with the particles 1Ie!r and ~, as ij~i1II~, ~fUiGqi", 'a little but~ 1. It is changed after '4lN; and flue compounded with 1Rt; as, ~ ~foot below;' ~'foot on the top.' If the word. are uncompounded, the change does not take place, u '4IIN:

~,~.~.

OOMBINATlON OF LETTERS.

39. A final radical ~ is changed to Visarga; as, f.ru, 'speech, \ " becomes lfT:; ~, 'da}Vo,' mr.. 40. The letter '{ till technical grammar called ~ ru, to distinguish it from the mere alphabetical sign) is substituted for Visarga after any vowel except W or ~, and before a vowel or a soft consonant; as, ~: becomes ~~hSq!l" endowed with qualities;' ~ ~:::::: I1IlfhthOt 'fire burns;' ~ • the boat goes;' ~'Sambhu takes.' 41. If the Visarga be preceded by., and the inieial of the word following be "If, or a soft consonant, If is substituted in place of ,{, and If with the penultimate .. forms the final diphthong ..,.; as, ~ ~ makes 1irll>~ • Who here?' ~ :rnt: makes 1IiT '.TI"lf: 'Who (is) gone?' a. An initial .. following Wt so formed is rejected, but its place is marked by the sign s. See rule 6. f. h. ~ changed by rule 37. to '1m becomes by this rule ~ in such compounds as ~, ~, ' mind-born;' ~ , mind-delighting.' -42. After the short vowel 'W, and before any vowel except dIf; Visarga may be changed to ,. which by rule 24. may be rejected; aa,. ~ and _ become ~ or ~ .,.. , It god sits;' ~ and ~ become ~ or ~ ~ 'the god Indra;' l('CIS! """" (Nalab spoke,' makes "~9"i4iij or more commonly

'Ifil5'

43. After the long vowel wr, and before any vowel or soft consonant, , is substituted for Visarga; it is optionally rejected' before the vowels, a~solutely before." the consonants; as, ~ 'Ira' make ~ or ~ q' the gods {are) here;' ~ and i1RIT! make ~ ~ c the gods are to be reverenced ~,'saidofDevl,',makes~or~~; ~ -rrm, 'the garland of grl/ makes ~ mm. "c. After the inteIjections ~, ~~, ~, the Visarga, to which the final is changed, is said to be again changed. to 1(, which is ejected before a vowel or soft consonant; as, 1('Il ~ Indra I' ~ ~ , 0 god !' 0

"f"I'f.

i~

CHANGES

OF' VISARGA.

44. Visarga substituted for a radical final 1:. may become 1:. again before a vowel or a soft -consonant j as, If'I''ir. for ~ +'i!I'(lf becomes ~'the dawn {isj bere.' a. Such a Visarga may also optionally become 't again before a hard consonant; as, 7ft: for ~ before -qfir may make ~ 'lord of speech; or, by rule 38, ~, Visarga being changed to ~. 6. Visarga substituted for the final of.~ for ~ 'a day,' becomes 1:. again before any consonant except 1:. and ~; as, ~ 'lord of day;' ~'a number of days.' Before 't and ~, ~ is substituted for it; as, «(\(j~ 'day and night;' ~ 'by days.' 45. Visarga is substituted for a final ~, except in the word ~, before a hard consonant of the palatal, cerebral, and dental classes, if followed by a vowel, a semivowel, or a nasal. Anuswara is prefixed to the sibilant to 'which by rule 38. Visarga is changed; as, ~ +~ becomes ~rfY~ Z 0 bow-armed, cut!' ~ + 1't. 0 king, cross!' but ~ ~ 'let the quiet man collect.' "" a. Before 'If the substitution is optional. and the Visarg&does not become sibilant, as by rule 38 e, but mayor not substitute the Arddha-visarga: 'r': 'IfIi\!, ' ch&i.sh men,' is , therefore written ~, or X 1i1f(, also with a mark denoting the Visarga to be nasal, as or X ~. h. ~ in combination with , and its derivatives, the word .. 1IIi1"i{. repeated, and ~ derived from ~ prefixed to a word beginning with a hard consonant, insert the augment ~; in which case Visarga is said to be 8u6stituted for their proper finals. preceded by Anuswara., and changed before ~ to ~. ~ before lIiR therefore becomes ~ 1:!fI'R::; ~ before ~, ~ ~; and ~ before ~, ~ ~~. By clause a. of rule 34, however, one of the sibilants is rejected, leaving ~ , initiation;' ~ 'whom! 'whom!' and ~ 'a ~e kO'il(Indian cuckoo).' 46. The Visarga which is the sign of the masculine nomi-

-=~

maY

1= ~,

i: ~

'i

P: ~

DECLENSION.

native of the pronouns ~ and ~, or ~: 'he,' ~ 'that person,' is commonly dropped before a consonant; as, ~ 1iII'U1f 'he goes;' ~ wf;f '. he gives;' ~ ~: ' that VisM.u;' but not if the negative ... is prefixed, as 1!m! ~lf! 'not that S'iva: a. In verse, for the convenience of the metre, ~ not only rejects the Visarga, but allows the final ... to be conjoined with a following vowel, by the rules of vowel-Sandhi; as, ~ 'C1n' 1Nftf, 'that Indra the king conquers,' for ~ ~; so b ~ 't11r., 'that very Rama, the son of Daearatha,' for

~~.

C HAP T E R III.
DECLENSION.

SECTION General Rztles.

I.

nouns in the Sanskrit language are declinable in one or more of three genders. They admit, with very few exceptions, ok three numbers, singular, dual, and plural; and of seven cases in each number; 1. the nominative, 2. accusative, 3. instrumental, 4· dative, S. ablative, 6. genitive, 7. locative: of these it may be remarked, that the third or instrumental has the sense of' by' or ' with;' the ablative, 'from;' and the locative, 'in' or ' on:' the rest have the usual powers. 48. Inflexion, whether of declension or conjugation, i. contrived by the Sanskrit grammarians on the same principle, It consists of two parts; I. the Anga, "body,' 01' inflective base, that is, the word itself; and, 2. of certain particles, w~, being attached to the base, complete the inflected word. The inflectional terminations of conjugation will be hereafter specified. Weare concerned at present with those of declension only. 49. The inflectional terminations of nouns are hrenty-one ;
MOST

,",47.

· GENERAL

RULES.

i9

some of them are repetitions: they are attached to the inflective base in each of the seven cases /if the three numbers, and .. are as follows: nom. ace, instr. data abl. gen. loco

fir
~ zt

Wt
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

T~

m
m

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The vocative has no separate termination, being considered as a modification only of the nominative. 50. Now of these inflectional terminations it is to be remarked, that some of the letters serve only to form syllables, and facilitate enunciation: they are rejected, therefore, when .those Ietters which are essential are applied to the base. These auxiliary letters are the ~ of ftr; the it: of ~; the ~ of ~ ; the ~ of ~; the To of the terminations T., (in which abo ~ is subordinate), To~, and and the" of~. It is also J:i)' be recollected, that by rule 37. a final ~ is chang~d to Visarga. The actual terminations therefore will be,

m;

nom. : ace, instr. 'WI' dat, ~ ahl, "II'! gen. 'Il!f: loco ~

..

""
'llt
~ ~
..-qj

T"II'!

..

'lit:

.~
~

~ ~

"":

51. In applying theee terminations to the final letter of the inflective base, recollection must be preserved of the ~fi~ cations which that final letter must undergo, whether it be a. vowel or a consonant, before the initial letters of the terminations; as in the following example:

SO
nom.
ace,

DECLENSION.

~ , n~vis,' , a ship.'

-.fu
;wi
'ii'I'NT

instr, dat. abJ. gen. loco

..wt
'i'I"A! 'fI"OI'!

"
~ ~

'flit

orm

'iTA:
1{1'!lf:

~:
~ ~

~:
~

'fI'ti
~

;nf;r

It will be observed, that before the consonants the word is unchanged; before the vowels, ..rt becomes ~ by rule 5. The ~ of ~ is changed after ~ to ~ by rule 29 . .It is worth while to pause for a moment upon this scheme of inflectional terminations, and to understand it fully, as it furnishes a useful clue to all the varieties of nominal inflexion which follow. If it were rigidly applied, nothing would be so simple as Sanskrit declension; and' .even as it is, we are authorised to afijrm that there is but one general declension in Sanskrit ~mmar. There are however various modifications, both of th; bases and of the terminations, in the individual nouns, which render 1l; convenient to divide them into classes: and no arrangement admits of more ready reference than that which classes them according to their final letters; first, as they are vowels or consonants; and secondly, according to the letter or class of letters in each of those divisions. SECTION II.

Notms ending in vowels. CLASS1. Nouns ending in .. and "T. 5'CNouns ending in .. form by far the most numerous class of nouns, and commonly admit of three genders, forming the feminine by adding '4IrT; as, masc, ~ S'iva, the god; fern. flw.rr the goddess S'iva.

NOUNS

ENDING

IN VOWELS.

5S. In forming the inflexions of all nouns, such changes as

may occur are of two descriptions; l:t~ose affecting the base, 2. those affecting the termination • • 4. Nouns ending in w substitute in the base, 'W'I'tor the final 5 before 1f substituted for l!in the dat, sing.; before the dual termination ~i; and before the augment 'if, in the genitive case plural, and in the nominative and accusative plural neuter. They substitute l! for their final 'l!i before ~ in the dual, and ~ and ! in the plural. They insert 'if before the signs of the genitive case plural, and the nominative and accusative plural neuter. The feminine noun changes 'WT to 1! before the 'IIlfT of the instrumental case singular, the ~ of the dual, and in the vocative case sing.; and inserts 1ll before the four last cases of the singular, and ~ before ~ in the gen. plural. 55. After nouns in w other terminations are substituted for those of t~e scheme, in some of the cases: thus,
Singular. Plurfll.

ace. , instr, ~ dat, 1:1' abl. ~gen. 1;q

for ~ -n
_

ace, '\ for ~ instr, ~~~

i;~

a. After the feminine noun ftr is rejected, and ~ is substi.tuted for ~ in the nom. and ace. dual, and ~ for 'f\t in the locative case sing. of the nom. and secus. severally , ~ l:, the latter with ';f prefixed, as 'tit, in place of the terminations of the masculine r in all the other cases it adopts the terminations of the masculine. . 56. We are now prepared to understand the construction of the following forms of ~, bearing in mind the alteration'7' dependent upon the laws. of combination, in joining the inflectional terminations to the inflective base.
b. The neuter substitutes in the three ~mbers

DECLENSION.

nom.~ ace. ~ instr. ~ dat. ~ abl. ~ gen. f~ loco ~ voc, ~

Mase, ~ ~. ~

S'iva the deity. ~ S'iva, ~

&>e:

f~
~ ~

".1i!

~ ~:

f~
~:

flwrr-rt
~

ft{I,ft
Fern.

~:

S'iva, &c. By or with S'iva, &C. To S'iva, &0. From S'iva, &c. Of S'iva~ &c. In or on S'iva. &c. 0 S'iva I &C.

tm~ the

goddess S'iva.

nom.~ ace, ~ instr. ~ dat. ~ abl. ~ gen. ~ loco ~ voc, ~ Neuter ~

Dam. ffld aceus, ~

~
~ ~ ~ ~

f!wn:

nwm
~ ~ ~ ~

~tfu
~
f

~
~

auspicious.'
~

voc. ~ ~ ~iIf The rest as the masculine. a. Other nouns declinable on the above models are the following: they are given with the inflection of the nominative ' case.
Masculine. '«1Ir. a horse Feminine. Neuter.

, q;rr a woman
~hope ~wish ~ a girl ~ the neck ~moonlight

~thesky q: a camel ~ a crow W'f! a quality ~thl' moon

qan egg 'tI'1l11i a seat ~ an organ of sense' ¥ a family a house ri an umbrella

'Tt

NOUNS ENDING

IN' VOWELS.

