Professional Documents
Culture Documents
III
Chapter 1
HereDity
and Evolution
1. HEREDITY and Evolution
Heredity and Variation parents, in body design, function etc., The
rules of heredity determine the process
A cow gives birth to a calf. Both the by which the traits and the characteristics
mother cow and calf share common are relatively inherited.
characteristics like body design,
physiological function etc, that are specific “The inheritance of characteristics
to their species. However on a very close through generation is called heredity”
observation of the mother cow and the The inheritable characteristics may be
calf and the bull which is the calf’s other morphological/anatomical/physiological/
parent , we will come across a number reproductive and are also known as
of differences among them, like colour traits.
pattern in the skin. By virtue of being
If we take a very close look at the
Activity 1.1 rules of inheritance, both father and
•• Ask your classmates to roll their mother contribute equal amount of
tongues. Observe how many can genetic material to the child. This means
and how many are not able to roll that each trait can be influenced by
their tongues. Record your findings. both paternal and maternal genetic
material – i.e, DNA.
•• Similarly record the variation in the
eye colour noticed among your Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
classmates. worked out the first ever scientific
experimental study on heredity.
the progeny of the parent, the progeny Mendel, an Austrian Augustinian monk
individual, need not just be the replica observed variations in the characteristics
of what its parents are. (Inheritance of garden pea plant (Pisum sativum)
of characters from the parents to the which he had cultivated in his monastery
progeny ( i.e. , Heredity) ensures the garden. Mendel was curious to find out
passing of the parental characters to the
the results of crossing of pea plants
progeny). The difference or change in the
with the variation in traits. The visible
characteristics between the individuals
contrasting characters that Mendel
is called Variation. Human population
shows a great deal of variation. observed in the garden pea plants were
BIOLOGY
2
HEREDITY and Evolution
Full Constricted
Pod colour X
Parental
Tall Dwarf
→
Green Yellow
Flower
Position
F1 generation
X
Axial Terminal
Stem
height under natural condition.Similarly, dwarf
plants produced always dwarf plants
generation after generation. Hence, he
Tall Dwarf
termed the tall and dwarf plants as wild
Fig. 1.1 Seven pairs of contrasting
traits in Pea plant studied by Mendel. types or pure breeding varieties.
3
Then he crossed a tall plant with medium height plants or dwarf plants.
a dwarf plant, produced progeny and This means that only one of the parental
calculated the percentage of tallness and traits were seen and not the mixture of
dwarfness in subsequent generations. the two. When such a F1 tall plant was
allowed to have self pollination, both the
When a pure breeding tall plant was tall and dwarf plants appeared in second
crossed with a pure breeding dwarf filial generation (F2). in the ratio of 3:1.
plant, all plants were tall in the first filial This indicates that both tallness and
generation (F1) i.e., there was not any dwarfness were inherited in the F1 plants
but only tallness trait was expressed.
Gregor Johann Mendel(1822-1884)
The first experiment of Mendel
Mendel was considering the inheritance of a single trait
educated in a (Height of the plant Tall/Dwarf) is called
monastery and went Monohybrid Cross.
on to study science
Expression of morphological
and mathematics
characters as tall or dwarf plant, violet or
at the university of
white flower is called Phenotype.
Vienna. Failure in the
examinations for a teaching certificate The expression of gene (or
did not suppress his zeal for scientific Chromosomal make up) of an individual
quest. He went back to his monastery for a particular trait is called Genotype.
and started growing peas. Many others
1.1.2. Physical basis of heredity
had studied the inheritance of traits
in peas and other organisms earlier, The genotype of a character is
but Mendel blended his knowledge of influenced by factors, called Genes.
Science and Mathematics and was the The genes are the factors which form
first one to keep count of individuals the physical basis for inheritance of
exhibiting a particular trait in each Characters. The alternate expressions
generation. This helped him to arrive of the same gene are called alleles.
at the laws of inheritance that we have The contrasting pair of alleles make
discussed in the main text. up an allelomorph. Examples : Tall and
4
HEREDITY and Evolution
marked,significant and visible variations. ¡ It is the source of raw material for
evolution.
1.2.1. Types of variations
¡ Animals are able to adapt themselves
a. Somatic Variation - It pertains to
bodycells and it is not inherited. to the changing environment.
5
Lamarckian of a race, would be identical in all
View on organic evolution: aspects.
6
HEREDITY and Evolution
CHAPTER 1
7
ago, used to hide to protect them and based upon similarities and differences in
buried their dead. their physical and genetical characters.
Archaic Homo sapiens arose in South 1.7. Genetic engineering
Africa and moved across continents and
developed into distinct races during the Genetic engineering is the modification
ice age. Between 75,000 – 10,000 years, of the genetic information of living
the modern Homo sapiens arose. Pre- organisms by manipulation of DNA by
historic caves were developed about adding, removing or repairing part of
18,000 years ago, agriculture came genetic material (DNA) and changing the
around 10,000 years back and human phenotype of the organism. It is also known
settlements started. as gene manipulation or recombinant DNA
Technology (r-DNA Technology)
1.6. Evolution tree
Recent advances made in Genetics,
To understand evolution, a branching
Molecular Biology and Bio-Chemistry
diagram or “Tree” is used to show the
have resulted in the origin of this new
inferred evolution, relationships, among
branch of science. The benefits derived
various biological species or other entities
through the Genetic Engineering include:
Medical products
1. Insulin Fuel
2. Growth hormone Biogas Microbial metabolites
3. Vaccines 1. Enzymes
4. Antibiotics 2. Vitamins
5. Monoclonal 3. Steroids
antibodies 4. Ethanol
8
HEREDITY and Evolution
9
Development of Dolly
10
HEREDITY and Evolution
animals could be cloned from desirable The inner mass of undifferentiated cells
adult cells. are isolated and they are considered as
embryonic stem cells.
1.8.1 Types of Clones
2. Adult or Somatic Stem Cells:
Natural clones: The natural clones
The body of higher animals and human
include identical twins.
beings have many well differentiated
Induced clones: The induced tissues like epithelial, connective,
(artificial) clones are developed by muscular, vascular, supporting, nervous
nuclear transfer into the host cell and reproductive tissues. In these tissues,
there are some undifferentiated cells and
1.9. Stem Cell (Organ) are considered as the adult or somatic
Culture: stem cells. They can grow, multiply and
One of the most fascinating branches can be differentiated into same type of
in applied embryology is stem cell tissues into which they are implanted.
culture. The stem cells are the most The mechanism of adult or somatic stem
unspecialized mass of cells. They cell culture is similar to that of embryonic
are derived from animals and plants. stem cell culture. The somatic stem cells
They have two important characteristic are derived from sources such as bone
features. They are: marrow, embryos, amniotic fluid and
umbilical cord.
1.Unspecialized cells which have the
potentiality of growing and multiplying 1.10. Microbial Production
into enormous number of same type of As we discussed earlier, the field of
cells by repeated mitosis. Bio-technology is so vast and has great
2.They can be introduced to become scope for different fields like agriculture,
any other type of tissues with specific medicine, foodindustry etc.,
functions i.e., they can be induced to The microbial products of every day
become a cardiac muscle, beta cells use are:
of pancreas (which produce insulin),
special neurons in brain etc., Vaccines : Killed or live germs
suspension which is employed to induce
1.9.1. Types of Stem Cells the production of antibodies and bring
There are two kinds of stem cells forth immunity.
from early embryo which is developed fungi, bacteria etc., employed to kill the
by “invitro fertilization” (fertilisation made infectious germs and cure a disease.
artificially in the laboratory). Vitamin B12 : Bio technologically
After fertilization the zygote develops synthesized vitamin B12 is used, to cure
into a hollow blastula by cell division. pernicious anaemia.
1111
2.In the laboratory, a virus Bio-Chips
is altered so that it cannot
1. Cells are removed reproduce.
from patient Bio-Chips are microchips which are
3. A gene developed by employing techniques
is inserted
7. The genetically into the of Bio-technology. In future, biological
altered cells virus
produce the desired computers will be developed using
protien or hormone. bio-chips. Bio-Chips will be useful in
6.The altered cells defence, medicine etc.,
are injected into the
patient.
1.12 Science today - Gene
Therapy
4. The altered virus Insulin dependent diabetes is
5. The cells from is mixed with cells
the patient become from the patient. treated with insulin injection. Insulin
genetically altered .
dependent diabetes is caused by the
Fig 1.11 Gene therapy
degeneration of beta cells due to a
Enzymes : Bio-Chemically significant defective gene. Applying the principle
enzymes are derived from microbes \ Ex. of Bio-technology, it is possible to
Amylase is derived from amyloproteins correct the defective gene. When the
of bacteria. defective gene is corrected with a new
gene, the genetic defect developed is,
Insulin : Diabetes is treated by the rectified and cured.
biotechnologically produced insulin.
Gene Therapy is the means to treat
1.11. Bio-sensor and or even cure genetic and acquired
Bio-chips diseases like cancer and Aids by using
normal gene to supplement or replace
Bio sensor: It is a device consisting the defective gene.
of immobilized layer of biological material
such as enzyme, antibody, hormone, It can be used to treat defects in
nucleic acids, organelles or whole Somatic i.e., (body) or Gametic (sperm
cells and its contact with a sensor. The or eggs) Cell.
sensor converts biological signals into an Types of Gene Therapy
electrical signal. It is used in medicines
and industry. 1. Somatic gene therapy:- The
genome (gene set) of the
1. Blood glucose level can be recipient is changed. But this
detected. change is not passed along to
2. Production of any toxin in the body the next generation.
due to infection can be detected.
2. Germ line gene therapy:- Egg
BIOLOGY
12
HEREDITY and Evolution
Evaluation
Part A
7. T
he heritable characters are varying
1. Mendel observed 7 pairs of contrasting in different species and within the
characters in Pisum sativum. One same species.
of the following is not a part of that.
Find out. Name the variation in the following cases.
recessive characters.
b)__________ is alternate expression
b) In Garden pea plant, draw the of same gene.
diagrammatic representation of
mono hybrid cross as explained by c)__________ are contrasting pairs of
Mendel. alleles.(alleles, variation, speciation,
gene, allelomorph)
13
10. A change that affects the body cell a) Identical twins are __________
is not inherited. However , a change (Natural clones / Induced clones)
in the gamete is inherited. Radiation b) Identical twins are ____________
effects of Hiroshima has been (dissimilar to each other / similar
affecting generations. Analyzing to each other).
the above statements, give your
interpretation. 14. The ancestor of particular type of frog
found in India and Srilanka were the
11. Sequentially arrange the different same,
species of man from primitive to
modern man. (Neanderthal man,
Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo
sapiens)
12. Bio-technology , the modern science
in biology, has helped in producing
different types of products.
ne of the following group does not
O
a) With reference to the above map,
have a product of bio-technology.
identify the factor that has resulted
Pick out and give reasons.
in the formation of a new species.
a) Enzymes, Organic acids,
b) State a few other factors that help in
Steroids, Vaccines
the formation of new species.
b) Vaccines, Enzymes, Anti Part C
biotics, Organic acids
15. Human evolution has a record of
c) Anti biotics, Hormones, changes for the past of 15 milion
Steroids, Vaccines years.
d) Steroids, Enzymes, Anti bodies, a) Name the different species of
Vaccines. mankind in chronological order
13. Identical twins are syngenic with from primitive to modern man.
similar chromosomal contents. b)When were the primitive caves
Natural clones are those who developed.?
possess identical chromosomes. Fill
up with the suitable word given in c) Narrate the life led by early man like
the bracket. hominids.
further reference
BIOLOGY
14
Chapter 2
IMMUNE
SYSTEM
2. IMMUNE SYSTEM
IMMUNE SYSTEM and has no black rings around his
eyes.
“Health is Wealth” is an apt proverb.
There can be no wealth greater than 2. Mental dimension : A mentally
the good health that a person enjoys. In healthy person who knows his
a healthy state, a person keeps himself capacities, does not overestimate or
physically, mentally and socially, fit. Our underestimate himself and can judge
body has a complex defense mechanism his shortcomings and weaknesses.
to keep itself fit and work against various 3. Social dimension : A person
agents which disturb our well being.
Being exposed to diseases, we develop
resistance towards diseases and gain
immunity. Physical Mental
Well being Well being
2.1. Health and its significance
“Health is a state of physical, mental and
social well being of an individual and not
merely absence of a disease or infirmity”. HEALTH
When a person is in good health, the
different organ systems, not only function
well discharging their duties, but the body
as a whole is also able to adjust itself and
strike a balance with the physical, mental
and social environments.
