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Fluid Mechanics I
EG-160
Credit 10
Core module for Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace BEng and MEng
Aims
Contents
Fluids properties
Hydrostatics
Conservation principles
Viscous flow in pipes
Assessment
2
Fluid Mechanics I Introduction
• The study of fluid mechanics involves the same fundamental laws you have encountered
in physics and other mechanics courses. These laws include Newton’s laws of motion,
conservation of mass, and the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
• The broad subject of fluid mechanics can be generally subdivided into fluid statics, in
which the fluid is at rest, and fluid dynamics, in which the fluid is moving.
4
Fluid Mechanics I Famous Names
• HENRI PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY 1803–1858. Performed extensive tests on filtration and pipe
• resistance; initiated open-channel studies carried out by Bazin.
• JULIUS WEISBACH 1806–1871. Incorporated hydraulics in treatise on engineering mechanics, based on original
experiments; noteworthy for flow patterns, non-dimensional coefficients, weir, and resistance equations.
• WILLIAM FROUDE 1810–1879. Developed many towing-tank techniques, in particular the conversion of wave and
boundary layer resistance from model to prototype scale.
• ROBERT MANNING 1816–1897. Proposed several formulas for open-channel resistance.
• GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES 1819–1903. Derived analytically various flow relationships ranging from wave mechanics
to viscous resistance—particularly that for the settling of spheres.
• ERNST MACH 1838–1916. One of the pioneers in the field of supersonic aerodynamics.
• OSBORNE REYNOLDS 1842–1912. Described original experiments in many fields, cavitation, river model similarity,
pipe resistance—and devised two parameters for viscous flow; adapted equations of motion of a viscous fluid to mean
conditions of turbulent flow.
• JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT,LORD RAYLEIGH 1842–1919. Investigated hydrodynamics of bubble collapse, wave
motion, jet instability, laminar flow analogies, and dynamic similarity.
• VINCENZ STROUHAL 1850–1922. Investigated the phenomenon of “singing wires.”
• EDGAR BUCKINGHAM 1867–1940. Stimulated interest in the United States in the use of dimensional analysis.
• MORITZ WEBER 1871–1951. Emphasized the use of the principles of similitude in fluid flow studies and formulated a
capillarity similarity parameter.
• LUDWIG PRANDTL 1875–1953. Introduced concept of the boundary layer and is generally considered to be the father
of present day fluid mechanics.
• LEWIS FERRY MOODY 1880–1953. Provided many innovations in the field of hydraulic machinery. Proposed a
method of correlating pipe resistance data which is widely used.
• THEODOR VON KÁRMÁN 1881–1963. One of the recognized leaders of twentieth century fluid mechanics. Provided
major contributions to our understanding of surface resistance, turbulence, and wake phenomena.
• PAUL RICHARD HEINRICH BLASIUS 1883–1970. One of Prandtl’s students who provided an analytical solution to
the boundary layer equations. Also, demonstrated that pipe resistance was related to the Reynolds number.
6
Fluid Mechanics I Units
Primary Units
• The four primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
• Notice how the term ’Dimension’ of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a
metre is a length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all
lengths so have dimension of L.
• The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions
Derived Units
• There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units.
Those most used are shown in the table below:
8
Fluid Mechanics I Units
Examples
• During a study of a certain flow system the following equation relating the pressure p1 and
p2 at two points was developed
fLV
p2 = p1 +
Dg
In this equation V is a velocity, L the distance between the two points, D a diameter, g the
acceleration of gravity, and f a dimensionless coefficient. Is the equation dimensionally
consistent?
• Before we can proceed, however, it will be necessary to define and discuss certain fluid
properties
Density
• The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ, is defined as its mass per unit
volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system. In the in SI
the units are kg/m3
• The value of density can vary widely between different fluids
» For liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small effect on the value
of density
» For gas, the density is strongly influenced by both pressure and temperature
Specific Volume
• The specific volume, , is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of the
density
1
v=
ρ
10
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
Specific Weight
• The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol γ, is defined as its weight
per unit volume. Thus, specific weight is related to density through the equation
• Just as density is used to characterize the mass of a fluid system, the specific weight is
used to characterize the weight of the system. In the SI the units are N/m3
Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of
the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature. Usually the specified
temperature is taken as 4oC and at this temperature the density of water is 1000 kg/m3
SG = ρ / 1000
• and since it is the ratio of densities, the value of SG does not depend on the system of
units used.
