Stresses in Rigid Pavements

Stresses in CC Pavement
• Temperature Stresses
– Due to the temperature differential between the top
and bottom of the slab, curling stresses (similar to
bending stresses) are induced at the bottom or top of
the slab
• Frictional stresses
– Due to the contraction of slab due to shrinkage or due
to drop in temperature tensile stresses are induced at
the middle portion of the slab
• Wheel Load Stresses
– CC slab is subjected to flexural stresses due to the
wheel loads
 Temperature Stresses
• Temperature differential between the top and
bottom of the slab causes curling (warping)
stress in the pavement
• If the temperature of the upper surface of the
slab is higher than the bottom surface then top
surface tends to expand and the bottom surface
tends to contract resulting in compressive stress
at the top, tensile stress at bottom and vice
versa
 Notation
• E = modulus of elasticity
• Cx and Cy = Bradbury's coefficients
• T = temperature
• a = radius of contact
• h = thickness of cement concrete slab
• k = modulus of subgrade reaction
• l = raduis of relative stiffness
• t = temperature differential
• αt = coefficient of thermal expansion
• ε = strain
• µ = Poisson's ratio
• σ = stress
 Temperature Differential
t
+t/2 ε = αt
T 2

T – t/2 Neutral axis

h

T-t t
- t/2 ε = αt
2
•Temperature at top = T
•Temperature differential = t
•Temperature at bottom = T – t
•Average Temperature (at mid height) = ( T+T-t)/2 = T - t/2
•Increase in temperature of top fibre above average temperature = t/2
•Decrease in temperature of bottom fibre below average temperature = t/2
 Curling Stresses in Infinite Slab
The equations of strain in an infinite slab, that
bends in both x and y directions, are y
σx σy
εx = −µ ………………(A)
E E

σy
σy σx ………………(B) σx
εy = −µ
E E
x
Assuming that the slab bends only in x direction,
εy = 0; i.e., from (B) σy = µ σx
Substituting in (A)
Eε x
σx = 2
; as εx = εy = αt t
1− µ
Eα t t
σx = ………………(C)
(
2 1− µ 2 )
 Curling Stresses in infinite Slab
Assuming that the slab bends only in y direction,
εx = 0; i.e., from (A) σx = µ σy
Substituting in (B)
µ Eε y
σx = 2 ; as εx = εy = αt t
1− µ
µEα t t
σx = ………………(D)
2(1 − µ 2 )
When bending occurs in both x and y directions, as is the case for temperature
curling, the stress due to bending in both the directions must be superimposed.

∴ σx = σx due to bending in x direction + σx due to bending in y direction

Eα t t Eα t t
i.e., σ x = + µ
(
2 1− µ 2) (
2 1− µ 2 )
 Curling Stresses in Finite Slab
y

Total temperature stress in x direction

Eα t t Eα t t
σ x = Cx + C µ Ly x
(
2 1− µ 2 ) y
(
2 1− µ 2 )
Eα t t
i.e., σ x = (C x + µ C y ) ……….(E)
(
2 1− µ )
2
Lx

Cx and Cy are the correction factors for a finite slab (unconstrained edges)
Equation (E) gives the stress at interior due to temperature differential.
The stress at edge is obtained by substituting µ = 0 in Eq. (E)
C Eα t t
i.e., σ =
2
Eα t t a
corner stress =
3
1− µ 2 l
Bradbury’s Warping Stress Coefficients
Bradbury’s Warping Stress Coefficients
(IRC-58, 2002)

L/l C L/l C
1 0.000 7 1.030
2 0.040 8 1.077
3 0.175 9 1.080
4 0.440 10 1.075
5 0.720 11 1.050
6 0.920 12 1.000
Radius of Relative Stiffness