Social
The varying environmental factors such Well being
as temperature, humidity, wind, pressure,
sun, rain, pollution caused by man, atomic
radiation, malnutrition, the millions of Fig. 2.1 Dimensions of health
microbes that surround our bodies, the
inter-personal conflicts are all other factors
adjusting himself in society, does not
affect our lives and are challenges to our
find fault with others. He maintains
health.
interpersonal relationships with his
biology
16
IMMUNE SYSTEM
• of students/neighbours who
are healthy.
• of students/neighbours who
Metabolic Pathogens
do not have good interpersonal
relationship and do not enjoy so-
cial well being. Fig. 2.2 Causes of diseases
17
Obesity, Alzheimer’s disease, Stroke 4. Diseases caused by Organisms:
affecting the functions of the brain, etc, are Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur were
all caused due to metabolic disorders. the first to establish the Germ theory of
diseases. A germ or microbe gains entry
2. Hereditary diseases or Genetical
into the host, such as man, multiplies so
disorders: The genetical disorders are
fast that it can increase in large numbers,
caused due to defective or mutated
produce poisonous substance called Toxins
genes. Albinism is an inherited disorder
and interfere with the host metabolism and
of melanin metabolism, characterized by
produce a characteristic set of symptoms
the absence of melanin in the skin , hairs
by which the disease can be diagnosed.
and eyes. The recessive mutant genes
cause this disorder. The clinical symptoms Disease producing organism
of Albinism are milky white coloured skin
and marked photophobia (high sensitivity
to light). Haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia,
Thalassemia, Down’s syndrome, Bubble
boy syndrome, etc,. are a few other
genetical disorders.
3. Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: A
diet which contains all essential nutrients
in correct proportion, is indispensable for
maintaining good health. Deficiency in
certain food constituents, causes various
kinds of diseases. Protein deficiency
causes Marasmus and Kwashiorkar. In
Marasmus, the child loses weight and
suffers severe diarrhoea and it will appear Fig. 2.4 Kwashiorkar
as though bones are covered by the
skin. In Kwashiorkar the child develops
an enlarged belly with swelling in the
face and feet.
biology
18
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Dementia, dermatitis,
Vitamin B5 Pellagra
diarrhoea
Defective calcification of
Vitamin D Rickets
bones
a protein cover. All the known viruses are Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, etc.
parasitic and some of them cause deadly
Fungi and Fungal Diseases: Fungi
diseases such as. polio, rabies, hepatitis,
are non green saprophytic or parasitic
meningitis, encephalitis (brain fever), etc. plants living on dead and decaying organic
3. Bacteria and Bacterial Diseases: matter or living organisms. Certain species
19
of fungi are parasitic on man and cause Protozoan and Protozoan Diseases:
Ringworm attacking the keratinized layer Protozoans are unicellular animalcules,
of skin, destroying it in circular patches. some parasitize man and cause diseases
such as malaria, amoebic dysentery,
sleeping sickness, etc.
Parasitic macro-organisms:
Infestations of the body with tapeworm,
liver fluke, round worm, filarial worm, etc,.
cause diseases in man like Taeniasis,
Ascariasis, Filariasis, etc,.
2.3. Diseases causedby
Microbes and
prevention
A disease caused by a parasitic
organism and transmitted from one person
to another by the transfer of the parasite is
known as infectious disease.
We shall study the cause, spread and
Fig. 2.6 Bacilli
prevention of a few selected infectious
Dandruff, Athletes’ foot are some other diseases prevalent in our country so that
fungal diseases in man. we will know how to guard ourselves
against them and other similar diseases.
Membranous
RNA Capsomere envelope
DNA Head DNA
Tail
Sheath
Capsomere RNA Tail
of capsid Fiber
Capsid
Glycoprotein
Glycoprotein
biology
(a) Tobacco (b) Adeno viruses (c) Influenza viruses (d) Bacteriophage
mosaic virus
Fig. 2.7 Types of Viruses
20
IMMUNE SYSTEM
21
2.3.2. Bacterial diseases viable germs. The waxy cell wall of the
tuberculosis bacillus prevents it from drying
Bacteria are prokarotic organisms.
up and so it can remain viable outside
Some of the bacteria are parasitic in
the body for a long period. The germs
man, causing diseases like TB, Cholera,
suspended in the air may be inhaled by
Typhoid, dysentry etc.,
a healthy person.
2.3.2.1. Tuberculosis
Prevention
It is an airborne disease affecting the
i) Keeping oneself healthy and avoiding
lungs and also parts of our body such as
insanitary conditions, overcrowding
bones, joints, lymph glands, alimentary
and poor ventilation.
tract, liver, kidney, etc,.
ii) Sunlight and fresh air are important
Causative agent: Mycobacterium agents, as they act as natural
tuberculosis, a rod shaped bacterium disinfectants readily destroying the
causes tuberculosis (TB). germs.
Symptoms iii) Isolation of the patients and frequent
sterilization of articles used by them
i) T he affected parts develop lesions
are also important.
in the form of small nodules called
iv) Incineration (burning) of the droplets,
tubercles from which the disease gets
the sputum from the patients to
its name.
prevent its occurrence in the air.
ii) Persistant cough
v) Immunization with BCG vaccine is
iii) Loss of body weight
an effective measure to prevent this
Transmission
disease.
Tuberculosis is transmitted through air.
Large number of bacteria leave the patients
through the droplets of sputum expelled Activity 2.2
by the patients while eating, sneezing, Making a culture of live bacteria
talking, laughing and so on by the patients.
Boil a few grams of chopped meat,
The droplets may remain suspended in
carrot and potatoes in water for 15
the air for a long time. The dust arising
minutes, then filter off the solid matter
from the sputum may also contain
to obtain a fairly clear broth.
Leave the broth in open test tubes
for a few hours. Plug the tubes with
cotton wool and leave them in a warm
o
palce (approximately 25 C) until the
broth has “gone bad” owing to the
biology
growth of bacteria.
What you have produced, is a
bacteria culture.
Fig. 2.10 Tuberculosis bacteria
22
IMMUNE SYSTEM
23
Ruptured Human
oocyst liver stages
Microgametocyte
entering Schizont
macrogametocyte Macrogametocyte Gametocytes
Gametocytes
24
IMMUNE SYSTEM
iii) Using mosquito nets and repellants Prevention and control: Precaution
also, will grossly lower the chance may be taken by providing germ free clean
for infection. water; clean food habits. Good sanitary
2.3.3.2. Amoebic dysentry (Amoebiasis) facilities will control the flies.
Causative agent: Entamoeba 2.3.4. Fungal diseases in man
histolytica – a protozoan parasite in the Some of the fungi are parasitic on man
large intestine of man causes Amoebiasis. and cause diseases
Symptoms
i) Fever.
ii) Constipation and abdominal pain and
cramps.
iii) Stools with excess mucous and
blood clot.
Transmission
It is a water and food borne disease.
House flies act as mechanical carrier and
serve to transmit the parasite from the
faeces of infected persons to the food –
thereby contaminating the food and water.
Fig. 2.14 Ringworm
2.3.4.1. Ringworm
Six stages of hand washing technique Three different genera of fungi namely,
Epidermophyton, Microsporum and
Trichophyton cause ringworm.
Symptoms
1. Palm to Palm 2.Back of Hands The above fungi live on the dead cells
of outer layer of skin in man and cause
superficial infections in skin, hair, nail, etc;
and form patches and Itching
Transmission
3. Interdigital spaces 4. Finger Tips By direct contact or through fomites such
as towels, combs, etc,.
CHAPTER 2
25
of infectious germs he gets infected.
The transfer of a disease causing germ Through the umblical cord, the germs
from an infected person to a normal are transferred from the infected mother
healthy person through certain agents or to the child at the time of childbirth by the
direct contact is called transmission of the direct contact method.
disease. The transmission can take place Indirect transmission through
in one of the following ways; fomites: Some germs may remain viable
Direct Transmission : By direct outside the body of the hosts and may
transfer of germs from the patient to normal be transferred indirectly through close
healthy person through close contact, inanimate objects used by the patients
the diseases like diphtheria, pneumonia, like clothing, bedding, handkerchief,
cholera, typhoid, measles, mumps, etc,. toilet articles, utensils, drinking cups and
are transmitted. glasses that are freshly soiled with the
germs present in the discharges of the
During sneezing, coughing and patients. Such contaminated objects are
talking, the droplets from the patients are called fomites.
discharged from the mouth and the nose
and enter the air. While a normal person is Transmission by animals: Various
inhaling such air, laden with the droplets, animals such as ticks, mites, birds, insects
and mammals transmit diseases like
cholera, malaria, rabies, etc;
2.5. Immunization
Immunity: Immunity is part of a complex
system of defence reaction in the body. It
means the defence against or specific
resistance exhibited towards the infectious
organisms and their products.
26
IMMUNE SYSTEM
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
IMMUNITY
Active Passive
Antibodies are Pre-formed
produced by bring forth immunity
antigenic stimulus
Natural Artificial
CHAPTER 2
27
stimulating the body to produce antibody with antigenic stimulus.
If the readymade antibody is taken from the mother’s blood into the foetus, it is called
Natural Passive Acquired Immunity. If the readymade antibody is given to an individual
artificially, (produced in some other animal and extracted) it is called Artificial Passive Acquired
More to know
What kind of Immunity does a child get when it is breast fed ?BREAST FEED IS THE
BEST FOOD. Antibodies or Immunoglobins are found in breast milk. Through breast milk
antibodies are passed on to the nursing baby. Bottle fed infants do not have the advantage
of fighting the ingested pathogens on their own until the antibodies are produced in them.
An infant should be breast fed for a minimum of six months.
Medical establishment knows that infants who are breastfed contract fewer infections than
bottle fed infants. Breast milk protects the child, against bacteria like Escherichia coli, Sal-
monella, Shigella, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Pneumococci and viruses like Polioviruses
and Rotaviruses.
Immunization schedule
The immunization schedule indicates the stages at which the vaccinations and
inoculations have to be given to safeguard children against different diseases. The
table given below lists the names of vaccines, their dosages and the stage at which
they have to be administered.
biology
28
IMMUNE SYSTEM
29
Biotechnologically synthesized insulin Symptom s: Sign ifican t wei gh t
has been effectively used replacing the loss, chronic diarrhoea, prolonged
defective insulin to treat diabetes mellitus fever, opportunistic infections such as
in the field of medicine. tuberculosis, candidiasis and recurrent
2.8. HIV and Prevention herpes zoster (viral) infection.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Test for Virus:
Syndrome (AIDS) is a dreadful disease 1. Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent
transmitted through sexual contact or Assay (ELISA)
through blood and blood products. Robert
Gallo at National Institute of Health, USA 2. Western Blot – a confirmatory test.
and Luc Montagnier at Pasteur Institute, Prevention:
Paris isolated the virus, Human Immuno
1. Protected sexual behaviour.
Deficiency Virus (HIV) which causes
AIDS. 2. Safe sex practices.
3. Screening the blood for HIV before
HIV is a retro virus with glycoprotein
blood transfusion.
envelope and the genetic material – RNA.
HIV causes profound Immuno suppression 4. Usage of disposable syringes in the
in humans. It is due to the depletion of hospitals.
one type of WBC, which is involved in the 5. Not sharing the razors / blades in the
formation of antibodies called CD4 plus saloon.
T-helper cells (lymphocytes).
6. Avoid tattooing using common needle.
Evaluation
PART A 2. Which one of the following is a state
of a disease in which a person is not
1. Pick out a case of healthy state of an
socially balanced.
individual.
He enjoys a birthday party,
Mr. X is recovering from an infectious
disease, He behaves rudely even for menial
matters,
Mr. Y is taking insulin injection
biology
30
IMMUNE SYSTEM
31
A B C
Vitamins Deficiency diseases Symptoms
e.g. Vitamin A Nyctalopia Night Blindness
Vitamin B1 Scurvy Nerbvous disorder
Vitamin C Rickets Bleeding Gum
Defective calcification
Vitamin D Haemorrhage of bones
Vitamin K Beri-beri Profuse loss of blood
16. Kavitha is suffering from common cold. What are the questions you will
furthEnce
Books: 1. Biology - RAVEN, Johnson WCB Mc Graw - Hill
2. Biology - A Modern Introduction, B.S. Beckett, Second Edition Oxform
University Press.
