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Abstract
A gripper actuated by shape-memory-alloy (SMA) wire was designed and fabricated. The design took the advantage of the small linear
displacement of the SMA wire to convert it into angular movement of the gripping jaws. The SMA actuation is provided by pulsing electric current
from a driving circuit. With this method, the risk of the SMA being overheated can be reduced, yet providing sufficient power for the useful gripping
task. This ensures that the gripper has long and lasting actuation. Testing experiments were conducted using the prototype to evaluate its working
responses and reliability, including the generated force, level of excitation, reaction time, its characterization and cyclic performance. The gripping
force achieved was in the range of 70–500 mN, ideal for micro-applications. This force can be varied by changing the driving current through a
variable resistor. In terms of reliability, millions of gripping cycles were accomplished without any deterioration in performance. This proves that
the concept of the design is feasible and the gripper is able to support a continuously long operation before any replacement of parts is required.
The actuator (SMA wire) costs only US$ 0.7, much less-expensive than other actuators such as piezoelectric actuators.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0924-4247/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sna.2005.10.017
376 Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381
if independent jaw control is desired. The gearing systems nor- tion when implanted. Researchers have been toying around with
mally include a set of planetary gears coupled to a set of bevel ideas of using Ni–Ti alloy to activate artificial organs. Success-
gears to transmit the angular motion to the jaw [15]. ful applications can be found in surgical tools and in dentistry
In a gripper with hydraulic piston actuation, the piston drives where it is used to develop braces and tooth alignment struc-
a shaft that is linked to jaws, acting against a counter force spring tures. In engineering fields, it is used in aerospace, military and
to open the gripper. This design requires a fluid feeding system, automotive industries. Applications include pipe couplings, heat
which complicates the arm architecture [12]. This can be over- engines, electrical connectors, thermostats, sensors, valves and
come using an SMA-type piston [16]. robotics [18]. SMAs can also be found in consumer products
Using a shape memory spring or Ni–Ti spring is a popular such as spectacle frames, golf clubs, antennas, toys, etc. More
method for linear actuation. The Ni–Ti spring acts against a recently, SMAs have been used in micro-electro-mechanical
counter-force steel-spring separated by a disk connected to a systems. Micro-valves in micro-fluidics [20], switches, mirrors,
shaft, which is linked to the jaws enabling the gripper to open micro-positioners, micro-robotic systems are made using SMAs
when the Ni–Ti spring is activated. The cooling time is required for various industrial applications.
to deactivate the Ni–Ti spring to close the gripper [12]. Piezoelectric actuators are widely used in various applica-
Another form of SMA that can be used in a gripper is SMA tions [21–31] as well as in micro grippers, because of their
wire. Due to the short contraction length of about 3–5%, the advantages [32]: high energy-conversion efficiency, large gen-
design would have to incorporate special mechanisms such as erated force, stable displacement, high response speed and ease
pulleys to amplify the motion. A spring would have to be put in of use. However, minimum rise time of a piezoelectric actuator
the jaw to enable it to close when the SMA wire is deactivated requires a power amplifier with sufficient output current [33].
[12,17]. The power amplifiers and piezoelectric actuators providing large
The first SMA was discovered in 1932 when the shape displacements are expensive.
recovery ability of a gold–cadmium alloy was noted for Advantages in SMA actuation are simplicity, safety, and high
its potential in creating motion. In 1950, it was found that power-to-weight ratio. Additional advantages of Ni–Ti SMAs
the shape memory effect (SME) could be used to perform are the excellent corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. The
physical work, generating great research interest leading to disadvantages are low energy efficiency, limited bandwidth due
the discovery of an indium–titanium alloy with similar shape to heating and cooling restrictions, degradation, fatigue, and
recovery capabilities. However, the costly gold and indium and small strains [34,35].
the toxic nature of cadmium hindered further research efforts. Currently, there are few micro-grippers in the market that
In 1963, the SME in a nickel–titanium (Ni–Ti) alloy, which use SMAs in particular SMA wire as a means of actuation. The
was non-toxic, less expensive and had a better deformation- objectives of this study are to investigate the use of SMA wire
to-recovery ratio, was discovered. This finding sparked a as an actuator, design and fabricate an SMA-wire-actuated pro-
new wave of research, leading to discoveries of other SMAs totype gripper that has the ability to handle devices in the range
such as copper–aluminium–nickel, copper–tin, copper–zinc, of 100–500 m.