3
Eh
l=4 2
12 (1 − µ ) k

Where,
E = Modulus of Elasticity of concrete, MPa
h = thickness of slab, m
µ = Poisson’s ratio
k = modulus of subgrade reaction, MN/m3
 Example Problem
• A concrete slab 7.62 m long, 3.66 m wide and
203 mm thick, is subjected to a temperature
differential of 11.1 oC. Assuming that k = 54.2
MN/m3 and αt = 9×10-6 /oC. Determine the
maximum curling stress in the interior, edge and
corner of the slab. Take the radius of contact as
a = 152 mm.
 Temperature Differentials
• Maximum temperature differentials occur during the day
in the spring and summer months.
• During midday of summer, the surface of the slab, which
is exposed to the sun, warms faster than the subgrade
which is relatively cool.
• During night time the surface of the slab becomes cool
when compared to the subgrade.
• Usually, night time temperature differentials are one half
the day time temperature differentials.
• The actual temperature differentials depend on the
location..
• Temperature differential is expressed as temperature
gradient per mm of slab thickness.
• The temperature gradients vary between 0.067 to 0.1
oC/mm.
 Temperature Differentials Recommended by IRC
Zone States Temperature Differential, oC
in slab of thickness
15 cm 20 cm 25 cm 30 cm

I Punjab, U.P., Uttaranchal, Gujarat, 12.5 13.1 14.3 15.8

Rajasthan, Haryana and North M.P.
Excluding hilly regions.
II Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam 15.6 16.4 16.6 16.8
and Eastern Orissa excluding hilly
regions and coastal areas
III Maharashtra, Karnataka, South M.P., 17.3 19.0 20.3 21.0
Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Western
Orissa and North Tamil Nadu, excluding
hilly regions and coastal areas
IV Kerala and South Tamilnadu excluding 15.0 16.4 17.6 18.1
hilly regions and coastal areas
V Coastal areas bounded by hills 14.6 15.8 16.2 17.0

VI Coastal areas unbounded by hills 15.5 17.0 19.0 19.2

 Frictional Stresses
• The friction between a concrete slab and its foundation
causes tensile stress
– in the concrete,
– In the steel reinforcements and
– In tie bars
• For plain concrete pavements, the spacing between
contraction joints is so chosen that the stresses due to
friction will not cause the concrete to crack.
• Longer joint spacing than that above requires the
provision of temperature steel to take care of the
stresses caused by friction.
• The number of tie bars are also determined by frictional
stresses.
 Stresses Due to Friction

1m

sf
h

L/2
Center of slab

Fully mobilised
frictional stress

Variation of frictional stress

 Stresses Due to Friction
•Frictional force per unit width of slab
γc × h × 1 × (L/2) × fa = (γ h L fa)/2
Where,
γc = unit weight of concrete, kN/m3
h = thickness of slab, m
L = length of slab, m
•Tensile force in the slab at the middle
–Sf = sf × h ×1 = sf h
–Where, Sf = tensile force, kN; sf = tensile stress, kN/m2
•Equating the two
–sf = (γc L fa)/2
 Spacing of Contraction Joints

• The contraction joints are spaced to limit the tensile

stress induced in the slab to the value that can be born
by the slab during curing period
• Spacing is found out by taking the allowable tensile
stress as 80 kPa during curing period of concrete
• L = (2sf)/(γc fa)
• For sf = 80 kPa, γ = 23.6 kN/m3 and fa = 1.5
L = 4.52 m
Therefore, the spacing of contraction joints is kept as
4.5 m.
Contraction Joint Spacing
Specified by IRC

Slab Thickness Maximum Contraction

(cm) joint spacing (m)
15 4.5
20 4.5
25 4.5
30 5.0
35 5.0
A Fully Developed Crack
at a Contraction Joint
Spacing of Contraction Joints Based on
Allowable Joint Opening
• The spacing of joints in plain concrete pavements depends more on
shrinkage characteristics of concrete rather than stress in the
concrete
• The spacing of joints can be computed by limiting the joint opening
to maintain the load transfer
• ∆L = CL(αt ∆T + ε)
• Where, L = joint spacing, ∆L = joint opening (1.3 mm and 6.4 mm for
un-dowelled and dowelled joints respectively), αt = coefficient of
thermal expansion of concrete, ε = drying shrinkage coefficient (0.5
to 2.5 ×10-4), ∆T = temperature at placement minus the lowest mean
monthly temperature, C is the adjustment factor due to slab-subbase
friction, 0.65 for stabilized base and 0.8 for granular base
 Example Problem
• Find the allowable joint spacing of
dowelled and undowelled contraction
joints for the following data based on joint
opening criteria:
Allowable joint opening for dowelled joints: 6.4
mm
Allowable joint opening for undowelled joints:
1.3 mm
∆T = 33 oC; αt = 9.9 ×10-6 /oC; ε = 1.0×10-4; C =
0.65
 Temperature Steel
• Temperature steel is provided in the form of wire
fabric or bar mats at mid depth and is
discontinued at joints.
• This temperature steel does not increase the
structural capacity of the slab
• Temperature steel is used to increase the
spacing of contraction joints
• Temperature steel ties the cracked concrete
together and maintains load transfer through
aggregate interlock
 Steel Stresses
Equating the force in steel to frictional force
As fs = (γc h L fa)/2
Where,
As = area of temperature steel per unit width of slab
fs = stress in steel
The area of steel required per unit width can be
computed as
As = (γc h L fa)/(2 fs)
 Example Problem on Temperature Steel