It is clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity are all interrelated, and from a
knowledge of any one of the three the others can be calculated.
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It is clear that the previous properties are not sufficient to uniquely characterize
how fluids behave since two fluids such as water and oil can have approximately
the same value of density but behave quite differently when flowing.
Examples
• The specific gravity of ethyl alcohol is 0.79. Calculate its specific weight and mass density
(Ans: 7.73 kN/m3, 790 kg/m3)
• The specific weight of a substance is 8.2 kN/m3, what is its mass density (Ans: 836
kg/m3)
12
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
Pressure
• The equations of motion (Newton’s second law) F = ma in the y and z directions are
δxδyδz
∑ Fy = p yδxδz − psδxδs sin θ = ρ ay
2
δxδyδz δxδyδz
∑ Fz = p zδxδy − psδxδs cos θ − γ =ρ az
2 2
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p z = p y = ps
• we can conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent
of direction as long as there are no shearing stresses present. This important result is
known as Pascal’s law named in honour of Blaise Pascal
14
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
Compressibility of Fluids
• This measure how easily can the volume (and thus the density) of a given mass of the
fluid be changed when there is a change in pressure . A property that is commonly used
to characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus, defined as
dp dp
Ev = − =
dV V dρ ρ
• The bulk modulus (or the bulk modulus of elasticity) has dimensions of pressure.
• Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively incompressible
Examples
• A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000 cm3 at 1MN/m2 and volume of
995 cm3 at 2MN/m2. What is its bulk modulus of elasticity?
• If the bulk modulus of elasticity for water is 2.2 GPa, what pressure is required to reduce
a volume by 0.6 precent? (Ans: 13.2 Mpa)
15
pA − ( p + δp ) A − ρgAδs cos θ = 0
δp
δp = − ρgδs cos θ ⇒ = − ρg cos θ
δs
dp
• Or in differential form = − ρg cos θ
ds dp dp dp
• If θ=90ο then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so = = =0
ds dx dy
or in homogenous domain, Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.
16
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
dp dp
• If θ=0ο then s is in the z directions, (i.e. vertical),so = = − ρg
ds dz
• Integrating the above equation gives p = − ρgz + constant
• In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z is normally measured from the
free surface so that z = -h. This gives:
p = ρgh + constant
• At the surface the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure, patmospheric
p = ρgh + patmospheric
p = γh + patmospheric
17
• The lower limit of any pressure is zero- that is pressure in Vacuum. Pressure measured
above this datum is known as absolute pressure
• Since everything is under this pressure, it is convenient to take the atmospheric pressure
as datum, hence, pressure quotes in this condition is called the Gauge pressure
p guage = ρgh = γh
• Since g is constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical height of any
fluid of density ρ which is equal to the this pressure, this vertical height is know as head
of fluid.
Example
What is the pressure of 500 KN/m2 in terms of the height of water, ρ=1000kg/m3 , and in
terms of Mercury, ρ=13600 kg/m3 .
18
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
Examples
19
Pressure Measurement
• The relation between pressure and head is used to measure pressure with manometer,
liquid gauge.
p A = p1 = ρgh1 = γh1
• This method can only be used for liquids. And must not be too small or too large.
20
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
• The “U” tube measure the pressure of both liquids and gases
• The “U” tube is filled with a fluid called the Manometric fluid
• However, p2 = p A + γh1
• If the fluid to be measure is gas, the ρ man >> ρ , and the gauge pressure p A = γ man h2
21
• And p2 = p3
p A + γ 1h1 = pB + γ man h2 + γ 3h3
p A − pB = γ man h2 − γ 1h1 + γ 3h3
22
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
• If the pressure difference to be measured is small, one leg of the tube is inclined at an
angle θ
• If the fluid is the same at the two points then p A − pB = γ manl2 sin θ + γ 1 ( h3 − h1 )
23
Examples
• A closed tank contains compressed air and oil (SG. 0.9).
A U-tube manometer using mercury is connected to the tank.
For column heights h1=90cm, h2= 15cm and h3=22.5cm
determine the pressure reading of the gage.