ZOOLOGY
32
Chapter 3
Axon Axon
The nervous system provides an organ- Bipolar
Unipolar Multipolar
ized network of point to point connections
for a quicker coordination. The endocrine Fig. 3.1 structure of neuron and types
system provides chemical integration
34
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
35
d) Bipolar neurons: which convert the electrical impulse
into chemical impulse and pass it to the
The sensory hair cells of the sense
neighbouring neuron.
organs like rods and cones of retina
are made up of bipolar neurons. Each 3.1.3 Human nervous system
bipolar neuron has a cell body and two
process at the ends, one acting as The human nervous system is divided into
axon and the other acting as Dendron. a) The Central Nervous System
e) Multipolar neuron: (CNS) and
the same as electrical impulse to the cover is a very thin delicate membrane
axon through the cyton. At the synapse, and is closely applied on the outer
the synaptic knobs release out chemical surface of brain and spinal cord and it
substances called neuro transmitters is called Piamater.
36
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
Cerebrum
Thoracic nerves
This forms the major part of the human
brain (nearly two third of the brain is
cerebrum). A deep cleft called median
cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally
into two halves as right and left cerebral
hemispheres, which are united at the
base by a sheet of nervous tissue called
Lumbar nerves corpus callosum, The outer region of
the cerebrum is distinguished as, the grey
matter or cerebral cortex and the inner
Femoral nerve region is called white matter.
Cerebral cortex
Sciatic nerve
It consists of the nerve cell bodies of
several layers of greyish nerve cells giving
grey colour – so called as grey matter. The
increased surface area of the cerebral
Tibial nerve cortex in man is folded and thrown into
a pattern of convolutions consisting of
ridges and furrows.
CHAPTER 3
37
Motor areas Within the cerebral hemispheres are
present cavities called ventricles, filled
Motor areas are the sites of order or
with a nutritive fluid called cerebro spinal
command of the cerebrum, from where
fluid.
the order arises to control the activities
of the different organs of our body. Functions of cerebrum: Cerebrum is
Initiation of voluntary activities takes the seat of consciousness, intelligence,
place here. memory, imagination and reasoning. It
receives impulses from different parts
Major Internal Parts of the Human Brain of the body and initiates voluntary
Cingulate activities. Specific areas of cerebrum
sulcus are associated with specific functions.
Corpus Thus there is a centre for hearing,
callosum
Midbrain another for seeing, another for tasting,
another for smelling, another for
speaking and so on. A damage in
Temporal a specific centre of cerebrum will
lobe
Pons deprive the particular faculty from doing
its functions.
Medulla Cerebellum
Fig. 3.3 Major internal parts of human brain. Thalamus
Cerebrum wraps around a structure
Sensory areas called thalamus – a major conducting
These are the sites where the sensory centre for sensory and motor signalling.
functions of the various sense organs are Hypothalamus
received through the sensory nerves.
It lies at the base of the thalamus.
Association areas It controls body temperature, urge to
These are responsible for complex
functions like intersensory associations, Speech Motor control
Touch and
memory and communication. Pressure
Taste
White matter of cerebrum: The inner Hearing
part of the cerebrum lying below the Language
cerebral cortex is called white matter Reading
and it consists of bundles of nerve Vision
fibres with myelin sheath giving the
white colour. Some of these bundles of Smell
BIOLOGY
38
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
The mid brain is located between the 3.1.3.1.2 The Spinal cord
thalamus and the hind brain. A canal
This is a tubular structure, a continuation
called cerebral aqueduct passes through
of the brain lying in the neural canal of the
the mid brain. The dorsal portion of the
vertebral column. The three meninges –
mid brain consists of four hemispherical
Piamater, Arachnoid membrane and the
bodies called corpora quadrigemina
Duramater cover the spinal cord as in the
which controls and regulates the various
case of brain.
visual reflexes and optical orientation.
The spinal cord has two enlargements
Mid brain with hind brain together form
– one in the neck region of the body
the brain stem.
called cervical plexus and another in
Hind brain the lumbar region of the vertebral column
called lumbar plexus.
Hind brain comprises of pons,
cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The spinal nerves arise from these
enlargements. The lower end of the
Cerebellum spinal cord is filamentous and is called
It lies below the cerebrum and consists Filum terminale. On the mid dorsal
of a median portion and two lateral lobes. side of the spinal cord is found a narrow
Cerebellum regulates and coordinates the depression called dorsal fissure and on
group movements of voluntary muscles the mid ventral side of the spinal cord is
as in walking or running. found a deep depression called ventral
fissure. Running through the center
Pons of the spinal cord is the central canal,
It is the bridge of nerve fibres that an extension of the ventricle filled with
connects the lobes of cerebellum. It relays cerebro spinal fluid. Outer region of the
the information from the cerebrum to spinal cord contains medullated white
cerebellum. It also contains sleep centre neurons and the inner region contains
and respiratory centre. non-medullated grey neurons. The spinal
cord conducts impulses to and from the
Medulla oblongata
brain and acts as a reflex centre.
CHAPTER 3
39
a) Cranial nerves: hormones are carried by the blood from
the site of production to the site of action.
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise
from the brain. Some of the cranial Endocrine glands in man are distributed
nerves are sensory nerves (taking in the different regions of the body without
impulse from the sense organ to the interconnections. The various endocrine
brain e.g., optic nerves from the eyes). glands found in different regions in man
Some of the cranial nerves are the are as follows:
motor nerves taking impulse from the
brain to the effector organ. e.g. vagus
nerve innervating the heart and some Hypothalamus
are mixed nerves with both sensory
and motor functions. e.g facial nerve Pineal
b) Spinal nerves: Pituitary
Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves arise
from the spinal cord. Each spinal nerve Thyroid and
has a sensory root and a motor root. parathyroid
Thus, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves. Thymus
3.1.3.3 The Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
It controls the functions of the vital organs Pancreas
of the body through its two antagonistic Adrenal
divisions namely, sympathetic nerves and
parasympathetic nerves. Ovary
(In female)
3.2. Endocrine system in
man Testis
(In male)
The chemical coordination of
physiological processes to maintain the Fig. 3.5 Endocrine system in man
homeostasis is the work of endocrine
system. Endocrines control and coordinate Head – a) pituitary gland
the physical processes of growth,
reproduction and sustenance of life. b) pineal gland
b) parathyroid gland
Endocrine glands are ductless glands
Thorax – thymus gland
(without ducts), secreting the chemical
substances called hormones. The Abdomen – a) pancreas – Islets of
Langerhans
40
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
b) adrenal glands –
adrenal cortex and
adrenal medulla
c) gonads – testes in man
and ovaries in woman Adenohypophsis
Hormones (Anterior Pituitary)
Hormones of
Functions and malfunctions
adenohypophysis
•• It brings forth growth in general
•• Less production in children – dwarfism
Somatotropic or with retarded growth
Growth hormone •• Excess production in children – gigantism
(STH or GH) with excess growth
•• Excess production in adolescents –
acromegaly with large limbs and lower jaw
Thyrotropic or Thyroid It stimulates the growth of thyroid gland and
stimulating hormone (TSH) its production – the thyroxine
CHAPTER 3
Adrenocorticotropic
It stimulates the adrenalcortex to produce the
or Adrenal cortex
hormones aldosterone and cortisone
stimulating hormone (ACTH)
41
It stimulates the maturation of graafian follicles (in
Follicle stimulating
the ovary) in the female, to produce the eggs and
hormone (FSH)
sperm formation in the males.
Hormones of Neuro
Functions and malfunctions
hypophysis
It speeds up the child birth process, by stimulating the
Oxytocin contraction and relaxation of the uterus in the female.
or Antidiuretic
pressure
hormone (ADH)
Less production of ADH results in diabetes insipidus,
leading to production of excess of dilute urine.
42
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
Parathyroid
43
metabolic rate, loss of mental cells and beta cells. Alpha cells produce
and physical vigour, increase in a hormone called glucagon and Beta
weight, thickening of skin, lowered cells produce insulin and amylin.
heartbeat, mental dullness, etc,.
Insulin
c) Cretinism – This is produced in
•• It promotes the uptake of glucose by
children and the symptoms are
the cells for tissue oxidation.
stunted growth, retarded mental
development, defective teeth, •• It favours conversion of glucose,
protrusion of tongue and loose skin. into glycogen and its storage in the
liver and the muscles.
2) Hyperthyroidism – The excess
production of thyroxine causes •• It prevents the formation of glucose
exophthalmic goiter or Grave’s from protein and fat.
disease. The symptoms are high •• It maintains normal blood glucose
metabolic rate, high blood pressure, level at 80 – 120 mg / 100 ml of
high irritability, profuse sweating, loss blood.
of weight, fatigueness and protrusion
of eyeballs. Diabetes mellitus
(a) (b)
BIOLOGY
44
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
Adrenal gland (Supra renal gland) •• They increase the respiratory rate.
On each kidney is found an adrenal •• They promote the conversion of
gland. It is composed of two portions, an glycogen into glucose.
outer adrenal cortex and an inner adrenal
medulla. •• They cause dilation of pupil.
It secretes two hormones namely, •• They make the hair stand erect.
Aldosterone and Cortisone (gooseflesh)
45
Progesterone maintains pregnancy and You have studied the process of mitosis
regulates menstrual cycle. in the previous year. We will understand
the various stages of meiosis and its
Relaxin relaxes the muscles of the
significance in this unit.
pelvic region at the time of child birth.
MEIOSIS
Parathyroid gland Paternal
homologue
These are found within thyroid
and produce the hormones mainly Chromosome Maternal
parathormone and calcitonin which replication homologue
maintain the mineral metabolism.
Thymus gland Pairing of
homologous
chromosomes
I t ’s a l y m p h o i d m a s s , p r e s e n t
above the heart. It secretes thymosin
which stimulates the differentiation of Synapsis and
crossing over
“T”lymphocytes to resist infection.
Pineal gland
It lies under the corpus callosum in the
brain. It produces melatonin ,causing
concentration of pigments in some specific
areas like areola, scrotal sacs, etc,.
Cell division - I
3.3. Cell division
A matured cell divides into two
daughter cells. Unicellular animalcules
like amoeba, undergo binary fission –
without any change in the chromatin
reticulum by a type of cell division called
Amitosis. Cell division - II
46
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
47
47
of chromosomes. Now two groups of chromosomes. The daughter chromosomes
chromosomes are produced, one at each move towards the opposite poles.
pole with half the number of chromosomes.
Telophase - II
Telophase - I
The haploid set at the two poles coil
At the poles, around the group of to form chromatin material. The nuclear
chromosomes, a nuclear membrane membrane and nucleolus reappear. Thus
develops. Thus two daughter nuclei each two daughter nuclei are formed.
with half the number of chromosomes, Cytokinesis
are formed at the poles. The spindle
fibres disappear. The cytoplasmic division takes place
at right angles to the position of the nuclei
At the end of Meiosis-I at right angle to ,resulting in the formation of four gametes.
the position of the nuclei, the cytoplasmic
constriction takes place leading to the Significance of Meiosis
division of the cell. The cytoplasmic
1. Haploid sex cells are produced, in
division is called Cytokinesis.
order to maintain the constancy in the
Meiosis - II number of chromosomes of a species.
Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis and so 2. Crossing over results in variation of
it is called Meiotic Mitosis. The events genetic traits in the offspring.
of Meiosis-II are studied in four sub-divi-
3. Variations form the raw material for
sions as, Prophase-II, Metaphase-II, Ana-
evolution.
phase-II and Telophase-II.
3.4. Heredity
Prophase - II
The resemblance of son or daugh-
The bivalent chromosomes gets
ter with his or her father or mother, is an
shortened. The centrioles form asters
interesting feature in nature. Inheritance
and move to the poles. The nucleolus and
of c haracters from the parents to the
nuclear membrane disappear.
progeny, (i.e heredity) ensures the passing
Metaphase - II of the parental characters to the progeny.
The inheritance of characteristics through
Chromosomes, each consisting of two
generations is called heredity.
chromatids held together by a centromere
are arranged at the equator of the spindle The inheritable characters may be
fibres. The centromeres are attached with morphological or physiological or anatomical
the spindle fibres. or reproductive and are also known as traits.
Anaphase - II Both the mother and father contribute equal
BIOLOGY
48
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY
EVALUATION
Part A 8. Normal blood glucose level in 100 mlof
blood is _________.