• Determine the wire fabric required for a

two lane concrete pavement 203 mm
thick, 18.3 m long and 7.3 m wide with a
longitudinal joint at the centre.
fs = 297 MPa; γc = 25 kN/m3; fa = 1.5
 Tie Bars
• Tie bars are placed across the longitudinal joint
to tie the two slabs together so that the joint will
be tightly closed and the load transfer across the
joint can be ensured
• The amount of tie bar steel is worked out as
As = (γc h L' fa)/(fs)
Where, L' = distance from the longitudinal joint to
the free edge where no tie bars exist
 Length of Tie Bar
• The length of tie bars is governed by the
allowable bond stress
• For deformed bars, an allowable bond stress of
2.4 MPa may be assumed
• l = (fs d)/(2τ)
• Where, fs = allowable tensile stress in tie bar
steel, d = diameter of the tie bar, τ = allowable
bond stress
• The length l should be increased by 76 mm for
misalignment
 Example Problem on Tie bar
Design
• Determine the diameter, spacing, and
length of tie bars required for a two lane
concrete pavement, 203 mm thick, 18.3 m
long and 7.3 m wide with a longitudinal
joint at the centre.
fs = 200 MPa; τ = 2.4 MPa γc = 25 kN/m3;
fa = 1.5
 Details of Tie Bars for Two Lane CC Pavement
(IRC: 58-2002)
Slab Diameter Maximum Minimum
Thickness (mm) Spacing (cm) Length (cm)
(cm) Plain Deformed Plain Deformed
Bars Bars Bars Bars
25 12 45 72 58 64
16 80 128 72 80
30 12 37 60 58 64
16 66 106 72 80
35 12 32 51 58 64
16 57 91 72 80
fs = 1200 kg/cm2 for plain bars, 2000 kg/cm2 for deformed bars; τ=17.5
kg/cm2 for plain bars, 24.6 kg/cm2 for deformed bars.
 Methods of Analyses for Wheel Load
Stresses in a Rigid Pavement
• The following three methods were used for computing
the wheel load stresses in a rigid pavement.
– Closed form formulae – Westergaard
– Influence Charts – Pickett and Ray (1951)
– Finite Element Computer Programmes
• The first two methods assume the slab as an elastic
plate resting on liquid foundation
• The liquid foundation assumes the subgrade to be a set
of springs.
• Deflections at any given point is proportional to the force
at that point and independent of the forces at all other
points.
 Westergaard Equations
• Westergaard considered three cases of
loading:
– Corner loading C
– Edge loading I E
– Interior loading
 Corner Loading
The maximum stress (bending tension) σc and deflection δc due to the load at
corner of a rigid slab is given by Westergaard as

The above equation for σc as modified by Kelly is being used by

IRC for computing the wheel load stress at corner

3P   a 2 

1.2

σ c = 2 1 −   
h   l  
 
 Interior Loading
The maximum stress (bending tension) σi and deflection δi due to the load at
interior of a rigid slab is given by Westergaard as
 Edge Loading
The maximum stress (bending tension) σe and deflection δe due to the load at
edge of a rigid slab is given by Westergaard as

The above equation for σe as modified by Teller and Sutherland

was used by IRC in its old specification for computing the wheel
load stress at edge
l
σe =
 Dual Tyres
For computing the stresses due to a dual wheel using Westergaard
equations, the dual wheel is converted into an equivalent single wheel load by
computing the equivalent circular contact area as follows:
 Example Problem on Dual Tyres
• Using Westergaard equations determine
the maximum stress at interior, edge and
corner if a 44.5 kN load is applied on a set
of dual tyres spaced at 356 mm on
centres. Use the following data:
q=610 kPa; k = 27.2 MN/m3; h = 254 mm;
E = 27.6 GPa; µ = 0.15.
 Limitations of Closed Form Solutions