24
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
Problems
• A Differential manometer is attached to two tanks.
Calculate the pressure difference between chambers
A and B. Take SGMercury = 13.6, SGOil = 0.89 and
SGTetrachloride = 1.59. (Ans:-37kN/m2)
25
26
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
• For a general case, assuming that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere and using
the x–y coordinate system shown.
• The resultant force is equal to the pressure at the centroid multiplied by the total area
27
yR =
∫A
y 2 dA
yc A
• The numerator is the second moment of the area, Ix. Using the parallel axis theorem
I x = I xc + Ayc2
• Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through the centroid
and parallel to the x axis. Thus,
I xc
yR = + yc
yc A
28
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
• It is clear that the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but always below it
• Similarly the x coordinate of the resultant force can be obtained by summing moment
about the y axis
xR =
∫A xydA = I xy = I xyc + x
c
yc A yc A yc A
• Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Ixyc is the product of inertia
with respect to an orthogonal system passing through the centroid
29
Examples
• The 4m-diameter circular gate is located in the
inclined wall of a large reservoir containing
water γ = 9.80 kN/m3The gate is mounted on
a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water
depth of 10 m above the shaft determine:
(a) the magnitude and location of the resultant
force exerted on the gate by the water, and
(b) the moment that would have to be applied
to the shaft to open the gate.
30
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
• The easiest way is to consider the fluid volume enclosed by the curved surface
• The magnitude and location of the forces on the horizontal and vertical surfaces can be
determined from the relationship of planer surfaces
• In order for force system to be in equilibrium the horizontal components must be equal
and collinear and the vertical components must be equal and collinear
FH = F2 , FV = F1 + W ⇒ FR = ( FH ) 2 + ( FV ) 2
• The location of the resultant force is found by Summing moment about an appropriate axis
31
Examples
960N/m3
32
Fluid Mechanics I Hydrostatics
Problems
33
Problems
34
Fluid Mechanics I Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Dynamics
This section discusses the analysis of fluid in motion - fluid dynamics. The motion of fluids can
be predicted in the same way as the motion of solids are predicted using the fundamental laws
of physics together with the physical properties of the fluid
Objectives
35
Flow Classification
It is possible - and useful - to classify the type of flow which is being examined into small
number of groups. The following terms describe the states which are used to classify fluid flow:
• uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the
fluid it is said to be uniform
• non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow is
non-uniform. (In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary
will be non-uniform – as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of the boundary,
usually zero. However if the size and shape of the of the cross-section of the stream of
fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform)
• steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)
may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time
• unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is
described as unsteady. (In practise there is always slight variations in velocity and
pressure, but if the average values are constant, the flow is considered steady
36
Fluid Mechanics I Fluid Dynamics
Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four type:
• Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time. An
example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
• Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet -
velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
• Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a
pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off
• Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.
steady flow is by far the most simple of the four. You will then be pleased to hear
that this course is restricted to only this class of flow
37
Three-dimensional flow
• Although in general all fluids flow three-dimensionally, in many cases the greatest changes
only occur in two directions or even only in one.
• Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity, pressure, depth etc.) at a
given instant in time only vary in the direction of flow and not across the cross-section. An
example of one-dimensional flow is the ideal flow in a pipe.
• Note that since flow must be zero at the pipe wall - yet non-zero in the centre – there is a
difference of parameters across the cross-section. Which is only necessary if very high
accuracy is required.
• Flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow parameters vary in the direction
of flow and in one direction at right angles to this direction.
38
Fluid Mechanics I Fluid Dynamics
• The motion of each fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector, V
• If it is steady flow, each successive particle that passes through a given point will follow
the same path. For such cases the path is a fixed line in the x–z plane.
• For steady flows each particle slides along its path, and its velocity vector is everywhere
tangent to the path. The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow
field are called streamlines
• The fluid is moving in the same direction as the streamlines, hence, fluid can not cross it
• Any particle starting on one streamline will stay on the same streamline
39
Flow rate
• Mass flow rate: is the mass of fluid flowing per unit time
• Volume flow rate – Discharge: is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time. (It is also
commonly, but inaccurately, simply called flow rate). The symbol normally used for
discharge is Q. Multiplying this by the density of the fluid gives us the mass flow rate
Mean Velocity:
Inviscid Flow:
• In practice there are no inviscid fluid. However, for many flow situation the viscous effect is
small compared to other forces such as pressure gradient and gravitation.