~fever ri: reasoning ~agod ~: virtue ~: a nail dn: a mountain 11M: a fish ~ sacrifice ur. flavour ~.iron 1A1! a crane ~ ajackall ~ the ocean ~ the hand

.1RT decay
ifT('f

a star ~a swing \TI'U an edge ';'f'nrt the nose .. f'T worship " ~a wife ~a garland UIfT preserving c:n;rr modesty 'litt!IT a lute ~beauty ~ an assembly ~injury

"ifii water
;(t:i: a shore

'f-w pain
'iii' wealth
¥dancing leaf '@ a root ~youth 'Gi blood ~salt 1fii a wood ~ a scripture ~arulc "" ~ frost.
~a

b. Many adjectives and participles declinable in the three

genders belong to this class. c. The feminine nouns 'I!IlfT, ~, WW, signifyirlg chietly in poetic language 'mother,' make their vocatives 'flV, q. If the penultimate be not a conjunct consonant, other ' synonymes follow the usual form, as ~ ~. ~ ~. '0 mother!' 57. Besides those nouns which are formed from masculine nouns in "i!I', by adding, as it is said, the feminine ending nt{. that is, 'WT, there are noUDS derived immediately from verb& e1iding in 'm, as 'qT, iff, vrr, and the like, in which the final '1m is an essential, not an accidental letter. ..su~h nouns admit of a variety of gender. The declension of the masculine 811<1 femi. nine noun is the same. In the neuter the fiJHd is made short, and the word is declined like ~. • 58. Nouns in '\'!IT, then, in which the final is a radical letter, combine with the terminations of the nominative ease, a~l~ with those of the singular and dual accusative, agreeably to the laws of Sandhi. In the accusative plural and the follow.. ing cases the final wr is cut off before the vowel terminatiouI,

'WW:

DECLENSION.

and they are affixed at onpe to the word, as if it ended in a consonant: before ~h(: consonantal terminations there is no change; as, Masc. and fern. f<rvlqy 'all-preserving_' nom. ~
aec.

~ ~

f<nm

f<rt!rcn: ~:
~ ~

instr.~ dat. ~ abI. f;nrq: gen. loco ~ voc, ~&c. So

~1:Il '

fcrtni

".ql'!

who drinks the Soma juice;' ~'a shell-blower.' 59. The word ~, the name of an inferior divinity, a. Gandharba, is considered as a primitive, and is inflected therefor~ tltrnughout without any elision 'of the final, which <?Ombines with the vowel terminations" agreeably to the roles of "Sandhi, and is consequently in every way regularly declined. nom.~ ::>. acc. ~ ..... , instr. ~ dat. ~ abl. mr. gen. loco
voe.

~ ~

~ ~or~ ~ ~

mf
~

mt&c. •

CLASS

60. Nouns ending in these two vowels may be conveniently classed together, as they are analogously inflected; TeCm"lecting only that the semivowels to which they are changeablebefore other vowels are respectively 11: and ". 61. In the masculine gender the changes of the base are, the substitution of the long vowel for the final in the dual nom.

II.

Nouns ending in T and ",,'

NOUNS

ENDING

IN

VOWELS.

and aceus., and in the accus. and ~en. plural; the Gulia letter ~ 01' '\it is substituted for the final before ~. i:, and 'iR{" and in the vocative singular; and the final is dropped before the termination of· the locative case singular: "l. is inserted before the terminations of the instrumental case singular and

m,

the gen. plural. 62. In the same gender the dual termination ~ is rejected; ~ is substituted for ~, and ~ for the ~ of ~; the vowel of ~ in the ablative and genitive is dropped; and '4it is substituted for fi;; as follows: ~'the sun} wfhf' fire: ~ ~ nom. 'eifh:r. ~ ~ ~ ace. 'iifT;f ~ ~ ~ instr.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ dat, ~ ~ ~ ~ abl. ~: ~ ~ ~ gen. ~ ~ loco ri ~ ~ ~ voe. wir &c. ~&c. 63. There are some anomalies among nouns in~. '!1nul ~, 'a friend,' substitutes 'liII'f for the final in tll; tirst fiv(! inflexions, and inserts ~ before their vowel terminations. In the other cases of the singular, and in the gen. and lee, dUIlI. it is more regular than 'I5I'fh:r, the final ~ becoming 1f hdhl'C a 'Vowel. In the nom. singular fti is rejected, and in the ahl, and gen. ~ is substituted for nne!,~. m f a friend.' • nom.QT ~ ~: ace. ~ ~ instr, tim ~ ~ dat. ~ 'Vf~ abl. m!Il: gen. ~ ~ Ioe. ~ ~ voc. W&c.

1:1>

F2

DECLENSION.

a. In composition this word may be inflected regularly in all the cases, or in all except the two first; ~ or ~ ,a good friend;' ~ or ~ to a good friend,' &C.
C

h. 1lfir,' a master: is declined like ~ in the five last cases singular; as, 11m, Q, ~. ~,~. In the rest like '!i!'I'fhr. ~ and 1I'it sometimes occur. 1lfir in composition is declined like 'Wfh:r; as, ~ a king,' (lord of the earth,) ~ ~, ~, ~, &c. 64. Feminine nouns in ~ and ~ differ from the masculine in the aceus. plural, and in the third and following cases singular> They do not substitute 'i\ for the Visarga of ~, nor insert " before zt, In the dative and following cases singular they have two forms, one like the masculine: in the other they insert 'WI before the affixes of the dative, ablative, and genitive cases; and, like feminine nouns in 'l!ff, substitute ~ for the sign of the locative ftF; as,
C

Fern. 'ffiT' Mind: ~om. 1rilr: 1fift ace. 'IIfi instr.~ dat. ~ord ~t Q: or 1IIi1lr. gen. 1fiII1: ;nit or ItiIIf voc, &c.
'If'iA:

I~
~

'a milch cow:

\rot
~

m:
~

Irtit:

1ffImr.!

,~
\f;;n

~Imor~

lmor~
~

i~

~or~
\t;ft &c.

65. Neuter nouns in ~ and or reject the terminations of the

nom. and accus, sU;gular, substitute ~ and ~ for the dual and plural terminations, and insert " before them and all other terminations begi;ming with a vowel. They lengthen the final before" in the plural. "<iIft: • water.' tIC' ~' honey. • nom.} <rrfudt ~ ace. "<I:Tfi: ~ 111'* ~

IDstr. ~
dat.
<rrftjf

<nfuqj

~:

1J1iIT
~

qflr.
~

NOUNS ENDING

IN VOWELS.

37

abl, ~ gen. loc. ~ voe, <nft. or

qtt:

m. &e.

~ ~ ~or
\l>

~&.c.

66. There are a few neuter nOUDSin '!{ which before the vowel terminations of all the cases except the two first, and optionally before fF, drop the final vowel; as,
wf\lq , a bone,"

nom.}~
ace.

instr. ~
dat, ~

a. ~ , an eye,' ~ 'ghee,' and .. ~ , a thigh: are similarly declined: the fact being, in all probability, that U8 nounc in ~ they are defective, and their deficiencies are supplied .. before the vowel terminations by analogous but Ob80~te nouns ending in "t, as ~, ~, ~, ~. 0. Other nouns in ~ and ~, declinable on the above models, are,

abl. gen. loco voc.

~ ~ ~or~
~&C •

..me a sword
~a8age "apoet

Mase. in ~. ~ ~

Fern. in '!{. agriculture patien~ • ::Jtftc going . 1rTfir. caste, sort '(tfR: light yftr. firmness nature understanding rain ~ remembrance

Ma8C. in 1'• q: life

W.
"IIf'f~
~

firft:: a mountain
a jewel \fir. the'sun uf\r. a heap ~ an ordinance ~ a charioteer ~ a name ofVish~u ..

sugar cane a sel1$On

a Umcher
the sun ViflMu

1IP!f a relation

.,r.:
-p:

JIlftr:

w- death
~:

.q: an enemy.

1Pr- a bambu

88

DECLENSION.

c. There are not many feminine substantive nouns in ~, and but few neuter either i? ~. or 1!'. Adjectives of course, or substantives used attributively, may, with few exceptions, be declined in three genders. d. When a noun in ~ or 1!', whether substantive or attributive, is used in the neuter gender in the same sense in which it is employed in the masculine, it is optionally declinable in all the cases of which the terminations begin 'with vowels, except the two first, either after the masculine or neuter form; as ~ 'eternal:' neuter nom. and ace, ~, 'tI"I~i{t, ~1ftf; instr, 'iJI;:lIf~"'I; dat, ~ or G"fl~~; abl, and gen. ~: or 'i!lI''lif~",":; loco ~ or .... I~r.:.; gen. and 10c. dual 'W<mIT: or 'I!I'1ir~;U!. If the sense differs, the neuter form only is admissible: ~ masc, ' a kind of tree;' neut, 'the fruit of the Pilu tree:' dat.~, abl. and gen. ~, loco ~, &0. e. Other neuter nouns in ~ and '1;f are derived from nouns terminating in the long vowels ~ and 'l!I.
CLASS
.... r

III. Nouns ending in ~ and"

base. or , the word i~elf, in nouns terminating in ~ and ~, regards the substitution in some cases of the syllables ~ and 1!I'l(, for the finals ~ and ~ before those inflective terminations which begin with vowels. When these syllables are substituted. the nouns are inflected before the vowel terminations as if they ended with the semivowels " and". Wh~n those syllables are not· substituted, the final vowels combine with the vowels of the terminations, agreeably to the laws of Sandhi, with very few exceptions. 68. A~r the syllables ~ and ~ the inflective terminauens undergo no changes; after the finals .. and'.. they '!.~rgo a few, chiefly after feminine nouns, analogous to these already observable in feminine nouns of the preceding c~ and depending on the same conditions. 69. t:'t. and ~ are severally substituted for the final .. and

67. The chief peculiarity affecting the inflective

NOUNS ENDING

IN VOWELS.

39

"SII

of masculine nouns, when they. are monosyllabic verbal derivatives, or when the finals are preceded by a conjunct consonant; as.1:ft (for ~) 'to think; <2' to cut,' -m' to serve.'
Masc, 1:ft'who understands.' Masc,

nom. \fu
ace,

nRT
~

f\re 1:ftfii:
~

~ Ci<t

<2 'who ~it

cuts:

~:
~ ~ ~

instr.~ dat, Nil' abI. ~ gen. loco M VOC. 1:ft: &C.

cf-i

.~
Ci"<1'T:

~ ~

¥~ ~: &c.

1fi

a. Nouns of this description are not considered as ceasing

to be monosyllabic by having particles prefixed to them, which merely quali(v their application; therefore ~ , a man of good understanding,' ~ • a man of excellent understanding: and the like, substitute TIl' for the final; ~,~-'~. So ~ 'self-existent: from 'W1f 'self,' and lJ.' being,' a name of
"'\, '" \,$ ""

'II

Brahma,

makes ~.,

~,

~.

h. They are considered as polysyllabic if derived &otn a compound verb, as 'Alit' 'a man of superior understanding.' which is a derivative, not from the simple verb 'Ih, but the compound verb 1Nt, and therefore is declined lNh, 'JI'1Iit, 'JI'Slr., &c., the final b~oming 'l{_ before a vowel, by rule 4-: and they are also considered as polysyllabic if the first member of the compound is a subordinate term, or one not in opposition, as ~ , born '" in the rains,' 'a frog.~ There are also certain compounds of ,_ which are by special rule excepted from-substituting ~; fS, 'bom again,' iPl' a snake,' <ml'l' born in a prison,' ~ (produced from the hand:' these are all declined, as.

M.

~~~,~~,&c.

~ ..

70. Masculine noUDSending in • or '$, when consisting of more than one syllable in consequence of being compounded with another noun as a subordinate term, or being derived

40

DECLENSION.

from a modification of tht;. verb, merely follow the rules of combination; that is, ~rbecomes ~, and ".S, " before a vowel

mflx.
~

'a general' (from lr.rr 'an army,' and ;:ft 'who leads').

~'a sweeper; (l§'CWS' a place,' & 1..'who cleans').

nom.~ ace. ~ instr.~ dat. ~ abl. ~ gen. loco ~ voc. ~

~~.
~ ~ &c.