• Applicable to only single wheel load with

circular contact area
• Load locations are fixed (i.e., interior, edge
and corner).
• Applicable to only large slabs
• Assumes full subgrade support
• No consideration is given to load transfer
across joints
 Influence Charts by
Pickett and Ray (1951)

• These influence charts were

developed using Westergaard
theory for liquid foundation by
taking poisson’s ratio of 0.15 for
concrete slab.
• These were previously used by
PCA for rigid pavement design
• Influence charts were prepared
for finding stresses and
deflections at interior and edge
locations.
• These were extensively used for
the design of airfield rigid
pavements
 Computations using Influence Charts
These charts can be used for any shape of contact area and any
wheel/axle/gear configuration
The bending moment is obtained about point O in the direction n.
The contact areas are to be drawn to the scale shown and the number of
blocks (N) with in the contact areas are counted from the respective charts.

Bending moment, M is obtained as

pl 2 N 6M
M= and the stress can be computed as Stress =
10000 h2
Deflection is computed as
0.0005 pl 4 N Where, D is modulus of rigidity and is given as
∆=
D
Eh 3
D=
12(1 − µ 2 )
Influence chart for moment due to
the load at interior

Pickett and Ray (1951)

Influence Chart for Moment due to Load at Edge
Pickett and Ray (1951)
Influence chart for deflection due to
the load at interior

Pickett and Ray (1951)

Influence Chart for Deflection due to Load at Edge
Pickett and Ray (1951)
IRC Recommendations on Wheel Load
Stresses

• The loads causing failure of pavements are mostly

applied by single and tandem axles, stress must be
determined for the condition shown in chart’s given by
Picket &Ray for stress computation in the interior as well
as edge region

• Using fundamental concept of Westergaard and Picket

&Ray’s pioneering work a computer program IITRIGID
developed at IIT, Kharagpur was used for edge load
condition
Pressure Exerted on a Loaded Dowel

y
A B C

Assumptions:

Dowel is infinite in length

Extends into an elastic body
 Deflection of Dowel
• Dowel bar encased in concrete deflect as shown in the figure
• A – B: deflect downward exerting pressure at the lower face
of the dowel
• B – C: B is point of contra flexure, the pressure is on the top
• Beyond C: again at C the bearing is on the bottom of the dowel
bar
• Based on the equation of deflection curve by Thimoshenko, Friberg
gave the deflection at the joint face (maximum deflection) as

P(2 + βz )
y0 =
4 β 3 Ed I d
 Deflection of Dowel
• P = load on one dowel
• z = joint width
• β = relative stiffness of dowel embedded in concrete
• Ed = Modulus of elasticity of dowel steel
1 4
• Id = Moment of inertia of the dowel bar = 64 πd

Kd
β =4
4 Ed I d

• K = modulus of dowel support (81.5 to 409 GN/m3)

 Maximum Bearing Stress
• Bearing stress is proportional to deflection

KP (2 + βz )
σ b = K y0 = 3
4 β Ed I d
 Governing Stress in Dowel Bar
• Dowel is subjected to the following
stresses
– Shear
– Bending
– Bearing
• Because concrete is much weaker in steel,
the size and spacing of dowels required
are governed by the bearing stress
between dowel and concrete.
 Dowel Group Action
W

W/2 W/2

 Part of W is transferred to the adjacent slab through the dowel

group.
 If the dowels are 100% efficient, 50% of W is transferred to the
other slab
 If the pavement is old, less than 50% of W is transferred to the
other slab
 Maximum Load on Dowel
W/2

1.8 l 1.8 l

Ptn
Pt0

Ptn = [Pt0 (1.8 l – nd)]/(1.8 l)

• Maximum negative moment for both interior and edge loadings

occur at a distance of 1.8l from the load.
• The shear in each dowel decreases inversely with the distance of
the dowel from the point of loading, being maximum for the dowel
under or nearest to the point of loading and zero at 1.8l.
 Example Problems
• A concrete pavement 203 mm thick is having a joint width of 5.1
mm, a modulus of subgrade reaction of 27 kN/m3, and a modulus of
dowel support of 407 GN/m3. A load of 40 kN is applied over the
outermost dowel at a distance of 152 mm from the edge. The
dowels are 19 mm in diameter and 305 mm on centres. Determine
the maximum bearing stress between dowel and concrete. (E = 27.6
GPa, Ed = 200 GPa)
• A concrete slab resting on a foundation with k = 13.6 Mn/m3. Twelve
dowels at 305 mm centres are placed at the joint on the 3.66 m lane.
Two 40 kN wheel loads are applied at points A and B. Determine the
maximum load on one dowel.