40
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
Continuity
Mass entering / unit time = Mass leaving / unit time + Increase of mass in the control
volume/unit time
A1Vm1 = A2Vm 2 = Q
41
Examples
42
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
ρgAV
A
• Weight passing in 1 sec =
mV 2 1
• Kinetic Energy passing in 1 sec = = (ρAV )V 2 h
2 2
V2
• KE per unit weight =
Datum
2g
• Potential Energy passing in 1 sec = mgh = ( ρAV )gh
• PE per unit weight = h
43
» This is known as the Euler’s Equation, for incompressible fluid this can be integrated to yield
p V2
+ + h = Constant
ρg 2g
44
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
• Note that all the individual terms in the Bernoulli’s equation have units of length
Example
45
Pitot Tube
• If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body,
some move to the left and some to the right. But one,
in the centre, goes to the tip of the blunt body and stops.
This point is known as the stagnation point
1
p2 = p1 + ρV12
2
1
• The term ρV12 is called dynamic pressure
2
• Knowledge of the static and stagnation pressure will enable the
calculation of the velocity of the fluid
46
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
Example
2 gh(ρ man − ρ ) h
V1 =
ρ
Venturi Meter
47
p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
• Using the continuity equation
V1 A1
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2 ⇒ V2 =
A2
• However,
p1 + ρgz1 = p2 + ρg ( z2 − h) + ρ man gh
h
A B
• Hence,
ρ −ρ
2 gh man
ρ
V1 = 2
A1
− 1
A2
• The theoretical discharge is Qideal = V1 A1
• To get the actual discharge we account for losses due to friction, we include a coefficient
of discharge
Qactual = Cd Qideal
48
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
• The actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice. We
obtain this area by using a coefficient of contraction for the orifice
Aactual = Cc Atheoretical
49
50
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
• A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir which extends above the surface of
the liquid.
51
Examples
• A horizontal venturi tube, for measuring the flow of water, tapers from 300 mm diameter
at the inlet to 100 mm diameter at the throat and has a discharge coefficient of 0.98. If the
differential U-tube manometer, containing water over mercury (specific gravity 13.6),
connecting the inlet and the throat, shows a difference in mercury levels of 55 mm,
determine the volume flow.
53
Problems
• A pitot-static tube used to measure the air speed in a wind tunnel is coupled to a water
manometer. If the dynamic pressure is h mm of water, obtain an expression for the air
speed in m/s. (Ans: 3.99h0.5)
• A triangular orifice is cut in the vertical side of a tank containing a liquid. The base of the
orifice is horizontal and of breadth b. The apex of the orifice is at a height d above the
base and is located at a depth d below the liquid surface level. If the coefficient of
• discharge is unity, derive an expression for the volume flow rate. (Ans: 0.91b(gd3)0.5)
54
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
Problems
55
• In fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in solid
mechanics by the use of Newton’ s Second Law of motion
• The momentum equation is a statement of Newton’s Second Law and relates the sum of
the forces acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of change of momentum.
ρ 2 A2V2δtV2 − ρ1 A1V1δtV1
» Applying Newton’s Second Law F=
δt
56
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
» Assuming fluid with a constant density and using the continuity equation Q1 = A1V1 Q2 = A2V2
F = ρ (Q2 V2 − Q1V1 )
» Since the velocity have components in the x, y, and z direction, it is more convenient to consider
each direction separately
» FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control volume
» FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control volume
• When using the momentum equation, the following steps need to be considered:
57
• Consider a pipe bend with a constant cross section lying in the horizontal plane and turning
through an angle of θ
• Co-ordinate system
It is convenient to choose the co-ordinate axis so
that one is pointing in the direction of the inlet velocity.