~~~ ~ ~ ~

a. ;:ft,' to lead,' and its compounds substitute ~ for flF in the locative. h. ~'who drinks (moisture),' i. e. the sun, derived from 1fT 'to drink;' '1t1ft' a road,' from lIT 'to go;' ~'an fntelope,' from <mi' the wind' and 'Q1fI' 'who outstrips;' and a demigod so named; differ from ~ in three cases:

ace. s;.g.

~. _.
li

'qTft'

ace, plur, ~ ~
_-

loco sing.

1Nt
~

"lIn"""

They may. however, be also regularly declined in these cases! as ~ lfUr.•• , &c. c. 'if in composition, as ~ 'who cuts barley; makes either ~ or ~ in the gen. plur., and ~ In the loc, singular.

n <iliiu'l¥t "'(

-"II1U4.,.

l.fJr

71. Feminine nouns in ~ and ':S, like masculine nouns, are. declined in two ways: if they are monosyllables, or contain a 4njunct consonant, they substitute ~ and ~ for their finals; if polysyllabic. they change the finals, agreeably to the laws .: of Sandhi, to 'l( and " before the affixes commencing with vowels.

NOUNS ENDING

IN VOWELS.

41

72. Feminine nouns of the first-description optionally prefix 'IT to the affixes marked by a mute 1F,~like feminine nouns in the short l: and ~. 73. They optionally prefix ~ to "III'li{ in the gen. plural, and substitute ~ for fi: in the Ioe, singular; as,

"!Jft 'prosperity.'
nom. 'fit: ace. instr.fWqy dat. t1r1for M abI. m:or~ gen. loco nrt1ior~ vOC. ~ &e.

~'the l!; ~ ~ ~or~ ~:or~ iieRfonlhut' ~ ~orwrt ~ &C.

earth.' ~~

~~

~ -

wn: Trior~
-

74 Feminine nouns of the second description, haying more tha.n one syllable, and being derivative nouns from masculine nouns by the substitution of the terminations ~ and 7!i for the masculine final, insert '1!iT before the terminations having a" mute IF, make the vowel short in the voc, singular, and prefix e:r to the termination of the gen. plural. "" The ~ of the nominative is rejected after such nOUnS in ~, but not after'S. After both, i{_ is substituted for ~. ~ for the ~ of~, and ~ for as,

n::;

~ nom. ~ ace. instr, omr dat. W abl, ;nn: • gen. loco iRIi voe. ~&c.

'a river.' ~ ~

lftl' a wife.'
wm:
~

~.

1f'l~
~
'l!(&fl'

~1&:
~

. .~ -

~ ~ ~ ~

-=

~
1fPn!

.~

1Il_"li

~:

~ ~ ~

111 &C.

a. The rejection of iI:. after a feminine noun ending in ." depends upon that • being the feminine tenninatio~, or sign
G

DECLENSION.

of the feminine gender .. If -it is part of the word itself, the sibilant becomes Visarg~ as usual; as, ~ 'the goddess Lakshmi," ~ , a lute,' a boat.' h. ~,' a woman,' is inflected in the 110m. and voe, like ~, and optionally so in the aecus. singular and plural: in the other cases like~. But the insertion of '\ before the gen. plural, and of 'IJ!'IT before the terminations with a mute 'J:, and the substitution of ~ for f1: are absolute, not optional as in '!IJh. nom. ~ ~! ace. ~or~' ~or:eth instr. i\wn ~ dat. ~ ~ abI. i\wn: gen. loco ~ voc, ~&c. '" c. Feminine nouns in ~ and '$, when compounded so as to form attributes, are to be declined like nouns masculine, when used in the sense of a masculine noun, as t'ft. 'a prosperous man,' tak:S, in the dative, ablative, genitive, and locative cases, only one form, viz. and~. If the compound is only a qualification of the substantive, the feminine form may be followed, as ~, • good fortune,' makes ~ or ~, &C. If the noun is a word invariably feminine, it retains its feminine terminations, although used as an attribute ~f a male, as '4Jiiiltt«l 'a man·o( many good qualities,' makes iljlfitq~,

ro: '

,m,~,

"I:f !lij{tji:' lIJ ilij{tji.

d. Feminine rmuns formed from verbal roots, and compounded with subordinate terms, however, when used in a ~nse analogous to that of the masculine, take exactly th~ same .form, as ~ 'a female head of a village,' ~ ,a female sweeper,' make, aecus. sing. and plur, ~, ~ ... '" Wilkins has ~
from the alternative.

or ~,

hut the Kaumudi fxpressly excepts

eft

NOUNS ENDING

IN VOWELS.

43

~, ~; dat. ~, ~; abl, and gen. ~, ~; gen. plur, ~, ~; loco ~ (s~e rule 70. a.), ~; voc.~,~. e. So ~. twice-being,' if it be applied to man or woman indifferently, is declined in the same manner; mf. ~, ~, ~; but if it mean 'a woman twice married,' it is declined like ~; l"~' ~:, ~~. f. The object of these rules, and of others affecting nouns ending in ~ and 'SI, is to intimate that a word which may be applied to an object either male or female is declined in a form common to both; that is, with the masculine terminations: when it is limited to a distinct female object, it is declinable only with the feminine terminations, as in the instance of l'i~ So also ~ for instance, being , a male' or 'female frog,' is declined alike, lf~, ~~, -fior, -~; but the same word being the name of a plant, in which sense there is no male, is declined only, trt\~, ~~:, ~, ~. 75. Nouns in ~ and "i!I which are susceptible of the neuter gender, substitute the short vowels !I{ and ~ for their finals. H the word is an attributive, and the sense of the neuter is analogous to that of the other genders, the word is declined in all the cases of which the affixes begin 'with vowels, except the two first, optionally, as if it were a noun ending in ~ or 'S long; that is, the final becomes , or , before the vowel: otherwise " is inserted, as after liJft:.. Thus ~ 'who leads or is . chier over a village;' ~ iI'1lRJ: 'a head-man Brahman;' !fPI1lft: lmnIft' a Brahman woman, head ofa. village ;' ~ ~ ~ , a family, chief over a village: The inflexion of the latter is,

nom. ace. j dat, able gen. lac.

t~
~ ~ ~

.
or ~~nu"'lt or «l1tr.tll~ or «rfinn"'!!

iI!iI"wn
~

UIiI4:ftf'tt

mstr. ~

G2

DECLENSION.

a. Nouns ending in" and ~ as derived from simple verbal

roots are not numerous, 'the roots not being in any number; but they admit of being multiplied as compounded with other words. Feminine nouns formed by tbe affixes" and ~ and especially the former, are more frequent. -. m, a leader, a guide. ..,mt f. a damsel. ~ f. the earth. ~ f. a sister. ~ f. a shop. ~ m, a. surety . ~ f. an army. ~ f. the eyebrow. ~ f. a mother-in-law. ~ f. a woman with good eyebrows. (( and l{.

CLASS IV. Nouns in .... and"

76. Masculine nouns in .... substitute ~ for the final, and, according to the analogy of nouns in ~, form the nominative in "IT; as, flrJ ' a father,' nom. Nin. 77. In one class of nouns in ilII. the Gufta form '!!I~\ in another the Vriddhi ~, is substituted for the final before the vowel terminations of the nominative dual and plural, and of the accusative sing. and dual. Before the secus. and gen. plur. th. vowel is made long, ~is inserted before ~. Before the vowel terminations of the instr, and dat, singular, and gen. and loco dual, .... is changed by Sandhi to the semivowel , it is changed to ~ , in the Ioeative and vocative ~; cases sing. '18. The only changes in the affixes are, the rejection of ~ in the nominative sin@\>;the substitution of " for ~ in the aceus, plural, and of ~ fOT ~ in the abL and gen. singular; ~ is rejected; an£'. the ~ of ~ is prefixed to the semivowel . ~, which 88 a final is changed to Visarga.
nom. f1nn ace. mi instr.f\qn dat. ~

Wi{ • a father.' ~ '

NOUNS ENDING

~ abl. fq: ~ ~ t~ mit: gen. loco tlnrft: ~ f4n &c. voe, a. Most masculine nouns implying affinity are declined like ~; as, lITif' a brother,' 'If'Iift'{ 'a son-in-law,' ~ , a husband's brother:' but ""I,' a grandson,' makes ';(lIT, ~, ';fR'11::, ~, cnntl, in the first five inflexions. h. Feminine nouns of affinity are declined also like ~,. except in the accus, plural; as ¥ffi[. 'a mother,' makes 1I1Tl'IT, 'llilit. 1fTiR::. 1ITift. m;ri't. 1IliF; so ~ ~a. daughter:' but~,' a sister,' is declined like mIT; ~r,~, &c.; ace. plural, ~. c. 'iJ', 'a man,' is declined like flr{, except in the gen. plural, where the vowel is optionally short, as ~ or ~. d. Nouns formed from roots by the addition of the particles " or ift (in which the finals are used merely to distinguish tHem from each other) are nouns of agency, and are declined like ~. They are also declinable in three genders. .. e. The feminine is formed with the affix ~, before which. the semivowel ~ is substituted for ... : thus ~ be~mes 'ifitf in the feminine, and 7lfi# is declined like ~. f. The neuter is formed analogously to neuter nouns in , and ~; and as there are no substantive neuter nouns in ... ' the neuter of attributives being mostly usable in the same !ense as the masculine, then by a similar analogy the neuter nouns in 'Ill admit also of two forms before the vowel terminations of all the cases except the two first; either inserting 11 before them, or taking the same form as the masculine: thus, nom. and accus.~,~,~; sing. idstr. ~ or 1Ii\tr; .dat. ~ or ~; abl, and. gen ... or loc. ~ or 1Ii'ift:; gen. and loco dual, ~T: or ~. Before the other ~ terminations the forms are the same as in the masculine. g. 'a jackaJ.;'Jlas lost some of its cases, and they are in part supplied by the inflexions of which are those of nouns in"W. Some of the cases belong to both nouns.

~: i'~ ~-

IN VOWELS.

45

+T

m:

l~.

<if.;

">itr,

"IiIJ,

DECLltNSlON.

nom.

"litn ace. 'iinrrt

instr, dat, abl, gen. loco
voc,

~or~ ~or~ ~or~ ~or~ .. : orm&c.

h. To the preceding examples of nouns in ... may be added ~, 'a man of the military caste;' m. ' a conqueror,' or mfn. 'victorious;' ~ m, 'a donor,' or mfn, 'liberal;' "'l m, 'a creator;' mfn. 'cherishing;' a. warrior,' mfn. 'warlike;' and ~ m, 'a priest.' 79. There are a few roots ending in "lIIl" from which verbal nouns may be formed; as, from ,. 'scatter,' comes 1f ( who or what scatters! These are usually inflected by substituting ~ for the radical; agreeably to which, , becomes ~, and is ""then declined like nouns ending in ~; as fiI.~, nom. ~, ~, f1Ic, &C. If this change does not take place, tbe noun- is regularl" declined, substituting the semivowel ~ before the vowel terminations; as 't •who injures,' nom. 'f' 'it, 1Il!, &C. These forms ere of rare occurrence. SO. The same may be said, with still greater truth, of nouns ending in 1i and ({; but grammarians admit the possibility of their oceurrenee e thus 7t1J., the root JPt:. 'to go,' with the affix i!f, may be declined analogously to nouns ending in .. ; as, JPn, ~, ~. In the ablative and genitive 'e" is substituted for t~e ,. of ~",and prefixed to the final semivowel; ,is rejec~ as being the last member of a conjunct consonant: the form .is therefore~. This is of little 'Practical value,

inr

q,

CLASS

V. Nouns in ?!.

Sl. There are no simple nouns ending in -.:, ut compounds b are exhibited to illustrate the declension of nouns so terminat-

NOUNS

ENDING

IN VOWELS.