40 kN 40 kN 153 mm
1.83 m
A B
 Design Parameters of Dowels
• IRC specifies that the efficiency of load transfer may be
taken as 40%
• As per IRC recommendations, the distance at which the
shear force becomes zero from the maximum loaded
dowel is 1.0 l and not 1.8 l
• The permissible bearing stress (MPa) of concrete is
calculated as
σb = [(10.16-φ)×fck]/(9.525)
Where, φ = diameter of dowel in cm
fck = characteristic strength of concrete in MPa
 Recommended Dimensions of Dowel Bars
(IRC:58-2002)
Slab thickness, Dowel Bar Dimensions (mm)
cm
Diameter Length Spacing

20 25 500 250

25 25 500 300

30 32 500 300

35 32 500 300
Dowel Bars
Analysis of Traffic Loading for
Pavement Design
 Three Different Approaches
• Fixed traffic
– Design is governed by single wheel load
– Load repetitions is not considered as a variable
– Multiple wheels are converted into single wheel
– Heaviest wheel load anticipated is used in design
• Fixed vehicle
– Design is governed by the number of repetitions of standard vehicle or
axle load, usually 80 kN single axle load
– Repetitions of non-standard axles are converted into equivalent
repetitions of standard axle using equivalent axle load factors
– The cumulative number of repetitions of standard axle during the design
life is termed as Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESAL) and is the single
traffic parameter for design purpose.
• Variable traffic and variable vehicle (Spectrum of Axles Approach)
– Both vehicle and traffic are considered independently. i.e., treat all axles
separately and use spectrum of axles in the design
 Equivalent Single Wheel Load
• In fixed traffic approach, multiple wheels are converted
into equivalent single wheel load.
• ESWL can be determined based on the following
approaches
– Equal stress criteria
• EWSL is the wheel load that causes the same stress at the top of
subgrade as that of the multiple wheels
– Equal deflection criteria
• EWSL is the wheel load that causes the same deflection at the top
of subgrade as that of the multiple wheels
• EWSL depends on the thickness of the pavement
Empirical Method (Boyd and Foster, 1951)
Empirical Method (Boyd and Foster, 1951)
Empirical Method (Boyd and Foster, 1951)

The equation in the previous plot for

ESWL can be written as

0.301 log(2 z / d )
log( ESWL) = log( Pd / 2) +
log(4 S d / d )
 Example Problem
• A set of dual tyres has a total load of 40
kN, a contact radius of 114 mm, and a
centre to centre spacing of 343 mm.
Determine ESWL by Boyd and Foster
method for a 343 mm thick pavement.
 Theoretical Method
In one layer system, the
vertical stress σz at the axis Pd Pd PS
of symmetry at a depth z is
given by
 z3  z
σ z = p 1 − 2 2 3 2 
( a +z )  12 3