1. Unipolar neurons are found in
___________. 9. The “T” lymphocytes are differentiated
to resist infection in _____. (parathyroid
Brain, Spinal Chord, Embryonic gland, lymph gland,thymus gland,
nervous tissue, Adult nervous adrenal gland).
tissue.
10. In Meiosis-I, the pairing of homologous
2. The sensory organs contain chromosomes take place during
___________. _____ stage. (leptotene, zygotene,
Unipolar neuron,Bipolar neuron, pachytene, diplotene)
Multipolar neuron, Medullated neuron. Part B
3. The part of brain which controls 11. Copy the diagram and label any two
emotional reactions in our body is parts in the group given.
____.
Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Thalamus,
Hypothalamus.
4. One of the following is the part of the
brain stem. Pick out.
(cyton, axon, dendron, endplate)
Fore brain and mid brain, Mid brain
and hind brain, 12. This diagram is human brain, and the
functions of different parts are given
Fore brain and hind brain, Fore below.
brain and spinal cord.
A. Seat of smell
5. Spinal nerves are ________.
B. Seat of vision
Sensory nerves, Motor nerves,
Mixed nerves, Innervating the brain.
6. An endocrine gland found in neck is Mark A and B in the parts of the brain,
___________. Corresponding with the function.
adrenal gland, pituitary gland, 13. On the basis of the function performed,
CHAPTER 3
49
49
c.Testes produces sperms and the 17. In Amoeba, the cell division takes
hormone androgen. place –––––––––
d.Pancreas produces enzymes and (involving changes in the
harmones. chromatinreticulum,
14.Based on relationships fill in the blanks. without involving changes in the
Thyroxine: personality hormone; chromatin reticulum,
adrenaline :_________.
leading to reduction in the number
15. Correct the statements if they are of chromosomes,without dividing
wrong. the nucleus. )
a .alpha cells produce insulin and 18. Pick out the item which has sequential
beta cells produce glucagon arrangements
b. cortisone suppresses the immune a. zygotene -> Leptotene -> Pachytene
response -> Diplotene -> Diakinesis
c. thymus gland is a lymphoid mass. b. Diakinesis -> zygotene -> Leptotene
d. O
vary produces eggs and -> Pachytene -> Diplotene
Androgen..
c. Leptotene -> zygotene -> Pachytene
16. Reduction division is the process by -> Diplotene -> Diakinesis
which gametes are produced,. The
cells in which reduction division take 19. The important event of meiosis is the
place are crossing over. It occurs during
(germinal epithelial cells, the sensory (Leptotene,Pachytene,Diplotene,
epithelial cells,cuboidal epithelial Zygotene. )
cells,columnar epithelial cells.)
further reference
Books: 1. Biology - RAVEN, Johnson WCB Mc Graw - Hill
2. B iology - A Modern Introduction, B.S. Beckett, Second Edition
Oxform University Press.
BIOLOGY
50
Chapter 4
Reproduction
in plants
4. Reproduction in plants
Spores – Fungi
Sexual reproduction – Mammals Pollination and Fertilization – Flowering
plants
52
Reproduction in plants
53
Reproduction in unicellular organisms :
By Fission
Amoeba Bacteria
DNA Replication
Septum Formation
Cell Separation
Binary Fission.
Spiral
•• Now compare the observations of Chloroplast
both the slides.
Fig. 4.4 Fragmentation in spirogyra
54
Reproduction in plants
Aplanospores Zoospores
Shoot
Bud Notch
Akinetes Conidia
Fig. 4.5 Bryophyllum
Fig. 4.6 Different kinds of spores
55
Questions
1. D
ifferentiate vegetative Stigma Style
Ovary
propagation and sexual Filament Anther
reproduction.
2. M
ention some of the spores of
asexual reproduction.
4.1.4. Sexual reproduction in plants
What is sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction is the process in
which two components ( male and female)
are involved to produce offsprings of their
own kind.
A bull alone cannot produce new calves. It
needs a cow. Female sheep alone Corolla
Ovule Calyx
cannot produce new ones. It needs a
male sheep.
Fig. 4.7 Parts of a flower
Both the sexes, male and female, are
needed to produce new offspring.
As you have already studied in your
earlier classes, the flower is a
reproductive organ of a flowering plant.
To understand this we need to look first
at the structure of a flower.
1
2. FiIament
The main parts of a flower are,
1. Calyx Fig 4.8 Androecium
BIOLOGY
56
Reproduction in plants
57
4.2.1. Self Pollination 4.2.3. Agents of cross pollination
Self pollination is also known as How is it possible for the transfer of
autogamy. The transfer of pollen grains pollen grains from one flower to another?
from the anther of a flower to the stigma In order to bring about cross pollination,
of the same flower or another flower of the it is necessary that the pollen should be
same plant is known as self pollination. carried from one flower to another of a
different plant. This takes place through
Advantages of self pollination agency of animals, insects, wind and water.
new varieties.
2. More viable seeds are produced.
Fig. 4.11 Zoophily
58
Reproduction in plants
4.3. FERTILIZATION
Recall what you have studied about
pollination.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
Fig. 4.12 Anemophily from the anther to the stigma. Each pollen
grain has protective walls called exine and
The pollen grains are dry and powdery, intine. The outer wall exine is thick and it
and hence are easily carried by the wind. has small pores called germination pores.
Some pollen grains even have wings. The inner wall is thin and elastic.
Stigmas are large and protruding, even
branched and feathery. e.g.Maize. Germination of pollen grain
Flowers pollinated by wind are called If pollen grain falls on a suitable
Anemophilous, e.g. Grass and pine. stigma, it starts germinating. A mature
pollen consists of two cells. The larger
one is vegetative cell and the smaller
Activity 4.6
one is generative cell. The vegetative cell
•• Collect some of the zoophilous, starts growing and emerges through the
anemophilous,hydrophilous germination pore. It develops through the
flowers. style as a long tube known as pollen tube.
•• Prepare a chart and make a note The generative cell gets into the tube and
of their adaptations to suit the divides into two male gametes (sperms).
corresponding pollination.
Pollen grain
Pollination by Water (Hydrophily)
CHAPTER 4
59
4.3.1. Process of fertilization Endosperm is a nutritive tissue meant
The pollen tube enters into the embryo for the development of the embryo. The
sac through micropyle. At this time, process of fusion of a male gamete with
egg and the other gamete with secondary
the pollen tube bursts open, gametes
nucleus is known as double fertilization.
released from the pollen tube and enter
into the embryosac. One of the gametes 4.3.3. Post fertilization changes :
fuses with the egg, and the other fuses
i. The ovule develops into seed.
with the secondary nucleus. The fusion
ii. The integuments of the ovule
of a male gamete with egg is known as
develop into seed coats.
fertilization. The fertilized egg is known
iii.The ovary enlarges and develops
as zygote which develops into embryo.
into fruit.
Pollen grain
4.4. FRUIT FORMATION
Style Pollen tube
You are all very familiar with fruits. They
are inseparable with us in our day-to-day
life. Fruits are rich in vitamin and give
Ovule Embryo sac energy to us. Now let us discuss about the
development of fruits and their types.
As we discussed earlier, fruits are the
product of fertilization. The ovary will
Fig. 4.15 Process of fertilization become fruit after fertilization. It has two
parts namely pericarp (fruit wall) and
4.3.2. Double fertilization
seeds.
The other male gamete fuses with
the secondary nucleus. The secondary Some fruits develop without the act
nucleus is diploid in nature. of fertilization. Such fruits are called
Parthenocarpic fruits. e.g. seedless
grapes, guava, mango etc.
4.4.1. Classification of fruits
The fruits are classified as follows:
Simple fleshy fruits
In simple fleshy fruits, the pericarp is
succulent and juicy when fully ripe. The
Fig. 4.16 Double fertilization
fleshy fruits are indehiscent in nature. The
pericarp is distinguished into three parts,
BIOLOGY
The fusion of this nucleus with the namely epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
second male gamete is known as triple There are mainly two types of fleshy fruits
fusion. The triple fusion nucleus is called – Baccate and Drupaceous. Baccate is
endosperm nucleus because it develops further classified into berry, hesperidium,
into endosperm. pome and pepo.
60
Reproduction in plants
61
Simple fleshy fruits
62
Reproduction in plants
63
2. Caryopsis Paddy It is a one seeded fruit which
develops from superior mono-
carpellary ovary. Pericarp is
fused with the seed coat (e.g
paddy, wheat, maize).
64
Reproduction in plants
Schizocarpic Fruits
Composite Fruits
65
Sl.No Type Diagram Description
2. Syconus Fig It is derived from a special
type of inflorescence known
as hypanthodium which has a
fleshy receptacle. It has large
number of minute unisexual
flowers. On ripening, the
receptacle becomes fleshy
and juicy and forms the edible
portion (e.g.) banyan, peepal ,
fig, etc.
66
Reproduction in plants
67
This not only eliminates the unhealthy The spongy thalamus with air chamber
competitive struggle that would arise of Lotus floats in water streams and after
from over crowding, but also ensures the some time the fruits get separated, and
successful spreading and establishment the seeds germinate.
of a species on the earth. Most fruits
Zoochory: Zoochory is a mechanism
and seeds have evolved adaptations for
in which dispersal of fruits and seeds is
dispersal.
by animals. Some fruits are provided with
Agents for the dispersal of fruits and hooks, spines, bristles, stiff hairs, etc.,
seeds: on their outer coat. With the aid of these
Based on the agents involved in out growths, these fruits stick to the furry
dispersal, there are various types of coats of skins of some animals and get
dispersal mechanisms of fruits and seeds carried away from one place to another.
in plants. The fruits of Xanthium have sharp-
Autochory: Autochory is an active pointed stiff hooks and the Achyranthus
mechanism of self dispersal of fruits and the perianth and bracts are pointed. Many
seeds. Fruits like Balsam burst with a fleshy fruits are eaten by animals and
sudden jerk and disperse the seeds by an human beings and the seeds are thrown
explosive mechanism. away.
Anemochory is the wind dispersal of
fruits and seeds. Alternatively, the wind
may blow them away, for which they
have to be light, so that their buoyancy
may enable them to float on air over long
distances. Some of them are provided
with hairs and membranous wing-like
structures which enable them to be carried
away easily (e.g. Seeds dispersed by the
wind are Calotropis (Erukkum), Moringa
(drum sticks) etc.,
Fig. 4.21 Autochory (Balsam)
Fruits of Tridax carry a persistent calyx
modified into a pappus (a ring of fine,
feathery hairs) which act like a parachute
and aids in the dispersal by wind.
Hydrochory: Hydrochory is a mecha-
nism in which dispersal of fruits and seeds
BIOLOGY
68
Reproduction in plants
Activity 4.10
•• Collect a few fruit or seeds which
Fig. 4.24 Zoochory(Xanthium) have wings.
•• Observe the fruit of Tridax and
draw. Look at the pappus calyx.
•• Why is the mesocarp of coconut
fibrous?
EVALUATION
PART A 2. In sexual reproduction of flowering
1. This is the one of the methods of plants, the first event involved in this is.
(fertilization, germination,
reproduction in unicellular organisms
regeneration, pollination)
like amoeba and bacteria in which
CHAPTER 4
they split into two equal halves and 3. Which of the following statement is true.
produce new ones is called. (Thin walled non mobile spores
(fragmentation, binary fission, are called zoospores,
A motile asexual spore produced
budding, spore formation)
by some algae bacteria and fungi
are Akinetes,
69
Uninucleate non-motile asexual Fruits of tridax are carry a persistent
spores are produced by the calyx modified into pappus.
fungus are called conidia, The fruits of xanthium have sharp
Thick walled vegetative cells pointed stiff hooks.
produced by the algae during The mesocarp of coconut is fibres)
adverse conditions are called
aplanospores.) 9. The product of triple fusion which
acts as nutritive tissue for the
4. The fertilized ovary is a fruit. The fruit development of embryo is
develops from a single flower with (zygote, placenta, scutellum,
multi carpellary, apocarpous superior endosperm)
ovary is 10. The disadvantage of self pollination
(Aggregate fruit, Composite fruit, is
Simple fruit, Multiple fruit) (There is no wasteage of pollen
grains,
5. If a water soaked seed is pressed, The seeds are less in number
a small drop of water comes out Self pollination is sure in bisexual
through. flowers
(stomata, lenticel, micropyle, Flowers need not depend on agents
radicle) of pollination
6. The mango fruit is called as stone PART B
fruit. because it has.