47

ing; as •• which is compounded of If, 'with: and ~, 'love;' 'one who loves.' The declension 'is regular, except in the abl, and gen. singular, where the initial of ~ is rejected. as, sing. nom. W:, ace, ~ .. instr, ~, date ~, abl, and gen. ~, locomir; dual nom. and ace.~, instr. dat. and abl.~, gen. and loc.' plural nom. and ace. 1r1r., instr. ~, dat, and abl, ~? gen. lfl'Ii, loco ~.

m.;

CLASS

VI. Nouns in ~.

82. Nouns ending in ~ are declined regularly, the terminati~ns are unchanged; the inflective base substitutes "" for its final before the consonantal terminations, and is changed to ~, agreeably to the laws of Sandhi, before the vowels; as ~ mf., • wealth," makes nom. u: ace, 'U1i instr.1Fn dat, tFt abl. UlC gen.

Ioc.

uf1r

83. The neuter of nouns in ~ is formed by changing the final before the vowel terminations to ~, and inflecting it like neuters in~. Before the consonants, "RT is substituted for the • final; as 'it, wealthy;' n. lIft:; sing. nom. and ace. iIft:, instr. 1ifu!n. dat, ~, abl, and gen. 1tft:qr., 1Pc. Jift:f.II1; dual nom. and ace, ~, mstr. dat, and abl, ~, gen. and loco ~ ; plural nom. and ace. ~, instr. m::tfir., .&t. and abl, ~, gen. ~, loco 11'1::11. a. Some grammarians affirm, that when it is used attributively, a neuter noun ending in ~, like those ending in ~ or 11 &C. (see rule 75), may take also the masculine form before the vowel terminations ~ &c., as lffuIrr or JI'Ul.n'; but this is denied by the best authorities.

DECLENSION.

CLASS'

VlI.

Nouns in

..n.

84. Nouns in Tt, both masculine and feminine. substitute the Vriddhi letter vit for the final before the three terminations of the nominative case and that of the accusative dual. They substitute ~ for the final before the terminations of the accusative singular and plural. Before the other vowel termina,.. tiQns Wt becomes ~ by rule of Sandhi S' except before and 1R{_, which reject the initial 'W of~, and consequently the final of the base is unchanged.

1ft 'a cow!

nom. ~ ace. lTi instl".7Al data ~ abl, lit: gen. ~ ~
'lIl'r. l'£'r.

~ ~

Ioe.

l'1f.t

1Ai
~

85. In the neuter the final is changed to v, as ~ 'f!i , pastUl";'near the cow;' which is declined like neuters in 'S'. a. Here also authorities differ as to the alternative of inflecting the neuter optionally as the masculine in the instrumental and other cases singular, ~ or ~ &c.: the former is to be preferred.
C:t.AlJs VIII.

Nouns in ......

86. Nouns in .wt, masculine and feminine, are strictly regular, as in tht! example already given of ott • navis,' 'a the neuter the final becomes ~; as ~ d ' th~ water beyond the boat;' ~, .fi.~;ft,fd1P'h &c •. . a. The nouns that 'end in diphthongs are not numerous. To the preceding may be added 1ft mf. 'heaven,' and Tc?i m, ; the moon:

~;

in

NOUNS ENDING

IN CONSONcANTS.

49

SECTION· II .. Nouns ending in consonanb,.

87. Nouns ending in consonants may ulso be conveniently

arranged according to the classification of the letters by analogy of artieulation ; distinguishing further those ending \'!lith the nasals, semivowels, sibilants, and with ~, as constituting separate classes. 88. Nouns ending in consonants modify their finals before the inflectional terminations, agreeably to the rules of Sandhi: thus a hard consonant is optionally changed to a soft when it is final, that is, in the nominative singular: absolutely, before the terminations of the dual and plural beginning with ~. A soft consonant must be changed to It hard consonant before~. Before the terminations beginning with vowels they are unchanged, as they are then no longer' considered final letters, 89. Whatever other special mceufications the inflective base may undergo, they are, with a few exceptions, confined to the first five inflections; that is, to the nominative in the three numbers, and the accusative in the singular and dual. Whatever form the word assume before the termination of the accusative plural} i.~ preserved before all subsequent terminations beginning with vowels. 90. The illflectional terminations are attached unchanged to the final consonant of tbe base: the only seeming irregularity is the rejection of ~ as the termination ef the nominative singular; bur. this is the result of the rule, that of a. final conjunct consonant the last member shall be rejected. (See rule 35. 91. As the inflectional terminations are unchanged, there is, of course but one form for' both masculine and feminine nouns. In the neuter gender the terminations of the two first cases dual and plural are changed, as after nouns ending in vowels, to ~ and ~, and 'l is prefixed to the last consonant of the base.

the

50
CLASS

DECLENSION.

I. Nounsrenrung in the gutturals

li!, i1Iif, IT, 1f.

92. There is no peculiarity in the declension of these nouns: their inflexion is conformable to the rules of Sandhi. The final of the nominative may be either of the unaspirated letters,~ or "'{; thus~,' omnipotent; makes ~ or ~; and l\i~ft'JlI!I;., ~a painter,' makes also flt4?tfC"S~ or~. Before the vowels the termination of the base is unchanged, as ~, f"iafC"S"'. Before II the final must be the un aspirated soft consonant, ~,r"'afw~. Before the "" of" the unaspi, rated hard consonant must be placed, Qi:tr~t, f"(i4fC"S~; or 'the ~ibilant being changeable after a guttural to 1f~ the form may be Qi~~~, or in the compound letter, ~. In the neuter, the nominative and aceusative forms are, ~ or ~ ~

f\J~f('lS~ or "'{

f'4iij~f('lS~

«{r*f'1: fqfC"Sf\f
'!ii, _, if,

CI... II. Nouns ending in the palatals \SS

)'1(:

93. Nouns ending in a palatal commonly substitute ~ for the

final before the inflectional terminations beginning with consonants~ which again is subject to the usual euphonic changes. ~ nom. ~orCW( ace. <rf"If 'speech.'
~
'fI"!Ir.

'who eats.'

"or~
~ ~ ~ lj5i: ~ ~&c.

instr.~
dat. ~ abl, <rfir. gen. loco ~ YDC. ~&c.

lfInlfi 'I!O'fhr.
~
-!..

'<fRl:

<rr'fd
~or~

n.~or~

lfrfiii

~ or If'V ~ ~ 94. There are several anomalies in this class, as regarding, not the inflecti~nii terminations, but the inflective base. "', , I' a, ~erlt'atives from the 'roots ll"'llt 'cut,' ~ 'fry,' ~

NOUNS ENDING

IN CONSONANTS.

51

cuts,' makes "R or ',,~, ~, "ffit., creator of the universe,' makes, nom. sing. ~ or -~, nom. dual f<l'\l1",1, nom. ace. plur, f<l"ll1;r:;instr, dual ~, loco plur, ~~; but~.' a garland: derived from the same root, makes, nom. ~ or ~, ~, tI'5I': ; instr, dual ~, locoplur, ~; and ~il:' 'blood,' is differently inflected, as will be noticed below. ~,'who cleanses/makes, nom. sing. ~ or -~, nom. dual-"lm, instr, dual -~, &c. ~, (~ being substituted for ~,) 'a worshipper of the gods; makes ~ or nom. dual W, instr, dual ~t, &c.; but W~, 'a ministering priest,' which is also derived from ~ for 1fi(. 'to worship,' is regular; nom. sing. ~ or ~. nom. dual ~> instr, dual ~mri, &0. Uif,' a ruler,' "makes, nom. sing. ~ or~, nom. dual instr, dual ~f; but ~, • a universal ruler: has this peculiarity, that when the final of u~ is changed, the short final vowel of ~ '"is made long; as, nom. sing. f<t'lQ I(I~ or -~, 110m. dual Oi '\I(I~, ace. sing. ~, instr, dual f<l'lQR(~~, &c. ~,' who shines much; makes, 110m. eing. nr~ or -~, nom. dual

'create,' ~ 'rub,' ~ 'worship,' ~ • shine,' ~ 'shine,' ~ 'go,' substitute" for their final in the' nom. sing., and before the terminations beginning with l:r and ~; that is, they are declined like nouns ending in 'If, which in those cases substitute 'l' before a hard, and $' before a soft consonant. b, ~ is further changed to ~, "who fries,' and ~ to "f"'{. 'who cuts,' before the terminations beginning with consonants; they are changed to ~ and before those beginning with vowels. nom. ~or ~ ~, ~ ~ ace, ~ instr, ~f ~: ~~ ~ .... dat. ~ abi. ~ gen. loco ~

"i'St,

,'5fu

,.~

~, m. ~,'

·C.

So ~,

'who

~m m

~<r~,

:am,.

II 2

DECLENsm;s' •

~, instr; dual ~; but this is a derivative from the "' root, which is marked fin the lists of radicals, as ~-llrif' 'Ihere is another root, ~ 'to shine,' without the prefix ~. and its derivatives are regular; as, nom. sing. ~ or ~, nom. dual f~). instr, dual ~,&c. llflcml{,' a mendicant,' , an errant; makes, nom. sing. ~ or -~, nom. dual -qft:imit,
instr, dual
'q~,

95. Derivatives from roots ending in " or i{. formed by adding the affix technically termed 'fu,\, insert a nasal before the final in the first five inflexions; as, ~~, 'who joins; from ~, 'join,' makes, nom.~, ~1,~:; ace.~,~; in the rest it is regular, ace. plur, "[if:. instr, sing. ~, instr. dual ~, loco plnr, 'Wit. It is regular throughout in composition; as~, a constellation 80 named, makes, nom. ~ or-1I:" ~,~. ~ also, if derived from ~, is regular; as ~~ 'one who meditates;' nom. ~ or ~, &c. a. ~,' a curlew,' retains the nasal throughout: as, nom, ~ "' 1ti!; instr, ~'5iT, ,~, ~; loco plur, ~ or

'\

&c.

'~.

,~. "P'

96. Derivations of ~

in the sense of ' broing: compounded

with p.positions and with certain other words, are very irregular. . They are,
JmiI'-,

eastern.
western. northern,

fiZi"ii:a, moving all round.

~ ~ ~ moving equally. moving with. moving crookedly.
~ C

~ ~

~ southern. Which are thus infkcted : .~ •eastern.' nom.~ ~T

western.'
li'ilN:

ace.

instr.~ dat. lIR abl, ~

'A'iiA: Jmfhr.

'gen. Ioc. 'IffN

NOUNS

ENDING

1:'4 CONSONANTS.

58

a. They form the feminines by' dropping the nasal, and adding the termination ~, as In''<fl', ~, and are declined like ~. The neuters are regular; as, nom. and ace. ~, lIT"!IT, the rest like the masculine. ~ is declined like ~. ~ substitutes ~ for the antepenultimate before the accus, plur, and following vowel terminations; as,~, ~, ~. ~k, ~'r.cIl, &c. Those derivatives also in which the semivowel 1.1' occurs, change it to i:, analogoualy to the similar change in ~. ~ is changed to f~ before the vowel terminations beginning with the accus, plur.

m-; ~. ~, ~;

nom.~
aec, ~

instr, fin::t!aT dat. ftR::ii abI. ~ gen. loco fift:f\s

h. When the derivatives are from a similar root, but which

has a different meaning, namely, ~ 'to worship,' theffoUow the rules of Sandhi only; that is, "-f is rejected when final, and before a consonant, when also the palatal nasal becomes, the guttul'al; as, ~ 'who worships:' sing. nom. ~, ace. 'JiTlIi, instr, lfI'lIiC, dat. abl. and gen. llr.w:, loco mflsi; dual. nom. • anti ace. ~. instr. dat, and abl, ~. gen. and loco 1fT"5i'r. ; plur, nom. and ace. 1if5iI'!, instr, lf~M:. dat.·an,s:i abl, ~, gen. 'JWiIf, loco ~,. Fem. sing. nom. ~, ~, ~:; neut, nom. and ace, ~, lfPiit, mf\Ir. 97. There are not many nouns ending in "1:, but they foilow the model of W1l &C. before the consonants, and optionally change 11( to ~ before the vowels r thus ;eiAI~, 4 who asks an; makes,

m,

nom. ~ or -~ ace. dJ.mi or ~

;eaAn;' or-~

;ei'Jmlr. or -mv.