58
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
» the force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction
V5_5.mov
59
60
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
» Using the energy equation and noting that z1=z2=z3 and the pressure is all
atmospheric we can prove that v1 = v2 = v3 = v
• Calculate the pressure force: all zero as the pressure is everywhere atmospheric
• Calculate the body force: gravity have no component in the x and y directions
61
• One clear demonstration of this is with the blade of a turbine called the Pelton wheel
• A narrow jet is fired at blades which stick out around the periphery of a large metal disk
• The jet is deflected by the blade and the change of its momentum transfer a force to the
blade and hence a torque to the drive shaft
Q Q
FTx = ρ (( Vx 2 + Vx 2 ) − Q Vx1 )
2 2
= ρQ (V2 cos β + V1 )
• Calculate the pressure force: all zero as the pressure is everywhere atmospheric
• Calculate the body force: gravity have no component in the x and y directions
• Calculate the resultant force: FTx = FRx + FPx + FBx ⇒ FRx = ρQ (V2 cos β + V1 )
62
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
Examples
• A horizontal pipeline has a bend which changes the direction of the water flowing through
it by 45° and at the same time changes in diameter from 0.5 m upstream to 0.25 m
downstream. The gauge pressure upstream is 2x1O5N/m2 and the volume flow is O.4m3/s.
Neglecting losses, determine the force required to hold the bend in position. (Ans:R=33kN)
63
Problems
• A horizontal streamlined nozzle issues a jet of fluid of density ρ, cross sectional area a and
velocity U. Ignoring any viscous losses, derive an expression for the force required to hold
the nozzle in position at the end of a pipeline of cross sectional area A.
64
Fluid Mechanics I Conservation Principles
Problems
• Air of density 1.22 kg/m3 flows in a duct of internal diameter
600 mm and is discharged to the atmosphere. At the outlet
end of the duct, and co-axial with it, is a cone with a base
diameter greater than 600 mm and a vertex angle of 90°.
The flow through the duct is controlled by moving the
cone into the duct, the air then escaping along the sloping
sides of the cone. The mean velocity in the duct upstream of the cone is 15 m/s and the air
leaves the cone with a mean velocity of 60 m/s parallel to the sides. Neglecting viscous
effects, calculate the force exerted by the air on the cone. (Ans: 441N)
65
Viscosity
• It is clear that the previous properties are not sufficient to uniquely characterize how
fluids behave since two fluids such as water and oil can have approximately the same
value of density but behave quite differently when flowing.
• There is apparently some additional property that is needed to describe the “fluidity” of
the fluid.
• From the definition of fluid, deforms continuously when subjected to shear forces, if a
fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces.
• Shear stresses develop if the particles of moving fluid move relative to one another.
66
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
Viscosity in Gasses
• The molecules of gasses are only weakly kept in position by molecular cohesion (as they
are so far apart). As adjacent layers move by each other there is a continuous exchange
of molecules. Molecules of a slower layer move to faster layers causing a drag, while
molecules moving the other way exert an acceleration force. Mathematical considerations
of this momentum exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity.
• If temperature of a gas increases the momentum exchange between layers will increase
thus increasing viscosity.
• Viscosity will also change with pressure - but under normal conditions this change is
negligible in gasses.
Viscosity in Liquids
• There is some molecular interchange between adjacent layers. The molecules are much
closer than in gasses, hence, the cohesive forces hold the molecules in place more rigidly.
• Increasing the temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive forces and increases the
molecular interchange.
• Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear stress, while increasing molecular interchange
increases shear stress.
• High pressure can also change the viscosity of a liquid. As pressure increases the relative
movement of molecules requires more energy hence viscosity increases.
67
F
• The shear stress, τ, is τ=
A d
• For a particle at point E which moves under the shear stress to E’ in time t
dx φ dx dV
• The shear strain is φ= and the rate of shear strain is = =
dy t tdy dy
• It has been experimentally confirmed that the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain
dV
τ = Constant *
dy
• The proportionality constant is known as the dynamic viscosity, µ, Hence
Newton’s law of Viscosity is dV
τ =µ
dy
68
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
• For a solid the strain is a function of the applied stress (providing that the elastic limit has not been
reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.
• The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and (if the elastic limit
is not reached) the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow for as
long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is removed.
• Newtonian Fluids:
Fluids obeying Newton’s law
where the value of µ is constant
• Non-Newtonian Fluids:
Fluids in which the value
of µ is not constant
69
• Viscosity, µ, is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between molecules,
which offers resistance to sheer deformation.
• Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress. Fluid with a high
viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water.