11. a. Identify the given fig. A and B.
(skinny epicarp, stony mesocarp,
b. Which part of the A is modified in
fleshy endocarp, hard endocarp)
to B.
7. Pick out the wrong statement.
(In a dicot seed there is a short Stigma
longitudinal whitish ridge is called Style
the raphae. Ovary
70
Reproduction in plants
13. In balsam plant the seeds fall off far b)Give the development process in
away from the mother plant. brief.
a) Is this statement correct or c)D raw a neat diagram of that
incorrect? process and label.
b) Give reason. 17. a) Write the two events involved
14. Composite fruits is formed by in the sexual reproduction of
all the flowers of -------------, flowering plant.
------------ fruit is developed from a b) Discuss the first event and
single flower with multicarpellary write the types
apocarpous superior ovary. c) Give advantages and dis-
advantages of that event.
15. Redraw the diagram and label the
following parts. 18. a) Fruit is the product of fertilization. Is
there any fruit is formed with out the
a) Exine b) Tube nucleus.
act of fertilization?
b) Represent the classification of
fruits in a diagrammatic sketch
19. Compare aggregate fruit with multiple
PART C fruit with suitable examples.
16. a) N
ame the process by which the
fruit is developed. 20. Describe the structure of dicot seed.
further reference
Books:
1.Plant Reproduction - S.R.Mishra - Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
CHAPTER 4
71
NAME OF THE PLANTS IN ENGLISH AND TAMIL
S.No Botanical Name Common Name in English Tamil Name How it is called locally
1 Abelmoscus esculentus Lady’s finger ntz;il
2 Acacia coccina Soap acacia rpiff;fha;
3 Achyranthes aspera ehAUtp
4 Anacardium occidentale Cashew nut Ke;jphp
5 Anona squamosa Custard apple rPjhg;gok;
6 Artocarpus integrifolia Jack fruit gyh
7 Bryophyllum fl;bg; Nghl;lhy; Fl;bg; NghLk;
8 Calotropis gigantea Madar plant vUf;F
9 Citrus sinensis Sweet orange rhj;Jf;Fb
10 Cocus nucifera Coconut njd;id
11 Coriandrum sativum Coriandar nfhj;Jky;yp/jdpah
12 Gossypium arboreum Cotton gUj;jp
13 Cucumis sativus Cucumber nts;shpf;fha;/
Njhirf;fha;
14 Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin G+rzpf;fha;/
guq;fpf;fha;/
murhizf;fha;
15 Ficus glomerata Fig mj;jp
16 Impatiens Balsam ghy;nrz;L/ghy;rk;
balsamia
17 Lablab Bean mtiu
purpurreus
18 Lycopersicon Tomato jf;fhsp
esculentum
19 Mangifera Indica Mango kh
20 Mimosa pudica Touch me not plant “njhl;lhy;thb/
njhl;lhy;RUq;fp/
njhl;lhy;rpZq;fp”
21 Mirabilis jalapa Four o clock plant “me;jpke;jhiu/
me;jpky;ypif”
22 Nelumbo nucifera Indian lotus jhkiu
23 Oryza sativa Paddy/ rice ney;
24 Pisum sativum Pea gl;lhzp
25 Polyalthia longifolia Mast tree nel;bypq;fk;
26 Pyrus malus Apple Mg;gps;
BIOLOGY
72
Chapter 5
A REPRESENTATIVE
STUDY OF MAMMALS
5. A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF
MAMMALS
Mammals are the diverged group of whiskers of cats and dogs are sensitive to
animals, occupying different biomes of the touch. Hair is also defensive for porcupine
environment ,successfully fitting in their and hedgehogs with long, sharp, stiff
habitats. Mammals are found almost in hairs called quills to protect them from
all habitats like oceans , freshwater, hilly predators.
regions , forests, deserts, polar regions
and swamps.
Activity 5.1
Observe the hair of dog, cat, cattles,
5.1. Morphology
man, horse and donkey. Look for the
Mammalian morphology is so divergent, structural details like shape, texture
as they occupy different habitats . The sea and curly or straight condition and
living dolphins, whales etc., look like fish, record your findings.
by form and structure. A nocturnal bat
gliding in the sky, looks like a bird. All the
Milk producing glands
large land animals are mammals. The size
of mammals sets them apart from all other All female mammals possess mammary
kinds of land animals. glands that secrete milk. New born
mammals, born without teeth suckled by
Mammals are distinguished from
the mother. Milk producing glands are
other vertebrates by two fundamental
modified sweat glands.
characteristics that all mammals possess
and no other living vertebrate possess. They 5.2. Habitat
are The place of living of an organism is its
1. Epidermal Hairs habitat. Mammals exhibit a great degree of
functional adaptation to fit in the habitats in
2. Milk producing glands.
which they live. We find mammals living in
Epidermal Hairs high mountains, plains and forests, tundra,
grassland, deserts, fresh water and marine
All mammals have hairs, even
habitats. Some important mammals in their
apparently naked whales and dolphins
different habitats are listed below;
grow sensitive bristles on their snouts.
Mammalian hair is a new form of skin High mountains - mountain goats, big
BIOLOGY
74
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
CHAPTER 5
75
5.3. Mammalian Adaptations v) Mammals have heterodont dentition
with different types of teeth that are
Mammalian group is the most
highly specialized to match particular
successful animals adapted to different
eating habits. For example, the
conditions of life.
carnivorous animals have tearing
i) In the marine whales, dolphins, etc,. teeth - the canine. In elephant the
the limbs are modified into flippers incisors are modified into tusks as a
which are used as oars to swim in specialized weapon.
water. They also posseses huge vi) Bats are the only mammals capable
subcutaneous fat deposits to of powered flight. The forelimbs
conserve heat. The jaws of the whales of bats are modified into wing like
are modified into baleen plates to structure. The bat’s wing is a leathery
sieve the water and trap the minute membrane of skin and the muscle
planktonic organisms as their food is stretched over the bones of the
called krill. four fingers. Bats prefer to hang
ii) The skin of camels is doubly thick upside down from their legs while
and contains water storing osmotic resting. The nocturnal bats can fly
cells to conserve water, as they live without crashing into things and still
in deserts. They have thick bunchy capture insects by echo location. As
eyebrows covering the eyes to a bat flies, it emits very rapid series
protect the eyes from sandy wind. of extremely high pitched clicking
Their nasal hole can be closed during sounds. The sound waves bounce
desert storms to prevent the entry of off objects or flying insects and the
sand particles. bat hears the echo.
iii) Most mammals are herbivores, vi) The marsupials, kangaroo have
eating mostly or only plants. To digest developed abdominal pouches to
the cellulose rich food, they have bear the tender young ones.
developed a mutual partnership with vii) The polar bears have thick skin coats
bacteria that have cellulose splitting and woolly fur to bear the biting cold
enzymes. of the polar regions.
iv) Mammals such as cows, buffaloes, viii) The supreme mammal – man is
antelopes, goats, deers, etc,. have highly adapted as an intellectual
huge four chambered stomachs that social animal. The fingers and toes
BIOLOGY
76
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
77
the body. Into the left auricle open the
four pulmonary veins emptying the
oxygenated blood brought from the
two lungs.
Ventricles
These are thick walled lower
chambers of the heart. A partition
called inter ventricular septum divides
William Harvey 1578-1657 was an the ventricle into right and left ventricle.
English physician. He was the first to The ventricles pump the blood out
give the details of blood circulation, from the heart. From the right ventricle
the properties of blood and the the deoxygenated blood is pumped
pumping of blood by the heart. into pulmonary artery to supply the
two lungs. From the left ventricle
The heart oxygenated blood is pumped into the
aorta to supply the oxygenated blood to
The human heart is a hallow fibro
the different parts of the body through
muscular organ. It is conical in shape.
the heart is covered by a protective
its branches.
double walled sac called pericardium Apertures of the heart
filled with pericardial fluid. The heart
Between the right auricle and right
is made up of special type of muscles,
ventricle is found the right auriculo
called c ardiac muscles. The partitions
within the heart divide the heart into four ventricular aperture and between the
chambers as a uricles and ventricles. left auricle and left ventricle is found the
The right half of the heart receives and left auriculo ventricular aperture.
pumps off deoxygenated blood and the
left half of the heart receives and pumps
Aorta
out oxygenated blood. Superior Pulmonary
vena cava artery
Auricles Left Pulmonary
veins
These are thin walled upper Right Left
atrium
chambers. The auricles are divided into atrium
Semi -
a right auricle and a left auricle, by a lunar valve
Tricuspid
partition called inter auricular septum. valve Mitral valve
Right
of blood. Into the right auricle open ventricle
the superior venacava and inferior Inferior Cardiac
vena cava muscle
venacava emptying the deoxygenated
blood brought from different parts of
Fig. 5.3 Human heart
78
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
79
Capillaries have nuclei, the matured ones are
These tiny blood vessels form a without n uclei. The red blood pigment
network, called capillary network around haemoglobin is fully packed in the RBCs.
the tissues to enable the passage of They are concerned with carriage of
substances from the blood into the tissues. respiratory gases.
The veins drain the blood from WBCs are amoeboid in shape with
different parts of the body to the heart. prominent nuclei. WBCs are concerned
The capillaries reunite to form venules, with phagocytosis of engulfing the germs
which drain the deoxygenated blood from and producing antibodies to resist the
the tissues. The small venules united germs entering the body.
with the big veins open into superior Blood Platelets – Thrombocytes
v enacava and inferior venacava.
Platelets are irregular broken up pieces
Except the pulmonary veins all other of certain giant cells. They are concerned
veins carry deoxygenated blood. with blood clotting to prevent the loss of
The blood blood.
Blood is the river of life – providing the
internal environment to the body. Blood is
the connective tissue, consisting of the fluid
part, the plasma and the solid components,
the blood cells.
Plasma Platelets Red blood
cells
The liquid component of blood, the plasma
is composed of water, organic substances,
inorganics substances, etc,. The important
organic substances of plasma are the
p lasmaproteins namely globulin (for Neutrophil Monocyte
immunity), fibrinogen (for blood clotting)
and albumin (for water balance).
Blood cells
There are three types of blood cells Lymphocyte Eosinophil
namely Red Blood Cells, White Blood
Cells and Blood Platelets freely floating in
BIOLOGY
the plasma.
Red Blood Cells –Erythrocytes Basophil
80
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
Adrenal
gland Medullary
Inferior pyramid
venacava Renal
artery Renal
column
Pelvis Renal vein
Kidney Calyx
Medulla
Cortex Renal
Ureter artery
Cortex Renal vein
Pelvis
Renal
capsule Ureter
CHAPTER 5
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
81
Internal structure of kidney Malpighian capsule
The outer portion of the kidney is dark in This consists of a network of blood
colour and is called renal cortex and inner capillaries called glomerulus and a
pale region of the kidney is called renal double walled cup called Bowman’s cup.
medulla. Renal medulla contains conical The glomerulus is a network of blood
masses called renal pyramids. On the renal capillaries, formed by the branches of the
pyramids are found the openings called wider afferent renal arteriole. From the
renal papillae, which open into the inner glomerulus arises the narrow efferent renal
space of the kidney called renal pelvis. arteriole, which branches over the rest of
From the renal pelvis arises the ureter. the nephron as network of capillaries. The
The kidneys are composed of millions Bowman’s capsule accommodates the
of units called nephrons. glomerulus.
Nephrons are the structural and From the Bowman’s capsule arises
functional units of the kidney, each kidney the Uriniferous tubules. It is divided into
is composed of millions of nephrons. A three portions as the initial coiled proximal
nephron has two structural components convoluted tubule, the middle U-shaped
namely, Malpighian capsule and the Henle’s loop and the later coiled distal
uriniferous tubules. convoluted tubule. The distal convoluted
tubule straightens as the collecting ducts.
Glomerulus The collecting ducts open on the renal
pyramids as renal papillae. The nephrons
filter the blood and form the urine.
Bowman’s 5. 7 . R el ations h ip of
Distal
capsule convoluted tubule structure and function
Based on the functional need a particular
organ or part gets a suitable modification
Proximal
Convoluted Collecting duct in its structure. Thus a structure is so
tubule adapted to perform a specific function. So
structure and function go hand in hand.