DleCLENSlON.

instr, ~dMI'liU or -~ dat, ~or~~ abl, ~'irm!r. or ~lfI'$

~.:a:rt

,*,iiU~~

gen.
loco
~iitlfit

<ailmil: or-~

or-~

98, lfif. 'to sacrifice,' when compounded with the preposition 'WIt, Jeui5thens its penultimate vowel before the vowel inflectional terminations, and is declined a noun ending in lJ before the consonants, as if it was an imperfect noun , supplied in part by the obsolete noun ~. Thus~, , an inferior worshipper,' makes, nom. ace. instr, dat. abl. gen. loco ~ ~
'i!I~:qliill .q:ql;ft iiNi.1q!lit:

~ ~

"<uur,,,
~or~&c.

99. ~, 'a lame man; drops, agreeably to the rules of combination, the last member of its conjnnct, when final, or when followed by a consonant: hence, sing. nom. ~, instr. dual ~; plur, ~ loco plnr, ~. Before the vowels there is no change; ~. Q!, ~, &C. 100. ~, ' str~m~' may reject one '!if before n pause or a consonant, but is in other respects regular: sing. nom. ~ or. ~, ace.~, instr, w.dtr; dual instr. ~; plur, inatr, ~., loc: ~,&C. neuter plural may be ~ or '<'JI'f\t; but in composition with 111, 'much,' the nasal, if inserted, muet "precede the final consonant; as, plur, nom. and ace•.~ or ~ 'very strong.' 101. ~, 'blood,' a neuter noun, optionally borrows its inflexions in the aecus, plur, and fonowing cases from an obsolete noun, ~, which is inflected like other nouns in ~.

The

NOUNS ENDING

IN CONSONANTS.

nom.~ ace. instr, ~or~ dat. ~orri abl, ~ or gen. loco ~or~
CLASS

~ ~or~
'iAr.

-or~

~or~ ~:or~ ~ or "miri ~or~

'i', <:'.

~or~

II.

Nouns ending in cerebrals, or t, <f,

102. Nouns terminating in these ietters do not, as far as is yet known, occur; but 'Z and 'g are used as the substitutes of nouns ending ill If. The first, as a hard consonant, is changed optionally when final, and absolutely before the inflexions beginning with ?if, to 'g.
CLASS
o

IV. Nouns terminating in the dentals,

7f, 'Ill. ~,\T.

108. Nouns terminating in consonants of the dental class

are for the most part regular, being subject to no other changes

than those which the laws of Sandhi require. The final the nominative is either the unaspirated hard or soft letter 7f or ({; before 1I it is the soft G; and before ~ the n'ard consonant if; as in the following paradigmas of ~ 'green: 'Wfi"'iI"( 'one who kindles fire,' 1ii'fl' a bun's hump,' ~ , fuel.' ~ mfu. ufi .."" mfn. CII~ f. ':!rl'~ f. ·8. nom. ~ or -~ .. (h'6H( or -~ ~ or -<r ~ or-~ -acc. ~ w~ .~ ~ - inst, ~ ",110''''''1 ~ ~ &c. d.inst.&e. '{ftiaf .. fhl ..wi ~ ~ &c. pl. inst. ~ wfT.;r~ ~ - loco ~. '\lip .... ., 'CIIPJ lrf.r~

i;
'

~m:

The neuter form of the two first is in the nom. and IlCC~ 1 ~ or -~, ~, '{ft:f.w; 'WP"'''i\:_ or -~, 'll!ffiijfillit, ",fh'l+lf.,,; .but ~, 'who cuts much,' and similar derivatives, do not insert the nasal in the plural; as, ~ or _~, ~, ~.

56
C

DBCLBNSION.

a. ~. a tooth,' an~ "f'!:. • an army,' are considered as optionally substituted fol'~. and ~; as, sing. nom. ~ or ~ or~, act'. 'fi or ~, infltr. ~ or ~; dual instr. &c. ~or~,&c. h. So~, • a foot: is the optional substitute for ~ in ali cases. and ab$Olutely for ~ in composition, but ouly in the secus. plnr, and subsequent <:alSeS bt>.ginning with vowels; as, sing. nom. ~ or ~ or ~., ace. ~ or ~, instr, ~ or 1tit-t ; dual iustr. &c. uf, ~, &c.: but "Ulllql~, 'tiger-foot,' a plant so named, makes, nom. "41 ill q Iil_ or -~, ..nllq(~, ~:; aeo, lOIt(iiql~, IOIt(IQIIW{t. liIiuUql!t!; instr, 1II41IitCH~r, 1II4l1Ntlli, 1IIIl1T 'III'flr.. &c. In like manner, ~ J (the heart,' is a substitute for

~;

nom. '" or~,~,~, &C. 104. ~, • the sple ':en; and ~, 'oroure/ neuter nouns, are declined analogously to ~; that is. they optionally substitute in the accusative plural and subsequent cUes the inflexions of obsolete nouns ending in " as ~ and ~.,

nom.1ff'\
ace. instr, ~ or dat. ~or~
1QIiI'

qiit

~
-o:r~ ~or~ ~or~

abl, ~or.
gen.

Ioc, ~or~
So~or~,~or~&c. a. ~, ' who kn~ws,' changes. its initial to \I whenever it changes its fuial to the nnaspirated Jetter, tllat is, in the now. '. native singular, nne! before toe in1lectional terminations beginning with a consonant. nom. ~ or~ instr. 1'1T loe, plut. ft &co 105. Besides noUDSof a general character ending in dentala, there are certain declinable participles ending in '4IIIit. and

NOUNS ENDING

IN CONSONANTS.

57

'Ifi(_, and certain possessive nouns end~ in ~ and 1fi'(_, which undergo some modification of the inflective base before the terminations of the nominative, and before the accusative singular and dual. In all the other cases they are regularly declined like other nouns ending in 1{; that is, the vowel , affixes are attached to the final; 11' is unaltered before ~, and becomes ~ before J1'.O 106. These participial and possessive nouns prefix an if to their final if. before the terminations of the five first inflexions: thus ~, c cooking,' becomes If'II1'i'(. Those ending in ~ or ~ also make the penultimate long in the nominative, and accordingly ~ becomes ~ having done:' hut by the rule that the second member of a final conjunct consonant is to be rejected, the final if. is thrown out, and the words remain in the nominative singular~,~. Before the vowels the compound is unchanged, ~, ~, &c.: .thus,
C

•
nom. ~

~
~

'going.'
~ ~

'having gone: ~ 2fiAllr.

So ~

'having wealth, wealthy;' nom.~ ace. ~ instr.~&c ~ •

masc,

~ ~

• ana ~
o

'having prosperity, prosperous;' mase, 0nom.~ ~ ~

ace. ~ '1ftq: &c •

~.

To form the feminine gender of these nouns, ~ is added to; the termination, and noun is declined like ~; as, 2fiRiIl, ~,~. The neuter is regular; as, ~t ~J.
. 4.

the

b. Participles of the present tense formed with ~ sometimes retain the nasal augment in the feminine noun thro~out, and in the nominative and accusative dual of the neuter;

as ~ makes ~, ~. ~, &.c. the feminine; and in the neuter, ~, ~~ ~. c. This insertion of the nasal is in the present participles of all verbs of the first, and tenth conjuga:tions, and optional in those of the sixth. It is optionally inserted after verbs of other conjugations, wbich either in their simple form or in their conjugational bases end 'with .. or .." It is not inserted after any others.
Verb. Part. pres. masc,

Few.

IStconj. zd _

~tobe {~to

~ eat ~ ~

3d _
4th -

J ~ to sacrifice;} 1 repeated, 11
~ to play {" to bear; with} increment 11

~to shine

m
"-"\'

~
'If:a'Ir

5.-

th

6th 7th 8th 9 .....

Ff to torment
~ to obstruct {r.:r.to stretch; merement

m
~
w;:r.r

..

th _

{1tincrement 'Jihrr ~_ ....'\ to buy; With}

1t to steal
~

i'I1I

with}

.. - .. ,

loth -

'II11(~1ift

So in the nominative and accusative dual of the neuter,~;

~,~or~,&c.
of the present tense of verbs which take a reduplicate form, even though the erode verb originally terminates in .. or ~ do not insert an 'if before their 6.nal i{_, but are declined like nouns in general ending in that consonant; as 'I.~ give: , part. pres. ~; masc, nom. . ~ ~ o,v or ~, G~RI, '~; ace.~,~, ~; instr.~, ~, &c.: feme sing. nom, ~; neut, nom. ace. dual ~; plur, ~ or ~. _ e. There are certain other verbs which are ,analogously ~rrl,1ected in their present. participles; as, 'IiRr 'to eat iI'Ifi\, ~,1I'Ufr.,-&c.: ~'govern;' ~,~,~, &c.
d. The p~ciplC$

NOUNS

ENDJNG

IN

CONSONANTS.

59

when a term of address. 9Jf C Sir,' , Your worship,' is declined amongst the pronouns. u. ~ 'a deer,' ~ 'the world,' and .c great; are declined like participles in the three numbers of the nominative and in the accusative singular and dual; in the rest they are regular.

f. ~,

nom·{E
ace,

{5
1J1i'iIT
~ ~&c.
'\

instr.

107. ~ 'great,' makes its penultimate long before the first five inflexions of the masculine, and that of the two first cases plural of the neuter; as, nom.~ ace, ~ instr. ~ Fem, ~; ~

neut. nOM. and ace, ~,

~,

~.

a. Nouns of every description ending in dentala are numerous; of which the following are a few.
Substantives. Attributives.

f. a sacred treatise n, a lotus ~ -.; mf, a cannibal ~ x f. a stone ~ f. rst day anUual:' fortnight \~m.wind ~ f. lightning ~ f. autumn. ~ ~. wealth, ' ~ f. agreement

who or what mIls fi( who er what is or abides ~ who speaks 1f'1f who or what churns " ~ what torments, ,~who sends or driv:es ~ who or what breaks ~ who or what knows. ~

~ who or what gathel'8,

'JIl: who

or what, c,uts

I~

60
P~i'l'eII.

~
~

long-livecl lotu!wlI
sensible

\ft'I1(. abounding ill

~ ~ ~ ~

dependant having childnm having form mQjeatic, divine

lin!'
~ ~ ~
~i

~{amous ~ prolilperoU~

having elegnnre
V.
NOUJI!§

\ CLA$cS

(mdinK iu

•• "

'111', ~, Ulod

108. These, which are few iu ~I'Y' part regular. The nominative iu " of l(. remains before the 'Vowel tenninltionll, ami i'll 'Ilf
11'

'11u'

before 1;
ace. &~

'"1'&; ft.

'Tf' 'J'it, ~;
ace• ..",

rut

;R • who pr~rvel:'

n4m. 1fIif, W'

lit' ~ •

imrtr. ~, ~. ~ .. ; 'a quarter oftbe noril',()n:1 n()m. 'III!'q'

.pt,~;

plur. "41\'. 109. There is one iMgular noun in •~ declinable only in the plural numbt'n plur •• \itm. ~~ "'~f, "I'Ir., in&tr • .., dat. and abl. .. , ~n. ~~ In composition it may be decliru:d ,; u, .,_, from 'I 'good,' and.." • "'It ..,,' • make-, wmi. sing. ~ or 1!11{. bl)m. thud ri. n~m~. plut. ~ instr. ~ ...t, Joe. plnr. ~

.'

1Pfr.. iMLr. ~,

~i

;;

'watB:

VI. Noun. end.ing in llUa!l, '1'1 tr••• 1If. Jr, ,., o. Of words term.inating in n_$ Uu: tw~ n no instances are 1m.own, and but few are met 1t'ith an ~. ' TheY are quite regWar, hu.t ma,. optionlill inllwrt r l~(f~", 1; as ~ • of' a good clBllfU· nom. ~f ~. ~ • &c.. d:oal~; loco pluto ~ or~. ~ r, ".
CLASS

NOUNS ENDING

IN CONSONANTS.

61

111. Nouns ending in ~ are numerous, and present many peculiarities. They may be divided into two orders; one ending in ~, the other in ~. Nouns ending in ..,_.