copper–gold–zinc, copper–zinc–aluminum (Cu–Zn–Al),
iron–platinum, nickel–aluminum and manganese–copper. 2. Design of the gripper
Among them, Ni–Ti and Cu–Zn–Al turned out to be the best due
to their strengths, low costs and large changing capabilities [18]. Fig. 1 shows the prototype gripper designed and fabricated. It
The SME in an SMA is caused by a solid state phase trans- has an acrylic-based body and aluminum jaws pivoted to allow
formation. Above and below a certain transition temperature, an opening of 1 mm. Actuation is provided by a short piece
an SMA is austenitic (hard) and martensitic (relatively soft),
respectively. The material grains form a twinned structure. In
the martensitic phase, the alloy can be easily deformed to a new
shape and the crystalline microstructure de-twins as grains re-
orientate. The new shape remains as long as the temperature is
constant. Heating above the transition temperature would cause
the alloy to transform back to the austenite phase, restoring its
original shape. The change within the crystalline structure is a
thermodynamically irreversible process due to internal friction
and structural defects. Therefore, the temperature range for the
martensite-to-austenite transformation at heating is higher than
that for the reverse transformation at cooling. The difference
between the transition temperatures at heating and cooling is
called hysteresis. The complexity in SMA models present diffi-
culties to mathematical design of controllers for SMA actuators
[19].
In medical fields, the Ni–Ti alloy received much attention due
to its high compatibility with living tissue and low risk of rejec- Fig. 1. The prototype gripper designed and fabricated.
Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381 377
3. Testing experiments
Fig. 2. A third spring behind the slider.
3.1. Gripping force test
(33 mm long) of SMA wire with both ends connected to a perf A gripping force test was carried out to determine the rela-
board by a pair of bolts and nuts. The SMA wire forms a loop tionship of the gripping force of the prototype gripper and the
around a protruding feature attached to a sliding unit, which has excitation current of the SMA wire. The driving circuit was mod-
an opening slot at one end providing a linkage to both jaws so ified with the addition of a variable resistor (trimmer) connected
that it pulls the jaws to close simultaneously when the SMA wire between the 555 timer IC and the SMA wire.
is activated. The SMA wire used and investigated is the Muscle The force measurement was conducted using a special force
Wire (Flexinol 037–250) from MONDO·TRONICS. sensor (Flexi-force model A201 from Tekscan). This sensor is
A pair of bias springs is mounted at the back of the jaws to an ultra-thin (0.2 mm), flexible printed circuit that senses contact
open the gripper when the SMA wire is deactivated. The base of force [36], and it has a linear relationship between its conduc-
the gripper has grooves and steps to accommodate the placement tance and the force applied. As conductance in Siemens (S) is the
of the springs and the stopping block. The sliding unit is properly reciprocal of resistance in Ohms (), the resistance of the force
guided along its path to slide through the C-slots integrated in sensor was taken for the measurement. The force sensor was cal-
the stopping block. A third spring is added at the back of the ibrated using known masses of 3–130 g as shown in Fig. 4, and
sliding unit (as shown in Fig. 2) to ease its recovery motion and the corresponding resistance values were taken using an ohm
effectively prevent it from getting jammed in the C-slots. meter (Digital Multi-meter Model 19 from Fluke). The mass
In the driving circuit used, the output of a 555 IC (timer) is weight was carefully placed on the center of the sensor pad and
used to source the SMA wire directly. This is achieved without the average reading from the ohm meter was taken to reduce
using a current limiting resistor as the 555 IC has a maximum uncertain errors. Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the mass
output current of about 300 mA, which is within the recom- and the resistance of the force sensor, and the linear chart of force
mended range of excitation current given by the manufacturer versus conductance is shown in Fig. 6. The correlation coeffi-
of the SMA wire used. cients (R-values) obtained from Figs. 5 and 6 were 0.99539 and
When it is activated, the circuit provides an output voltage 0.99574, respectively, indicating the errors were small. In this
oscillating between 0 and 3 V as shown in Fig. 3, with a duty way, a resistance-force relationship was established.
cycle of 71% at a frequency of 2.3 Hz. This means that for every Using the calibrated force sensor, the gripping force of the
cycle of the oscillation, 0.31 s is utilized to generate heat in the prototype gripper was measured as shown in Fig. 7. For all avail-
SMA wire, followed by 0.13 s of relaxation before the cycle is able sizes of the SMA wires (37, 50, 100, 150 and 250 m),
repeated. the respective desired excitation current was adjusted by tun-
With this circuit, ample time is given to allow the SMA wire ing the variable resistor (trimmer). For every tested current
to cool down a little before being heated up again. This pre- level, the gripping force was measured by probing the resistance
vents it from overheating, thus prolonging its useful lifetime.