Loop of The fore limbs of different mammals are
henle suitably modified to do different functions
according to their environment. For
example, all the vertebrate animals in
BIOLOGY
82
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
and phalanges, but they are differently environment. The stimuli may be as simple
used in different animals like as the odour of the food. Nervous system
perceives and passes the information
i) M
an uses his fore limb to hold an
concerning the environmental stimuli and
object, write, operate very fine trigger adaptive motor response which we
musical instruments and delicate see as the patterns of behaviour.
digital devices. The thumb is deviant
from other four fingers, to enable 5.8.1. Social behavior
man to do the above jobs. Behaviour is both an instinctive process
ii) A horse uses it’s fore limb to gallop. (influenced by genes) and learned
experience (gained by experience).
iii) A
rat or bandicoot uses it’s fore limb
Social attachments between animals
to make holes in the ground to live. is called imprinting. The binding or
iv) A
giraffe uses its pretty long and attachment between the parents and the
stout fore limbs to reach up the offspring is called filial imprinting. At times,
we find an individual of a species is raised
vegetations, at the height of the
by a parent of another species (e.g the
plants.
chick of cuckoo bird is fed by crow in its
v) A monkey leaps from one branch nest). This behavioural pattern is called
of the tree to another using it’s fore cross fostering.
limb to swing and leap. Many insects, fish, birds and mammals
vi) A whale uses its fore-limbs as oars live in social groups in which information
to swim. is communicated between group
83
while the strong males will form the periphery Providing the young one with the milk
of the herd and the young calves and other from its mammary gland and aggression
she elephants will be in the centre. exhibited against the predator are the best
Sexual behavior means of taking care of the young one.
Even after the nutritional independency is
The coming closer of the opposite
sexes is both by instinctive process and
sexual a ttraction exhibited by one or
both the partners. The secondary sexual
characters developed during the breeding
season bring the two sexes together for
sexual reproduction. For example , the
bright and colourful plumage of male
peacock is to draw the attention of the
female.
Sexual imprinting
young ones and provide high nutrition, ourtesy to the researcher – Mr.Arun
C
protect the young ones from predators Venkatraman)
and enable the young ones to lead a
successful life. siatic wild dog (Chen Nai – in Tamil),
A
commonly called Dholes – Cuon
84
A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS
Activity 5.3
Case study Fig. 5.12 Dholes
•• Conduct a case study on the the den frequently so that the pups are
behavioural aspects of your pet safe from predators such as leopards
dogs in reference to their territorial
dominance when strangers or other and hyenas.
dogs try to enter into your locality. •• functions efficiently.
Activity •• Behaviour is the adaptive response
•• Follow an ant line and try to break of an organism to the stimuli in the
its route by drawing a line with your environment.
finger without killing any ant.
•• Social behaviour is both instinctive and
•• Observe the behaviour of the ants learned experience.
as to whether they change the route
or go in disarray. •• Sexual behaviour involves courtship
signalling which is species specific.
•• Try to observe for a few minutes
for any change they resort in •• The investment or effort by the parent
their route. Make a report of their on their offsprings to provide nutritive
behaviour and submit. food and safeguard them from
predators is called parental care. CHAPTER 5
85
Evaluation
PART A
c. antelope, deer, cow, buffalo, black buck
1. Sensitive whiskers are found in
_________. d. dog, cat, crocodile, lion, tiger
Bat, Elephant, Deer, Cat. 7. The epidermis of mammals contains
a. hair, bristle, quills
2. The tusks of elephants are modified
________. b. hair, nail, claw
3. Pick out an animal which has four c. hair, bristle, horn
chambered stomach _______. d. hair, nail, scale
Elephant, Dolphin, Deer, Kangaroo. 8. Based on relationship, fill up:
4. Normal body temperature of man is Whale: Baleen plates; Bat : _______
__________.
9. Fill in the blanks.
98.4 – 98.6 F, 96.6 – 96.8 F, 94.4 –
o o
Plasma : Fibrinogen ; RBC : Carrier
98.6oF, 98.4 – 99.6oF. of oxygen; WBC: –––––––––––––
5. Mitral valve is found between 10.Master chemists of our body are
_________. kidneys. Justify.
Right auricle and right ventricle, Left a. kidneys acquire all chemicals taken
auricle and left ventricle, in the body
Right ventricle and pulmonary artery, b. maintain the chemical composition
Left ventricle and aorta. of blood
c. kidneys send out all chemicals taken
Part B
in the body
6. One of the following groups contains
d. kidneys store the various chemicals
a non mammalian animal. Pick up the
taken in the body
group.
11. Based on modifications make the pairs:
a. dolphin, walrus, porcupine, rabbit, bat
incisor: tusk of elephant;
b. e lephant, pig, horse, donkey,
monkey _____________ : quills of porcupine.
further referEnce :
Books:
BIOLOGY
86
6. Life processes
How do you differentiate the living sit idle and during sleeping, this maintenance
things and non-living things? job through cells functioning has to go on.
The life process includes the activities
If we see a dog running
performed by the different organs to
(or) maintain the body.
a cow chewing cud Some of the life processes in the living
(or) beings are described below:
87
Questions stored form of energy. The materials
are taken in the form of carbon dioxide
1. How do we understand the living and water which are converted into
nature of organisms? carbohydrates in the presence of light and
2. What are the materials available from chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilized as
external sources for the organism’s energy rich sources to the plant., for their
consumption? entire activity.
3. What processes are essential to The process of photosynthesis is
maintain our body? explained in the form of bio-chemical
reaction shown below:
6.2. nutrition in plants
Chlorophyll
Do you know that we need energy for 6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
all activities? Sunlight (Glucose)
88
Life processes
Activity 6.1
1. Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example, money plant or
crotons.
2. Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch gets
used up.
3. Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
4. Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them on a
sheet of paper.
5. Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
6. After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
7. Carefully place the beaker in a water-bath till the alcohol begins to boil.
8. What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the solution?
9. Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for few minutes.
10. Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
11. Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of the leaf
done in the beginning.
12. What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various spots of
the leaf?
89
saprophytes. Certain angiosperms like
Monotropa lack chlorophyll and have
mycorrhizal roots.The plant absorbs
nourishments from the humus through
their mycorrhizal roots.
Questions
1. What are the differences
between autotrophic nutrition
and heterotrophic nutrition?
2. What are the sources of
materials required by plants for
Fig. 6.1 Variegated Leaf photosynthesis?
(b). After starch test
(a). Before starch test 6.2. human digestive system
Intracellular digestion
White blood cells (leucocytes) in
vertebrate animals are defensive in
functioning and get rid of germs in the body
of the animals. WBCs engulf the invading
germs by producing pseudopodia around
the germs and digest the germs inside
them by phagocytosis.
The unicellular animalcules like
Amoeba also produce pseudopodia to
engulf the diatoms and other minute
BIOLOGY
90
Life processes
in water) and digest the food within the digestive juices. Since digestion takes place
cells. In the above mentioned examples in the space or lumen of alimentary canal i.e
the food is directly taken into the cells outside the cell it is called as extracellular
and is digested within the cell. This sort of digestion – an advanced form of digestion.
digestion is called intracellular digestion. Digestion in human beings
Intracellular digestion is a very primitive
form of digestion and does not require Food contains a number of nutrient
an organized digestive system. Even in molecules needed for building up of new
animals like sponges and coelenterates, body tissues, repairing damaged tissues
the digestion is intracellular, though and sustained chemical reactions.
an alimentary canal like structure has
developed in them.
mouth
•• What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes?
•• What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?
•• Is there a difference? If yes, in which case more energy from external sources is
consumed.
91
Food must be broken down to be In fact, energy is locked up in food
used as a source of energy. The process aterials. During respiration, the food
m
of converting the complex food into a materials are oxidized (degraded). During
simple chemical substance, that can be this reaction, energy is released from the
absorbed and assimilated by the body is food and it is stored in a special chemical
called digestion. The medical speciality (or) biological substance called ATP
that deals with the structure, function, (Adenosine triphosphate).
diagnosis and treatment of diseases
The energy of ATP is utilized in various
of stomach and intestine is called
activities of cells.
gastroenterology.
Apart from ATP, two other substances
The digestive system is composed of
are also formed during respiration. They
two groups of organs. They are
are CO2 and H2O.
1) The gastro intestinal tract
2) Accessory digestive glands
Digestion is brought about in a stepwise Substance that is used in respiration
manner with the help of enzymes which is known as respiratory substrate.
are otherwise called bio-catalysts. Respiratory substrates are of three kinds
viz., carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
The gastro intestinal tract (alimentary ca-
nal) is a long muscular tube, about 9 mts in Types of Respiration
length and it commences from the mouth
and ends in the anus. The mouth, buccal Depending on whether oxygen is used
cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, or not, respiration is of two types:
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and 1. Aerobic respiration.
anus are the parts of the alimentary canal.
2. Anaerobic respiration.
6.3. Respiration in plants
1. Aerobic respiration
Why should we eat?
In majority of living organisms, oxygen
Why should plants synthesize food? is utilized during respiration. Respiration
For the simple reason that all living that uses oxygen is known as aerobic
organisms ranging from minute bacteria respiration.
to large elephants, plants and humans, Aerobic respiration takes place in four stages:
require energy for growth, movement and
1. Glycolysis
reproduction.
2. Oxidative decarboxylation of
Where does this energy come pyruric acid
BIOLOGY
from?
3. Kreb’s cycle
Food that we eat is the starch that is
4. Electron transport chain.
synthesized by plants and it is the source
of energy.
92
Life processes
In
Cytoplasm
Glucose Pyruvate Lack of Oxygen Lactic acid + Energy
( 6 - Carbon (3 carbon ( In our muscle cells ) ( 3-Carbon molecule )
molecule ) molecule )
+ Presence of
Energy
Oxygen Carbon-di-oxide + Water + Energy
(In mitochondria)
Fig. 6.5 Break down of glucose by various pathways
Activity 6.3
•• Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this. Take this
mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork.
•• Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass tube into the
CHAPTER 6
93
Lime Water Sugar + Water + Yeast
ATP
•• ATP is the energy currency for the most cellular processes. The energy released
during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP
and inorganic phosphate.
Energy
•• ADP + Pi ATP
•• Think of how a battery can provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It
can be used to obtain mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and
so on. Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells for the contraction of muscles,
protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.
the cell and after its usage, the carbon-di- Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen
oxide produced is passively diffuses out in the atmosphere for respiration, Oxygen
into water. is absorbed by different respiratory
organs in different animals. All these
Repiratory surface for a fish is gill; for
organs have a structure that has bigger
a frog it is lungs and skin the lungs for
surface area, which is in contact with the
land vertebrates.
oxygen-rich atmosphere. The exchange
Since the amount of dissolved oxygen of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide has to
is fairly low, compared to the amount of take place across this surface. But it is
oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in usually placed within the body. So there
aquatic organisms is much faster than are air passages present, that will take
that seen in terrestrial organisms. Fishes
BIOLOGY
94
Life processes
In human beings, air is taken into the body which finally terminate in balloon like
through the nostrils. The air passing through structure called alveoli. The alveoli
the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line surrounded by blood capillaries provide
the passage. This passage is also lined with a surface, where the exchange of gases
mucous which helps in this process. From takes place.
here, the air passes through the throat into
6.4. Transportation in plants
the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in
the throat which keep the air passage open We have discussed earlier, how the
and prevent it from collapsing. plants prepare food by the process
of photosynthesis using various raw
Within the lungs, the air passage
materials, like water, CO2, sunlight and
branches repeatedly into smaller tubules
chlorophyll.
We already know that the chlorophyll
Nasal cavity pigments are in the leaf. So the leaf is the
site for photosynthesis. The food prepared
External nostril from the leaf should be transported to all
Pharynx other parts.
Larynx
Trachea
Secondary
bronchus
Alveoli
Diaphragm
Fig. 6.7 Human respiratory system
Activity 6.4
•• Observe fishes in an aquarium,
and their opening and closing
of mouth and the gill slits (or the
operculum which covers the gill slits)
found behind their eyes also open
and close. Is not the timing of the
openings and closings of the mouth
and gill slits co-ordinated? Fig. 6.8 Root hair region
•• Count the number of times the fish In the same manner, water is essential
CHAPTER 6
opens and closes its mouth in a for photosynthesis and all other biological
minute. activities in the plants. For plants, soil is
•• Compare this into the number of the nearest and richest source of water
times you breathe in and out in a and other raw materials like nitrogen,
minute. phosphorus and other minerals.
95
How do the absorbed water and This creates a difference in the
minerals get transported from one place concentration of these ions between the
to all other parts of the plant body? root and the soil. Water, therefore enters
into the root from the soil to eliminate this
Which part of the plant is in contact
difference.
with the soil?