• All fluids are viscous, “Newtonian Fluids” obey the linear relationship given by Newton’s law
of viscosity.
dV
τ =µ
dy
• Where
τ, is the shear stress, its dimensions ML-1 T -2 and its Units N m -2 or kg m-1 s -2
dV
is the velocity gradient or rate of shear strain, its Dimension t –1 and Units radians s-1
dy
70
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
• The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ, is defined as the shear force, per unit area, (or
shear stress τ), required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a
unit distance away.
• Typical values: Water =1.14 x 10-3 kg m-1 s-1 1 , Air =1.78 x 10-5 kg m-1 s-1 , Mercury
=1.552 kg m-1 s-1 , Paraffin Oil =1.9 kg m-1 s-1 .
71
Kinematic Viscosity
µ
ν=
ρ
• Typical values: Water =1.14 x 10-6 m2 s –1 - , Air =1.46 x 10-5 m2 s –1 , Mercury =1.145 x
10-4 m2 s –1 , Paraffin Oil =2.375 x 10-3 m2 s –1 .
72
Fluid Mechanics I Fluids Properties
Examples
• The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide, parallel plates
is given by the equation
3Vm y
2
V= 1 −
2 h
where Vm is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.2 N.s/m2. When Vm=0.6 m/s
and h=0.5 cm. determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the
shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline
(midplane).
73
Examples
• A large plate moves with speed vo over a stationary plate on a layer of oil of thickness d
and viscosity µ. If the velocity profile is that of a parabola, with the oil at the plates having
the same velocity as the plates, what is the shear stress on the moving plate from the oil?
If a linear profile is assumed, what is the shear stress on the moving plate? (Ans: µvo/(2d),
µvo/d )
74
Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
• They are designed to withstand a considerable pressure difference across their walls
• Most of the basic principles involved are independent of the cross-sectional shape
• For all flows involved in this section, we assume that the pipe is completely filled with the
fluid being transported
• The difference between open-channel flow and the pipe flow is in the fundamental
mechanism that drives the flow
» For pipe flow, gravity may be important, but the main driving force is likely to be a pressure
gradient along the pipe
• If the pipe is not full, it is not possible to maintain this pressure difference
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• The flow of real fluids exhibits viscous effect, that is they tend to .stick. to solid surfaces
and have stresses within their body
• You might remember from earlier in the course Newtons law of viscosity:
dV
τ∝
dy
• This tells us that the shear stress, τ, in a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient - the
rate of change of velocity across the fluid path. For a Newtonian fluid we can write:
dV
τ =µ
dy
• The constant of proportionality, µ, is known as the viscosity.
• In this part we shall look at how the forces due to momentum changes on the fluid and
viscous forces compare and what changes take place.
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
• Reynolds discovered that dependent on the speed of the flow the dye will flow smoothly, in
a wavy manner or in a vigorous eddying motion where it mixed completely with the water
• In turbulent the flow incorporate an eddying or mixing action. The motion of the fluid
particle is complex and involve fluctuations in velocity and direction
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
Examples:
• A flow of water trough a pipe of square cross section. The section is 500x500mm and the
mean velocity of flow is 3m/s. take viscosity to be 1.2*10-3 kg/m s.
• A flow of air through a pipe of diameter 35mm. The air velocity is 0.1 m/s and viscosity is
1.7*10-5 kg /m s
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p1 V12 p V2
+ + h1 = 2 + 2 + h2 + h f
ρg 2g ρg 2g
V
Pressure
P2
head
1 ρg
Piezometric
Piezometric
head
head
Z1
Z2
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
dV
• Assuming laminar flow and using Newton’s law of viscosity τ = −µ
dr
dV ∆p ∆p
• Thus, = − r ⇒ ∫ dV = − 2µL ∫ rdr
dr 2 µL
∆p 2
• Integrating will give V =− r + C1
4 µL
This is represent a parabolic velocity distribution
∆pD 2 2r
2
∆pD 2
• At r = D/2 we have V = 0 this will give C1 = , hence V = 1 −
16 µL 16µL D
r=D / 2
∆pD 2 2r πD 4 ∆p
2
p1 p2
• Using the Energy equation − = h f ⇒ ∆p = ρgh f
ρg ρg
πD 4 ρgh f 128µLQ
Q= ⇒ hf =
128µL πD 4 ρg
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32 µLVmean
• Using the mean velocity Vmean=Q/A will give hf = . We will drop the mean.