P  z3  • σzs is the maximum of

i.e., σ z = 2 1 − 2 2 3 2 
πa  (a + z )  stresses at 1, 2 and 3

∴ σz α P for a constant a • σzd is the maximum stress

due to Pd
Pd σ zd
i.e., =
PS σ zs
 Equivalent Deflection Criteria
(Foster & Ahlvin)
The general equation for
deflection is given by
pa Pd Pd PS
∆= F
E
z
∴∆α P
12 3
PS ∆ S
i.e., = ∆S = max (∆1, ∆2, ∆3)
Pd ∆ d
∆d = maximum deflection
∆S due to Pd
∴ PS = Pd
∆d
ESAL Approach
 Equivalent Single Axle Load
• Equivalent Single Axle Load is the equivalent
repetitions of standard axle during the design life
of the pavement.
• IRC terms this ESAL as cumulative number of
standard axles during the design life
• The number of repetitions of different types of
axles are converted into equivalent repetitions of
standard axle by using Equivalent Axle Load
Factors (EALF)
 Equivalent Axle Load Factor
• Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF) defines the damage
per pass to a pavement by an axle relative to the
damage per pass of a standard axle
• EALF for X- Type Axle = No. of repetitions of standard
axle for causing a specified damage / No. of repetitions
of X-type axle for causing the same damage
• For example, if 100,000 repetitions of a X-type axle
causes a rut depth of 12 mm compared to 200,000
repetitions of a standard axle for causing the same rut
depth, then EALF of X-type axle = 2. Here, the damage
is measured in terms of rut depth.
 Fourth Power Rule
• Approximate EALF can be worked out using the fourth
power rule
• Single Axle Load
EALF = (Axle Load in Kg/8160)4
• Tandem Axle Load
EALF = (Axle load in Kg/14968)4
• However, as the EALF depends on axle load as wheel
as the pavement configuration, the exact EALF can be
worked out only by using distress models
 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
• Instead of converting each axle pass into
equivalent standard axle passes, It will be
convenient to convert one truck pass into
equivalent standard axle passes.
• The factor that converts the number of trucks into
equivalent standard axle repetitions is termed as
vehicle damage factor or truck factor
• Therefore, Vehicle damage factor is the number
of standard axles per truck.
 Determining VDF
• For all important projects, the VDF need to be worked
out from axle load survey
• In axle load survey the axles of a sample of about 10%
of randomly chosen trucks are weighed using axle load
pads
• Different configurations of trucks should be
proportionately represented in the sample
• A stratified sample would be ideal for this purpose
• Annual Daily Traffic (ADT) of trucks need to be obtained
for the road from the recent volume surveys or if not
available should be estimated by conducting traffic
volume survey
Summary Table of Axle Load Survey
Single Axles
Axle Load No. of EALF No of Std
Axles Axles
2 0 0.004 0.00
4 1 0.058 0.06
6 6 0.292 1.75
8 144 0.924 133.03
10 20 2.255 45.11
12 14 4.677 65.48
14 8 8.665 69.32
16 4 14.782 59.13
18 2 23.877 47.35
Total 421.23
Summary Table of Axle Load Survey
Tandem Axles
Axle Load No. of EALF No of Std
Axles Axles
4 0 0.005 0.00
8 14 0.082 1.14
12 21 0.413 8.68
16 101 1.306 131.87
20 44 3.188 140.25
24 42 6.610 277.61
28 44 12.246 538.80
Total 1098.36
 Computation of VDF
• Total number of standard axles of the
sampled trucks = 421.23+1098.36
= 1519.59
• No. of Trucks sampled = 250
• VDF = No. of Std. Axles/No. of Trucks
= 1519.59/250 = 6.08
• Therefore VDF = 6.08
 Traffic on Design Lane
• The lane that carries maximum truck volume is the design
lane
• The distribution of truck traffic across the width of the
carriageway is to be considered in working out the traffic on
design lane
• On any given road, one direction may carry more loads than
the other
• within high traffic direction, each lane may carry a different
portion of the loading
• The outer most lane often carries the most trucks and
therefore is usually subjected to the heaviest loading
• Hence inputs for traffic distribution factors are important in
the pavement analysis
Need for Distribution Factors
 Traffic on Design Lane
• It is worked out by finding the directional
distribution and lane distribution factors
• Directional Distribution Factor (D)
– The ADT of trucks is the sum of daily truck
traffic volume in both directions
– D factor is the proportion of ADT of trucks
occurring in the maximum direction
– The D factor normally varies between 0.5 to
0.6
 Traffic on Design Lane
• Lane Distribution Factor (L)
– Is the proportion of truck traffic occurring
on the design lane
– Lane Distribution Factor depends on
- Number of lanes
- Traffic volume
• Daily Truck Traffic on Design Lane
= (ADT of Trucks) × (D) × (L)
 Factors Suggested by IRC
• Undivided Roads (Single Carriageway)
No. of Traffic Percentage of Trucks
Lanes in Two in Design Lane (D×L)
Directions
1 100
2 75
4 40
 Factors Suggested by IRC
• Divided Roads (Dual Carriageway)
No. of Traffic Percentage of Trucks
Lanes in each in Design Lane (L)
Direction
1 100
2 75
3 60
4 45
 Computation of ESAL

• ESAL = (ADT of Trucks) × (365) × (D) × (L) ×

(VDF) × GF

• GF = (1 + r ) n − 1
r

r = Growth rate in decimal

n = Design life in years