This means that there is a steady
For the above questions, you were
movement of water into root xylem,
getting answers already in your lower
creating a column of water that is steadily
classes.
pushed upwards.
The roots are the absorbing organs of
Is this pressure enough to conduct
the plant.
water over the heights in tall and huge
Thus, plant transport systems will trees?
mobilize energy stores, (food) from Plants use another strategy to move
leaves, and raw materials from roots. water in the xylem upwards to the highest
These two pathways are constructed points of the plant body. This can be
as independently organized conducting achieved by the process of transpiration,
tubes. in which when the plant has an adequate
i) Xylem transports water with supply of water. The water which is lost
dissolved minerals absorbed from
the soil.
water vapour
ii) Phloem transports products of
photosynthesis (food) from the
leaves to the parts of the plant.
Transport of water
In xylem, vessels and tracheids are the
conducting elements of the roots, stems
and leaves. They are inter-connected
to form a continuous system of water
conducting channels, reaching all parts of
the plant. In roots, the root hair cells in Fig. 6.10 Movement of water during
contact with the soil, actively take up ions. transpiration in a tree
96
Life processes
Activity 6.5
•• Place a potted plant into a clear glass bell jar. The pot is covered with plastic
to prevent water evaporating from the soil.
•• Set up a second bell jar with a potted plant with leaves removed.
•• Keep the bell jars in bright light at room temperature (20oC) for 6 hours.
•• No liquid condenses in the bell jar without leaves.
•• The bell jar containing the leafy plant has much more condensed liquid.
•• Test the liquid it turns dry blue cobalt chloride paper to pink colour. Therefore
the liquid is water.
•• Discuss with your classmates, and find the reason why water droplets are
formed in the potted plants containing leaves.
The loss of water in the form of phloem transports amino acids and
vapour from the aerial parts of the plant other substances. These substances
is known as transpiration. are especially delivered to the storage
Thus, transpiration helps in the organs of roots, fruits, seeds and to
absorption and upward movement of growing organs.The translocation of
water and mineral dissolved in it from food and other substances takes place
roots to the leaves. It also helps in in the sieve tubes (sieve tubes are
temperature regulation. The effect of one of the constituents of the phloem
root pressure in transport of water is which act as pipe line from leaves
more important at night. During the to the other parts of the plant) with
day when the stomata are open, the the help of companion cells both in
transpiration pull becomes the major upward and downward directions.The
driving force in the movement of water translocation by phloem is achieved by
in the xylem. utilizing energy. Materials like sucrose
Transport of food and other is transferred into phloem tissue using
energy from ATP. This increases the
substances
osmotic pressure in the tissue causing
How are the products of photosynthesis water movement. This pressure moves
transported from leaves to other parts the material in the phloem to tissues
of the plant? which have less pressure. This allows
CHAPTER 6
97
Questions would be a tightly packed crowd.
Those in the middle region would not
1. What are the components of get enough oxygen. Hence, most large
the transport system in highly organisms do not rely on diffusion for
organized plants? their supply of food and oxygen. They
have a transport system of some kind to
2. How are water and minerals get carry these substances to all the cells in
transported in plants? the body.
Activity 6.6
1. Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is the normal
BIOLOGY
98
Life processes
How does the excretion take place in 4. Plants also excrete some waste
plants? substances into the soil around
them.
Excretion is the process by which the
metabolic waste products are removed Excretion in animals
from the plant body. In unicellular protozoans, the excreta are
In plants there are different ways for discharged out through the contractile
excretion. vacuoles, which are formed by the
absorption of water and other excreta.
1. Plant waste products are stored in
cellular vacuoles. In coelenterates and sponges,
the excreta diffuse out through the cell
2. Waste products may be stored in
membrane.
leaves that fall off.
3. Other waste products are stored as In flat worms and round worms, the
excretory tubes develop for transporting
Line from artery Tubling made Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes
to pump of a selectively with a semipermeable lining, suspended in a
permeable
membrane tank filled with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the
same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it
is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The patient’s
blood is passed through these tubes. During
this passage, the waste products from the
blood pass into dialysing fiuid by diffusion. The
purified blood is pumped back in to the patient.
Line from dialysing This is similar to the function of the kidney, but
apparatus solution
to vein it is different since there is no re- absorption
CHAPTER 6
99
the excreta to exterior. In annelids special joints in his arms, legs and back using
kidneys called nephridia are evolved to informations from his sense organs.
collect excreta from the coelomic cavity. The boy’s nervous system co-ordinates
these muscles so that they contract
In vertebrates, an elaborate well-
in correct sequence with the correct
defined excretory system has developed
degree of power, and for precisely the
with kidneys and excretory tubes. The
correct length of time needed to get him
kidney of vertebrates consists of nephrons
to the spot where he can catch the ball.
which filter the blood and form the urine
Muscular activities like running to catch
and large amount of ammonia is found in
a ball, involves many other forms of
fish excreta. They are calledammoniatelic
co-ordination, such as those which
animals. The birds are called uricotelic
increase the rate of breathing and heart
animals as their excretory substance
beat to adjust blood pressure, remove
is composed mostly of uric acids.In
extra heat from body and maintaining
mammals urea is the main excretory
sugar and salt levels in the blood.
products so they are called ureotelic
Furthermore, all these co-ordinations
animals.
occur as an unconscious process.
Nephron
Worms have the simplest form of
Each Nephron consists of a filtering coordinating system where an earthworm
apparatus called glomerulus and uriniferous has dual nerve cords. Two ganglia acts
tubules.The glomerulus filters the plasma as brain and eye spots act as photo
part of the blood to form urine. The urini receptors.
ferous tubules reabsorb the substances
In insects, ganglia are connected by
required in the body from that filterate and
a ventral nerve cord function as brain.
the final urine product contains mostly
Well-developed sensory organ for vision
water and nitrogenous waste products.
and antennae for olfactory function are
6.6. Nervous system present.
The millions of cells and the scores of In mammals and other well-developed
different tissues and organs in the body vertebrates this co-ordination is achieved
of an animal do not work independently by nervous system and endocrine system.
of each other. Their activities are
In simple, the nervous system consists
co-ordinated. This means that they work
of tissues which conducts “messages”
together, performing the various functions at
called nerve impulses, at a high speed to
certain times and at certain rates according
to the needs of the body as a whole. and from all parts of the body.
100
Life processes
So, how do they respond to stimuli? tissue in plants for transmitting the
information. Plant cells change the shape
When we touch the leaves of Touch–
by changing the amount of water in them
me–not plant, they begin to fold up and droop. resulting in swelling or shrinking and
When a seed germinates, the roots go therefore the leaves in touch-me-not plant
down , the stem comes up above the soil. shrinks.
What happens during the above actions? Movement dependent on growth:
In the first instance, the leaves of More commonly, the plants respond to
sensitive stimuli slowly by growing in a particular
Plants show two different types of direction. Because this growth is directional,
movements. it appears as if the plant is moving.
101
3. Response to the direction of water
(Hydrotropism)
4. Response to the direction of
chemicals (Chemotropism)
Negatively
Phototropism geotropic
Hydrotropism
Fig. 6.12 Phototropism (e.g) The roots of coconut tree are seen
away from the plant for the want of water.
Geotropism
It is the growth of roots towards the Chemotropism
direction of gravitational force. This is the movement of plant parts
Roots cannot grow towards sunlight towards the direction of chemicals. (e.g)
and stem cannot grow towards The pollen tubes grow towards ovule.
gravitational force.
Activity 6.8
•• Fill a conical flask with water.
•• Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
•• Keep two or three freshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh.
•• Take a cardboard box which is open from the side.
•• Keep the flask in the box in such a manner that the open side of the box faces
light, coming from a window.
•• After two or three days, you will notice that the shoots bend towards light and
roots away from light.
•• Now turn the flask so that shoots are away from the light and roots towards
light. Leave it undisturbed in this condition for a few days.
BIOLOGY
•• Have the old parts of the shoot and root changed direction?
•• Are there differences in the direction of the new growth?
•• What do you understand from this activity?
102
Life processes
Evaluation
PART A a) Name A and B
1. In monotropa the special type of b) What are the materials
root which absorbs nourishment is transported through A?
(Haustoria, Mycorrhizal root, Clinging
c) What are the materials
root, Adventious root)
transported through B?
2. T
he product obtained in the Anaerobic
d) How do the materials in A move
respiration of yeast is (Lactic acid,
upwards to leaves?
Pyruvic acid, Ethanol, Acetic acid)
3. T
he roots of coconut tree are seen
away from the plant. Such kind of
movement of root for want of water is
(Phototropism,Geotropism,Chemo-tro-
pism, Hydrotropism)
4. T
he xylem in the plants are responsi-
ble for (transport of water, transport of
food, transport of amino acid, trans-
port of oxygen) 7. Observe the above diagram
5. T
he autrotropic nutrition requires (CO2 a) Mention the type of movements
and water, chlorophyll, sunlight, all the shown in fig, A and B.
above) b) How does the movement differ from
PART B the movement of mimosa
6. Name the types of vascular tissues in 8.Match the methods of nutrition of
the plant stem which are labelled as A special organs with suitable examples.
CHAPTER 6
and B
Autotrophs Mycorrhiza Cuscutta
Parasites chlorophyll Monotropa
Saprophytes Haustoria Hibiscus
103
9. In the process of respiration_____ is into the body through _________ and
carbon compound, the lactic is _____ the dissolved oxygen of water diffuses
carbon compound. into _________.
10. Sugar is converted into alcohol. From PART C
the above statement what kind of 13. Compare the respiration in higher
process takes place? Which micro plants with the respiration in lower
organism is involved? plants
11. Pick out the odd one : The parts 14. Is the pressure created in xylem
of the alimentary canal are enough to conduct water in tall trees.
( Pharynx, mouth, buccal cavity, Give reasons.
pancreas)
15. In touch me not plant the leaves show
12. In human beings air enters into the movements. What type of movement
body through _________ and moves have you observed. Discuss.
into __________ In fishes water enters
further reference
Books : 1. Modern Plant Physiology Sinha Narosa
2. Fundamentals of plant physiology Jain .V.K.
BIOLOGY
104
Chapter 7
Conservation of
Environment
7. Conservation of Environment
Living organisms live in different Environmental science can be
surroundings. Some plants and animals defined as the study of organisms in
completely live in water and some others relation to their surrounding.
live on land. In the course of development,
Man also leads life in different unplanned and vast misuse of natural
surroundings. Some live in cities, some in resources like water, forest produce, land
towns and some in villages. How do they and mineral resources have occurred.
adapt themselves to the place they live in? This has led to an imbalance in nature
and release of many harmful substances
Plants, animals, human beings survive
in the atmosphere.
with the interaction between them and the
non-living things like air, water and land. Mankind is greatly influenced by the
Human beings depend on the resources of surrounding in view of the problem of
nature. These resources include soil, water, over Population, environmental pollution,
coal, electricity, oil, gas, etc. These resources human survival, pest control and
improve the life style of human beings. conservation of natural resources.
Land,Water, Air,Minerals
Fig. 7.1 Interaction between non-living and living components in the biosphere
106
Conservation of Environment
substances and mineral wastes. result in the loss of the fertile top-soil. Now
How to protect us from these hazardous disposable paper-cups are being used.
wastes ? What do you think are the advantages of
disposable paper-cups over disposable
Why do the government and so many plastic cups?
organizations conduct awareness
107
Progarmmes against using plastics ? Paper
The following methods are adopted for (54% recovery) Can be repulped
the disposal of harmful waste materials. and reprocessed into recycled paper,
cardboard and other products.
1. Land Fills
Glass
There are permanent storage facilities
in secured lands for military related liquid (20% recovery) Can be crushed, re-
and radioactive waste materials. High melted and made into new containers or
level radioactive wastes are stored in crushes used as a substitute for gravel
deep underground storage. or sand in construction materials such
as concrete and asphalt, Food waste
2. Deep well injection and yard wastes (leaves, grass etc.,) can
It involves drilling a well into dry be composted to produce humus soil
conditioner.
porous material below ground water.
Hazardous waste liquids are pumped 7.2. Water management
into the well. They are soaked into the
Due to increasing demands for water
porous material and made to remain
and reduced availability of fresh ground
isolated indefinitely.
water resources, urgent measures have
3. Incineration to be taken to conserve each and every
drop of water that is available.