ρgD 2
ρVd 64 L V 2 L V2
• However, Re = therefore, hf = = f
µ Re D 2 g D 2g
• Following the experiments of Reynolds and Darcy and Wiesbach, the shear stress was
proportional to V2.
L V2
• Following the same analogy as above we get hf = f
D 2g
• The various experiments showed that the friction is dependent of the Re and the relative
roughness of the pipe k/D or ε/D
• Moody produced plots of the friction f as a function of Re and ε/D for commercial pipes
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
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V2
hL = K L
2 g Here, K is the loss coefficient
» Valves
KL = 0.2 KL = 0.04
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
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Example
• Determine the head lost to friction when water flows through 300m of 150mm diameter
galvanised steel pipe at 50 litres/s.
• Calculate the steady rate at which oil (ν =10-5 m2/s) will flow through a cast-iron pipe
100mm diameter and 120 m long under a head difference of 5 m.
• Determine the size of galvanised steel pipe needed to carry water a distance of 180 m at
85 litres/s with a head loss of 9 m.
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
Examples
• Oil of viscosity 0.048 Pa s and density 930 kglm3 flows through a horizontal 25 mm
diameter pipe with an average speed of 0.3 m/s.
(i) Check that the flow is laminar
(ii) Calculate the pressure drop in a 30 m length of pipe
(iii) Find the speed of the fluid at a distance of 6 mm from the wall of the pipe.
(Ans: Re = 145; (ii) 2.21 x 104 N/m2; (iii) 0.438 m/s)
• Calculate the power required to pump 50,000 kg of oil per hour along a horizontal pipeline
100 mm diameter and 1.6 km long if the density and kinematic viscosity of the oil are 915
kglm3 and 1.86 1O-3 m2/s. (Ans: 257 kw)
• Calculate the pressure drop and power required per 100 m length of horizontal 250 mm
diameter cast iron pipe to pump water (ν = 1.14 X 10-6 m2/s) at the rate of 2.0 litres per
second. (Ans: 11.1 N/m2; 2.22 x 10-2 W)
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Problems
• A pipeline connecting two water reservoirs having a difference of level of 6 m is 720 m long
and rises to a height of 3 m above the upper reservoir, at a distance of 240 m from it,
before descending to the lower reservoir. If the pipe diameter is 1.2 m and the friction
factor is 0.04, estimate the volume flow and the gauge pressure at the highest point in the
pipeline. Assume losses are those due to friction only. (Ans: 2.51 m3/s; -51.6x103 N/m2)
• Water from a large reservoir is discharged to atmosphere through a pipe 450 m long. The
outlet is 12 m below the surface level in the reservoir. Taking the friction factor as .04,
calculate the diameter of pipe necessary if the discharge is to be 9 x 1O-3 m3/s. Assume
that the loss at the inlet to the pipe and the kinetic energy in the water at the pipe outlet
are negligible and then justify this assumption. (Ans: 100mm)
• A pipe 50 mm diameter and 45 m long is connected to a large tank, the inlet to the pipe
being 3 m below the surface. The lower end of the pipe, which is 6 m below the upper
end, is connected to a 100 mm diameter horizontal pipe 75 m long which discharges to
atmosphere. If the friction factor is 0.036 calculate the discharge, taking into account the
entry loss and the sudden enlargement between the two pipes. (Ans: 4.66 x 10-3m3/s)
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Fluid Mechanics I Viscous Flow in Pipes
Problems
• A 200 mm diameter commercial steel pipeline 500 m long is to convey 4 m3 of water per
minute from a reservoir to a storage tank whose free surface level is 20 m above that of
the reservoir. If there are four standard elbow bends (loss coefficient 0.9 per elbow) and
two gate valves (loss coefficient 0.3 per valve) in the line, calculate the power required,
assuming the efficiency of the pump is 80%. (Ans: 24.9 kW)
•
• In the water system shown in Fig 9, a turbine is
situated in a 150 m length of 150 mm diameter
galvanised steel pipe, containing four 90° elbow
bends, which discharges to atmosphere. If the
turbine absorbs 10 kW from the water, estimate
the depth H required in the reservoir to give a
flow rate of 0.1 m3/s. (Ans: 51.25 m)
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