The duty cycle of 71% coupled with the short cycle time of
Fig. 3. Oscillating output voltage from the driving circuit. Fig. 5. Force sensor calibration chart of mass vs. resistance.
378 Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381
Fig. 6. Force sensor calibration chart of force vs. conductance. 4. Results and discussion
of the force sensor while allowing the gripper’s jaws to grip 4.1. Gripping-force test result
the center of the force sensor pad, and the gripping force
was then computed based on the relationship obtained during Initial results of the gripping-force test indicated that the
calibration. SMA wires of 37 and 50 m were too thin and fragile to
act as the actuator of the gripper. Apart from being extremely
3.2. Cyclic performance test prone to breaking, they were also very difficult to handle, result-
ing in installation difficulties. The test result for the SMA wire
This test was designed to examine the cyclic life of the SMA of 250 m was opposite. It was found to be too thick, resulting
wire used in the prototype gripper. The idea was to make the grip- in the requirement of higher power for activation. According
per open and close for two million cycles and record the number to the manufacturer’s data, the recommended excitation cur-
of successful cycles before permanent failure of the SMA wire rent for the 250-m SMA wire is about 400 mA, beyond the
would occur. capability of the driving circuit used, which is in the range of
The test was conducted using another modified version of the 200–300 mA.
driving circuit. An addition non-stable oscillation circuit was With three of the five available sizes of SMA wires out of
used to trigger the driving circuit. The resistors and capacitors the picture, the focus of the test was shifted to the sizes of 100
were chosen carefully so that the gripper would close for 1 s and and 150 m. From the data collected and presented in Fig. 8,
open for another 1 s. it was clear that the gripping force increased with the excitation
With the period of a cycle known, the number of testing cycles current. For the 100-m SMA wire, at least 200-mA excitation
could be obtained by recording the total test time before failure. current was required for the gripper to close its jaws completely.
The start date and time were recorded each time a continuous The forces recorded at this current level averaged to 0.0748 N
test was conducted. When the test was stopped for inspection, from three readings. With an incremental step of 25 mA for each
the corresponding end date and time were also registered. The level, the average gripping force increased steadily to 0.1687,
number of testing cycles could then be computed. 0.2345 and 0.3270 N, respectively. The correlation coefficients
(R-values) obtained from the two curves in Fig. 8 for the 100
and 150 m SMA wires were 0.99780 and 0.99328, respec-
3.3. Tip displacement measurement
tively, indicating the errors were small.
The 150-m SMA wire basically shared similar behavior
The aim of this test was to determine the displacement of
with the 100-m wire. The minimum current required for the
the gripper jaws with respect to the SMA excitation current
from the driving circuit. For each tested current level, the open-
ing of the jaws was captured using a high-resolution digital
camera. The image captured was transferred to a personal com-
puter. The tip-displacement per jaw was then determined by
converting the number of digital pixels in the image into real
geometry.
Fig. 7. Set-up for measuring the gripping force of the gripper. Fig. 8. Average gripping force vs. excitation current.
Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381 379
Table 1
Reaction time recorded when various sizes of SMA wire were used
SMA size (m) Time-on (s) Time-off (s) Remarks
37 NA NA Too thin
50 NA NA Too thin
100 0.8 1
150 1 2.5
250 NA NA Insufficient current
Table 2
Results obtained from the driving-circuit power test
Input voltage, Vin (V) 4.84
Input current, Iin (mA) 300
Output current, Iout (mA) 250
Load (SMA wire) resistance, RW () 4.9
Fig. 9. Cycles vs. test number of the cyclic performance-test.
380 Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381
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Z.W. Zhong, C.K. Yeong / Sensors and Actuators A 126 (2006) 375–381 381
[36] Tekscan Inc., FlexiForce. http://www.tekscan.com/flexiforce/flexiforce. gapore, and is currently at the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
html. His research and development areas are electronics packaging, precision engi-
neering, mechatronics and design.
Biographies Mr. Yeong graduated from Nanyang Technological University of Singapore
with a Degree in Mechanical and Production Engineering (Honour). Cur-
Dr. Zhong worked at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, Japan rently, he works as a design engineer involved in the designing of machines
after he received his Doctor of Engineering in Precision Engineering in 1989. for the automation industry. His research interest is in the development of
He has also worked at the Gintic Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Sin- innovative and creative engineering devices for automation.