The burning of materials is called
incineration. Clean and fresh water is essential for
nearly every human activity. Perhaps
Hazardous bio-medical wastes
more than any other environmental
are usually disposed off by means of
factors, the availability of water
incineration. Human anatomical wastes,
determines the location and activities of
discarded medicines, toxic drugs, blood,
human beings.
pus, animal wastes, microbiological and
bio-technological wastes etc., are called Can you list out the reasons for
bio-medical wastes. increasing demand of water?
108
Conservation of Environment
The main sources of water are rain and snow from of excess to areas of deficit using
which form a part of the hydrological cycle. canals and underground pipes.
Surface water iv) Water shed management
India is blessed with a number of rivers, The management of rainfall and
lakes, streams and ponds. resultant run-off is called water shed
management. Water shed is an area
Ground water
characterized by construction of small
Aquifers are under ground reserves of dams to hold back water which will provide
fresh water. useful wildlife habitat and stock watering
facilities.
In the water table, water that percolates
into the ground through porous rocks is v) Rain water harvesting
ground water. These porous rocks are
Rain water harvesting essentially
saturated with water to a certain level. The
means collecting rain water from the roof of
upper layer of waterlevel is the watertable.
building or courtyards and storing it under
The ground water is important for plant
ground for later use. The main idea in
growth, man also taps this water through
harvesting rain water is to check the run-off
tube wells and bore wells. Scanty rainfall
water. The rain water that falls on the roofs
and unnecessary felling of trees affect
of buildings or in courtyards is collected
the ground water level. through pipes and stored in under ground
7.2.2. Fresh water management tanks of the buildings fitted with motor for
To meet out the water scarcity we need
several ways to increase the water supply. Terrace
i) Seeding clouds
Conduit
Seeding clouds with dry ice or potassium
iodide particles sometimes can initiate rain
if water laden clouds and conditions that Rainwater
aquifier
favour precipitation are present.
Well
ii) Desalination: (Reverse osmosis)
Fig. 7.2 Rain water harvesting
Desalination of ocean water is a
technology that has great potential for lifting water for use. The process of rain
increasing fresh water. Desalination is water harvesting is not only simple but
more expensive than most other sources also economically beneficial. It helps in
of fresh water. In desalination, the meeting the increased demand for water,
CHAPTER 7
common methods of evaporation and re- particularly in urban areas and prevent
condensation are involved. flooding of living areas.
109
vii) Domestic conservation It is essential to protect and conserve
As an individual, every one can reduce wildlife because they have aesthetic,
the water loss by taking shower, using ecological, educational, historical and
low-flow taps, using recycled water for scientific values, a good biotic diversity
lawns, home gardens, vehicle washing is essential for ecological balance. Large
and using water conserving appliances. scale destruction of wildlife could lead to
ecological imbalance. Wildlife also adds
viii) Industrial conservation aesthetic value and from this, eco-tourism
Cooling water can be recharged and is being promoted in a big way by several
waste water can be treated and reused. countries. Wildlife and their products
could be of great economic value if utilized
properly. The invulnerable plants could
yield products of immense medicinal
value in future. Wildlife also forms as
store of vast genetic diversity which could
be properly used with advances in genetic
engineering. Thus wildlife has been of
great value in the past and will continue
to be so in the future. Protection and
Fig. 7.3 Domestic conservation conservation of wildlife, therefore gains
method of water importance.
SANCTUARIES
7.3. Wildlife sanctuaries
Wildlife sanctuary is an area constituted
Wildlife by competent authority in which hunting or
All non-domesticated and non- capturing of animals is prohibited except
cultivated biota found in natural habitat by or under control of the highest authority
are termed ‘wildlife’. It includes all the responsible for management of the area.
natural flora and fauna of a geographic Wildlife sanctuaries were established
region. Wildlife is an asset to be protected in India in the pursuit of conserving wildlife
and preserved to our own advantage and which was suffering due to ecological
to the benefit of future generations. imbalance caused by human activities.
There are 89 National parks, 500 wildlife
There are approximately 400
sanctuaries, 27 Tiger reserves, 200 Zoos
varieties of reptiles, 200 varieties
and 13 Biosphere reserves in the country
of amphibians, 3000 varieties covering an area of 1.6 lakh sq.km.
of fishes, 3000 species of birds
20,000 species of flowering 7.4. BALANCE IN ECOSYSTEM
BIOLOGY
110
Conservation of Environment
Gulf of Mannar marine Coast of Rammad and Coral reefs, dugong, tuties,
National Park. Tuticorin district. dolphins, balanoglossus,
111
Important National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserves.
Bandhipur National Park Indian bison, chital, sloth
Karnataka
(It is a tiger reserve too) bear, elephants.
Corbett National Park Tigers, chital, elephants,
(India’s first national park) Uttaranchal leopard, Jungle cat and
(Tiger reserve too) sloth bear.
Gir National Park Gujarat Aslatic Lion
Kanha National Park Deer Tiger, Wilddog,
Madhyapradesh
(Tiger reserve) chital.
374 special of bird, e.g.
Indian darters, spoonbills,
Bharathpur Bird sanctuary Rajasthan painted stock, open billed
stork, black necked stork
etc,.
Manas wildlife sanctuary Hispid hare (rere), pygmy
Assam
(Tiger reserve) hog, golden langue
Sunderbans National Park Unique Royal Bengal
West Bengal
(Tiger reserve) Tigers.
112
Conservation of Environment
Several bacteria and fungi form the •• Would you consider any one group
decomposers in the pond. of organisms to be of primary
importance? Why or why not?
Fig. 7.4 Flow of energy in an ecosystem Various organisms are linked by food
chains in which the food energy is passed
BALANCE IN ECO-SYSTEM
from one organism to another in a linear
A balanced ecosystem is an ecological fashion.
community together with its environment
and functioning as a complex unit. e.g. Food chain of a grassland ecosystem.
113
Activity 7.3
•• Go to a pond and observe the
organisms that lives in the pond.
•• List out the organisms.
Fig. 7.6 Food web
•• Prepare a chart of food chains balance between living components and
its resources of an ecosystem, so that it
remains a stable environment community
Food Web for the better functioning of the organisms.
The food chains are interlinked to form Bio - Geo chemical cycles
food webs, So every component of the In an ecosystem, the energy from
ecosystem is connected to one another. the sun is fixed by the plants. Then it is
How is the ecosystem maintained? transferred to herbivores and carnivores.
i.e. the energy flows in one direction
There are many factors which maintain only. But the minerals required in the
the harmony in an ecosystem naturally. ecosystem are continuously absorbed
Disturbing any one factor could have a by the plants and transferred to animals.
drastic impact upon the living conditions As the minerals are removed from the
of other organisms that will result in an soil, they have to be replaced or cycled.
imbalance. For example, removal of trees These minerals are returned to the soil by
and vegetation would affect both land and the decomposition of dead and decaying
water ecosystems as there will be no materials by saprophytic organisms such
food for organisms. Killing animals and as bacteria and fungi (You have studied
polluting land, air and water also disturb the cycles in earlier classes in detail.)
the balance in nature.
7.5. COAL AND PETROLEUM
Inorder to maintain the eco-balance in
an ecosystem, there should be recycling 7.5.1 Coal
BIOLOGY
114
Conservation of Environment
Coal is a fossil fuel and is the largest 2. Sulphur particles present in the
source of energy for the generation of coal will cause acid rain..
electricity world wide, as well as one of
3. Interference with ground water and
the largest worldwide sources of CO2
emissions. Gross CO2 emission from coal water table levels.
usage is high and more than those from 4. Contamination of land and water
petroleum and about double the amount ways.
from natural gas.
5. Dust nuisance.
6. Release of CO2, a green house
gas, which causes climate change
and global warming.
7. Coal is the largest contributor to
the man-made increase of CO2 in
the air.
Activity 7.4
•• Visit Neyveli lignite corporation.
•• See how the coal is mined.
•• Discuss with your classmates
about the uses of coal.
115
years, absence of air, high temperature Alternatives to petroleum – based
and high pressure transformed the dead vehicle fuels
organisms into petroleum and natural 1. Internal combustion engines
gas. (Biofuel or combustion hydrogen)
Many useful substances are obtained 2. Electricity (for e.g. all electric (or)
from petroleum and natural gas. These hybrid vehicles), Compressed air
are used in the manufacture of detergents, or fuel cells (hydrogen fuel cells).
fibers (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), 3. Compressed natural gas used by
polythene and other plastic substances. natural gas vehicles.
Hydrogen gas, obtained from natural
gas, is used in the production of fertilizers 7.6 GREEN CHEMISTRY
(urea). Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called Green chemistry is the design of
‘Black Gold’. chemical products and processes to
reduce or eliminate the use and generation
Environmental effects of hazardous substances.
The concept of green chemistry was
Oil Spills
introduced in 1995. The Green Chemistry
1. Crude oil (refined fuel) spills from Institute was recently created and the
tanker ship and accidents have Presidential Green Chemistry challenge
damaged natural ecosystem. awards were established in 1999.
2. Oil Spills at sea are generally
causing more damage than those More to know
on land. This can kill sea birds,
mammals, shellfish and other Many countries are making
organisms, because of their lateral commitments to lower green house
spreading on water surface. gas emissions according to the
Kyoto protocol.
Tar Balls
A tar ball is a blob of oil which has been Activity 7.5
weathered after floating on the ocean. Tar
balls are aquatic pollutants in most of the Coal is used in thermal power stations
seas. and petroleum products like petrol
and diesel are used in means of
transport like motor vehicles, ships
and aeroplanes. We cannot really
imagine life without a number of
BIOLOGY
116
Conservation of Environment
117
7.7. Science today – What is global village?
towards a global A term that compares the world to a
village small village, where fast and modern
Global village communication allows news to reach
quickly. The use of electronics for faster
Global village is the term used to mean communication is a global village concept.
that world had shrunk into a village by
means of different media types, most What is the global electronic village?
especially the world wide web, making Global electronic village (GEV) is a term
It is easy to pass across messages (like used to refer to a village without borders;
news) thereby making the world become it refers to connecting people around the
a single village where people can easily world technologically through Information
contact each other quicker. Communication Technologies (ICTS).
118
Conservation of Environment
The term global village was coined by Marshall McLuhan. He emphasized that “this
forces us to become more involved with one another from countries around the world
and be more aware of our global responsibilities”. Similarly, web-connected computers
enable people to link their web sites together. This new reality has implications for
forming new sociological structures within the context of culture.
Evaluation
Part A 7. _____ green house gas which causes
Multiple choice questions climate change and global warming.
1. Which of the following groups contain (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide)
only bio degradable items? 8. _____ forms decomposer in the
(Grass, flowers and leather ; Grass, pond ecosystem (plants, bacteria,
wood and plastic ; Fruit peels, cake frog, phytoplanktons)
and plastic ; Cake, wood and grass) 9. ________ chemical is used in
2. Which of the following constitute a seeding clouds (potassium iodide,
food chain? calcium carbonate, sulphurdioxide,
ammonium phosphate)
(Grass, wheat and mango ; Grass,
goat and human ; Goat, cow and 10. Example for fossil fuel is
elephant ; Grass, fish and goat) (copper, iron, magnesium, coal)
3. Which of the following are Part B
environmental friendly practices? 11. Study the food chain below, correct it and
(carrying cloth bags to carry the convert into a pyramid of energy.
purchase items during shopping, Mulberry -> Sparrow -> Caterpillar -> Kite
switching off light and fans when not
in use, use the public transport, all 12. Study the illustration and answer the
the above) question.
(Plants, grasshopper, frog, tiger, snake) Paddy -> Mouse -> Snake -> Kite
CHAPTER 7
119
So what are the measures to be taken
Producers by you to meet out the scarcity of
water.
Producers Herbivores 17.Smoke, smoke everywhere smoke.
Do you agree this situation is good for
health. List out the harmful effects
Soil, Air Carnivores
of coal burning.
Decomposers
14.
a. Name the processes noted as no.
1 and 3
b. Define the process 1
c. Name any one fossil fuel. (**)
Part C
15. a) Classify the following substances –
wood, paper, plastic and grasses.
b) Give detailed account on your
classification.
16. In your area there is scarcity of water
due to this the people are affected.
Atmosphere **
CO2
Sholas and grasslands of
western ghats are the sources of
Animals
Decompo
Green all our South Indian rivers. All the
-sition plants
hillocks in the upper mountains
have this unique ecosystem, which
Fossil we cannot create.
plants
further reference
BIOLOGY
120