112. When regularly inflected, nouns in Wi( drop the final in the nominative singular, and before the terminations beginning with consonants; and in the masculine and' feminine genders they make the penultimate letter long before aU the terminations of the nominative, and those of the accusative singuIa.r and dual: the vocative singular is unchanged. Thus ~, ' soul: is declined as follows: nom. "Il!I"IlIrf 'l1li li'ii ioff ~: aec, ~ instr.~ ~ ~
dat. !~~ &e~.. . loco ~ voc. ~. If:i~'h '. . ' In<the neuter fomll(ll~_b:~~'in~ long only, agreeably to general rule, in the plural; w1tere however a nasal is not inserted before a nasal; ~ • Brahroa,' 'the Supreme;' nom. ace. 'inI', ~. ~; nor is the vowel made long~fore a double consonant, as ~ ~ 'the heart; plur, ~. . II3. In these two examples, ~ and ~, the final ~ is preceded by a conjunct consonant, of which the final letter is 1{. If the last of such conjunct be <t, the noun is Gimilarlyinflected; as ~ 'a sacrifieer r" nom. 't('iiT, ~Jt "~; ace.~, ~, ~:, &c.: but if no compound of which 1{ or <t is the final member precede: then in the aecusative plural and following cases, of 'which the terminations begin with vowels, the penultimate 'Ii!t is~rejected~ and the "antepenultimate and final coalesce; as ~ 'a king:' nom. 'U$Il, ~, ~; acc.~,~, U{f; instr, ~r, ~, ~; voc, ~, &C. In the locative sing. the rejection is optional, as ~ or~. a. The s~me takes place before the feminine affix ~; as utft

DECLENSION.
<i

,a queen:' and optionally before the neuter dual; as ~ , the sky:' nom. ace. 'lIq\1f, wmtt or ~, ~. h. When a noun ending in Vif. is derived from a root ending in ~ or ". preceded by ~, ~, or ... , the vowel is made long before the conjunct consonant of'the accusative plural, !lte.; as qr(f~'1i( 'who sports:' ace. q~"t;f, ~~14l, nom. qrd~liC'l', q~'nii1'~ qAAIIfI":; qft~I:; instr, qft~ftt. ~,

c. ~,a name of Indra, may substitute ~ for its final, and be declined like a noun in 'ifi\; as, nom. ~, ~,
~; ace. ~. ~, ~, &0.: but it is also declinable as a noun in ;: when it changes its semivowel ';f to l' before the vowel terminations of the aceusative plural and following cases, and '«'r is substituted for ~ and the,,*, of lIAj in the other cases it is declined like ~; as, nom. 1ilI'lifT ilfillliii.rt ~
ace. ~

qftf<llf~, &c.

~:
~ loc.~

instr, 1f«it;n dat,

m
~

voc,

. d. "''""'it, 'a dog,' and ~~, • a youth,' are declined so f~ analogously to,~, that they change ll" to 11' before the accusative plural and the following cases, of which the terminations begin with vowels. In 'lIIrit the If is of course merely subjoined to the ~; in ~~ it is preceded by the If of 1, and consequently the two short vowels combine into one long one-, they then follow the. analogy of ~, as by rule r 13. and reject the penultimate 'IIl!:; in consequence of which, 1f or '" immediately precedes the final Of. lill'Of, K!J(flll, 'canis; • a dog:' nom. "'iT,~, ace.~, ~): ~:~ im'ltr.lfI1"~' ~; dat, ~, ~,&c. ~,' juvenis,' • it youth;' nom, ~, ~. ~; ace.~, 'g~j, 1fi:; instr, 1flt, ~,

m;

~:;

&t.~, ~t.

&c.

e. ~,' the sun,' is irregular in not making the penultimate long before the terminations of the nominative dtill.! and

NOUNS ENDING

IN

CONSONANTS.

plural, and accusative singular and du~l; in the rest it follows ,~; its 'l. is changed to ~ by virtue ef the 1: in ~. nom. ~
ace, ~

ri~'~:
~

instr.~ loco ~
voc, ~

~ or
'l!!tutJlr(ll

~
~

~,

Compounds with ~, 'to kill: follow the anal~gy of i. e. they do not make the vowel long in the nom. dual, &0. They also change l' to 11' before the vowel terminations of the accusative plural, and following eases, in which also the penultimate vowel is' rejected: and accordingly the antepenultimate and fina~ consonants combine. ~, nom.~
ace. ~
'i1Qr

f.

• the murderer of a Brahman.' ~ ~

instr,
dat.

m &0.
~ ~:

g. ~, ' the sun: is inflected after the model of ~ ; but in the accusative plural, and analogous cases, an j,plperfect noun, ~, is optionally substituted.

nom.~
ace, ~

instr.~or~ ~ dat.' ~ or ~ &c.

h. ~, • a horse,' belongs to nouns in 'WO'I' in one case "only, the nom. sing.: in all the rest it is declined like a noun in il;" or~; as, nom.
ace.

'WiT
~

~
~

instr.~ dat, ~&c.

If compounded with a negative, and used attributively, it is 'declined regularly as a noup .ending in ." preceded by a

conjunct conwnant, o~ whleh the last member is 1f; as ~one who hal not a horse:' nom. ~, ..,il<ii't, ~; ace. ~, \lI~i!;ift, 'fAi;r:; instr, ~, .~itqf, lite.

"Ir.tt.t

114. ~ nent., ' a " ia very irregnlar. 8Ubstituting ~ for the final in tho nomhm.tiv(l sin,h'1dnr ami loon.til·oplural) and ~ to with short vowel ~ before ll. In the other C&$i't$ it confi)rms to ~; as,

nom,}
3(:C.

. '1q:

01' ~

instr.

&t. 30M.
gCll.

'Il!l .j
~

'Wi,tAri

~:

loco

.tior~.ii

a. Compcunded numerals, with 11r, or with ~,,,,! is substituted before an terminatious, and is declined like a noun ending in .; ali ~ • the afternoon:' ~:,~, ¥C4UII:, &c.: but in the locative ease singular these com- pounds take different forms ; as~. ~ or OQI4tltf"l. 1.1. Compounded with other words, 1I!il!"l, is declined in the mascullile and feminine like other nouns in .... , except before the terminations of the dual and pluml that bcglll with )i, where it substitutes ~ for "l; m; ~ 'n long day;' nom.~, (I~tl.a, <Uiuu .. :; ace. t1' iliiEl;:f,(lih~t~, ~. in..tt.~, ~,~; dat.. ~. &c.; Ioe, sing. ~ or~, plur. ~lf or ~"Hhi(!" voc, ~, &c. '
\

Nouns in~. 115. Many WSSCSSlVC nouns are formed with the affixes ~, ~, and ~; as, ~ 'having wealth;' opulent;' ~ 'having a staff,' 'iUl ascetic ,' ~ 'having devotion: 'a 8evotee;' ~ 'having speech,' , eloquent: all of which are declined on one model. They reject the "ii{. before tbe conSOnants; retain it before the vowels; and make the p~nultimate of the base long in the nom. singular; in aU the other cases

NOUNS ENDING

IN

CONSONANTS.

the inflectional terminations are added, without any cl'llmge, to the final of the base: ~ ~ mfn, t rich.' masc, nom. ace. 1Ift:r;i insk.~ dat. m&c.
voe, ~

"*

~
~

~
~

Ioc.~

The feminine affixes ~, as ~, and is declined. like The neuter is regular; nom. ace. ~, ~, ~. 116. There are three irregular nouns of this elass; 'a road,' ~ 'a churning stick,' and ~ a name Indra, These substitute. 'Wf for the final syllable- before affix of the nominative singular. and for '!t before aftixes of the nominative, and those of the accusative singular and dual. Before the vowel terminations the aceusative plural and other cases they reject the final syllable altogether ~ before the consonants they reject the '9:' They retain 1\1 of the nom. sing. The two first also prefix a nasal to the consonant 111', before the first five inflexions; viz. those of the nominative, and the singular and dual accusative; as ~ • a path,' - a roatlr.' nom.~ ~ ~: ace. 1Pmi instr. '1AT dat. ~ &c.
voc, ~

makes ~., ~"', ~, ~i &c. Compounded with other words, these ate declined in the masculine in the same manner as the uncompounded word: in the feminine the final syllable is rejectett, and the affix • ia added to the antepenultimate consonant: in the neuter "' is rejected in the singular and dual, and prefixed. to ~ . before the plural: as ~, 'having a good road,' mUelJ, mase, ~, &c.; fem. ~, ~, &c.; neat. nom. and

So ~

ace.~,~,

,,""''IIIP.,.

66
~ ~,

DECLENSION.

makes, nom.~,~,~; acc.~, 'iIffl'!l!; instr, ~~, W'Sf.:ql, &c. 117. Nouns ending in , are few: before the consonantal terminations it is changed to 'i{_; as ~ 'mild,' , quiet, 'makes, nom. ~" ~l, ~lr.,:; in8tr.~,~,~; loco plur, ~i'! or (r. J7.) li~~.
CLASS

VII.' Nouns ending in semivowels,

1f,

t.,

CiS, If.

118. Nouns ending in , and ~ are of rare occurrence: if

they occur, they are regular. 119. Nouns derived from verbal roots ending in ~ or" make a preceding vowel long before the inflectional terminations which begin with consonants, ~ is changed to Visarga in the nominative singular; but not before the locative plural, if it be a radical letter. ~ followed by a vowel, as in ~, is not doubled after g, Thus m~ fern. ' speech;' nom. 7ft:, Pro, f,,~; ace, fiti, m,U, f7R:; instr. f1fU, 7ft'~, ~:; loco plur. 7ftt. Nouns ending in semivowels do not insert a nasal before the neuter plural. ~ n., 'water,' makes, nom. and ace, "fro, ~J m; instr, "!fro, lITdri, ~, &c. ,a. ~, 'sky,' changes '!'f to '1ft in the nominative, and to l' before the consonantal terminations. The ~ of ~ becomes 1i_ by the rules of Sandhi. ~1(_ f. ' sky:' nom. 11"1:, ~it, ~ j ace. ~, ~, ~'!'f:; instr. ~lfT, ,l7Cff, ~; lac. plur, ~. b. Used attributively, as in ~1l'" 'having a clear .skyJa day),' the neuter form is, nom. and ace, ~ ~1ft, ~; the rest like the ~asculine.
CLASS

VIII.

Nouns ending in sibilants, ~,

'If, 1r.

~.
120. Nouns formed from verbal roots ending in ~, with the affix technically termed ~, substitute for the final the guttural letter ~ before all the -tenninations beginning with consonants; as ~~ f. 'space.'

NOUNS ENDING

IN

CONSONANTS.

67

nom. ~~ or~ ace. ~~ instr. ft;~

loc. ~

~&c.

~ When formed with any other affix, it is said that 1{, is substituted for the final; and for" the cerebral ~ is substituted in the same cases. ~ nom. ~ ace. ~ instr, ~ loe.~ (~) or ~ 'who enters.' ~ ~~: ~ or ~. ~, ~.

fiIIv.
&e. ~

neuter nom. and ace, ~

a. "",,, 'who or what destroys,' takes either form. , nom. ~-~or~-~ ace. ~ • in8tr.~ lac. ~
h.

~ ~or~

~ ~or~ .,.... or ~
"'\ '\ 'Uo",{,\,

sees,' with its compounds trlll, 'ifI'P. ~nr, 4 such-like,' 'similar,' take the guttural substitute: f!!Po do the derivatives of ~ 'to touch;' ~ or 'IfT!T(" ~1, 1'I'1lroT, ~, &c.: so ~ 'who touches Ghee;' ~ or -'t., ~, ,it€L!~!I,~. &c. c. ~ , may be substituted for f;nm 'night,' and is then • declined like ~r; , according to some, a palatal may be substituted for the cerebral before the oopsonants, except in the nominative singular; as ~ or ~, or ~.
,

n 'who

r~

'If.

121. Nouns ending in " are inflected in one of three ways; I. by substituting ~ for the final before the consonaotal inflexions; 2. by substituting ~ in the similar cases; and .3. by substituting before the same inflexions 'ru' or ~. x.~

DECLENSION.

The substitution of ~ is considered the :regullU' form. of inflecting verbal derivative forms in ,; as f., 'light,' from ~ 'to shine.'

fr:oI,

nom. ~
ace. ~

or~

Instr, ~ dat, ~

&C.'

ti!2. As in the ease of nouns ending in ~, those in , formed from verbs by the affix take the guttural aubstitute ; as arrogant,' from ~ • to be proud:

m' nom. m or -'P\

ace, ~

11Ft

~
&e.

instr.

Wi'

123. In the case of ~ , a friend,' and some other words, particularly those in which the final is properly '\, but has become , in consequence of being preceded by some 9ther vowel than .. or .,. (see rule 29), ~ ~s substituted for the final before the consonantal inflexions. and the DOUM are declined like iOuns ending in ~. ~ 'a friend.' nom.~ ~
ace. dat.
6. ~

~ ~

instr.~ &0. f. ~ benedietion," a ~ ~ ~ is similarly inftecled. for ~ nom...

ace. ~

instr.~ dat. ~&c.

loe'~1or~

b. ~ for ~ 'the arm,'" besides being declined in this manner, admits before the vowel terminations of the accusative" plural and following cases the optional use of ~,declined like nouns in ~.

NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS.

nom. ~ ace. ~

instr, or ~ dat, ~or~ abI. ~:or~ gen. ~or~ ~or~ loco citN or ~ '{r.'!I or ~ It is also neuter: nom and ace. ~, ~, ~• . c. Neuter nouns with a penultimate 1( or V short, make the vowel long only before the nasal augment of the nominative and accusative plural; as, ~ 'a bow,' ~ 'the eye,' ~ 'light: ~ 'Ghee; severally for ~, ~, &0.; as, nom. and ace. ~, ~, ~; Instr, ~, ~~ ~, &c.: so, nom. and ace.~, ~, ~q; instr.~,

mr

~,~.
d. Nouns derived from the desiderative form of the verb

are-declined after this manner; as~,' one who wishes to read,' makes, mf, ~. ~, ~, &c.; neuter nom. and ace. ~, fqQf'4iift3 fqqf.sfit. It does uotinsert the nasal in the neuter plural. ~,' one who wishes to do,' rejects the sibilant before a consonantal inflexion (see rule 33); as,

~,~,~,~, &C. 124. Nouns formed from verbs ending in the. compound
reject before the consonantal inflexions either the first member of the compound or 11, and are then declined !ike nouns in ,; or they reject the second member 1(, and are declined as if ending in ~. • The same words, aeeordingly as they are said to be formed with different affixes, may take both modifications; as ~ mf. 'who or what pares' or makes thin:' no:n. sing. ~ or 'Il' .~ or ifJ'(.; instr. dual &C. ~ or ~; loco plur, ~ or ~; so~, ' a cow-keeper: makes, nom. sing. ~ or ~ ~ or -~; instr, dual &c. ~ or ~; loco plnr, ~ or ~. Before the vowels tlie final is of COW'le unchanged; as 'InIit" ~.
letter ~
C

70

DKCLENSION.

a. Nouns in ~ formed from desideratives reject the sibilant only; as ~, 'who desires to cook/ makes, ~ or -1'f., ~, ~, ~,&c. m'8.\ (who wishes to speak; ~ 'what desires to burn,' are similarly inflected. ~.

1~5. Nouns masculine and feminine ending in ~, when

preceded by., make the penultimate long in the nominative singular, and substitute ~ for the sibilant before the inflexions beginning with ~,which with a preceding. makes '\it (r. 41).

~
nom.m ace. instr, m,. dat. abl. gen. loco ~ voc, W. &c.

'Brahma.'
~

m:

m m:

a. The vowel is not made long in the nominative, if the noun retain the form of the radical whence it is derived; as, "" 'to clothe;' ~'who dresses well;' nom. sing. So 'who takes a funeral cake,' from ~ and ~ 'to take;' nom. sing. ~. b. Three masculine nouns in ~ are irregular, ~ 'time:' ~ 'the regent-of" the planet Venus,' and ~~~~r~a name of Indra. They are declined in the nominative singular as if ending in ~; ~,~,~. In the vocative the first and last are regular, ~:, ~; the second has three forms~

~:¢i:~"

wr..

~;~,~.

do not make the penultimate long in the nominative and accusative singular, but make it long ill the plural; as ~ 'water:' nom. and ace, 'tllr!, ~, ~; 'Ifl{~,~,~, &c.; 'tllr!1 or """i' 127. Nouns ending in ~ in conjunction with a consonant

1~6. Neuter nouns in ~

NOlTNS ENDING

IN CONSONANTS.

71

drop the final (by rule 36) before the consonantal inflexions; so ~ mf., ' who or what injures,' becomes, nom. ~, ~, ~:; ace, ~, ~, ~:; instr, fi!;m', ~, ~, &c. a. Derivatives from ~ and ~, 'to fall,' with the affix ~, substitute ~ for the final (which becomes ~ and ~) before the consonants, and reject the nasal throughout. ai~' who falls:' nom. ~ or ~, ~"'t, '""'!; ace, ~, UI'it, ~:; instr, mT, ~~f, iCim:, &c. , , 128. ~~, • a man,' drops the final sibilant before the consonantal inflexions; and it is otherwise peculiar in the nominative, and in the singular and dual of the accusative; as, nom.~ ~ instr. Fn dat. ~ abl. gen. loco ~f« voc, ~&c.
ace,

~
,~

'@r.
~

i«:

~:

"ft':

-rr

m,

""or"

It may be declined in three genders as an epithet; "')S , of a good man:' mf, ,~ &c.; neut. nom. and ace,

129. ~ fem., 'decay,' is an imperfect noun. and its place is supplied before the consonantal terminationa by 1P:.T ; as, nom. sing. 1Itr; dual instr, &c. ~; plur. instr, &c. 1mfi;r:, ~:, 'SRll. Before the vowel .terminationa it keeps its own final, ~, ~. ~,&c. • 180. 'I'here are some participial nouns formed with ~, which before the inflexions of the nomlnatlve/and of the singular •and dual accusative masculine, prefix a nasal to the sibilant, and make the preceding vowel long. ' In the nominative siugu~ the, is rejected, as the final of a conjunct consonant. Before the accusative plural, and following vowel inflexione, '" is changed to lJ', as also. before a feminine' formed with ~, and

1~' Wrifu·

m,

DECLENSION.

the dual neuter. The sibilant, when final (as in t1;!.e neuter singular), and before the consonantal inflexions, is changed to "i(" becoming ~ before a soft consonant. ~ mase, nom. ace. instr. dat, voc, 'who is knowing, wise.' ~ ~ ~ ~ l"l!l"~ .':s,.

~.
~

~ ~ ~

~ &0. ~

~ loco ~

fern. nom. ~

nent, n. ace. f<nnI:

'f'qifu

a. If the termination ~ be preceded by 1(. that vowel is rejected when the ~ is changed to ':if; as ~ 'who was sittingf nom. ~, ia~qiir" ;a~<iilQ.; ace. ~, ~, .. ; instr.~, ~~o:4iQi, &c.; fern. nom. sing.~; neut, nom. and ace. ~, ~"i!jiA4. 131. Superlatives formed with the termination ~ are declined in the three numbers of the nominative, and in the singqlar and dual accusative, analogously to participles in ~; .in the other cases they follow the analogY, of nouns in~; as ~ ,, most heavy.'

¥,

mase, nom. ~
ace. instr, dat, v:oc. ~ ~ ~&c. ~ ~-~ -.....
"1~.:q4t

3i:O:qi~!

~ ~ loco

JT(hr.l
".<O:qlft:l

or ~

fern. nom. ~ nent. n, ace.~

CLABS

J,:t):q'El\l!

~ IX. Nouns ending

in l"

182. Nouns ending in ~ substitute ~ for it, agreeably to rule 32: ~ undergoes the changes to which the rules of Sandhi subject it. ~'a bee,' from 1111 ' honey;' and ~ ( who or what sips" is thus declined:

NOUNS ENDING

IN

CONSONANTS.

78

nom.~or-~
ace. ~

instr.~ dat, ~

aM. ~
gen.

loco
voc,

~ I The feminine is the same as the masculine. ~ in the neuter makes, nom. and ace, ~ or -~, ~, ~. a. ~, a name of Indra, is inflected like ~, but has the peculiarity of changing ~ to 1f when the final is changed; as ~ or -~, JmITit, ~, &c. 188. Words formed with the affix ~ substitute , for fI:. final ~, which becomes ~ or l"{, agreeably to the rules of Sapdhi, before the consonantal inflexions; as ~, a metre of the Vedas. nom.~or-~ ace. ~ instr.~ <lat. ~&c.
a. Some other verbal nouns formed with the same affix

substitute either a guttural or a cerebral for the final; .mf. 'one who is perplexed.' nom. ~~
ace, ~
1$

as ~

or "-~ ~or~ ~or~

instr. ~ dat, ~ &0.

~~ •

Ioe,
Q~~

mOl'

• So ft 'one who vomits;' f'!o:r.:r' one who is kind 'F.1t ~ one G~ who hates.' ... h. But, monosyllabic verbal derivatives, ending in an aspirated soft consonant, change their initial, if it be any unaspirated soft consonant, except If, to its corresponding aspirate, whenever the final is changed, as in the case of 'f'{
L

ft

74

DEC!,ENSION.

already specified (r, 103", a.): by the same rule ~ for becomes, nom. sing. ~ or '\r\, ~ or ~; instr, dat. and abl, dual or ~; instr, plur, ~; dat, and abl. plur. ~ or 'II'ln'U':; loco plur, '1m' or 'U?"II'; in the other cases, v{t, n:, ':II"ln, '(5~-., ~, It ~<:.'

ri

burns:' ~ or \P'(" ~ or ~; ~ or' ~t &C. ~,' who or what milks,' takes the guttural substitute only, but, like the others, changes its initial. &c. So ~ 'what nom. ace. instr, dat, ~ or 'W(. ~ ~ ~ &0. ~ ~ ~

'\l"~

";'

loco ft
'S

for the first two letters in several compound nouns before the accusative plural and subsequent vowel inflexions in the masc., and before the feminine termination ~; this 'S (by rule 3. e.) makes, with a preceding ., not "!!liT; as f?41Q""~ m, 'all-sustaining.'

c. 'If'tJ', 'what bears or carries,' substitutes -c

.rr

nom. ftf1Qql~or-lIT~ "'l1!~.··"~1Q"li . . .~,_

~1lQ!(1i'

1'llI"II"i~.
ftf~
~lQlfi~1lr.

'f!stf:~t...
dat,

'.~ ,"fi:I"'''I~tqf

~ &c. loco fi4 "'''' I~~ fem, nom. sing. ~ , If the preceding vowel be not. or 'I!fT, the'S to which 1fT is changed combines with it, according to rule: thus ~'earthsustaining;' nom. ~, ~, ~; ace, plur. ~; instr: sing. W' &c. it. ~, 'Indra:' (he who is borne on a white horse,) presents several anomalies. In the nominative and vocative singular, and befere the consonantal inflexions, it is declined as if ending in ""; as~. In the accusative plural and kllowing cases with vowel inflexions it retains its final, but substitutes 'S for lIToptionally; as, nom. ~ ace. ~ instr.~or~

.ri'CI~

ADJECTIVES.

75

dat.~or~ abl.~or~: gen. loc.~or~

~or VIPr.~or~

~ri'.u@f

f., 'a slipper," substitutes 't. for the final before the consonantal inflexions; making ~ or 11~, lSqr"l.,i, 1ijqjOlfJi:, ~ql'1i1i:, ~; before the vowels, Sq'i'1i1, &c. f. ~, 'an ox; is very anomalous. In the nominative and vocative singular 'l. is substituted for the final; and in all the numbers of the nominative, and in the accusative singular and dual, 'Wf is prefixed to the final; before which, ~ regularly becomes ,. Before the consonantal inflexions ~ is changed to ~. , ~

e. ~

nom.~ ace. ~ instr, ~ dat. ~1~ &c.

~ ~:

'W"1'pri

loc.~

voe. ~ .. Compounded so as to form an epithet, this word may bl!come feminine and neuter; as ~~, 'having good cattle,' makes, fem. nom.~, neut. nom. and acc.~,~, ~."ill.

AIIIft.:A'"

~:

W .... ,

SECTION .At/jectives.

III .

134. Adjective or attributive nouns are inflected in the same -manner as substantive nouns; a.dx:nitting the three &enders, and varying as to' their inflectional terminations according to their proper finals, agreeably to the rules already: ~ gwen for the inflexions of nouns. 135. Adjectives admit the variations of degree. in other languages, as comparatives and superla .0;'",· regular, they are formed by adding to the i

L~

76

DECLENSION.

terminations n and 'R'4f (technically called ~ and ~): in the former which we have the Greek Tepos-, and in the blUer an approximatiol~ to T'aT~ and the' timms' of theLatin, Thus, ~boly ~ eloquent

ptt
~

m.ore

holy

more eloquent

~mo8tholy. ~ most eloquent.

lit

e, Before affixes a finnl ~ is rejected, and the final of the participial affix 'IIIA1: is changed to ~; as, ~

fI1nA'

young

..riser

~ ~

youngest.
wisest.

h. The ~me affixcl!~ a import, are added to some particles; all ~, • more than,' ~ and ~ , still more' or • moat:' and ruthough different etymologies are assigned to n't: ~, which, other meanings, denote degrees excellence, or 'better,' • best/ they are !Dost probably formed from ~ 'up,' with the terminations of the comparative and superlative degrees. c.! ~ terminations are sometimes added to substantive nouns; as, ~ 'a king;' ~. more a king;' ~'most a king.' iI. When added to feminine nouns in ~ or .. , the finals may be made short; as, 'frInn: or 'Ififtm: ' more fortunate;' i\riPi or ~ , most fortunate.' .e. The same terminations, with the syllabIc ~ added, givea comparadve and ~lIuperlative force to tIle I>eraonal inflexions of verbs; 8.$, ~ 'he talks;' If@ifllil:U~ 'he tulks more than he ought;' llI&fiiliiil'l:, 'be talks withQut stint or measure.' IS6. Attributives formed with in: and lI1'{ are declined in three genders like other nouns in 'IllI', and like them offer-a marked resemblance to Latin attributives in ' us;' as ~,

~,~,&c.

137. Attributives of comparison are ahw formed with the affixes ~ and ~, which are analogous to the II'KlII and "J"T0Il

ADJECTIVES.

of the Greek; the former properly denoting the comparative, the Jattel" the superlative; although the distinction is not alwayS carefully observed. Those which are formed with ~ are declined like nouns in .; those with ~ in the manner explained under nouns ending in ~ (see rule Itp). They take the three genders; as, ~'strong;' ~ 'stronger,' nom., .I(;shn~,ijC'£i<j(ft, ~; ~'strongest,' 'I!ffta:, ~, "II'fcri, &c. Q. These affixes have the effect of causing, as in the example given, a final vowel to be dropped. ~ rejects its own ., and consequently the vowels ~ and ~ are attached at once to the consonant; so~,' eloquent,' makes ~ and 1ifa.' If the word be a monosyllable, however, the final" is not rejected, and the usual change by Sandhi takes place; as W for fi;rtr, 'dear,' with ~ and ~ makes ~, 1m; and " for ~, 'excellent/ ~. ihI. They also cause the elision of.the possessive affixes~, 'i(, ~, and of l! when an affix forming nouns of agency; so~,' having sense/ ( sensible,' becomes ~ 'more sensible,' IIfinr 'most sensible;' ~, ' 'possessed of intelligence,' makes ~ 'more intelligent,' irt\nr ' most intelligent;' ~, 'having wealth; , rich,~ ~ 'richer,' ~ 'most rich;' ~ from 1 'to do,' 'an agent,' 'active,' ~ 'more' or ' very active,' "<fift::1r ' most active.' b. The affixes ~ and 1{lf are attached, however, JIlost commonly to modifications of the original noun, or to what "are considered as substitutes for it, and which are never used singly, although possibly in some cases they are the proper originals become obsolete. The followiDg is a list of the principal instances.
Primitive. Substitute. when compounded. Comparative. Superlative.

~near ~ little, young

~large

{:
'I!K

~ ~ ~

~ ~

1IIfinr
~

~.

78
~thin

ftIrst quick
~ small 01' mean ~heavy "P' content ~long F distant nfinn ~large

'ifq ~

1'R 1!!f'I.t

D£CLENSION.

~ ~

tt1\~'ht4\

itm
~

1Tft:r
~

m
~ ~
lt1If

~ ~ llii~hH'l ~ ~

mm

qn:a~ht'l'l

nlarge
~ excellent

{:n
q
'If

~dear lit much ~much ~ soft 1'"( young

1lfI'I' heavy
."

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~

itt
~ ~ ~

..
1ri'rr
~ ~ ~

{:
{:
'?(
1.IIlf

~ ~

,~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~excellent f\IIrt firm, stable ~ gross, bulky ft:qjt much FI short

'lfflhr
~

~ ~ F'

(lqtftq\

:~

~ ~

lV,

Fa

c. "all, 'much,' may substitute If'' and is anomalous in the first form, as ~, ~. d. Occasionally the regular terminations are superadded to these superlatives to imply excess in a still greater degree; "8S, ~ 'more excellent ~'most excellent,' 'most best.'

PRONOUNS

AND

PRONOMINAL

:NOUNS.

79

SECTION

nr..

Pronouns and P7'onominal Nouns.

138. Pronouns and certain other nouns are classed together, as agreeing in some peculiarities of inflexion, by which they are distinguished from all other nouns. The list commences with the distributive pronoun mi • aU;' whence they are called d~ or Sarva and others. 189. Besides the meaning' all; d is a name of S'iva, and in that sense it is declined like any other noun in 1111'; but when it is a pronominal noun it differs from its regular inflexion in the following respects: nom. plur. dat. sing. abl. sing. locosing. gen. plur, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ is substituted for 'Wr:, as ~ for ~ -~ - 'dN 'lff~-i]j~I~ - ~

m-

fir - ~i~ or -;Qftm( -

Vi' vimf

140. After the feminine form 1ifiy, ~ is prefixed to the .. terminations of the dative, ablative, genitive, and locative singular; and the final of the inflective base is .made short • In the genitive plu~l ~ is prefixed to .~. !,

...

11f'
Masculine. nom.

all: Feminine.

d:
~ ~ ~

ace. ~ instr.~
dat. abl. gen. loco

~ ~

q '\ q,. 'riT;: \ mti if: 11flfT

~:

d
~

vir: dTtl:r:
~

~.
~

~ ~ Neuter nom. and ace, tit{

lrhrl ~1f ~tmr &c.

dm
~

..

141. All the words of this class follow this model, as far as regards the inflectional terminations, with exception of the two first personal pronouns, which are altogether anomalous,

80

DECLENSION.

The class eonsista of the following pronouns and pl'OPQ'llinal nouns. I. Personal pronouns.

~I. '-:
~thou. ~ } that, or he, she, it. ~ ~. Demonstrative pronouns. ~ this or that. ~ x this. ~ Relative. ~ who, which, or what.

"

~ ~

4- Interrogative, who? or what? 5. Honorific. your honour, your excellency. 6. Pronominal

nOUDS.

r , Distributives.

:}second.
} third.
1A1It

~one. ~one of two. ~ one of many. ~ other. ~eit.g.el". 1{iI'( other. -.m:. which of two? 1IIIifi1t which of many? ~ whether. of two. 1.t'iPi whether of ml:UlY' 'I'tf two, twofold.

:;::

~}both.

first. ~ last. 'tCi half. ~few. 'IiIif'irq:q how many. ~aU. i\M whole. ~ half. i!If all. \W own.

PRONOUN!!

AND
2..

l'RONO:MINAL

NOUNS.

8]

'ii prior,
"«.

Locatives.

east.

~ ~

after. posterior, west. inferior, other.

~ inferior, west. ~ south, right. ~ subsequent. north. ~outer.

142. The pronouns of the first and second persons are very
anomalous, but their irregularities are of exceeding interest, as they present striking analogies to those of the pronouns of the same persons in the classical and teutonic languages. nom.1I!i~ ace. ;rl or m instr, ~ dat. ~or~ ab1. ~ • gen. ~ori:t loco ~ nom. i'i ace, i<Ii or ~ instr; ~ dat, ~orw abl, ~ gen. ?I"!i or W loco m "

~'I.' 'IIllT<ri

wr<ri or
~~ ~or;:ft

"r
or

~ "'~ 01'-;;:

~:
...~or1l'! ~
'Il~

~r

~:

oft •

or 'if:

~tit:
'thou. ~ ~orlf~ ~ ~or~ ~ ~ ~ or
"I!l1l{.

~ ~ ~ortr:

1~
~~ or
If:

.~ ..

~ ~~ortr.

143. 'I'he ether pronouns are declinable in three genders, and followmore nearly the model of the class, d, il' their inflexions. Those which end in ~, as ~ &0., l"<ticct their final consonant " Seiore all the inflexions," except in the nominative singular of the neuter; and they thus become words terminating in 'l1'li. ~ Before the nominative masculine and feminine, ~, ~, and. ~ change their if to l:T; becoming therefore ., 'm', ~, ~, '"'
~; as,

DECLli:NSION.

~'that,.'

or 'he, she, it.'

Masculine.
nom. ~ ace. 1f

it
inAd

instr.n
loo. ~

dat. mit abL ~ gen. ~

.. -.
it
~
-'0).

Feminine.
111'

1r
'IPlri

in':

1li nr

wtit
1R!In:

wtftr.
1m1r.

1m
~

__,..

m
~.

'Imri

Neuter ~ or So 111'( I: that,' makes, msse, l!Ir.

11'1\

1~ ~ ~

"IT!

and ~

feme ~
neut.. ~

The other inflexions of ~ are also like those of ~; but in the accusative singular, dual, and plural, in the instrumental singular, and the genitive dual, in the three genders, ~ is ,sometimes used for Q; as,

lift it

W
iIm

"'. 'this:
~ ~

Q-

"i1IITfcr

mase,

ace,

or 1!ii lnstr. 8. morm gen. d, ~or~ ace. instr. s. Utfr or ~ gen. d. 'O'1fu or ~

1!it or l!'ift

rem.

uor~:

neut. ace.
fi.

The second. form is employed. in

the subaequen.t member

as, 'The grammar bas beet1 ,. tudied by- him; now set him to read the Hitopadek' a 144•. The other two demonstrative pronouns, ~ 'this" or 'that,' and ~ 'this; undergo various modifications, chiefly . of the inflective bases.

of a sentence in which the first bas already been used;

$ ... 1«+i4lait", ft!il~* ~,

PRONOUNSAND p:aOJrOlaNAL NGUliS.

~ <f

nom. ace.

lRit,

Muctiline. W{ ~

..,

this,! or ' f'h!:t.~ Feminine.

.it

gen. 100. ~

inatr. WfI'T dat. ~ abl. ~

--i

Wf{

~ ~ ~
~

'IIi
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

"1.
~

~ ~ ~

-wrr

~ Neutar nom. and see,

~.
Feminine. ~

,.
'tPfd

~
Masculine.
nom.
&00.

'this' or 'that:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

'IPi
~

instr.m
dat.

"Im1ff

abl.
gen..
loco

~ ~

~.

1IIP'If

.-rfir.
~

.r~

"II{q'

rn
q
aee, ~

~
~ ~.

Neuter nom. and

This pronoun also substitutes l!'1' for the hue in the :aame cases as~. See above, rule :143. 145. The relative pronoun ~, 4 who' or C whic~t is declined like ~; as" mase, nom.. 1C, lit, 1t; feme nom. 1it, ~ 111:; neat..
Dom. and ace. ~,
C

if, ~,

&eo

146. ~, whO' or 'what?' interrogaiiv~ is :also decJiDed analogously to ~,. substituting .. for its final consonant ami preceding vowel., except in the nom. neuter, and thua beoomins a noun in w; U1
• 11i for Masculine.

i\IIt 'who t 'whic:b?'

~ • 1IPn'

Feminine..
,. .. 111:

nom. 111:

..

ace. 11 instr.iR

1I'P(.

1&:
H2

.e.: