Soil Mech D Moitra

PROBLEMS IN SOIL MECHANICS AI{D FOT]NDATION ENGINEERING
A'M'LE'(ndia); [ForB.E.(Civil);M'E'(Civil); Examinationsl and U.P.S.C' otherC-ompetitive
of Department civil Engineerilq University College Deemed BengalEngineering Howrah'
DEBASHIS MOITRA
\|\\ ,j r u" \
{ i i ,
DH NpA_r- F_uB_ o hls(p) LrD. A LtcATt 84! ' FIRSTFLOOR,.6ZI+

IT,INONAS HOUSd DARYAGA+TJ, DELHI -J1OOO2 NEW PHONES:327 4073
Note: This book or part thereof may not be reproduced in any form or translated without the written permission of the Author and the Publisher.
OTHERUSEFT'LBOOKS 1. Advance TheoryofStuctures

2. Concrete Testing Manual 3. Fundamentals Limit Analysis of Structures of 4. Modern method of Structural Analvsis 5. Multistorey Building & Yield Line Analvsis of Slabs 6. Energy Methods in Structural Mechanics 7. Analysis of Skucture in Earth Quake Region 8. Dock and Harbour Engineering 9. Foundation Design Manual N.C. Sinha MI. Gambhir V.K. Manicka Selvam V.K. Manicka Selvam V.K. Manicka Selvam V.K. Maniclca Selvam V.K. Manbka Selvam S.P. Bindra
Preface
This book is primarily intended for the undergraduate studentsof Civil Engineering. However, it will be helpful also to the diploma-level students, A.M.I.E. students,and, in some cases,even to the post-graduatestudentsof Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. A thorough understandingof the basic principles of a subject like Soil Mechanics calls for lhe solution of a large number of numerical problems. In the presentbook a briefinfoduction to the contentsofeach chapterhas been given, which is followed by a number of worked-out examples and quite a few practice problems. For a better understandingof the topics and students are required to solve all the problems by themselves. Effort hasbeenmade to explain the basic principles underlying the solution of the problems so tlat the students may develop the habit of having a logical insight into the numerical problems while solving them. Commentsand 5rrggestions regardingthe book, from the studentsaswell as the teachers,will be highly appreciated.
N.V.Nayak
FirstEdition1993 Reprint : 1998 (
Price:Rs.60.00
Calcutta, 9, March 1993
DEBASHISMOITRA
Ptfulished by
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Ish Kapur for Dhanpat Rai Publications (p) Ltd.

: A.P. Of1.sc.t. Navecn Shahdara. Delhi- | t(X)32.
1
WEIGHT.VOLUME REI.ATIONSHIPS
CONTENTS
Clwpter "{ ,/, Weight-Volume Relationships
Index Propertiesand Soil Classification Capillarity and Permeability . Seepageand Flow-nets . Page
1 24 49 81 to7 133 165 181
Matter may exist in naturein threedifferent states,viz., 1.1 Introduction: A solid, liquid and gaseous. soil massin its naturalstatemay consistof all ' three phases.The basic ingredient is the solid grains which form the soil are skeleton,while the intermittent void spaces filled up by either air, or water, or both. Thus, a soil massin its natural statemay be considereda three-phase system. 1.2 Soil Mass as a Three-phase System : In a soil mass in its natural viz., solid, liquid andgas,are completely intermingled state,tle three phases, with one another. However, if one can determine the individual volumes of solid grains, liquid (i.e., water) and gas (i.e., air) presentin a certain volume
'g..r' lz,
,.
/J
,/. I
StessDistribution
Consolidation Compaction Shcar Strength Earth Pressure Stability of Slopes Bearing Capacity Deep Foundations
o
'9J/
Nr
: -----Water ----:
2r3
?54 ?33 310
Fis.1.1 ofa soil, the entire soil mass can be represelted by a schematicdiagram, as shown in Fig. 1.1, where the volume of each constituent part is shown as a fraction of the total volume. The cross-scctional area of the soil mass fo taken to be unity, so ttat, the volume of each constituent part is numerically equal to ib beight shown in the diagram. Again, the mass of each part may be obtained by multiplying its volume by the corresponding density. Thenotations used inthe diagram are defined below: V = total volume of the soil mass
10. L1. 12.
I
t
I I
t
I
'. \
Problems in SoilMechonics and Fonndation Engineering particlegin the soil % = volume of solid = volume of voids in the soii V, V- = vslspe of water presentin the voids V, = volurne of air presentin the voids 17 = total mass of the soil !7" = rnassofthe solid Particles W- = mass of water presentin the voids'
s -V RelationshiP eight ofume W i.e., v t=ixrWva

...(1.4)
dry soils) to 1007o(for fully The value of s may vary from oVo (for saturatedsoils). "--is defined as the ratio of the ("tSp"t it'rc gravity of sotids(G".or G) : It to the mass of an equal volume of mass of a given lrotume of solicl grains water, measuredat the sametemperarure'
1.c.,
The massof air presentin the voids is negligible' Vu=V"+Vn Thus,

and,
G =Mn : y
where,
V =V r+V, V=Vr+Vo+Vn
0r,
The fundamental physical properties which 1.3 Basic Defrnitions : ofa soil are definedbelow : govern the engineeringperformance (i)Voidratio(e):Thevoidratioofasoilisdefinedastheratioofvolurne of voids to the volume of solids' i.e.,
Vofsolid grains M" = massof anyvolurne M. = massof water of volume V' then in the C'G'S' systen If this volume V is arbitrarily taken as unity' (y') and Lqu't to the dersity of solid grains M" and M. become **..i".iry density of water (1.) respectively' Thus'
massolunitvolunggllglids Ts O of of mass unitvolume water Yor' T"= G'Y'
"=v,
vu
...(1.1)
...(1.s)
Thevoidratioisadimensionlessparameter,thenumericalvalueofwhich with increasing degree of compactnessof the soil' decreases -aefineAas the ratio of the volume of voids to the 1i4 f-rsity (n): ttis as a percentage' total volume of the soil mass.It is generallyexpressed i.e.,
mass of gravity (G,,) : It is defined as the ratio of the (vi) Mass spectftc at volume of water' measured a siven volume of soil to theLiti'of tn equal the sametemPerafure. i.e.,
I ;
M
M*
Y
\n
...(1.6)
fu= + x rooe,o
...(r.2)
1' However' as lhe The void ratio of a soil may be greateror less than a soi| mass,its porosity volume ofvoids is alwayslessthalrthe totalvolume of is always lessthan 100%. is defined as (ili) Water content(w) : The water content of a soil mass as always expressed is tne ratlo of the rnassof *.i"t to the massof solids' It a percentage.
where Y= unitweightof thesoilmass' " --'(vit\ of,thetotal Butka"nrityl, unit weight(v): It is ogrineo 15n;-ratio ' KN/m gm/ccor t^n- or ,o.,, of u soil to its totalr olume.Its unit is
l.e.r,
\=T
w, Y " =%
...(1.7)
as the massof soil solids per (viii) Unit weiglt of solids(Yr):It is defined unit volume of solids.
1.e.,
i.e., ,/
w... *=frxlooVo
"'(1'3)
...(1.8)
,/ (s) : The degreeof saturation of a soil mass is 4i{ O"gr"" of saturation of voids. It is always defin-eias tf,e ratio of volume'of water ro tbe volume expressedas a Percntage'
a soil mass is defiried as the (ix) Dry density (17) : The dry density of volume of ttre soil mass massof soil solids per unit of the total
Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering
s Weight -Volume Relat ionslriP
5 ...(1.11)
i.e.,
ws \d=V
...(1.e)
. " n =
L + e
The difference between 1" and y7 should be clearly understood.The dry density of a fufly or partly saturatedsoil is nothing but its bulk density in the dry state.The dry density ofa soil dependson its degreeofcompactness, and hence, on its.void ratio. But $e gnit weight of solids depends only on the properties of iie minerals presentin it and is independentof the statein which the soil exists. (x) Saturated unit'weight (y.",) : When a soil mass is fully saturated,its bulk density is tenrred as the saturatedunit weight of the soil. (xi) Submergeddensity (y.u6): The submergeddensity of a soil massis finecl as the subnerged weight of the soil per unit of its total volume. cle 1.4 Functional Relationships : In order to assessthe engineering fundamental a performanceandbehaviourof soil, itis requiredto evaluatethe in fut' 1.3.While some of theseproperties (e'g', w, G, properties enumerated y etc.) can be easily determinedfrom laboratorytests,someothers(e'g', q s, y" etc.) cannot be evaluated directly. However, all of these properties are interdependent.Hence, if mathematical relationships between two or mor such properties can be developedthen the direct determination of a few of them will lead to the indirect detenninationof the others.Thus, the functional relationships have an important role to play in Soil Mechanics. The most important relationshipsare establishedbelow : (i) Relation betweene and n : By definitnn, But,
may alsobe deducedconsiderAlternative prool: The samerelationships shown in Fig' 1'2 (a) and (b)' of diagrarn a soil massas ing the schematic
(1+e)
(o)
Fig.1.2
(b)
vv
We know that,
ys
V r ,= e . V r . Let us considera soil masshavingtrnitvolume of solids' . ' .% = l , o t , V r = ' I = ' .'. Totalvolumeofthesoil, V = V, r V" = | 1 s
"= v"
= Vv + V " , o r , V " V -Vr.
vu
Now,
" = i = 1 . "
n =
"' e = v - v"= (v:W

.'.e= L - n
vu
vr/v
v,/v
r-i
V,
v . =r - "
[ . =
+l
Again,
= +, or vu n'v
...(1.10)
= Cqnsideringa soil masshavir:ga totalvolume V l, - n' V . .= l ' n = n , o r , % = V - V , = | ...e=Vs
v,
Again, by definition,
n = T
n l - n
vr/v, vu o r ' ng v J v " = Wm=
= T ? ; t'"J
e =
-,5
e, newion between G, w ands :
to With reference Fig 1.1' u
, = w% ' t "
Vn'\n
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering
Weight -Vo htmeRelationshtps G + e l-Jl'Yw
.f
G=!,
ln Vn'ln
Of,
Y" = G'Y.
of'
= Ysar (v) Expression for y1 :
...(1.14)
= = vr.Gr" y" .G (vr/v,) ' c
vn
vJV,
By definition,
Ws tu V
= VJV" = c
V"/V"
s G/e
,9e G
%'y" Vr+V,
V".G\n Vr,+V" G/e | + l/e Iw
G.Vs,/Vv (V, + V")/V, 'w

0f,
s.e = w.G (iii) Relatian between y, G, s and e : The bulk density ofa three-phase soil systernis given by,
v = - = - = -
\d = TTe
G^tn
...(1.ls)
'
W V
Wn+W, Vr+V,
E
Vn.\n + %.y" Vr+V" Vn + G.V"

_ t v
Eqns.(1.14) and (1.15) may also be derivedfrom,eqn.(1.13) as follows : Forasaturatedsoils=1.
From (1.13) Bet, = eqn. we Tsar

Foradrysoil,s=0
Vn.yn + V".Gyn
= _
+#
u = fi|
.u
Vr+V"
Vu+V"
tw
Dividing fle numerator denominator V, ,we get, and by VJV, + G.V"/V, s + G/e
' 1+V"/V, Iw l+l/e t\r
(1.13) From.eqn. we get, = fd

(vi) Retation between y and y4 : We know that,
V = -
#.r*
= -GTn l;"
_ (s.e + G)/e ., = G r s .., ttt' tw

(l+e)/e l+e ot,
v = - . v ' l + e
'
Wn+W"
G+se
t | 9
Wn+W" ...(1.13)
Olt
Y = - -
Y
Again, From (i) and (ii) we gel,
...(i)
(iv) Expressionfor y.", :
W n + W " vn"(n + %'Y" = W Bydefinition,ysar = i Vr+V, ffi

For a safurat'ed soil, V,n= l/, Vy.y- r V"'G^ln V, + G.V" = --------------;=-'Y. Tsar - -------i7,rlV, Vu+1, (V, + GV')/V, - -F;T-q4 tn
4 . r ,
l a = 1 |i , o r , V = j ,ld
w"
w"
...(ii)
wnr w'
l I
=w'
a Wr\
or,
or,
Y=
Yd =
Wn+W,
(.
W " - ' t , = l t * W . " /l ' r o - ( l + w ) . y a \

v
l+G.(I/el
t+l/e tw
r
(G+e)/e
- . r t
G+e
tw l+e tw
T;-;
...(1.16)
(l+e\/e
(vii) Relation between y*5 and y* : A soil is said to be submergedwhen it lies below the ground water table. Such a soil is firlly saturated. Now, accordingto Archimcdes' principlc, when
Weight-Volume Relationships Solution: may be :
an object is submerged a liquid, it undergoes apparent in an reductionin mass, the amount of such reduction being equal to the rnassof the liquid displaced by the object. Consider a soil mass, having a volume V and mass I,Iz,which is fully submerged in water. Volume of water displacedby the soil = V Mass of displaced water = V . \n Apparentmassofthesoil, W' = W - V -,{n = V.ysat - V.,{n = V(Y."r - Y-) The apparentdensity or submergeddensity of the soil is given by,
From theconsideration degree saturation, soil sample of of a
(i) Completely dry (s = 0)
-t
(ii) firlly saturated(s = 1) (iii) partially saturated(0 < s < 1) Unless otherwisementionedin the problem, a soil sampleshould always be taken to be partially saturated. Methpd 12'Given ' lT,w, C I ==+Required : [Ta,.s,A;l ' t ' ' l
V(Y."r - Y,r) W' Ysub=V = V or,

Ysub=Ysat-Yw
As e and z are mutually dependent on each other, effectively three unknown parametershave to be determinedfrom the given data. Select the appropriate equationswhich may servethis purpose. The value of y7 can be determinedfrom :
...(r.r7)
Here,
Y .,. ' d - l + w y = unitweightof thesoil = 1.9gm/cc lr = water content = l2%o = 0.t2
Two differentmetlods :ru

problems in this chapter. They are :
""t"Toyedto solvethe numerical
Method I : Solution using mathematical relationships : This process is somewhat mechanical, one has to mernorise all the equations deduced in fut. 1.4 and should select the appropriate equation/s while solving a given problem. However, in most of the casesthis method can yield the desiredresult fairly quickly. Method II : Solutionfrom first principles : In this method the solution is obtained using only the basic definitions with referenceto a three-phasediagram of the soil massunder consideration. This method always allows the student to have an insight into the problem. However, in some casesthe solution becomesa little complicated and more time-consuming than method I. After going tlrough lhe worked out examples, quite a few of which r'llustratethe use of both of tlese methods,one should be able to realise as to which method of solution suits better to a particular type of problem. It may be pointed out that, the methods may also be used in conjunction with one another. Problem 1.1. A soil sample has a unit weight of 1.9 gm/cc and a water content of l2%.If the specific gravity of solids be 2.65, determinethe dry density, degree ofsaturation, void ratio and porosity ofthe soil.
\d = T#n=
r'6e6gm/cc
In order to solve for the other two unknowns,viz., s and e; two equations are required. Evidently, the following equationswill serve the purpose : vrG = st or re = (0.12)(2.65) = 0.318 Again,
v = _.ln '
...(t
G+se l + e
or,
or,
r.n= f41l@)tr.ol l * e
l+e=
| . ) ' 1.56,or,e=0.56
The expression y7 may also be used. of
'{a=
of' OT,
G'tn
=(f?P, 1.6s6
1.696+1.696e=2.65
y-l s,
or,
"=ffi=o'56
10 From (i),
Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineermg
Weight-Vol umeReIat ionshiPs
11
. - = 9 ! 1 9 = 0 . 5 6 8= 5 6 . 8 v o 0.56
e " = Ti;
Void ratio,
"=2=ffi=os6
=36vo " =+ =ffi x roovo sm'/cc ,, =+ =#F = r'6n
0.56
, . ;s.
=n 0.36= 36vo
Porosity, Dry densitY,
Answer.
Dry density = 1'696 gm/cc' void ratio = 0'56 Degree of saturation = 56'87o,Porosity = 36Vo
Method II: Letusconsidera'specimenofthegivensoilinwhichthemassofsolid diagrari of the soil is shown in Fig' 1'3' grains = 1 gm. The tnree-phase Now, 0r,
wn w=-w s wn ; l = rrr, ' n r
volume of 300 Problem It2-'F'nundisturbed specimenof soil has a After drying in oven at 105'C for 24 hours' its weight +66got' "" tJ*.igh. reducedto-+sog*.oeterrninethevoidratio,porosity,degreeofsaturation and water conteut. Assume G = 2'70' Solution: Methodl:
Wn = o.lZgm
= l'I2gm Totalmassofthesample, W = Wo + W4
Volume of solids,
r r" = Y
W"
T wn
l*
I -W' - "' 3 * , , = 0 . - "7 7 c r = c\"= (2f5)(l)
ln ' After drying itt oven,thewater present m soti"ffitatts drY. becomescomPletelY W = 498 gln Now, weight of the moist sample, fuid, weight of the dry sample, Weight ofwaterevaporated,
n' '1"' cir"n,fr wg5 cf+ Required t' t I ' "
and the soil
Volume of water, Total volurne of soil, .'. Volume of air,
vt ' = '
= o'12 - 0.12cc
1
Wa = 456 gn' W-='W -Wa= 498 -456 = 42gm'
cc v = l! t- l'rz9 = 0.589 ' Y .
Degree of saturation,
Vo=V-(%+V)=0.092cc = .'. Volume of voids, V, = Vo t Vn = 0.12+ 0'fp.2 0'2l2cc vn o.r2 =
= 0'0921 9'21% Watercontent,w - Y = +wd 456 G'r'u \d=T;e Dry densitY,

But \d =
t=
fr
ffix
r o o %5 6 . 6 7 o o
wa -456 = r.szpm/cc v 300 G'tn = L5z

l + e
\h (0.092cc1
Vw (0'12ccl V (0.5 9cc) E Vs
or, or'
:-------- ter-- : ----: - -_:_- Wo _-_-_-_-_-_----_-
of,
VJ (1'12gml
1.s2(r + e) = (2.7)(r) +1.52=2.7 L.S?z e -- 0.78 Void ratio= 0.78
Again,porosity
, -
(0.377rc)
e TT;
0.78 = 0.438= 43'8vo ,ft

or, , = I9
From eqn. (1.12), t+G= st
F i g .1 . 3 .
LZ
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Weight-VolumeRelationships
A
13
Ort
(o.oe2r\ (2.7\ "=ff=0.319=3l.9flo

wn=498-456=42gm
V-=--:==42cc
yw
diagrarn shown in Fig' 1.4, Method II : With referenceto the three-phase Weight of water, Volume of water,
Problem !J. A saturatedsoil sample,weighing 178 gm, has a volume of 96 cc. If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determinethe void ratio, water content and unit weight of the soil.
Solution:
Given ,W, VEe+
Required :
w...
Unit weight of the soil,
y,",={ =y9 =1.854gm/cr v 9 6 But, tu, = l]|.u

2'67-+ | x e\(1'o) = 1'954 r + e ) 1.854+L,854e=2.67+e 0.85k = 0.816 e = 0.955
Volume of solids,
v-w"-w' 's
Y" Gln
=
Total volume, Volume of voids,
of'
AS6'
,?in
= 168'8e cc
0r,
0f' Ot,
V=300cc ' V'=V-V' vu 131.11 = o'78 = 16s, ," 131.11 O . 4 3 7 = 4 3 | 7 V o = 3Of = Vu = 3N - 168.89 131.11cc " =
Again,
(0L0255) - 0.358= 35,.8vo * =-X -
vu ,=T=
s=
w=
Vn
fi
Wo
42
trfu
= o32= 327o
..u t Prcblery{. A ftrlly saturatedsoil samplehas d volume of 28 cc. The sample was drled in oven and tle weight of the dry soil pat was found to be 48.86 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, saturateddensity and dry densityof the soil mass.Given G =2,68.
W=
42 =9'2lc/o ^5t=0'0921
: ' . Solution Given F % e;l=+

Here, total volume V=?3cc
Required :
A schematicrepresentation the given soil is shown in Fig. 1,5. of
Volumeofdrysoil, % =
{131.11c c)
T#"c=18.23cn
Assuming that there was no changein void ratio during ovcn-drying, volumeofwaterevaporated,Vn= V - % = QA - L8.23)cc 7,'9.77cc
w (4 9 8 g m l
Sotid
Void ratio,
- v " v ,
l r = - = -
v,
Vn
l'.'v"=vnT
Ws{ 4 5 6 9 m )
=
Fig. r.4
o11
ffi
= o'536
t4
Problems in Soil Mechnnics and Foundation Engineering Weightofwater, Wn = V*'\* = (9.77)(1.0,
Weiglx -Volume Relatians hiPs Wt )Cs =1.7889n/cr 'td=i=,"5
15
= 9.77 grn Moisture eontent,
|v=fi=ffi=0.2=20%b
wn
g'77
But.
i rral weightof thesoil, gm = 58.63grn W = Wn + 17" = (9.77 + 48.86) density, t*, = Saturated { = # = 2.09 gm/cE
tu, = l]].t* = q, 2.127 i t" ,

2.127+2.127e=G+e G=l.l27e+2.127 G'tn V r
or, or,
Again,
...(i)
Drydensity, ro =Y= #
= r.745sm/cc
I a=
l + e
V v= 9 ' 7 7 c c
h(a= 9.779m W= 5 S ' 6 3 9 m
or,
G , 1 1.788 = - ----:r + e = 1.788e 1.788 + G
...(ii)
Vs=18'23cc
Ws=4E.869m
FromQ) and(ii) we get, = e + 1.788e 1.788 L.127 + 2.127 = O.66te 0.339 or, e = 0.51 or, + From(i)we get,G = (1.27)(0.51) 2.127= 2-r = s Now, l+G
oI'
FiB. 1.5 . Problem l.rf,. An undisturbed sample of saturatedclay has a volume of 16.5 cc and weighs 35.1 gm. On oven-drying,the weight of the sample reduces to 29.5 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, dry density and the specificgravity of solids. Solution : Method I:
= - = E = gr'}lu -*0.18e r8.evo

A thlee-phasediagrarn of the given soil is shown in Fig' 1'6' Here, wet weight of the sample, W = 35-t gm Dry weight of the samPle , Weightofwater, Wd = 29.5 gm Wn = W - Wa = (35"1 - 29'5)gm = 5.6gm Vn = V, = 5.6 cc
Method II :
Given : Vn we+
Weight of thesaturated sample, Weightof thedry sample,
tF, Required*l,d, c-l
Volume of water Total volurne
W = 35.1gm gm Wa = 29.5
V = 16.5cc V, Volumeofsolids, = V - Vu = (16.5- 5.6)cc = 10'9cc

Void ratio,
.'. Weightofwalcrevaporated, - W - Wa = (35.1- 29.5\gm Wn = 5.6grn
"=?= = osl , #
* = V = # = o . r 8 e- r 8 . e %
Nou,,
tu,={-i#
-2.ryism/*
Moisture content,
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering
Weig ht -Vo lame Relat ionship s
r7
Vy15.5cc =
was 0.54,dc&rminethc moisturccontent, density, dry bulk density, degree grrvityof solids. of saturrtionrnd specific
sotriior: GiveE ,W@+

Totalvolume Totalweigh! Dry wcfhl Bulk density,
Fig. 1.6
Required yr,r, ", c I ,F
V * 1&5cc W - 3629m Wa - 3%gm
t -V -#
lo-i wd
- Le6gm/cn
Dry density,
Ws 29.5 \a = V = ,rj = l.19gm/cc
Dry density,
- 326 - I . 7 6 g m / c c 1g5
Weightof watercvaporated, = W - W" Wn
Unitweightof solids,
y" =
=ffi
= Z.7ogm,/v
Moisturecontent, w Now,
= (362 - 326)gm - 36gm
='# = 2.70 of Specificgravity solids, c = * / Problen i!/ m. initial void ratio of an inorganicclay is foundto be the 0.65,while the specificgravity of solidsis 2.68.Determine dry density density thesoil.AIsodetermine of itsbulk density moisture and andsaturated content, thesoil is 5A%saturated. if + Required : Solution: Given' |TZJ of Saturated density thesoil, lu, = f]f.U
- f wn r=
*
36 =llVo 326=0.11
yd =
0f'
G'=l=, 1 . 7 6- , 1 + 0.54 (1.54)= 2.71 G * (1.76)

I+G - S,
Again,
= ('iltH]])
Dry density,
(t) = 2'o,gm/cc
or,
"-I9
to'=9o- = ff#i
ffiff(l)
= L62sm/cc
= 1'82gm/cc
,/ Probleqgf. A sample of silty clay has a void ratio of 0.8. The soil is allowed to absorbwater and its saturateddensity was found to be 1.92gmlcc. Determine the water content of the saturated sample. Solution : Method I: did not change due to I It is assumed &at the void ratio of the soil absorption of water. The saturateddensity is given by, YsatG + e [J'Yr
-(o'll-)!?'7r) -0.55 =55c,o 0.54
Whenthesoil is 50%saturated, bulk density its G + se 2.68 + (0.5)(0.65)
Y - ffi'Y-
Moisture contenl at SOVo saturation, (0.5) (0.65) .te
/ Problem \1 The volume and weight of a partially saturated clay After drying in an ovenat 105'C sample 185cc and362gmrespectively. are to vcid ratioof thesoil for 24iho!rs,its weightreduced 326gm.If thenatural
, w'e;W=0.12=127o
9*trl
or,
1+u.o
_ r.v2
-0.8 - 2.656 G-(1.92r(1.8)
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Now, using the relation ttG = s, we, gt,
Weight -Vo lume Relat ionships
w=A=ffi=0-30
ort
se
(1) (0.8)
| + w = 1q, 2.Ew 4.32w=l+w w=0.30=3OVo or,
Required water contenl = 30Vo diagram of the given soil. Fig. 1.7 shows the three-phase Let the weight rf solids be unity. kt lr be the moisture contellt of the soil. saturated Method II : Now, ru = W #, ot, Wn = w'W" = w'l = w gm
Note : Try to solvq the problem assumingthe volume of solids to be unity. ' / Problern L/. The bulk density and dry density of a partially saturated soil are 1.9{gm/cc and 1.80gm/cc respectively.The specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine the void ratio, moisture coirtent and degreeof saturation of the soil. Solution:
Volnrne 0f waler, Vw = wcc Now, void ratio e = 0.8
We have, Here,
v t d l + w
*=o.t Ys
ya = 1.80gm/cc, y = 1.95gm/cr 1.80 = ;L

105
0(,
%-*=#=fr=r.x,..
Or' of'
l + w
Total volume of the soil, V=Vs+Vn
= | + w = 1.95/1.80 L.0833 w = 0 . 0 8 3 3= 8 . 3 3 9 / o
yd=
=1.?5w+w=2.?5wcc
Again, we have,
G^t*
I + e
=q?9 1.80
of,
r+e=ffi=r.cl
e = 0.49
vtG =se
J = -
2'25wcc 1 2 5 ve r r
Ort
Now,
O f ,
(2.68) r,,C = f(0.0833) f
Fig.1.7 Totalweightofthesoil,=Wn+Wd= W . But, W l + w ysar=f = LZS* yot = 1.92 gm/cc (1 + w)gm
Problem l$.The density of a partially saturatedsoil was found to be 1.88 gm/cc. If t[e moisture @ntent and void ratio of the soil be 24.8Voand 0.76 respectively, determine the specific gravity of solids, and the degrec of saturation. Solution: We have rnd,
"
-0.456=45.69o
T= 1*.:'Y,"
ttfr = Se
G+se
...(i) ...(ii)
Weight-Volune Reht ionships Problemsin SoilMeclunics ard Founfution Engineering Substitutingfor se in eqn(i), we get G+t*G - -laz-'ln
397.58 of drysoilis obtained gm from
##*
= 247.71 cc of moist soil Volume ofmoistsoil tobeused = 247.'ll cc. ,l = yd(1 + w) Now, bulk density
0r'
Y ' 1-97-'rn
G(l + w)
1.88={fffirtl
ol'
(1.S8)1.76) ( .t -_W - 2 . 6 5 - , ; /
= (1.605)(1 0.105)= I.773gm/w + = Totalweightofmoistsoil required y x V = (1.773)(247.71) = 439.19gm gm

(ii) Weight of water presentin this soil = (439.19- 397.58)sn = 41.6tgm - 59.64 gm Weight of water finally required .'. Weight of water to be added Volume of water to be added = (59.64 - a1.61)gm = 19.03gm = 18.03 cc Ans : 439.19gm of given soil is to be taken and 18.03 cc of water is to be added to it. E)(ERCISEI f A soil samplehas a porosity of. 35Vo.Thesoil is 7SVosafiirated and J.l. the specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine its void ratio, dry density, bulk dercity and moisture content. [Ans : e = 0.54,ld - L.74gm/cc,l = 2.0 gm,/cc,w -'l57ol 1.2. The mass specific gravity of a soil is 1.95, while the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.7. If the moisture content of the soil be 22To, determine the following : (i) Void ratio (ii) porosity {iii) degreeof saturarion(iv) dry density (v) saturateddensity. , [Aor : (i) 0.69 (ii) 4leb (iii) f]6% (iv) r.597 gmlcc (v) 2.00 gm/w I The saturatedand dry densitiesof a soil are 1.93 gm/cc and 1.47 Vl. gm/cc respectively. Determine the porosity and the specific gravity of the solidSris. =z^721 [Ans : n = 45.9Vo,G l\9, A partially saturated soil samplehas a natural moisture content of l7%band a bulk density of 2.05 gro/cn.If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.66, detennine the void ratio, degreeofsaturationand dry density ofthe soil. What will be the bulk densiw of the soil if it is : (i) Fully saturated
and A given soil masshasa moishrre contcnt of 10.SVo Problcn 1.{( a void ratio of 0.67. Thc specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. It is required to conslruct three cylindrical test specimens of diameter 3.75 cm and height 7.5 cm from this soil mass.Each specimenshould have a moisrure content of l57o and a dry dcnsity of 1.6 gm/cc. Determine : (i) the quantity of the given soil to be uscd for this purpose (ii) quantity of water to be mixed with iL Solution : (i) Volume of each specimen - olh
=_f.#:rf (7.s)cc
Total volume of three specimens,V - (3) (82.83) = 248.49 cc
Weightofdry soilrequired,
Wa = V x ld [
"-*"]
= (248.4e) (1.6) = 397.58 8ln Moisturecontentof finishedspecimens, w a lSVo But,
w
6r=], wd or, Wn-w
,Wd
Weight of water in the specimens,W. = (0.15) (397.58) - 59'64 8m Now, dry density of the given soil mass, Grn (2.68) (1)
ta = 1fi
ffi#
= I1'605 sft/cn
i.e., 1.605 grn of dry soil is obtained from 1 cc of moist soil
, t
and Problemsin SoilMechanics FoundationEngineering ? (ii) 6O%saturated 5 s 7o, : Part | 1s = O.52, = 8'7 \ a = 1.7 gm/@Part2 : (i) 2.09 gmlcc [Ans
l"/. An undisturbedsoil samplehas a volume of 50 cc and weighs 96'5 gm. On oven-drying, the weight reduces to 83.2 gm' Determine the water content, void ratio and degreeof saturationof the soil. Given, G = 2.65' =72%7 [Ans:w =l6Vo'e =O'59,s I Lfr. The bulk density and dry density of a soil are 1.95 gm/cc and 1.58 gtn/&'..spectively. Assuming G" = 2'68, determine the porosity, water content and degreeof saturation of the soil. =89.2o/ol [Ans: n =4l7o,w =23Vo,s 1.7. A cylindrical sampleof saturatedclay,7.6 cm high and 3'8 cm in diameter,weighs 149.6gm. The samplewas dried in an oven at 105"C for 24 hours, and its weight reduced by 16.9 gm. Determine the dry delsity, void ratio, moisture content and specific gravity of solids. = = = [Ans : 1a = 1.54 gml cc, e 0.74, w 12.7Vo,G 7'68] bulk density of a partially saturatedsilt 1.8. Thc moisture contelt a-nd ' respectively. The sample was kept in an sample werc l87o and 19.6 ttft oven at 105' C for 15 minutes, resulting in a partial evaporatiou of the pore water. The bulk density of the sample reducedto 18.3 kN/m'. Assuming the void ratio to rernain unchanged, determine the final water content of the sample. what would have been its bulk density if the sample was kept in the oven for 24hours ? [Ans : 107o,16.6 kN/m3] 1.9. An embankment was constructedwith a clayey soil at a moisture content of 127o.Just after construction, the degree of saturation of the soil was found tobe 55To,The soil absorbedwater during the monsoon and its degreeof saturationincreasedto9O7a Determine the water content of the soil at this stage. What will be the degree of saturation if the moisture content ? reducestoSVo mthe dry season Given, G =2.68. lAns:19.67o,27'9%ol 1.10. The natural moisture content of a soil massis 117o,while its void ratio is 0.63. Assuming thc void ratio to remain unchanged, determine the quantity ofwater to be addedto 1 m' of this soil in order to double its moisture ContenL Given, specificgravity of solids =2.72. [Ans : 183.3 kg] 1.11. The in-situ density of a soil mass is to be determined by the cote-cutter method. The height and diameter of the core are 13 cm and 10 cm respectively. The core, wien full of soil, weighs 3155 gm, while the self-weight of the empty core is 150 gm. The natural moisture content and the specific gravity of solids are IZlp and 2.66 respectively. Detennine the bulk density, dry density and void ratio ofthe soil. = [Ans : y= 1.87 gmlcc,ya = 1.67gm/cc, e 0.591
I
Weight -Volume Rela t ion slips
23
/ /
(ii) 1'9s gm/cc l
1.12. In problem 1.11,what will be thewater contentand bulk density of the soil if, without undergoingany change in the void ratio, the soil becornes: (i) Fully saturated (ii)807o saturated [Ans : (i) 2270;2.04gm/cc,(ii) 17.7Vo,L97gnlccl 1.13. A 4 m high embankrnent, with a top width of 5 m and side slopes of 1 : 1, has to be constructed compacting by soil froln a nearbybqrrow pit. The unit weight and naturalmoisturecontentof the soil are 1.8 tlmr ancl 8%, respectively. Detenninethevolume of earthto be excavated frorn the borrow pit and the quantity of water to be added to it tbr every krn of finished embankment, if the required dry density and moisture content of the etnbarrkrnent be 1.82grn/cc and l87a respeclively. Given, G = 2.j0. soil [Ans : Vol. of excuvation= 39304m3 ; Vol. of water = 6552 m3]
I ,
,4t)
Index Properties and Soil Classificatian Wr = empty weight of PYcnometer. Wz = weight of pycnometerand dry soil' % = weight of pycnometer,soil and water' I4/c= weight of pycnometer filled with water. Now, weight of soil solids = Wz -Wt and, weight of an equal volume of water = (Wa - W) - (Ws * Wz)
25
2
INDEX PROPERTIES,ANDSOIL CI.ASSIFICATION
Various physical and engineeringpropertieswitb the 2.1 Introduction: help of which a soil can be properly identified and classifiedare called the index properties.Such propertiescan be broadly divided into the following two categories: (a) Soi/ grain properties: These are the properties pertaining to individual solidgrainsandremainunaffectedbythe stateinwhich a particular soil exists in nature. The most important soil grain properties are the specific gravity and the particle size distribution. (b) SoiI aggregate propertis: These properties control the behaviour of the soil in actual field. The most important aggragateproperties are: (i) for cohesionlesssoils: the relative density on which depends the moisfure (ii) for cohesivesoils: the consistency, content and which can be measured by either tie Atterberg limits or tht: unconfined compressivestrength. The specificgravity of a soil can be detcrtninedby 2.2 Specific Gravity: a pycnomter(i.e., a specificgravity bottle of 500 ml capacity).Fig. 2.1 givcs a schematic representationof the process.Irt,
G =
Wc-Wt-W3+W2
wz-wr
...(2.r)
This is determinedin the laboratory by the 2.3 Particle Size Distribution: ot which consists analysis, rnechanical (a) Dry mechanical analysis or sieve analysis: In this method the sample is sieved through a set of sievesof gradually diminishing opening sizes. The percent finer correspondingto each sieve size is determined and thc resulls are plotted on a semilog graph paper to obtain the particle size distribution curye. However, tlis method is applicable only to lhe coarser fractionsofsoils and not to the silt and clay frictions as sieveshaving open sizesless than 0.075 mm are practicallyimpossibleto manufacture. (b) Wet mechanical analysisor lrydrometer analysis:- The percentage indirectly using of tiner tiactions (i.e.,silt and clay) in a soil canbe analysed a hydrometer.The rnethod is basedon Stokes' law which statesthat the terminal velocity of a falling spherein a liquid is given by
, = t"irut' ,t
D = diameterof the sphere p = absoluleviscosity of the liquid
nl,l
...(2.2)
and where, y" andy- arethe unit weightsof the sphere theliquid respectively
Fig. 2.2 shows the sketch of a hydrorneter. After irnrnersing the cylinder containingthe soil-watersuspension; hydrorneterin the rneasuring Lrt are readings takenat ;, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,30, 60, 120,and 1440minutes. 11 a bc thereadingofhydrometerat time r. The particlesizeand thecorresponding value of percentfiner are obtainedfrom the foilowing equations:
I
WT ( EmptY Bot)
Wt YIZ W3 ()B o t . * S o i l + W q i e{ Bot + Woter) r) lBot.*DrySoit

liig ) |
D =\@.
...(2.3)
(A
26
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Y s V (r1 + C^ - rn) x IA}a/o W"'y-
Index Properties and Soil Classification
27
and, where,
/v=
*-'' D = particlesize in mm
Is V tu,
...(2.4)
analysis, then the percent finer, N , of the particle size D rrun, with respect to the total quantity of sarnple,is given by'
= unit weiglrt of soil solids = G" . y_ = unit weight of distilled water at the room temperature
.|y'' = N "
w.
w
...(2.7)
t = time interval in sec r1 = reading of hydrometer in suspensionat time t
995 1000 10 0 5 W . L .e v e l L Immersion I n i i i a tW . L l
-T
I
L
p = viscosity of water al room temperaturein gm-sec,/cm2 Z, = distancefrom the surfaceofsuspensionto the centreofgravity
of hydrometer bulb at time /, which can be determined from :
ya\ r(, Z,=Hr+;lh-;l * ^ / where, V1 = volume lyoroor.t.'),n or ."

A = areaof cross-section measuringcylinder in cm2 of
...(2.s)
Hr = distance betweenthe surfaceofsuspensionand the neck of

bulb, in cm lr = length of the bulb in crn The distance fl rnay be rneasuredby a scale. However, a better proposition is to determine.F/1 from the following e.quation:
Vh -T /2A'i
I
l j l+ lz r t l l, -L
I
Hr=
where,
(ra+I)-11 r4 x L
...(2.6)
Fig.2.2
r,t = difference between maximum and minimum calibration the markson lhe stemof hydrometer L = lengtb of calibration( - length of stem)
In eqn.(2.4), f{ = percent finer. V = Volume of suspension in'cc I7, = weight of dry soil takenin gm r- = readingof hydrometerin distilledwaler at roorn temperature Cm = Ireniscus correction If t{2,be the weight of dry soil passing through the 75 p sieve during sieve analysis,which is subsequently used for bydrometeranalysis,and if I{2,be the total weight of sample taken for combined dry and wet mechanical
Fig. 2.3 showstypical particle size 2.3.1 Particte sizeDistribution curv& a distribution curyesfor varioustypesof soils.CurvesA, B and C represeut and a gap gradedsoil respectively' uniform soil, a well gradedsoil to With reference the particlesize distributioncurve of a given soil, the following two factorsare helpful tbr defining tbe gradatiottof the soil: (i) Uniformity Co-efficient: ^ = .u D (ii) Co-efficientof Curvature: (Dro)2 g Dto
...(2.8)
"=Dto"Doo
...(2.e)
28
and Problemsin Soil Mechnni.cs FoundatianEngineering IndexPropertiesand SoilClassificatian

100 90 80 70 I
I
29
Yd = in-situ dry densitYof the soil. On thebasisof thc relative density,coarse-grrinedsoils areclassifiedasloose, medium or denseas follows:
A
t
60 50
aul
I E
1!'
If OsRes
tn" soitis loose f , is mcdium
(s) (r
o.0l 0.02 0.0s0'l 02 05 o'El o.oo5 0.002 o.oot ( P A R T I I LS I Z E m m )- - * E F8,2.3
z u-
30 20 t0
J 0
f . n p . J, o" *il
t . n o 1 , thesoilis dense. '

If the water content of a thick soil-water mixture 2.5. Aficrbcrg Limits: from a liquid stateto a plastic state, is gradually reduced,the mixture passes then to a semi-solid state and finally to a solid state. The water contents corresponding to the transition from onestate to another are called Attefterg limits or consistency limits. These limits are determined by arbitrary but sbndardised tests. In order to classify fine-grained soils on the basis of their consistency limits, the following indices are used: ...(2.12) Io = w1 - wo (D PlasticitYIndex,
r0
where, Dfi, Dpand D6grepresenttheparticlesizesin mm,corresponding to l0%o,307o and 6O7ofrnet respectively' When Cu 15, the soil is uniform Cu = 5 to 15, the soil is medium graded. Cu > 15, the soil is well graded. Again, for a well gradedsoil, the value of C" should lie between I' and 3. It is a measureof the degree of compactnessof a 2.4. Relative l)ensity: cobesionlesssoil in the state in which it exists in the field. It is defined as, R., = where,
o "t* e
d\ptiditY
Index,
t i = T
wn-wP ' Ip
wr-wP wl-wp
...(2.13)
...(2.14)
(iiD Consistency Index, I"

whete,
Wl-Wn Ip
|9l-Wn wI-wp
max - min
...(2.10)
w1 t wO and ltz stand for the liquid limit, plastic limit end the na0ral water content of the soil.
emax = void ratio of the soil in its loosest slate min = void ratio at the denseststate e = natural void ratio in the field.
(iv) Flow Index (I): It is defincd as the slopeof the w vs. loglg JVcurve obtained from the liquid limit test. wl -r=w7= ...(215) i.e., 'I I, - , lqls N2/N1 wbere, N1 and N2 are the number of blows corresponding to the water contents w1 and ul.
The relative density of a soil may also be determined from: Ya - Yddn Ydmax
^ no=
Ydmax
- Ydmin
..(2.rr)
(v) Toughnessindex, ,r
...(2.16)
where,
Ydmax = maximum dry density of the soil Ydmin = minimum dry density of the soil
(vi)ActivityNumber,, ffi
Soils can be classified accordingto various indices, as follows:
...(2.17)
30
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
31
a)
Clqssification according to tle plasticity index:
Plasticin Index 0
<7
Degreeof Plasticity
Nou - plastic Inw plastic Medium plastic Highly plastic
Typeof Soil
Sand
silr
Silty clay or clayey silt Clay
In order to detennine the shrinkagelirnit, a sampleof soil having a high rnoisture content is filled up in a mould of known volume. The mould containingthe sampleis then kept in the oven at 105'C for 24 hours.After taking it out from the oven, the weight of the dry soil pat is taken and its volume is rneasured the mercurydisplacement by method. Fig.2.a@)an<[2.4(c) represent schematic the diagrams the initial and of final statesof the samplewhile Fig. 2.4(b)represents that conespondingto
7-17 >17
(b) Classilication according to tlrc liquidity index: A soil for which the liquidit i-solid or solid state. The soil is very stiff if { = 0 (i.e., w, = wp) and very soft if .I1= I (i.e. wn = w) Soils having I1> | arein the liquid state.For most soils, bowever,I lies between 0 and 1. Accordingly, the soils are classified as follows: I1 Consistency stiff Medium to soft Soft Very soft
I
Vo
l_
o) Iniiiot Slste
b} Af S,L
Fig.2.4
c) Drystste
0.0 - 0.25 0.25- 0.50 0.50- 0.75 0.75- 1.00
the shrinkage limit. With referenceto thesefigures, the shrinkage limit can be determinedby the following two methods: Method I: Wrcn G is unbwwn : LetVs andV1be the initial and final volumes of the sample and Wg andW6 be its corresponding weights. By definition, the volume of the soil at shrinkagelimit is equal to its final volume. I*tWnbe the weight of water at this stage.The shrinkagelimit is then given by,
!. - s = u
(") Clottrft"ofion orrordiog ,, The activity nurnber of a soil representsthe tendency of a soil to swell or shrink due to absorption or evaporationof water. The classification is as follows:
wn Wd
Activity Number
Typeof Soil Inactive Normal Active
< 0.75 0.75 r.25 > 7.25
At the initial stage weight of water = Wo -Wa, , Weight of water evaporatedupto shrinkagelimit = (Vg - V)yn
2.5.1 Determimtion of Shrinktge Limit: The shrinkage limit of a soil is defined as the water content below which a reduction in the water content does not result in a decreasein the total volume of the soil. This is the minimum water content at which a soil can still be saturated.
W*=(Wo-Wi-(Vo-Viy* - Wi - (Vo- V) t* *^ _(Wo w " d

Method II: Let WhenG is lotown: % = volume of solids
...(2.18)
Problcms k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
hdex Properties ond Soil Classification A
-+ V,
But,
-
wd c4*
w n - ( v a - % ) r - (n' - b*)'"
Vd.ln Va'ln
l?s
wd
G wd/G
\uu
o<
.\" 50
EO 10
o o
o^^* v1'
40
o e
so
lYa
ws l
- Va'ln T
w 1
1
G
...(z.re)
...(2.20)
olt
ws-
t-e
Particle sbe (mm)
2.5. Cbsslficetlot Bercd on Prrticlc Sizc : Soilsrrc classified clay, as silt sandend gnvcl on thc brsis of tteir particlc sizes.IS:1498 - 1970 recommends following clessification: tbc Soil Type Clay silt
"/" O S I L T F /
< 0.002 0.002ro 0.075
Fig.2.s
the soil is then detenninedaccordingto the narneof the segrnentin which the inleisectionpoint lies. This chart is usetul for identifying and classifying 2.?. Plasticity chart: fine-grained soils. In this chart the ordinateand abscissarepresentthe values A plasticity index and liquid li[rit respectively. straightline called A-line, t-rf the equation I p= a'73 (wr- 20), is drawn and the areaunder by represented the chart is divided into a number of segmen8. ou the chart any fine-grained by soil can be represented a single point if its consistencylimits are known. The segrnentin which this point lies determinesthe name of the soil. Fig.2.6shows a plasticitychart.The meaningof thesymbolsusedinthe chart are as follows:
Sand: (i) Fine sand 0.075 ta 0.425 (ii) Mediumsand 0.425 to 2.0 (iii) Coanesand 2.0 tCI 4.75 Gravel 4.75 ro 80
2.6,1. Tcfrtral Cbssiftution Systamz Any soil, in its natural state, consistsofparticlcs ofverious sizes.Onthebasis ofthe percentages ofparticle sizes, and following ccrtain definite principles, broad classification bf such mixed soil is possiblc. Fig. 25 shows thc triangular classification chart of the Mississippi River Comrnission, USA" It essentiallyconsistsof an equilareraltriangle ABC. The percentages sand,silt and clay (ranging from0%o L0O7o) plotted along of ta ate the sides AB, BC and CA respectively. The area of the tiangle is divided into a number of segments and each segment is given a name. In order to find out the group to which a given soil belongs, three lines are required to be drawn from the appropriate points on tbe three sides along the directions shown by the arrnws. These thrcc lines intcrscct at a single point. The nomenclatureof
M C
L T H
Silty soils. Clayey soils. Organic soils. l,ow plasticity h{edium or intermediateplasticity High plasticity
Main groups of fine-grained soils are ML, MI, MH - Silty soils
34
Problems in Soil Mecfuinics and Foundation Engineering
Indet Properties and Soil Clossiftcation I.S, Sieue
35 Cumulative To Retained 1.87 12.62 28.24 44.88 62.04 77.4) 90.80 97.58
Vo Finer
Diameter of Grains (mm) 4.75 2.& t.2n 0.600 0.425 0.300 0.150 0.075
50
o\
Weight % Retained R.etaincd Gm) 9.36 53.75 78.10 83.22 85.79 76.82 6't.02 33.88 1.87 10.75 t5.62 \6.64 t7.16 15.36 13.40 6.78
:;
OJ C
a.75mT 2.40mm 1.20mm
98.13 87.38 71.76 55.r2 37.96 22.60 9.20 2.42
- 4 0
- 3 0 >. 29 !:
I --+I
30 40
500 p M H /O H 425tt 300p 150p

50 54 60 70
ii
ro
7 I
75w
Liquid Limlt ("hl * Fig.2.6 CL, CI, CH OL, OI, OH * Clayey soils - Organ-icsoils.
The particle size distribution curve is shown in Fig.2.7. (ii) The required percentages obtained from the curve are as follows: Gravel: Coarsesand: Mediurn sand: Fine sand : SiIt:
1.8770 1.97o
98.lVo -927o -38/o 92Vo = 6.lVo = 549'o = 35.60/o
EXAMPLES / The results of a sieve analysis performed on a dry soil Piroblem*l. sample weighing 500 gm are given below:
-2.4%o 38%b 2.42%;2.4% Med iumj [oqr
Fi n e Sond
t00 90
to
70 (i) Plot the particlq size distribution curve of the soil' (ii) Find out the percentageof gravel, coarsesand, medium sand, fine sand and silt presentin the soil, (iii) Determine the uniformity co-efticient and the co-efficient of curvature. Hence comment on the type of soil. Solution: (i) The computationsnecessaryfor plotting the particle size distribution curve are shown below:
sol
I
,osf% L l e t
u -
.E r
rg_f s
torl'r* t
0.010,020.040.060.t0e 04 0.6 | 2 P q r t i r l e S i z e( m m l +
Fig.2.7
3 o l
s ro-T
lo-{,*r.
36
Problems in SoilMeclutnics and Fortntlation Engineering
Index Properties and Soil Classificatian
d in a sieveanalysis' Problem 2,/. 500 grn of dry soil samplewas use ''as collcctcd i' the steel and d p.sse firough tie T5 p sieve. 178.;;;;;;i#i1 was rnadeby ouTof which 50 grn *u,-ttktn and a 1 litre suspension fun, agent-to it in a measuringcylirrder ÔOiogdistilled water and dispersing 'il" uoiuoit of the hydrometcr was 50 cc' the crn' navinl a diam,eler-of'6-15-
fi;d?;iilt,
rni'iururn a*d rnaximurn rnarksiii-ft s Ahvdrorueter{estwasthenperforrnedattberoomlenperaturtlof25"Cand were recorded: the tbllowirrg readittgs Elcused time (min) Hydrometer reading
I
e'Jll,:Thc of the is.s.t atrd length calibrarion^9L+.*:i" -steln
()r,
wc ri 090 a*d l 040 icspectivel y'
i/L D -- 0'09e1 Y ; eqn. (2.5), Using

Z,=Ht+
...(i)
t\" o)
r(.
Yr \
;L
I I
l5
30
60
Hcre,
tB24 1023 1t)201 A l 7 101310i{i ic06 1 C 8 i

or,
Z,
containing the in Whrrn the hydrometerwas immerse<l distiiled *'atcr the in as age-nt thal prt:serrt tilt:susptnsiorr, reading quarrtityof dispersing sanre ggg.5. lt-?s;C,the unitweight of *'ater is$.99' /l grn/ccand *as found tobe solidsis 2'67 'The i1svfs6:osit!is 8.95 millipoises.The specificgravity of soil meniscus correclion rnay be taken as 0'5' to each Find out the diameter of particles settied corresponding ck fir{letv:+ltrcs.Negiccl volumetrir': hydroincter reading and the respcctive change' expansiondue to temperaturc The terrrperaturot:orrectioll al-lrjil:r: *isittlrsiriii agent Solijtion: be correctionneecl-not applicd here' ' t/o using eqn' The diameier ald ccnesponding tiner rnay be <ieiermined . as repetitivecalculationsare int'olve'd'it will 12.:; tnrougn (2.?). Howevei, forms by sul-)stituting t" uarrunt"!"ous to reducetheseequationsto simplified factors wbich rernain col$tant the values of the Using eqn. (2.3)
= f,rs'tsl' 2elo6cnz - so/zs.7o6) = Ht + lot.t =

Z,=Ht+6'908 ...(ii)
Using eqn.(2.6), H1 _ ( r a + 1 ) - r r ,L
r4
Here,
r a = t ' 0 4 0 - 0 ' 9 9 = 0'05, L = 9.7 crn, f 1 + 0 ' 0 5 -r1 H . ' = \l 0.05 = (e'7) 194(1.05 rt)
...(iii)
finer on 50 grn of soil Agairr, o/o
" =,,k
or, ly' =
ir,lc(rt
+ c . - r - )x l o o
o = V t s o o P" { z :
Y"-Y* Here
t ()r,
2.61 " 2'67 - 0.9971 +f
x x0'ee71(r10'0005 0'eee5) 100 +

...(iu)
" 8.95 x i0'-"' .j = ---- ' --- -llili- :ir'-/ ctn p = 8.95 rnillipoises
* i,i}ti 'r l{}-1i i;l:-i-.s'r:r:ict{!2
N = ? , 1 8 2 ' 8 ( 1 1- 0 . 9 9 9 ) Vofiner on 500 gm of soil takeninitially
N'=N.#=0.3s77N
...(v)
As
G =7.67,
^!s=2'67gitt/cc'' 1o = 0,9971En/cc,
A.1 ?-5"f,
Eqn. (i) through (v) rnay now be usedfor the computations'The results below. are tatrulated
/ .. ,-2.
38
Time Hydrometef reoding
Problems in Soil Mech.anics and Fottndation Engineering Zr= I{r = x 195 H t + (1.0s 6.908 ri (cm) (cm)
Index Properties and Soil Classification Total weigbt of unit volume of suspension W = W" t W- = 0.0599+ 0.9778= 1.0377grn' = Density of the suspension 1.0377gm/cc o 1.038gm/cc.
39
p =
n
(sec)
L 0.0ss1v
I (mm)
0.0625
t-
ff=' 1y'= 3182.8 0.3s77 x(yrxlV
0.eee)
(%)
g")
?3.6 27.32 23:9L 20.49 t5.94 t2.52 7.97 2.28
30 60 120 24 480 900 1800 3600
r.024 r.023 r.020 L.Ol7 1.013 1.010 1.006 1.001
r1.952 5.238 tz.16

5.O4 5.820 12.728 6.402 13,310 7.\78 7.1ffi 14.086 14.668
79.57 76.39 66.84 57.29 44.56 35.01 22.28 6.37
0.oM o.0323
0.0233 0.1697 0.0126 0.0092 0.0067
8.536 t5.444 9.506 16.4L4
= Therefore,readingof the bydrometer 1038" Asample of dry soil (G, = 2.68) weighing 125 gm is Problem W of at in unitbrrnly disp6rsed water to tbnn a L litre suspeusion a temperature 28"C. atler its irnrnediately (!)&etermi[e the unit weigbt of the suspension prcparation. was (ii)!*cc of the suspeusion retnovedfrorn a depthof 20 cm beneath was surfaceafterthe suspension allowedto settle for 2.5 min. The dry tbe t6-p drawn was found to be 0.398 gm. wt:ight of the sample in the suspension Determinea singlepoint on the particlesizedistributioncuryecorresponding to tbis observatiott. Giveu,at 28"C,viscosityof water= 8'36 millipoisesand unit weightof water = 0.9963gmkc Solution: = (i) Volume of solidsin the suspenrion # = 46.64 cc.
/ to Problem 2./. Distilledwaterwasadded 60 gm of dry soil to prepare Yf I suspension t litre. What will be the readingof a hydrometerin the at could be immersed that tirne? at susperuion t = 0 sec,if the hydrometer Assume,densityof water= | gmlccandspecificgravity of solids=2.70. to Solution: At t = 0 sec,the solid grainshavenot started settle.The densityat any point havingconstant is tberefore, homogeneous, suspension, in it. As G = 2.7o,\" = 2.70Emlcc. Total volumesf solidsin the suspension
Consideringunit weight of suspensiotl, Volunreof solids present Volumc of water presenl
= ffi=o.o466cc
= 1 - 0'0466 = 0'9534 cc
Weight of 0.466 cc of solids = (O.04ffi)(2,68) = 0.1249 gm Weight of 0.9534cc of water at 28oC= (0.9534)(0.9963)= 0.9499gm'
weight rotar ":T.I;'fiffi

(ii) We have, frotn Stokes' law,
#=
22'22cc'
=1.0248 sm.
grn/cc. nsion = 1..0748 Theretbre,unit weight of suspe
.'. Volumeof solidsin unit volumeof suspension,
,, = ffi=0.0222cc.
Volume of waterin unit volumeof suspension, = cc' Vn = |' O'O222 O'9778 Wightof solidsin unit volumeof suspension, (2m) = 0.0599gm. W" = (0.O222) Weight of water in unit volume of suspension, W*= (A.W78)(1) = 0.9778gm'
ol'
" =t'i*J".d
p = 18p x G Y"-T.
Let D be the diameter of the particles settled to a depth of 20 cm at r = 2.5 min. with a uniform velocitY v.
, = 1= ,r#*
= o.133cmlsec
40
Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering 8.36 x L0'3 = 8,522 x 10-6 gm-sec-,/c-m2 981
Index Properties and Soil Classificotion
41.
F = 8.36 millipoises =
55 ^ 5 0
o\
= Ys = 2'68 gfit/c'.c, y,,, 0.9963 gm,/cc
D =
(18)(8.522x 10-6) x fi133 2.68 - 0.9963
crn
E 4 s \tlU=Ir3"h
o
L,
= 3.48 x 10-3 crn = 0.035 mm = Agaiu, at tirne t = 0, weight of solids present in 1 cc of suspension 0.1249 gm. = Weight of solids presentin l0 cc of suspension l'249 gn' = At time t = 2.5 min., weight of solids presentin 10 cc of suspension 0.398 gm
\ \ \
30
L l O + CJ
.J
I t
35
lo
0.398 x 100= 31.86%' LZ4g Hence the co-ordinates of the requiredpoint on the particle size 7, Irner =
distribution curye are:
zo 25 30 No.of Blows --r'

2'8 Fig'
/'o
50
60
mm D = 0.035
the index is greater than17Vo, soil is higltly plaslic itt As the plasticrity . nafure indexis lessthan1, the soil is friableat liquid lirnit' As the toughness Protrlem 2S--Y^brr^tory testson a soil sarnpleyielded the followittg results: Liquid linit Plasticlimit = 547o =25%
Water content (7o) |
32'l
Natural moisturecoutent = 29o/t, o/ofiner than 0.002 rnm = l8o/t, (a) Determine the liquidity index of the soil aild courntenton its consistency. (b) Find out the activity nurnberand comrnenton the natureof the soil. (c) Classify tlre soil with the help of a plasticitychart'
(a) Determine the lkluid limit of the soiltsoil be 23To,find out the Plasticity index, iUj ff 1tr" plastic limit ot the Hence comment on the nature of the soil. flow'index anJ toughnessindex. Solution:(a)Fromthegivendata,acrrrvebetweenthewatercorrtent shows and the number oiblows is plotted on a semi-log graph paper' Fig' 2'8 curve. The watr content corresponding to 25-blows' as this w vs. loglg.lV is 437o' the obtained from the curve, is 43%o.Hencn liquid limit of the sotT -237o =20Va (b) Plasticity index, Io= w1-wo= 43Vo
Solution:
11 indcx' = (a) Liquidity -,i
w_ -
v'P
Flowindex, ,, = ffi t,=If,=ft Toughnessindex,

I
= = 38'687o = o'sz'
- ?-5 = o'138 = 29 54 - ,s and As 0 < I1<0.25, thesoilis in theplasticstate is stiff' A (b) Activitynumber, = % i.00, ^^
42
Problems in Soil Meclmnics andFoundation Engineering
43
el
of'
s4-)s o=--=1.611
But,atII,
w* w"
2.67
A s A > |..25, the soil is an activesoil. to (c) The plasticity chart is given in Fig.2.6. The point corresponding = 29Vois tnarkedin the figure as P. As this point lies irr the = 540/o and 1, wt segrnentrnarkd Cl{"the soil belongs to the ClJgroup. PL The Atterberglirnits of a given soil are,LL = 60aio, Probfern {/; = 457oand SI =25a/0. The specificgravity of soil solids is2.67. A sampleof this soil at liquid limit has a volume of 20 cc. What will be its final volume limit? if the sarnpleis broughtto its shrinkage diagramsof the sample at ils liquid litrlit Solution: Thc three-phase limir are shown in Fig. 2.9(a)and (b) respectivcly. and shrinftage Let e1and e" be the void ratio of the soil at LL andSI respcctively.tct the volume of solids be 1 cc.
w=ffiVa=0'6.
= (2.67) L6Az = 0.6 , or, es= (0.6) + 2.67

= e" = (0.?5)(2.67) 0'668 Changein volutne per unit of original volume' Similarly, at SI,
Av v
t - , _ 1.602- 0.668 = 0.359 1+1.602 l+et (20) V AY = 0.359 = (0.359) = 7.18cc

SL = 20 - 7'18 = 12.82cc
Hence,final volume at
---Jl e i l 1 ' ( 1 + e 1|) r f
:-Woter--::
l
l I
-t_-+_ Ai L.L (Voidrotlo = el) ts)
t l
,$,re
--- - --I
{eL-e5) -n------nF-
Probfem 2.V'' T\econsistencylimits of a soil sampleare: ../ =357o,5L = l7% LL = 52c/o,PL to 6. 1 cc I f a spcimen of this soil shrinks from a volume 10 cc at liquid limit of solids' at plasticlimit, determinethe specificgravity Solution:I-rrelandesbelhevoidratioconespondingtotheliquid linrit and plasticlimit. Let volume of solids be 1 cc. ' .'. At liquid limit, volutne of water = l cc = e/ grn Weight of water Weightofsolids =Vr'G\n=1'G'L=Gce: wn * = But at liquid limit, * = " t
| .t F=-wJ;-=
AI S.L (Vord oiio=es) r tbl
Fig.2.9
w= 527o=A.52
wehave,
Atliquid limit,
" = +Y,s o r , v r = e . v ,
Vu = et'l = er cc Similarly we obtain,
| = o . s zor, et ,
= 0-52G
G es=0'17
I
)
.'. Volume of water present = el cc Weigbtofthiswatcr s Weightc.f olids = t x | = et Em = V r ' G \ n = 0 ) Q . 6 7 ) = L 6 l gm
volunie, per in Now, change volume unitof original t - , -:T; - 0-17 = 0'35G G O.52G LV
t *o
csrd-
1 . o52G
But,
+-{]dq=o'3e
44
Index Properties and Soil Classification Here, yd = volum of dry soil pat = L3.97cc' $/7 = rveight of dry soil pat = 2623'gn G = 2.7.
45
,.*-qra=o'39
or.
G = 2.65
gn Problem 2.91 An ovendriedpat of clay weighs 26.2O anddisplaces 190 gm of mercurywhen fully immcrsedin it. If the specificgravity of solids be 2.7, determinethe shrinkagelimit of the soil. . Solution: (i) Solution from first principles: diagramof the dry soil pat. Fig. 2.10 shows the schernatic Volunie of the dry pat Unit weight of solids, Volume of solids, .'. Volumeof voids,
rs
',=ffi-;j=0'163
Shrinkary limit = 163qc Hence, pnobtem !.f0( san6was found to havevoid ratiosof of A sarnple ct'rane The il-situ deflsity statesrespectively. 0.8? and O.SZirrts loosestand densest of water contrenl the sandwere 1.95gm/cc and 23%.Dilennine the degree an<l of saturalionand relativedensifyof the sandin the field' Given, G = 2'66' Solution: Wc have, G+se 1 = T;T"t1 Y I
(1) (13.e7)
wn* 190 = --: = :- = 13,97 cc 'las rJ'o

= Gyn = (2.7)(1,0) = 2.7 gn/cc 26.20/2.7 = 9.7 cc
v" =
Vu = 13.97 - 9.7 = 4.27 cc
=G(l+w)-. =G+r+6 1 * "-"{w e'lw 1 +
When the soil is at shrinkagelimit, this volume of 4.27 cc wiH be just filled up with water. We ight of this water = 4.27 gp Moisture contentat that stage,
Accurding to the given tield conditions Y = 1.95gm/cc, w = 0'23, G = 2'66 +0.23),,, 1.95=2.66(1 l + e ()r. e = 0.678. -9 Degreeof safuration, = Again, usingeqn.2.10. Rrr=W (2.66\ v6 _ ({J.23\ = 0.902 = %,Tt 0.678 e
w=
w-,
ws
a )j
ffi
= 0'163= 163o7o
Slrrinkase lirmir = 16.30/0
l + ' 2c c 1 H*rc,
= max 0.87,en;n= o'52,e = 0.6?8'
13'97cc
I
Fig.2.10
Vd'fn
= -tiJf RDi;11 =osj

1
g 2520 m
_f
I G
As
i.
5
Rr, . i,
" J
'
saiiJ. thc stiil is a iltediunr
(ii) Solution using eqn. (2.19): The shrinkagelimit is given by,
is cf Prcble m 2,1.1. The.r+lt-'.pr:silii:n * givr:n-';r,;; as fsr|la{v.i; = 29olcSartd= 37'/0, Sill = 39%, {\a',: Draw a lriangularciassifitationchartand elassifytlie;oil' cliait is given in Fig. 2.5. Solutiou: Thc triatrgularclassific:ation as thc soil, pr'.rceed follorvs: In ortier tu classify of ihc (D Ortthc sideABof thechart,which represent$ percentage sa$d, choosethe point correspondingta 32%" Draw a straight line from tbat poiff
W1
46
Problems in Soil Mechanies and Foundatbn Engineering
Inde.rProperties and Soil Clossification
47
in the direction of the arrow (i.e., parallel to the side AC representing the percentage ofclay). (ii) Similarly on the side BC, locate the point corresponding to 39Voand draw another straight line making it parallel to 8A, These two lines intersect eachother at P. (iii) If now a third line is drawn from the appropriate poinr (29%) on the clay side, making it parallel toAB, it will pass through P. The point P then represenlstbe given soil in the triangular classification chart. The point lies in the sector marked 'clay silt'. Hence the given soil is classifiedas a clav sih.
EXERCISE 2 2.1 The following data were obtainedfrom a specific gravity test performed thelaboratory: in = 2OI-?5 Wefghtof emptypycnometer gm Weightof pycnometer dry soil and = 298.76 gm Weightof pycnometer, aid waler = 758.92gm soil Weigbtof pyorometer of water fult = 698.15 gn t&s. 2.654] Detem,rine specific the gravityof thesoil. 2.2 The results a sieveanalysis givenbelow: of are
Wt of Soil Retained(gm)
The total weight of dry soil taken was 500 gm. (a) Plot the particle size distribution curve. (b) Determine the pe.rcentage gravel, coarsesand, medium sand, fine of sand and fine ftactions in the soil. (c) Determine the co-efficient of curvature and the uniformity coefficient. (d) Comment on the type of soil. 2.3 A combined mechanical analysis was carried out on a. dry soil sample weighing 500 gm. The following are thc results: (a) Sieve analysis:
During the hydrometer test, 50 gm of soil retained on the steei pan was rnixed with distilled water and dispening agentto form a suspensionof 1"200 cc in a measuringcylinderhaving a diameterof 6.2 crn.The hydrometerhad a volume of 50 cc. The length of its bulb and the calibrati,onon the stem were 16 cm and 10 cm respectively. The range of calibrations was from 995 to 1035. When itnmersedin distilleOwatir containingdispersingagent, the read998.5. Meniscuscorrectionmay be taken as0.4. Thq specific hyctrometer gravity of solids was 2.69. The viscosity and unit weight of water at the room ie mperatureof 28"C were respectively8'36 millipoise a1d 0'9963 gm/cc. Plot the particle size distribution curve and detcrmine the percentageof gravel, sand,silt and clay. i7-Draw a rough sketchof the particle size distribution curve of a sand sanrplehaving the following properties: = 0.17 mm Elfective size (D16) Unifonnity co-efficient Co-efficient of curvature = 5.5 = 1,2.
tOOgrn of dry soil was mixed with water at 4oC to fonn a L000 cc -r{.5 suspension.lf G = 2.72, determine the initial unit weight of the suspension. T<l what depth with the particles having effective diameterof 0.05 mm settle aftcr 5 rninutes?Whatwill bethe time requiredby a 5 micron particle to settle through L0 cm? The vlscosity of water ri4oC rrruybe assumedas 0.85 x 10-3 poisc. 2.6 T\e results of a tiquid limit test are given below:
i
\-
,,1
I
48
Problems in SoiI Mectwnics and Foundstion Engineering
Draw the tlow curve and detenninethe liquid lirnitand flow irrclex the soil. of IrAts: 47%o,I8.9%l 2.7 The Atterberg timits of a given soil are: pL LL = 68%o, = 37To,SL = 22Vo If the naturalmoisturfcontent of this soil at the sitebe4zvo,thendetermine : (r) Plasticiry index (ii) Consisrancy index (iii) Liquidiry index. Comnent on the nature of the soil on the basis of theJe indices. [Ans. (i) 3rvo (ii)0.83e (iii) 0.161] 2.8 A si'gle liquid lirnil test wes pertbnned with casagra.de's liquid , limit device on a soil sample witlr known Atterberg lirnits. ihe nurnber of blows required to close the groove was recorded .r s:. f]l" corresponding noisture coutcrnt the samplewas found tobeZgvo.If the liquid limit of and plastic linrit of the soil be 74vo and4lvo rcspectively,determin. ir" tou!hr,.r. index. [Ans.0.231 -.2' 2-.4 The weigbt and volume of a fully saturatedsoil sample were 55.4 gm and 29.2 cc respectively. After dryi'g i'a'ove. for 24 hours,its weight and volume rerjuced to 39.8 gm and zt.t c. respectively. Find out trrc shrinkage limit of the soil. fAns.t8.8%l 2.10 If &e dry density a'cr unit weight of sorids of a soil be 1.6g grn/cc and2.65 grn/cc rcspectively,determineits shrinkagelimit. 1ens.il,.Srf"1 z.1l A cylindrical soil sampreof 7.5 .'n height and 3.75 cm diarnerer has been prepared at $e shrinkage limit. If the sample is now arowed to absorbrvaterso that irs water conlentreaches liquid lirnit, what will the be its pL volurne? Given LL = 6ZVo, =34%o, = ?\Vi,G = 2.6g. SL
CAPILI.ARITY AND PERMEABILITY

3.1 Capillarity: The interconnectedpore spacesin a soil mass may be assumedto form innumerable capillary tubs.At any given site, the natural ground watr table normally exists at a certain dcpth below theground level. Due to surface tension, waler gradually rises from this level through the capitlary tubes. This causes the soil above the ground water table to be partially or even fully saturatcd. In Fig. 3.I, hcrepreseRts maximum height of capillary rise of water the in a capillary tube of diameter d. The uppe-rmeniscus of water is concave upwards and makesan angle a with the vertical (if the tube is perfectly clean and wet, cr = 0). The surfacetension,?" , also acB in this direction. The vertical component of { is responsible for balancing the self-weight of the water column. Now, volume of capillary water = Weight of capillary water =
nt
4
weighs 1894 grir. The ril.,uid was filled up with dry soit, first at its loosest stateand then at the denscst state, and was found to weigh3zT3gm and 353g gm respe.ctivrly. the naruralsoil existingat the field be subm-erged {f below the grountl rverarr tahl* and hasa water contentof zjvodetennine riie relativc densiiy +{ tl;t $flil and {roinrnelton ils stateof corlrpactness. Given, G = 2.65. 54'75vcl z,tr3 l},e Allerberg limits oia Evr:r s'ii "r" u, rotto*rf,fu LL = LVq,, = Z9g/*, = l8.,qo FL SL . D;o',,.. i;lastieitfi.ii:ir.ilud classif,v br-li1. * ihi Dfirr,' a triangurarcrassification chart ai:r1iiassiry rbe soi! rravirir, - !:14 [he fcllowirg u:;ri;rosilion:
2.12A cvli*dricar mourd 10crn .f internar diamerer lT;T*-l and
'h'
ni
4
'n"'ln
Again,verticalcoruponnl &e surface of tension force 7".il. c.os cr nt -14 or At

' h.'ln ' = Is ' fid ' cos c
t+ -
4Lcosa
i.u
."(3.1)
= Sand 43Vo.Silt=3!Vo,Clay =26Eo.
tC, T" = 75.6 dylesztm = 75.6 x 10-8 kN,/crn

= 9.80? kN/m3 = 9.80? x 10-6 kNr'cn3
and, y*-lgm/ct
50
Problems in SoiI Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Cap illar ity and F ermeabi[ ity
51
Fie. t.l Assuming the tube to be perfectly clean and wet,.cos cr = cos 0' = 1
o'=ffiiftfit'r
,(4')(75.6 x 10-8)
ort
0.3084 . n, = -7cnr
...(3.2)
The value of h.may also be determinedfrom:
. c tt, = zzG
...(3.3)
wbere, e = void ratio dLo= particle size correspondingto lOVo frner C = empirical constant, the value of which dependson the shape andsurfaci: impurities th"-gd*f4 of lr"$.nygglg 05cm1
3.2 Pressure Due to Capillary Water : The capillary water rises against gravity and is held by the surfacetension.Therefore,the capillary water exerts a tensile force on the soil. However, the free water exerts a pressruedue to its own self weight, which is always compressive. The distribution of vertical pressurein a soil saturatedupto a height ft" due lo capillary water is shown in Fig. 3.2.
FiB.3.z , 3.3 Tota[ Effective and Neutral stresses: when an externalload is appliedon a saturated mass, pressure immediately soil the is transferred to thc porewater.At this point,the soil skeleton doesnot shari any load.But with passage time, the pore water graduallyescapes of due to tbe pore water pressure inducedand a part of tbe externalsnesJis transfenedto the solid grains.irhe total stresso is thereforedivided into the following components: (i) Effective stressor intergranular pressure, o, (ii) Porewaterpressure neutral or stress, u. or, O=at+tt ...(3.4) 3.4 Distrlbution of vertical stressin various soil-water systems (i) Free water : In free water,the hydrostatic pressure distributionis linear.At anydepthz belowthewaterrevel,theverticalpressure givenby, is
u=Zl_ The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.3.
:
l i
1
I
...(3.s)
(ii)Dry soil: In adry soil mass, distribution verticalstress similar the of is to a hydrostatic pressure distribution. anydepth tle pressure givcnby, At z, is o, = lz
I It
.tt/)
52
Problems in Soil Meclamics and Foundation Engineering
Cap il Iar ity and P ermeabil ity
53
-t-
I J-_
where,
I
FHIw
Fig.3.3 t
1H$
I
-{ I
.1.-*,*r',Jrrro t lLr,,r-*,J Jlw{F-rsot H --+

Submerged i) PoreWoiei ii) Totulstress Soil Pressure
l \_ tl\i \ \ L \
Fig.3.5 = H(Yr"r - Y-) o' = y"ub.H
L\.l* Jn"o
...(3.8)
Y = eft'eclive unit weight of soil Fig. 3.4 illustrates the pressuredistribution diagram.
iiil Effec tive Stress
I I
n
or,
L
Fig"3.4 d (iii) Submergedsoii : Fig. 3.5 showsa soil masssubmerge in water with free waier standing upto a height Hi,lf" H be the height of the soil, the total pressureat the bottom of it is given by' .H + \n (H* + H\ e = Tsub 0r, {rr; o=(y*l+\o)H+\nHo o=Ysar'I{+Y*Hn tr = lw(ff + H*,)
q ' = ( I - l t
I I
(iv\ Saturated soil witlt capillary water i In Fig' 3.6, the soil mass is up{oa height/r. abovethewaterlevel,dueto capillaryrise of water. saturated at and the effective stresses various pore watcr pressures The total stresses, below: levels are worked out
1hc
+I I
I I
h
I
...(3.6) ...(3.7)
* Hn)
I
-Jrru61t,*t lc)*rnh
of Distribution Stress Effective
Fig.3.6
Pore r+'aterpressure, .'. Eftbctivt sness
* ysat.Il + ynHo. - \*(H
,,/
54
Problems in SoitMeclunics and Foundatian Engineering
Capillar ity and P ermeabilitY
(a) Total stresses:
oa=0
og = \e1. hc o6 = Ysat Qt + hr)
1n2
(b) Pore water Pressures:

uA = - h"\n ' lt1= 0 ilC = \nh" (e) Effectivestresses : O,A 6'B d,C = oA uA = O - (-hr\nl = h"\n Fig.3.7 {o} NoFlow F tbl Upyord low
t hr
-t-
r
F ! 1 g 1s Y r n v , 6 r d l o w
= o B - u g = y s a l: h , - a6
- 0 ='{o.t,hc
uc = .[sar(h + h") - \oh, h,
At any depth z below the top of the soil mass (i.e., sec. X X)
= ysar.fi + (y"", - \)
.z oz = Ys*b t ln(z + h2)
or,
6'c
= ysat.h + y*6.1r. = ysrb , h, + Yn. lr + 1.u6 - h.
...(3.e)
...(3.10)
and,
ur=\nQ+12)
o'z=oz-il2
6'c
= ynrb(h + h"y + lnlt
= y s r b .z * ' ( n @ + h 2 ) - Y - ( z + l q )
0f,
of strength a soil is \ilater : Theshear in ld po*uPressure Seepage througb place takes ,tt.i. wn"n no flow of warer "r""rir" &;;;tin" seepage constant.However,
i soil, fte eifective stressat a given point remains affects the stability of any oi*.t", causesthe effectivei[ess to change' and structure built over tle soil mass'
o'" = y*6 .2
'.(3'11)
Thus , at any depthz, the effective stressdependsonly on th.esubmerged density of the soil. case II : Downward flow :T\is condition occurs when the water level in C1 is at a higber level than that in C2 fig. 3.7 c). At the section X-X, az =ysub.zr\wQ+lrZ) and uz =\n(z+lt2-h)
o', =62-llz
Theeffectofseepageofwaterontheeffectivestresscanbeanalysed with the following laboratory experiment' through a U-tube' The Two containirs C1 and C2 arc interconnected ft1 with free water standing to a "oooirrtt C1 contains a soit miss of height water and may be raised neignt ft2ablve it. The ontainer C2 is filied upwith *tt"t levels in both C1 and C2 are or lowered as and when required.-Th" and outlet pipes' maintained at constantleveli with the help of inlet This condition occurs when Csse 1 : When no flow of water nles place: level' as shown in Fig' the water levels in both containers are "t the same 3.7(a).
= Y s u bz + y n . h .
=Ysub'z*\w'+''
i
of, where,
a',
= Ysub. + 7n iz z
...(3.r2)
i= hydraulic gradiefi=L
/(a.lt
/ ' l
56
Problems in SoilMechanics snd Foundstian Engineering
Capillar ity and Permeabil itY where,
57
(3.11) and (3'12) clearly showsthat a betweenequations A cornparison downward flow causesthe effective stressto increase' cc cose III : Upwardflow : This condition occurs when the water level in in C1 ig' 3-7 b)' is at a higher level than that At the sectionX - X, oz =Tsub.Z+\nQ+h2) ttz =y*(z+h2+h) ' O ' , = Y s u b . Z. \ o l t lt = Y s u b ' z- l w z
lc= constantof proportionality, tcrmed as the co-efticient of permeabilitYof soil. of t!" t"titt co-efficienfslpttt..9,-!{yi-U!.utut. Jhe againstflow of watt:rthrough its pores. i=1, the' k=\,. @*rr.t of Tlrus, the co-efficieutof perrneability a soil is defincd as the average which will occur u[der unit hydraulic gradient.It has the ve.locityof tlow or, i.e., cnr/sec, m/day, elc. units of velocrity, typical valuesof /<for various soils : Table 3.1 presents Table 3.1
or,
o'" =ysub,z-rln iz
...(3.13)
Gravcl
Type Soil of 1
k (cmlsec)
Thus an upward flow of water causesthe efte.ctivestressto decrease. irr 3.6 Quicksand Condition : Eqn. (3'13) suggests that thc reduction water depends on the effective stress at any depth z due to upward flow of a existing hydraulic gradient,i. Ifat any site, the hydraulic gradient reaches pressuremay become equal to = i.), the seePage certailicriiical valule(i.e., i the pressure due to the self-wCight of the soil. In such cases,the effective any stresswill be zero. In otberwords, the solid grains will not carry any load transmittedto the pore water. The entire soil mass rnore, and the entire load is soil will tien behaveas if it were a liquid, and any external load placed on the At this stagethe soil loses its shearstrength and does will settle immediately. quicksand not have any bearing power. Such a condition is known as the ih. "orr*tponding hydraulic gradient is called theil!9l condition.
to
l}z 1, 1o-3 1o-s 10-6
Coarseand medium sald Fine sand,loose silt Densesilt, clayey silt Silty clay, clay Eqn. (3.15) may alsobe written as
10-3 to 10-s to 1o-6 to 1o-e to
q=kiA
...(3.16)
hyjr"yllgf,qr_
o Frorn eqn. (3.13) we get, $ = Tsrb.Z 'ln-i".2
orr ic
i.e where,4 = unit discharge, ., the quantityof waler florving througha crosssectidnalareaA in unit time. that tbr 3.8. Allen Hazen's Formula : Allen Hazenfounclexperimentally loose filter sands,
Ysub
Y *
--7--:---' r + e
(G - l)
-. ,..
<- k = C.4a where, ...(3.14) in of ls= co-efficient penneability cm/sec
...(3.17)
lwt rw
Orr
ic
G - r
l + e
This law states that, the velocity of flow of water 3.?. Dar,cv's l,aw: is proportional to the hydraulic gradient' throug-[-t;ii;G
being apploximatelyequalto 100 crn-l sec-l C = a constant, to Dro = Particlesize corresponding l07o finer, in ctn' 3.9. Iaboratory Determination of k : The co-efficient of permeability wh;ch are of a soil can be delennint:d in ibi: laboratoryusing penneameters, of the followittg two t-vPes: tttcic i headpt'rttica (a) Constani (b) Falling headPenncarneter
i.e.,
olt
v c c i v - ki
...(3.1s)
58
itY CapittariryandPermeabil
flere I =
59
l!
L
--=-: ...(3.18)
_lI tl ll
il L r
head perrneameter: In this case' a stand-pipe containing \yffiiakg percolatesthrough the iiate, is auacnla to the top of the soil mass.As water the standpipe gradually falls soil frorn top to $e bottom, the water level in the dischargequantity' the fall of water level in down. Instead of measuring the stand^pipeover a certain time interval t is measured' Lrt, I = lengthof lhe soil samPle areaofthe sample A = cross-sectional areaofthe stand-pipe c = cross-sectional /rr = head of water causing flow at time t1 lrz= head of water causing flow at time 12 head is given by - dlt Let, in any small intenal of time dr, the changein (rhe negative sign indicates that the headdecreases)' = - dlt ' a Hence, the quantity of water flowing in time dt dlt 'o q = And, the dischargeper unit tirne, A ( b ) F o t t i n g e o dT e s t H Fig.3.8 But, we have from Darcy's law' Q = k iA
__-f--_:
Me os u r i n g t y ti n d e r [ o ) [ o n s t o n t H e o dT e s l
kiA=-*
"
are for The restarrangements thesetwo typesof permeameters shown in Fig. 3.8 (a) and (b) respectively. In this type of permeameters, Constant head permeameter. t9"{: the water levels at the top and bottom of the arrangementsare made to keep soil spmple constant. Water flowing through the soil from top to bottom is glasscylinder and its volume is measured. collectedin a graduated g = quantity of dischargein timdr Let, I = length of the sample /t = difference in head of water at top and bottorn. per unit time, Now, discharge We have from Darcy's law,
o . ' t =- # ' " -o

or,
Ak ;Io'=
- dh h
...(3.1e)
Intrating between proper limits, we get'
l, # f " = a,
- J h
hL
,r
s=?
Q=ki A
Ak.
of'
attz
- rl)= -,or"?
'&
60
Problcms in SoiIMeclurnics nnd Foundotion Engmeering

ltt aL , K = At.toB" 6
C apitlar itYand PermeobilitY
6t ...(3.22)
or, where,
...(3.20)
rvhere,
. q.log.(R/o) an$f-t?)
rr = radiusof testwell R = radiusof iufluence
t=t2-tl
soilswhile headlxnneameteris suitabletbr coarse-grained The constant is the falling hcad permeanreter suitablefor fine-grainedones. In the t'ield, the co-efficieut of 3.10. Field Determination of ft : deposit can be determinedlry permeability of a stratified or heterogeneous -tests. The purnping-out tcsls for either pumping-out tests or purnping-in below: uncontlnedas well as confined aquifersare described test well fully penetrating (a) {}nconfinedaquiftr : Fig. 3.9 illustratcs.a aquifer.Aswater is pumpedout from thewell, water percolates an unc-.onfined q from all sidesinto it. When the discharge equalsthe rate of percolation,the steady. waler levcl in the well beconres r Considera point P on the drawdowncxrye at a radial distance from tbe ceutreof the well. The hydraulicgradientat this point is given by, . d v ' d r Again, if /r be the headof water at P then the rateof radial flow of water througlr a cylinder of radiusr and heighti is given by,
ahe value of rRrnay be determined frorn
R = 3000sfr m
where, s = drawdown in the testwll, m m/sec' * = co-efficientof permeability,
r 0bse votion ObeservatonrY Wett @ T e s tW e t t P(x,y

+l +l +l
6WT
-l
*l +l +l
e = k i d = k .r + . Z n t s ' A '
or, d.r ;= 2nk q.tot
h,
Ir
+l +!
proper imits, l bctwcen Integraling

r
-l
+- 11-JfF 12 -----iFig.3.9
i t a r - zn k 'J t
x q
)' tlY
rl
hr
where , and
rlandr)
wells of the represent radialdistances lwo observatiou
hy and h't reprcsentthe hcighl of water levels ilt thetn. .

lot{. "" j
r., rl
= -2xk {:-
Q,3 t,il
2...(3.2r)
fully penetrating (b) Confined aquifer : Fig' 3'10 illustates a test well inlo a confined aguifer ofthic*ness z' 4 = kiA FronrDarcyklaw,
OT,
o _
q togl:(rz/r_) n (t6 - hi)
or,
0r,
Integrating, we get,
e =k't'zxrxz
dx 7= Z n k zo t ' ,
. d v
wells arenot used, whcn observation Alternativclv,
i*
rL
zntz !'
n 1,"'
thickness of the layers while k1, k2u.....,/r, be their co-efficients of permeability.
or,
= (rs/r1'1 * h) tos" ryUA,

q.lo1" (r2/r) ls= 2xkz(tA - h)
lg=
I
...(3.23) ...(3.24)
Of'
Alternatively,
qlq. R/a 2xkz(lrz - ht)
Zz
u2*
{kz)
Ohserva tion Wetl
0bservolion V,/ett
@
Fig.3.ll The difference inwater levels on theleft andright hand side of the deposit a This headdifference causes horizontal flow ofwater. Since at any depth is lr. below G.L. the bead difference is constant and equals ft, the hydraulic gradient i (= hll) is the same for each and evcry layer. throughtheindividuallayersand 4be Let Q1, Qz,.....,qrbethe discharge the tohl dischargethrough the entire deposit. q=qt+qZ+......,+Qn k Q = krizl + k2i4 + ...,.+ oizo
;l
h2 *l
I I
+l
*l
*l
*l
= *l
I
Fig.3.t0
I l I
I I
or
...(D
Again, if &1betheequivalentco-efficientof permeability of the entire deposit of thicknessz in the direction of flon, then
3.11 Permeability of Stratified Ileposits : Natural soil depositsgenerally are not homogeneous,but consist ofa number oflayers. The thickness and the co-efficient of penneability of the layers may vary to a large extent. In such cases, it is required to compute the equivalent co-efficient of permeability of the entire soil deposit 3.11.1, Equivale nt permeability parallel to the bedding planes: Fig. 3. 1I showsa stratifiedsoil depositconsisting n layers.Letz1, z2;.......,'znbethe of
Q = kniz From(i) and(ii) we geg . k l i z = k 1 i z 1 + 4 i 4 , * . . . . . . . .+ . k n i z n

. k 12 1 + 4 2 2 + . . . . . . . .+ k o z n = kh = zt + ZZ+.......+ Zn
...(ii)
or,
'':
2 k;zi
...(3.2s)
2ti
i-l
64
l-
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundation Engineering
C apill arity and Permeubil ity

il
Equivalent permeability perpendicular ts the bedding planes z 1.1f:2. For flow invertical direcrion(Fig. 3.12),the <tischaqge velocitiesineach layer must be the sarne.
V l = V 2 = . . . . . . . = y n = V
II It
I
EXAMPT,ES PnoblenqJ,l-- The natural ground water table at a site is located at a depth of 2 m below the ground level. Laboratory tests reveal that the void ratio of the soil is 0.85 while the grain size correspondingto 10% finer is 0.05 Assunre, mm. Determine the depth of the zone of saturationbelow G.L. C = 0.3 cm'. Solution. The height of capillary rise of water is given by, It, = Here,
Q -
UsingDarcy'slaw
h\
= k z i 2= " " " ' = k n i , r = v = k u i
...(iii)
it
Now, total headloss = head loss in layer L + headfossin layer 2 + ....+ headloss in layer a ...(iv) But, we have, t=: Frorn equ. (iv), iZ = itzl + i2z2+ .......in2n Subsritutingfor i1,t2, ..... , infrom (iii), we get,
v 4 v = j:-, Zt t j-.L ;,zZ K " \ k 2 *
" 'Dto 0.3 cmz
or,
headtossiz h-
e = 0.85 Dlo = 0.05mm = 0.005cm.
,_ "c v
l t
0.3 = 70.59 cm = 0.706m. (Q.85) (0.m5)
t - ' o n Att
or,
_ = _ + _ 4
Z z 1 k, kr
4 k2
zn _ ' k n
or,
ku=
z1
Z2
zn
,, =t.a ;
i-t
...(3.'2s)
Hence, the depth of saturationbelow G.L. = 2.0 - 0.706 = I.294m. ,.-. Problem*Z. A capillary glass tube of 0.1 mm internal diameter is immersed vertically in a beaker full of water. Assuming the tube to be perfectly clean and wet, determine the height of capillary rise of water in the tubc when the room temperarureis 2dC. Given, atZOoC, unit weight of wate.r= 0.9980 gm/cc and surface tension = 72.8 dynes/cm. Solution : When a capillary tube is perfectly clean and wet tle upper meniscusof water in the tube is tangential(i.e., cr= d;. me Ueignt of capillary rise is then given by,
6" k+""''"+T;
--------{ - - - - - ----{ { - - -- - -L"'-.J LI
- ; -
Ki
_l{_ ,:=::=:
I I
7_
t zz
7j
ir i2
i3
fu fu
{rr
(kr) { k2)
{k3}
Here,
h, = .,r n dI gtm/cc, T, = 72.8dynes./cm,Tr, - 0.99{30 \. \ l'" ' qqen$ffiearl qt - Ze:4cffi' d = A.l mm = 0.01cm, I = 981crn/sec2.
47"
J_
zn
in
i \'
( knl
-,. Problen $),./Thevoid ratioof a givensoilA is twice that of another of soil B, while thecffectivcsizcof particles soilA is onc-thirdthatof soil8. The heightof capillaryrise of waterin soilA on a certainday is foundto be 40 c.m. Determine corrcpondingheightof capillaryrise in soil8. the
Fi1;. 12 3
66
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundotion Engineering tt.^ = C Z.-D-tO
CapillarityandPermeability , c r,, = ;hi 0 = . 5 , (assuming 0.5 c = cm2)
67
Sofution:
We hav,
6*ilfu,
Lxt ha andhp be the heightsof capillary rise in soil A and I respectively' Also, let ea and eg be the respective void ratios and Da and Dg be the respective effective sizes. Frorn the question, e 3 1 . D B t' anq Do= "o=,
= 42.O = 0.42m. cm will be saturated 0.42m abovethewatertable.The Hencethesand upto portionof thesandabove levelwill be dry. remaining this For thesand layer,
t", = ffi'v,
=d
es Dt
G + e
= 2.65+ 0.85,. ffi(l'o)
= l'89 t/n3
Now,
hA
ea.Dn
6=;r^,
D^-0/2)(3)=1'5
= t:/nf ,o=, *fu" {?u*P = L43

As the clay layer is submergedbelow water, it is saturated. W e h a v e ,u t G = s t
' lrn l= ' e = 1 0 = 26.67 cm''1 /# of consists a 8 m thick layerof dry P;roblem {.4. At a sitethc subsoil by Dto = 0.14mm)whichis underlain a 6 rn thick sand(G = 2.65,e= 0.85, clay layer (G = 2.75, w = 72/o) below which thereexistsa thick layer of at The hardpan. watertableis located a depthof 6 m belowthegroundlevel. and oftotal, neutral effectivestresses. Plot the dishibution in Solution : The soil profile is presented Fig. 3.13(a).
- _ " = *G - (0.22)(2.75)= 0.605 " =-T
= 2.75+ 0.605,. - l-ae vnr3' Y.", lliff $)

At A Q = 0), thetotal,neutal andeffectivestresss all equalto z9ro. are AtB(z=5.58m), totalstess, = (1.43)(5.58) 7.gg t/n? o . neutralstress,u=-h",\n -@'42)(1) - -o'42Vn? effectivestress, = a - ll o' = 7.98 - (-0.42)
= 8.40Vrt.
AtC (z-6.0m), = o = (1.43)(5.58) (1.89)(0.42) 8.77 t/m2 + z = 0 ' o'= o - y - o= $.TTt/mZ = AtD qz=8.0m), o * (1.43)(5.58) (1.59)Q.42) L2.55Vmz + = u = (2]O)(1.0) 2.0 Vr# o' * 12.55- 2.0 = 10.55Vmz AtE (z= 14.0 m), s' - (1.43){5.58)+ (1.89)(2.42) (z0e)(6.0) + - E.@ VmZ
{ ev'zp hlosvrH pt'ot

' o) Soil Prsfile
b) Pore c) Totot Pressure Siress

Fig.3.13
d) Effeclive Shess
Height of capillary rise in the sand layer,
Capilla rity andPermeab ity il 68 in and Problems SoilMechanics FotttdationEngineering u = (2.0 + 6.0)(1.0) - 8.0 t/m2 o' = ?5.09 - 8.0 = 17.09t/m2 are and stresses shownin Fig. of The distribution total,neutral cffec:tive 3.13(b), (c) and(9respectively. the Problem Qd. For the soil profile shownin Fig. 3.14,determine pressure a depthof 15rn at porewaterpressure intergranular and total stress, level. belowlhe ground , S 2 m S i t t y a n d( 6 = 2 ' 6 8e = 0 . 5 ,s = 3 5 7 o ) At a depth 15m belowG.L.: of totalstress = (1.81) + (1.87) (2) o (1.5) + (2.03) (5.5) (a) + (1.33) + (1.90) = 26.7t ttmz (2') = porewaterpressure (15 - 2 - L.5)(1.0) = fi..S t/m?
effectivesty:sg = (26.71 - 11.5) = t5.2t t/m2
69
Problem r51 The void ratio of a sandsampleat the loosestand densesr possible statesare found to be 0.55 and 0.98 respectively.If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determinethe corresponding values of the critical hydraulicgradient. Solution: The critical hydraulicgradientis given by,
_T - h F - r-- _-- - - l - 5n
I
{ s1 6 0 7 " )- -----ty s
At the denseststate, At the loosest state,
7m lrm
= Ctoy6 =2'70,e 0'65) I { ( P e o t 6 = 2 . 2 5 e = 2 ' 8) ,
, G - I I. = 1-l7'Y,o i,=?fl_!(l)=1.0s . 2 . 6 -7r . . = '" = 0.84 1;0.98(1)
Rock
Fig.3.14
Solution: Bulk densityof silty sand (s = 35Vo)
Problem lt is requiredto excavatea long trench in a sanddeposit Y:t upto a depth of3.5 m below G.L. The sides of the trench should bevertical andaretobe supported steelsheetpiles by drivenupto 1.5rn belowthebottom of the trench. The ground water table is at 1 m below G.L. In order to have a dry working area, water accumulated in the trench will be continuously pumped out. If the sand has a void ratio of 0.72 and the specific gravity of solids bc 2.66, check whether a quick sandcondition is likely to occur. If so, what remedialmeasures would you suggest? solution. Fig. 3.15 illustrates the given site conditions. It is evident that there will be an upward flow of water through the soil massMNDB. The differentialheadwhich rzusesthis flow is, h=2.5m Again, thicknessof the sciil massthrough which this flow occurs is, L = MB =.|y'D= 1.5 ln. Hydraulic gradient,
= Aqq#g4)
= (1.0) 1.8r t,2.3
of G.W.T. (s = 6OVo) Bulkdcnsity clayabove - z.zo t (0.00)(0.05) (1.0)'- t.87 t/m3 density claybclowG.W.T. of Satuntcd
, +#
$tuntcd &nsity of sand -
(rl - La3 vmg

(1) - 1.33l,t^3 (1) - 1.gotzm3
h t. = t 2 T 5 = =. 3 G - 1
I + e
1.67 0.965
''f-***r peat Satureteddensityof *lus-
Critical hydraulic gradient, i, = iri, Henc.e,quick sand condition will occur.
2= = - .65-l | + 0.72
\-
70
Capillarity and Permeobility i = hydraulicgraoient= I L /r = differential head of water causing flow =1.6-1.0=0.6m I = length of soil massthrough which flow takes place = 2.0 m.
7l
The following remedial measurescan be recommended : (i)The depth of embedmentof sheetpilesbelow the bottom of the trench should be increased.This will increase the thickness of soil layer through which water percolates,and hence will reduce the hydraulic gradient. Let I be the required depth of sheetpiles below the bottom of the trench, which gives a factor of safety of 1.5 against quick sand condition.
wherc, Here,
. h 2 . 5 t = L = ;
Now,
...(i)
iF.,S.=*=1.5,
I
0.6 t. = T t r = u . s
Again, we have,
or From (i) and(ii) we have,
,=
ic
1.5
0.!)65 =
t.5
o.643
...(ii)
and,
Q = 0.03 cc,/sec cm2 A = 0.28 m2 = 0.28 x 104 cm2 = ?300 0.03 , e = cmlsec tO:
E - 0,643, or, -r = 3.89m x

(ii) Alternatively, water table at the site may be lowered by any suitable dewatering method. This will reduce the differential head and bence the hydraulic gradient will be reduced.
=ffiffiffim/daY
= 0.0308m/day.
,l Suppt A Pites Sheet
3.5m
I I
l
2.6n
1.5m
f -L
.
+. 6 0
T
l-z*-J
Fr..3.l6
Fig' 3'15
set'upthown in Fig. 3.i6, if thearea Pnoblen p./ In theexperimental of of cross-sectioY the soil samplebc 0.28 m', and the guantity of water flowing throughitbe 0.03cclsec,determinethe co-efficient of permeability in m/day. Solution: From Darcy'slaw, q = k i4 or ft o
'/
Pmblem p{ e sample of coarse sand is tested in a constant head permeameter.The sample is Z) cm high and has a diameter of 8 cm. Water flows through the soil under a constantheadof 1 m for 15 minutes. The mass of discharged water was found to be 1.2 kg. Determine fhe coefficient of permeability of the soil. Solution: We have, for a constanthead permeability test, 'k' = .9-L hAt
3_
iA
7? Now,
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineerrng rnassof dischargedwater Volume of dischargedwater, Timc of flow , Head Of water, = l'Zkg - 1200 gm'
Cap illarity andPermeabilitY A = (n/4\(9.8)2 cmz / L - 1 5 cnm, = 12 min = (12') x (60) = 720 sec. h t = 6 0 cm, h2 = 45 cm l s = --_--"-----;-.
73
Q = 1200 cc' t = 15 min' = (15) (60) = 9O0sec' h' = 1 m = 100 cm' A - L4 * * L = 2O qn' = 5O'26 crt
(rs) to9 tu/4\(o.7sf . 6

fu/a)0.8)"QZA)
0 E
Area of cross-sectionof sample, I-errgth of flow Path,
= 3.51 x 10-5 cm,/sec
, ^_
(eoo) {too;(s0.26)
(1200)(20) . = 0.0053cm./sec.
m/day = 0.03 n/daY.

(ii) Irt ft be the head at the end of another20 minutes'
a 15 ncylindrical rnould of diameter 7'5 cm contains Problem ln/ flows through tbe soil under fine sand. when water "* il;;;in6t between two points 8 constant head at a rate of 58 cclmin', the loss of head tbe co-efficient of permeability cm apart is found tobe l2.1cm. Determine of the soil. Solution: Area of soss-section of tbe sample'
oIr
3.51 x 10-5 =
(n/0 (0.75)'(r5)
(60) @/$(s.8f (20)
. 4 5 .tog. T
e = (n/4)(7'5f = #''rg ct# t?'t = t'St i Hydraulicgradient, = | =

unit discharge, - 29/3o cn/sec 4 = 58 cc/mtn We have, from DarcY's law q=kiA, of, ft-
. 4 5 - 0.479 tw. h 45 = "o'479 1.615

h h
0r'
=##
=2'l.f!6. rn
hr
10 cm' (iii) L,eu be the time required for the head to d-ropfrom 45 cm to Now,
3_
iA
aL '=71 'ta&'6
crn,/sec. o = po)(r#@,ru) = 0.0145

test prublen 3.ll:/ A falling headpermeability was carriedout on a and of silty claylThediameter thesample thestand-pipe 15*ri;;;r,if;of was the stand-pipe The wereg.g i. "rri 0.75cm respectively. waterlevel in Determine: to oUseroeO fall from 6Ocm io 45 cm in 12 minutes' of pcrmeability the soil in m/day 6i n" co-efficientof 20 afteranother minutes' in the stand'pipe 64 n"ignt of waterlevcl the water level to drop to 10 cm' tim-erequiredfor ' fiiil test'we have' S/lorioo, (i) For a fallingheadpermeability
, * = T i . roe" i gL ht
Q.7s\2(1!)@/a)
@//|t0.8)2(3.51x 1o-s)
= 3764.65 sec. = t hr. 2 min.. 45 sec.
. lor" fr
problem S,kd' Awell is fully penetratedinto a 16 m thick layer of the well at a sand which isfnderlain by a rock layer. Waler is pumped out of in two observationwells constant rate of 450000 litresitour. The water level m and2.6 situated at 15 m and 30 m from the test well are tbund to be at 3.7 mrespectivelybelowtheground|evel.Determinetheco-efficientof pcrmcabilitYof the soil' Solution:Forarrunconfittedaquifer,theco-efficientofpermeability is given by:
Here,
a - (n/4) (0.75)" crn-
74
C ap ill a r ity and P ermeabil ity
75
,
Here,
e.log" (r2/r)
"Qg_ h?)
Q = 45NOO lire/hour (450000) (1000) = cc'lsec = 125000cc'lsec' (60Xe0)r1 = 1 5 m = 1 5 0 0 c m
r2 = 3 0 m = 3 0 0 0 c m lrt = (16 - 3.7) m = 12.3m = 1230 crn b, = (16 - 2.6) m = 13.4m = l34O cln
(18s7.6)log, (20/8)] . [ ^^ -, m =38.70 /day k=# - (t4.04)' I r [ (14.53)' is (ii) The radiusof influence givenby, R = 3000sf k = 38.70 m/day Here, = # m/sec = 4.48 x Lo-4 tn/sec
(2.5a\! q.qe x 10-4 m = 161.29rn R = (3000)

(iii) The effective size can be determinedfrom Allen Hazett's forrnula :
(125000) log" (3000/rs00)I = @ = o ' o 9[8 c m ' / s e c
^ ^^^
ort
k = c .4o Drc=
Q -
Pmblem 3.13y' A pumping-out test was carried out in the fierd in order to determine thgr{rerage co-efficient of permeability of a lg rn thick sand layer. The groundwater table was locatedat a dep& ofi.2 rnbelow theground level. A steady statewas reachedwhen the dischargefrorn the well wis 21.5 litlsec' At this stage, the drawdown in the test well was 2.54 m,while the drawdowrs in two observation wells situated at g m and 20 m from the test well were found to be 1.76 m and 1.27 m respectively. Determine: (i) co-efficient of permeability of the sand layer in m/day. (ii) radius of influence of the test wcll (iii) effective size ofthe sand.
,m
Assuming
1(X) cm-1 sec-l
Drc=
4.48 x 10-a = 2.12 x 10-3 cm 100
= 0.021'2mm ne subsoil at a site consislsof a fine sand layer lying Problem SlK in between a clf,y layer at top and a silt layer at bottom. The co-efficient of permeability of the sand is l(n times that of clay and 20 times that of silt, while the thickness of the sand layer is orie-tenththat of clay and one third that of silt. Find out the equivalentco-efficient of permeability of the deposit in directions parallel and perpendicularto the bedding planes,i1 tenns of the co-efficient of permeability of the clay layer. Solution: lrt & be the co-efficientof permeabilityof the clay layer' co-efficient of permeability of sand = 100 t = t0.f;-O= tO
.log.(r2/r) Sofution: (i) We trave, ls = Q

Here,
"@3 h?)
Q = 2L.5 lit,/sec (21'5)(100q)(86400) = ,n3/d^y = 1857.6^3/dry 106 'rl=8m, tZ=20m.
and, Again, and,
co'efficientofpermeabilityofsilt
Height of the water table abovetbe baseof the well, f/ = (18 _ Z.Z) m = 15.8 m Drawdown in the observation wells, sl = 1.76m, s2 = 1.27 m Height of water in the observationwells, lt1 = 11 - sl = (15.8 - 1.76) m = 14.04 m
let z be the thicknessof the sandlayer. laYer = 102 ThicknessofclaY
thicknessofsilt laYer = 3 z. Equivalent co-efficient of permeability parallel to the bedding planes, k r z t + k z z z + k 3 z t _ ( & ) ( 1 0 2 )+ ( 1 0 0 / r ) ( z )+ ( 5 k ) ( 3 2 ) ,h *. _ - - - ; 7 toz + z + 3z 4, 4
hz = n - s2 = (15.8- I.27) m = 14.53m
(u
I
76 Engineering Problems in Soil Meclwnics an'd Foundation t< 10 + 100 +
.o=.ftv=E.e3k
4 1 0 2 + z + 3 2
lt<
CapillaritY and PermeabilitY
77
Equivalentco-etlicientofpermeabilityperpendiculartothebeddingplarres,
*"=
z t t z t * 2 7
t'l , Kh = -T-
E k;z;
2z i
i-1
4-
l}z.
i.t.t
1O +
3z * r ,o o k * s k k
l4k - 1 4 0 0k = t . 3 l 9 k 1 , ft -= = -=- 0 + l + 3 1061 looo + I + 60 1 3 ----------:::--: -:
+ + (1) (2.sx -1-0-8)(6) (qx 10-3)+ (10)(7'2 x 10-2) - (8) (3 x 10-4) (8+1+6+10) = 0.0308 cm,/sec in of co-efticient penneability theverticaldirection' Equivalent
4 l z -.t
Loi*T
loo
Fig. 3.17 showsa soil profile ar a given site. Determine: (i) Average co-ettcient of penneability of the deposit' in the horizontal (ii) Equivalent co-efficientoipermeability of the deposit and vertital directions. problem 3#{
,/ -:--î+^ h^ra*
'
k"=71 z't ;ltk; 8 8 + 1 + 6 + 1 0 1 1 * t * ,6= + u ' 7 20

a
i=l
nov(k=28x10-8cm/s)
F i n eS a n d ( k = 8x 1 0 - 3 c m / s Iosrse Sand /s x tk =7.2 10-2cm
Fig.3.l7 Solution : (i) Average co-efficient of permeability of the deposit'
iltt
= 6.Vl x l0-' cm,/sec
EXERCISE3 the ground 3.1, Determine the height of capillary rise of water above of 0'12 water table in a homogeneo,it U.O of sand having an effective-size water table was found ground mm. The moisture contentof the soil below th.e [Ans : 62'5 cni] tobe?57o.Take, G =2-67 and C =0.5 cnf ' radius is A pcrfectly clean and wct capillary tube of 0'1 mm t.2 room temperature is 3d_c and the immersed in a container full of water. The waterlevelinthetubcisfoundtorisetoaheightoft4.54crn.Iftheunit tension at *"igh, of water at 3dC be 0.996 gm/cc, detcrmine the surface
h + k + k 3 + k a itû = --:T--
+ 3 x 1 0 4 + 2 . 5 x 10-8+8x10-3 7-2xtO'2
= 2 x l0-2 crn,/sec = O.OZcm/sec' horizontal direction' (ii) Equivalent co-efficient of penneability in the
tAns : 71.03dYncs/cml 30oe. in immersed distilled 3.3 Adry capillarytxbeof 0.3mm diameterwas thetubc was found of wa*; I dC. d. upperrneniscus thewatercolumnin colurnn. io Uei"cf incOat 3dC to thc vertical.Find out theheightof thewater of tension waler= = 1 gmlccandsurface Ciu"o, d f C,unit weighrof watr [turs : 8'9 un] ?5.6dynesicrn is 3.4 Thc subsoil at a site consistsof a 2 m thick layer of clay which Thc nttural groundwatertablcis at 3 m bclol underlainby r dcepsandlaycr.
78
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatton Engineering
C ap i ll ar ity and P ermeabiliry
79
GI. The unit weight of clay is 1.8 t/m3,while that of sandabove and below water table are 1.75 Vm'and l.92tJm' respectively.Find out tbe total and effective stresses a depth of5 m below the ground l":"1.^ at a 2 _ -^ [Ans ::9.19 t/m" ,7 .19 tlnf I 3.5 Plotthe distribution oftotal, neutral and effective stressfor thesoil profile shown in Fig. 3.18.
3.10 In a constant head permeability test, water is allowed to pass through.a cylindrical soil sample 15 cm high and 10 cm in diameter, under , a coustanthead of 1 m. The water fiowing out of the sample is collected in a glass cylinder of 1200 cc capacity. It is observedthat the cylinder just starts to overflow after t hr. 13 min. and 51 sec. Find out the co-efficient of penneability.
[Ars :5.17 x 104 cm/sec]
I "m ' ) I L r; l' r
ShatumI { r = 1 . 7/ m 3 ) t
6.1
- - - - w c i t Copit[ary er ( r =1 . gf / m 3 s ) ( t r = 1 ' 8 r0mv3 ) f /u l , t

,s_r'sv
3m 3m
|
)Irotum ll
o.w.r
soil was subjectedto a constant 3.11 A specimenof a coarse-grained head permeability test. The sample was compacted in a cylindrical mould having a height of 9.5 cm and an internal volume of 987 cc. Under a constant head of 50 cm, 756.6 cc of water passedthrough the soil in 10 minutes . Determine the co-efficient of permeability and the effective size of the soil. [Ans : 0.012crn/sec, 0.11 rnm] 3.12 How many litres of water will flow through a cylindrical soil sample of 8 crn diameter and l2 crn heigbt in a day under a constanthead of 65 cm, if the co-efficient of penneability of the soil be 0.01 mm/sec ? [Ans : 23.5litres] 3.13 In a falling headpenneability test,thewater level in the stand-pipe dropped from 40 cm to 20 crn in t hour. The diameter of the sample and the stand-pipewere 8 cm and 0.5 crn respectively,while &e height of the sarnple was 9.5 cm. Find out the co-efficient of permeability of the soil. [Ans : ?.15 x 10-6 cmlsecl 3.14 A falling head test was perfonned on a soil specimen having a diameter of 10 cm and a height of 12 cm. The stand-pipehad a diameter of 1.2 qn and the wpter level in it dropped from 55 crn to 41 crn in 2 hours. Detennine the time required for the water level in the stand-pipe to come down to 2O cm. Also determine the height of water level in the stand-pipe after a period of24 hours from the beginning ofthe test [Ans : 6 hours and 48.5 rninutes; 3.53 cm] 3.f5 A pumping-out test was carried out in an 18 m thick layer of pervious soil which is underlain by an impermeableshale. The water table was located at 1 m below the ground level. A steadystatewas reachedwhen tle dischargefrom the well was 9 cu.m/min. The conespondingwater levels in two observatiqn wells situated at 4 m and 8 m from the purnping well were found to bc 2 m and 0.5 m respectivelybelow the initial ground water table. Compute the co-efficient of permeability of the deposil [Ars : 0.07 cnr/sec] 3.L6 In order to compute the co-efficient of permeability of a non-homogeneous deposit a pumping out test was conducted by fully penetrating a well of 20 cm diameter into a 50 m thick unconfined aquifer. When the drawdown in the pumping well reached4.2 m a steady discharge of 3@ *3/h, *", obtained from it The drawdown in an observation well at
StrqtumIII
Rock
Fig.3.18 3.6 A sandsampleis 507osaturated hasa bulk densityof 1.75t/m3. and The specific gravity of solids is 2.65. Determine the critlcal hydraulic gradient. [Ans:0.96] 3.7 How will the critical hydraulic gradienr of thc soil in Prob. 3.6 change, if the soil is crrmpactedto increaseits bulk density by LoVo,without
anychange its watercontent? in
73.8Vol [Ans : Increasasby
3.8 At a site the subsoil consistsof a deep layer of medium sand. It is required to excavate a trench upto 3 m below the ground level. The water tablelies atdepth of l.5belowG.L..In orderto havea dryworking area,sheet piles are driven along the sides of the hench upto a depth of 5 m below G.L. and water accumulated in thc trench is pumped out as the excavation progrcsses.Deteirnine the fector of safety against the occurrence of quick sandcondition. Given,e = 0.8, G =2,7. [Ans: 1.24] 3.9 Tbe void ratio of a soil is 0.76, while its co-efficient ofpermeability is 1.2 x 10{ cm/sec. If, keeping all olher factors constant, the soil is compacted so as to reduce the void ratio to 0.60, what will be the co.efficient of permeability of the soil? [ Hints : * n ?tt + el [Ans :6.5 x lO-)cm/sec]
I
t
I I
f
-C
80
Problems in Soil Meclwnics andFoundation Engineering
a distance of 30 m from the pumping well was found to be 1.1 m. If the initial ground water table was at 1.5 m below G.I .., compute : (i) the field co'efficient of penneability of the soil [Ans : (i) 5.3 x 10-2 cmrtec (ii) 290 rn] 3.17 A pumping well of 20 cm diameterpenetratesfrrlly into a confined aquifer of 25 m thickness. steadydischarge 26.5litlsec is obtainedfrom A of the well under a drawdown of 3.2 m. Assuming a radius of influence of 300 m, find out the co-efficientof permeabilityof the soil in m/day. [Ans : 33.31 m/dayl 3.18 A pumping well of 25 cm diameterwas fully penehated into a 20 m thick bed of sand which lies between two clay layers of negligible permcability. Laboratory tests revealed that the sand had a co-efficient of permeability of 0.03 cm/sec.A steadystatewas reachedwhen the drawdown in the test well was 4.3 m and the correspondingdischargewas 12litres/sec. Estimate the drawdown in an observation well sunk at a distance of 20 m from the pumpingwell. [Ans:1.51m] 3.19 A stratified soil deposit consistsoffour layers. The thickness of the second,third and fourth layers are equal to half, one-third and one-fourth, respectively, the thickness of tie top layer, while their co-efficients of permeability are respectively twice, thrice and four times that of the top layer. Find out: (i) averageco-efficient of permeability of the deposiL (it equivalent co-efficient ofpermeability of the deposit (a) parallel to (b) perpendicularto, the bedding planes. [Ans (i) 2.5 k (ii) (a) 1.92,t (b) 1.46 lq ftbeing the co-efficient of permeability of the first layerl (ii) tre radius of influence.
4
SEEPAGEAND FLOWNETS
4.1 Introduction : When a water-retaining structqre(e.g., an earth or rockfill danr, a concrete dam or weir, sheet-pili cut-off wall etc.) is constructedto maintain a differential head of water, seepage through the structure itself and/or the foundation soil takes plaee. The quantity of water which flows from the upstreamto the downstreamside,tenned as the $eepage loss,is of paramountimportance designing in sucha structure. Moreovei, the percolating water exerts a pressureon the soil, whid'is calted the seepage pressure. In impermeable structures (vrz., a corcrete dam) the seepageof water results in a vertical uplift pressureon the base of the dam. When the seepagewater reachestbe downstream side, soil particles may be lifted up resulting in a 'piping' failure. The stability of the side slopesof an earth dam may be substantially reduceddue to seepage water. of All of these problems can be analysed graphically by constructing flow-nets. 4.2. F,quaticn of Continuity: Laplace's equation of continuity, as applicable to two-dimensional flow problems, is given below:
k'#* *,fr=o
Therefore,
-..(4.1)
Where, k, and k, are the co.efficients of permeability in the x and y directions respectively. an isokopic soil, &, = $. _For
l ..(4.2\
a2h ---'+ af ay"
4=o
Eqn. (4.2) is satisfied the potentialftrnction0 (.r,y) and the sheam by functionrP(r, y). Thepropertres these of frrnctions as follows: are
82
Seepagl ond Flownets
83
v'=
and,
ao
dx'
vY=
ao
aY ..-(4.3)
av v * = a!, ' y = - E 6,
by The potential function $ can be represetrted a family of curves, each having a particular constant value of $. These curves are called the equipotential lines. Sirnilarly, the streamftlnction rp may be representedby a number of curves, known as the streamlines or the flow lines. A stream lilte representsthe path along which a waler p3ttilig flows. An equiporeffiTTine pfiiorneriia;'hddA is eonstant. It can be TsTffi;y"Fffi6-f"whicb'the proved that the product of the gradientsof,the $ firnction and the rp function line should always intersecta streamline equils -1. Thus, an equipotential orthogonally The combination ofstream lines and flow lines in the proper flow domain is called a flownet. A flownet has the following properties: konerties of a Flownet: ;lra r{ All flow lines and equipotential lines are smooth curves. { Ano* fine and an equipotential line should intersect each other orthogonally. ,Z No two flow lines can intersecteach otber. Notwo equipotential lines can inlersect each other. { Constntction of a flownet : [n order to construct a flownct, the l./ Kunaary conditions,i.e., the tocationof the two extremeflow lines and tbe two extreme equipotenlial lines, have to be identified frst. For example, Fig, 4.1 shows a flownet for a sheet-pilewall. Here the boundary conditions are :
1. AB is the equipotentiar line having the maximum piezometrichead ( lt = l4). 2' EF is the equipotential line havi'g tlre mi.i*rum piezometrichead (h = lq). 3. BCDE ( i,e., the surfaceof the sheelpite is the shortestflow rinc. ) 4. GH (i.e., the imperiousboundary)is the longestflow line. once the boundary conditions are ide'tilied, the llow'et can be drawn by trial anderror.The process tectious eachline hasto be drawn, erased is and and redrawn a nurnberof times. 4.5. usesofaFlownet: Aflownetenablesone todererminethefoilowing: (i) Quantity of seepage: Fig. 4.2 shows a porrion of a flowner. Let L,qy and Lqzbe the quantity of seepage unit time through two consecutive in flow channels. b1 and { be the widrh and rengthrespecrivery the Irt of flow elernent ABCD, and Lh be the head drop between two tonsecutive equipotential Iines. From Darcy's law we have, Q = k iA
FLr
aqr
EL;
Fig.4.Z
Considering unit thickness bfthe soil rnass,cross-sectionalarea o[ the elementABCD + b1 x l = b l . I mp e r v i o u s

Fig.4.1
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Fottndation Engineertng
Seepogeand Flownets
Hydraulic gradient,
t. = A/t T
l1
It*=1"ry#
headatP is, in For example, Fig. 4.1,the piezometric
4 h-= 1t,- -:tj (lt' lt,)
...(4.s)
. L h L a r=k.? 'h =kxL 'l rx

b.t Lqt=kxA/rx;: .2
- l'r
o'61(\ - h2)
Sirnilarly,
dam is given at The uplift pressure any poilt below thebaseofa concrete
by,
Pr=hnln
if' The dischargequantity throughall flow channelswill be equal b', b2 bL
...(4.6)
t r =h
=T
= / )' l{owever, if the elements are made orthogonally squared (i'e'' b - Aqn = k' x Aft = Lqz then, Mt the total If t{1 be the nurnberof flow channelspresentin the flswnet then is quantityof seePage given bY,
when the percolating water comes out of the soil (ijj;rfE.rit grodient: on pressure the soil wlrich is given end,it appliesa seepage at thedownstream by
p, = La.lw
...(4.7)
wht:rt:, )(
ancl
= i, is theexitgradient
4 = k x N1x Lh of be of Again , if I/ be the initial difference headandN,g the'number

equal head droPs,then,.
last elementof a flow channel. dimensionof the. a is the average greaterthan the critical Piping may occur if the exit gradientbec-omes of safetyagainstpiping is given by, hydraulicgradient.The tactor i" F- . = :
lc
*=#r
4-kxH-#
.,(4-4)
lg/flo*n
...(4.8)
Astheflowelementsareboundbycuwedlirres,itisnotpossibletodraw particular them as true squares.However, the averagelength and breadth ofa such that an inner circle touching be flow element s-hould equal to each other all four;ides of the element can be drawn. ,"1d1 ya*natic Pressure : The hydrostatic pressureat any point within n the soil massis given bY'
il=hn\n
In order to cleterrninethe maxirnurn exit gradient for a given tlow problem, the last flow element of the flow channel adjacent to the structure 'a' is the minimurn for that particular as is to be considered, the value of clernent.In Fig. 4.1, this flow elementis markedby hatchlines. t in Anisotropic Soils : From eqn.(4.1),
.fn K, --7
0xor, Let,
, a z h u. = + Kv --,
af
k/{. ut
t f n a z h= "' *
ur?
lt- = piezometric head et the point under consideration' where, line In order to fin<l out the piezometric head at a point, tocate the flow thc given point lies and count the total number of head drops in the on which given point. flownet a. wJlt as the number of head drops ocorrred upto the Thc piezometric head at the given point is then obtained from' hn'hl - nNt
=x ' @.x r a z h f n
...(4.e)
Vr- a7=#
oI'
n * - ; -f- - - ;a -z - h= u alf 0x''
...(4.10)
\-
86
Problems in Soillvlechanicsand Fottndation Engineering
Seepageand Flownets
87 b k r l k 2
In order to draw the tlownet tbr anisotropic soils, a traustbnned section , has to be drawn first by multiplying all horizoutal dirneusiorr"fry $tt1, unaltered. An ortbogonally squared but keeping the vertic..al dimensions flownet is then drawl as usual tbr the trausfonned section. The structure, along*,ith the flownet, is then retransformed by multiplying all horizontal dinrensions Vy',/t<rttq. elernepts. perureability Conditions : When the llow lines pass frorn 4.1/vluttiple txe soil to another having a different permeability, they deviate from the of interfac:e the two soils and this deviation is similar to the refraction of light in rays.This is illustrated Fig. 4.3' The final flownet will consist of rectangular
while if k1 < k2' they > If &&1 t2, the tlow channelswill get broadened' channel canying a certain will get shortened.In other words, *f,"n u flow a greaterarea to carry the discharge enters a less permeablesoil, it requires more permcable soil' a smaller same discharge.However, when it entersa areais sulficieut. (a) and (b) respectively' in These c.ondirionsare illustrate.d Fig. 4.4
I EL1
I
I
,EL2
'l
I I
P ?- - '
I
I
Ft
oclI
.i
a) When kt > k2
I I
I
b ) W h e nk t < k 2
Fig.4.4
'
'ELt
,ELz
Fig.4.3
' / EL3
@
Lt
The portion of the flow-ilet lying in layer 1 is first drawn in the usual manner *ith rqu"r. flow elements. When the flow lines as well as equipotential lines enter layer 2, they undergo deviations according to the following equation:
rrfu Phreatic Line: When an impermeable structure glSr"filgqAr{-t .*/ water' all the boundary conditions (".g., u sheetpile or a coi-creteweir) retains flow or pressure flow' are kttowtt. Such a flow is known as the contlned (e'g" an earth dam) the upper However, when the structureitself is pervious Such a flow is termed as boundary or the uppermost flow line is unknown' and this upper boundary is called the an unconfined flow or-. gouity florv, phreatic line. parabolahas to.be drawn In order to obtain the phreatic line, the basic at the entry and exit points have to be first and then the n""or"ryt*ections ,'t
h = tan0r
kz
T.TI. ,"ro*ction
tan P2
...(4.11)
consequently, the flow elementsin iayer 2 are not squaresany more, but become rectangles,and their width-to-height ratios are given by,
the basic parabola,proceedas of cross_section an earti dam. In order to draw follows: the wetted portion' ED' of (i) Measurethe horizontal projectionI of face. the uPstream
z of the BqsicParabola In Fig' 4'5'ABCDis the
88
Problems in SoitMechrnics QndFoundation Engineering
Seepageand Flownets
89
(ii) Locate the point P such rhatEP = O.3L. The point P is the first point of the basic parabola. (iii) with P as centre and PC radius draw an arc to intersect the extendedrvatersurfaceat F. (iv)FromFdrawFGIDC.The|ineFGisthedirectrixofthebasic parabola,wlrile C is the focus. (u) l-ocatethe rnid-point Q of CG. GD theX-axis' (ui) Let G be the origin, GF the Y-axis ancl (vii) Cltooseany poittt H on CD, such that GH = xl' With C as-centre and x1 radius, draw an arc to intersectthe vertical line through I/ at R. The point R(x1,y1) is anotherpoint on the basic parabola' (viii) In a sirnilar lnanner, locate several other points viz', (xz' v) ' (xs, ys), ........,etc. Join these points witlr a smooth curve to get thebasic parabola.
t
:lf
' 6
o.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 30

o
lo
6oo
9oo A u
l2oo
l5o"
lSoo
Fig.4.6
correctionshouldbe made by hand' After loczting N, the necressary the value of the slope angle p rangesfrom 30' to 180"' It In Fig. 4.6, should be noted that for ordinaryearthdams, I . 90" However, if the darn water, is provided with a toe drain or a horizontalfilter to arrestthe seepage the value of p may be as high as 180'. This i5 illustratedinFig. 4'7 below:
&:'o"
p< 900
9 o o <P < 1 8 0 o To Drsin e
1E0 I = 1 8 0 oDroinoge tanket B
Fig'4.5 ED is an equipotential line 4.E.2 Conections at Entry and Exit Poinls: and the phreatic line is a flow line. These t'wo should meet each other at right angles. This necessitatesthe correclion at the entry point, which should be drawn by hand. The phreaticline should meet the down streamfaceBCtangentially. This the necessitates correction at the exit point. The basic parabola intersectsBC = La, at M. But the phreatic liire should meetBC at N' I-et CN = a and NM ie of Ml(a + Aa) depends on the slope angle, p of the The magnitu downstream face. Its value may be obtained from Fig' 4'6'
Fig.4.7
that for an earthdamhaving a loe drain, chimney It shouldalsobe notect blanket,thebeginningpoint ofthatdrain on filter, drain or horizontaldrainage face,shouldbe takel into account conter of dowustream and not the bottorn plotting lhe basic parabola. while
EXAMPLES earthdam,30 rn higlr, hasa free board Problem$r1- A hornogeneous and the following resultswere noted: of 1.5 rn. A flownet was constructed No. of PotentialdroPs = 12 No. of tlow channels = J
90
Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Fottndation Engineering
Seepage and Flownets
9l
The darn has a 18 rn long horizotttal t'ilter at its dowrutream ettd. loss acrossthe dam per day if the width of th,edarnbe Calculatethe seepage 200 m and the co-efficientof permeabilityof the soil be 3.55 x 10-' cmlsec. Solution: Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity of seepageloss acrossuuit width of the dam is.
(I -- k.H.#
Here,
N"
I\ aI
k = 3.55 x 1.0-actnlsec
(s64oo) _ (3.ssx 10-4) n/cJay = O.3067n/day

100 Nf=3' Na=12
As tbe downstrearn end is provided with a long horizontal tllter, the downstreamside shouldbe drv.
q =
H = 3 0 - 1 . 5 =28.5 m (28.s)(3) (0.3067)
t2
= 2.185 ^t
14
I m p e r v i o uL a v e r s
Fig.4.8 Problern 43-I-With referenceto Fig. 4.8, determine the following: (i) The piezometric headsat the points A, B, C, D andE. (ii) The exit gradient (iii) Factorof saftty againstpiping. Given, G =2.67, e = 0.95. Solution: (i) Initial piezornetric headat the groundlevel on upstreamside = 4 m. Headdifference 4 - O.5 = 0.2977m Head drop AH = ofhead drops No. 12 Now, numberof headdropsupto the pointA = 3 .'. Head loss at A = (3)(0.2914 = 0.875m. Residual headat A = Initial head-head loss = 4-0.875 = 3.125 . n Similarly, the piezometricheadat B,C and D are computed. Piezorrretric lreadat B = 4 - (5) (0.2917\ = 2.542 n.
lossper day acrossthe ertire width of the darn Total quantityof seeqage = (2.185)(200) =' 437 n'. Problerryf.2 : A single row of sbeetpiles is driven upto a depth of 4 rn in a bed of cleadsandhavinga co-efficientof penneabilityof 0.002cin/sec. An impermeableleyer of very stiff clay exists at a depth of 10 m below the G.L. The sheetpile wall has to retainwater upto 4 rn above G.L. The heigltt of water level on the dowrutream side is 0.5 rn. Construct lhe flownet and loss consideringunit width of the sheetpiles. determinequantity of seepage Solution : The flownet is given in Fig. 4.8. Using eqn. (4.4),
N= K H , H
Herc, _ (0.002)(86400) m/day = 1.728 n/daY k=4.002 crn./sec 100 m H=4-0.5=3.5 Nf=7, Na=lZ
(3.s) _ (1.728) (7) = 3.53,n3/d^y t2
= ar C = 4 - (10)(0.2917) 1.083rn
92
Problems in SoiIMechanics and Foundation Engineering Seepage and Flownets = atD = 4 - (10)(0.2917) 1.083m
93
The point -E lies in between the 5th and 6th flow lines. Hence, the piezometrir:head at E shouldbe obtainedby linear interpolation. Averageno. of headdrop at n = 7 !.,8 = l.S
k = 6.5 x l0-5 cm./sec _ (6.5 x 10-5)(86400)m/day = 0.05616m/day 100 I/=18m Usingeqn(4.4),
P i e z o m e t r i c h e a d a tE = 4
- (7.5)(4.2917) 1.812m. =
the (ii) In order to find out the exit grad,ient, smallestflow eletneutuear to the downstreamend (i.e.,the one adjacent the sheetpile well, markedwith Averagelength of this element= 1.1 m. hatc:h lines) is to be considered.
_ (o.os61gx18)(4)0.311 = *3/duy 13
Problerrylr*' A concreteweir of 15 m length has to retain water upto 5 rn above G.L. The cross-section the weir is shown in Fig. 4.10. The of foundation soil consistsof a 12.5 thick stratumof sand having & = 0.015 cm/sec.In orderto reducethe seepage loss,a 5 m deepverticalsheetpile cul off wall is placed at the bottom of the upstream face of tbe weir. Draw a flownet and determinethe quantity of seepage loss that will occur in one day, if tbe widtlt of the weir be 55 rn. Also determinelhe factor of safety against piping if the soil has G = 2.65and e = 1.08. Solution : The flownet is given in Fig. 4.10. the number of flow channelsis found to be 5, while the number of head drops = 16. ,= k = 0.015 cm./se< Iy'=5rn (0'015) (86400) m/day = 12.96 m/day ff
i" = Exitgraclie*t, + = ry
. G-t t'=Ti agaircr piping= ... Facror safery of
= 0.265
gradient given is by, (iii) Thc critical hydraulic ^ 6 t = 2 . 6 7 - t = u ' ^ -) - r 1.0.95 = ; *# = 3.23
the Probfern 4.4r2/'Construct flownet and detennilrethe quantity of weir shown Fig. 4.9. Given, = k in for seepage irFr6'/day thecollcrete lgss 6.5 x 10-)cm/sec.
Fig.4.9 Solution : Fig. 4.9 shows the flownet. From the figure we get,
No. of flow channels, No. of head drops,
Nf = a'
Na = ll.
Fig.4.10
94
Seepageand Flownets
95
This is the quantity of seepage loss across unit widtlt of the weir. Considering the entire width of 55 m (on a plane perpendicular to that of the paper), total quantity of seepageloss per diy = (n.?5)(55) = 1113.75 rn3. Again, the averagelength of flre smallest flow elernent adjacent to the weir = 1.2 m.
35m
Exit gradien t
Critical hydraulic gradient,
i. --
H
N s x l
c6t,
= o'?-6
- t ^_^ i , = 7 #= 2.651^08= u't9 1Factor of safety agahut piping ,/ Prcblem.4y'. A concrete weir of 52.5 m length is founded ar a depth of 2m in a defosit of fine sand for which the co-efficient of perrneabilityi! the horizontal and ver{icul directions are 1.5 x 10-' cm/sec and 6.7 x 104 crnlsec respectively. The sand is underlain by a rock layer at a depth of37 rn below G.L. The high flood level on the upstream side is 18 m and the downstream side has a frbe standingwater table upto 1.5 m above G.L. Draw the flowret and determine the quantity of seepageloss across unit width of tbe weir. Solution: As the co-efficieuts of permeability of the soil in the horizontal and vertical directions are different. the <ross-sectionof the weir should be transformed before conslructing the flownet. All vertical dimensions of the transformed section will rernain unchanged. But all horizontal dimercions should be multiplied by a constant factor C, where,
=f f i = 3 . 0 4
T r a n s f o r m eS e c t i o n d
(a) Fig.4.11
c -frkh =
Length of the weir in the transformed section
- 0.668
= (0.658) (52.5) = 35.07 rn o 35 m. Fig. 4.11 (a) shows the toansformed section.The flownet is drawn in the usual manner. In order to obtain thc true flownet, the transformed sectioh, along with the flownet already drawn, will have to be retransformed in such a way tlat all ve*ical dimensions will remain unchangcdbut all horizontal dimensions will be divided by a constant factor of 0.668. In order to retransforiu the flownet, the location of all grid points (i.e., the intersection betu.een flow lines and equipotential lines) should be
I
Section Origionol
Fig.a.l1 (b) be lc pohrts shnlld determined. These grid nninlc should then he-located on the retransfom ned section. Joining thesc points in the appropriate order will give the true fl ownet in which all flow elernents will be rectangular.
96
Seepageand Flo*'neti
97
sectionand the true flownel. The Fig. 4.11 (b) showsthe retransformed dischargequantity is given by,
phreatic iine. The rem:r:fling portion of the basic parabcla is shown wit& a llrokcnlinc.
e = k H ' f r =1 ' l k 6 x k " x H ' 7 U

Now,
Nt
Nr
22n
-+
*-{"-
= kn = l.s " 10-3cm//sec 1.296m/day k, = 6.7 x 10-a curlsec= 0.579m/day Il=18-1.5=16.5m Nt = q.a, ff; = 10
1
30
I
)
Fig.4.t2
(4.6)/(10) (usze)(16.s) q = ,/(Lzs6)

= 6.57 ^3/duy
quatltity, It maybr notedherethat,if we areto find out only the discharge section is not required to be drawn, as the true flownet for the retransformed the flownet for the transformed section ciln selve the purpose' However, for pressure uplift pressures heads, ofexitgradient, hydrostatic the determination etc.. the actual flownet has to be drawn. of Problern 4.,7: The cross-section an earthdarn is shown illFig.4.I2. 3 Draw the phrci'tic line. Solution: Horizontal projection.Lof the wetted portion of the upstream face = 27 m. Hence the first point P of the basic parabola is given by, EP = 0.3I = (0.3X27) = 8.1 m. With P as centreand PC radius,draw an arc CM to intersectthe extensionof tle water surfaceline atM. DrawMlV I DC. MN is the directrix of the basic parabola.The mid point Q of CN is another point in thc basic parabola.l,ocate the points YyY2, Y3, ...... , such that they are equidistantfrom the directrix and the focus.Join P, YyY2,Y3, ...... , aru)Q to obtain the basic parabola. In order to make lhe correction at the entry point, draw a smooth curye from E to meet the basic parabola tangentially. For the correction at exit, the location of the outcrop point is required. Refening to Fig. 4.6, for slope angle
ii+m has a top widfh of 28 nt and a :,lrien'-#.9".t A +,-;.ruhigh e.arttrr have.equal slope f-aees of l'rt:cir<,ar<i frn. i'hr illlstream arlcirfu.n;rilstrearn The cofoundal"ion' nrrglesof 30", The dam is placed otr an impen'ious Drarv the i;,,0'3r*rr':iirrrin. , il':rit:r.i;ii;r:i:*rerl:ilii3'r,i:'-*+mftieri;ri*f :1:'r"jB:ii loss iir..t ll,)..\, alld detr:rnrlneihc quantitl' of rc.c.p,agc acrossuait width of the daut. .r'ii!'*li 1l;..' ,:,' is gir , ' r.;', ,l trf Solutfu,ri: T}c 1i,..:ir1;:1 E = 2L , :(.:4, ;rr 3U"; = liiC in. -l'he irf crcrss-section lhe dant is shown in Fig, 4.tr3"
'i;r
f_28mJ
T
I
tl
8 = 45'. ----
An
a+La
= 0.34.
a + A,a = 19m. 62 = (0.34) (19) = 6.46 m.
By measurement,
The distanceCC' is laid off suchthat, C C'= 6.46 m. C' is the true qutcrop point. Draw another smooth curve to mcet tangentially the basicparabola at one end and the downstrearn face at C'. The cuwe EC' is then:the required
Fig..i.t3
L.
98
Problems in SoiIMechanics and Fottndotion Engineering Sccpagc and Flownets 99
The basic parabolaand the phreaticlitre are drawn in the usual Inanller Frorn Fig. 4.13 we obtaitt, and the flownet is sketched. Nf = 3.2 Na=17 Again,
and,
Sccpage loss ac:ross entiredam the = (39.168)(175)= 6854.4,n3/d^y. Problern;pltr Fig. 4.15 shows the cross-seclion au earth dam of -toe cousistirtg of filter at the clownstrearnend. Draw the flow-net auil dtrlerminethe quantityof seepage loss per day acrossunit width of the darrr. The darnis foundedon an impewiousbaseand the rnaterialof the dam has a co-efticie{t of permeabilityof 3.28 x 10-r crn/sec. Explain the procedureof obtainingthe flownet. Solution : Fig. 4.15 slrows the given cross-section, atongwith the l'ltlwnet.Ttrc procedureis briefly cxplainedbelow: (a) Locoting thephreatic line : (i) LocatethepointDin theusualmarurer(ED=0.31= 0.3 x 37= 11.1 m). (ii) The bcttom letl hand comer of the toe is taken as ilre focus of the basic parabola. (iii) Draw the directrix and lotute the point p of the basic parabola. (iv) Locate a numbcr of points whic.h are cquidistant from the direc:trix and the focus. (v) Join thesepointswith a smoothcurve to obtain the basic parabola. (vi) Make the necessarycorrectionsat the entry and the e.xitpoints.
H = 44 - 4 = 40m.
(0'3)-69)(24) = o.432 n,/day. k = 0.3 rmn./min-
loss acrossunit rvidth, Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity of seepage

0 =
@.42)@-G-A- = r 3.zs ^3/d^y. = ' L r r l

U
A 20 rn high dam has a top width of 8 rn, a botlorn width Prohlem {rX of 90 nr and a free board of 3 m. The dam is made of coarsesand having a co-efficient of permeability of 0.01 cm/sec.A 22.5 m long horizontal drainage blanket is placednearthe dowrutreamend of the dam. Draw tlre flownet and loss if the widtb of the danl be 175 m dcterminethe quantity of seepage Solution : The flownet is shown in Fig. 4.14.
9 0 m- Fig.4.14
Lsl
loss for unil widt[ Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity of seepn.3qe
s' f=_
L Toe 28m_
\ Q = k H ' Ntr Here,

k = 0.01 cm./sec = 8.64 m . / d a y . H - 2 0 - 3 = 1 7 m . Nf-4, Na=15
Fig.4.l5
(r7) ,_r _(8.64) _ (4) _T_
39.168 ^3/d^y.
(b) Construction of the flownet : (i) Draw a vertical line on tlre rigbt hand side of the downstream face. Divide the vertical diStance betweentbe water level and the outcrop point into any number of equal parts of the length A f/. (ii) Draw horizontal lines from each of these points and locate their points of intersec.tion with the phreatic line.
100
tnd Fouitdtition Ettgiti':xring Problents in SoilMeclran;ics
Seepageail Flownets
101
eachof ttrlsc inlcrseciion liucs.frorn (iii) Draw ;l nrtrnberolequipotentiai that the headdrops aie equal' points.This "rrlll erisure lines (iu) braw rh. flow lines. Adjust rhe flow lines and equipotenrial t ' until thg flowtret becomesorthogonally squarcd' agairi and again Using eqn. (4.4),
Here,
t' = 3 28 * l0-3 ctn/scc = 2'834 111/day' + 1L = ll 1r.i. A'/ - :'i Nt -7 2 (2.834) (23\ (2'3) - 11 A = z1'a2 n'/day' q = -v?'-:i-:I
:ability of the rnatciial of the dam solution : The co-efticielt of per-rn is is 10 times thet of the foundationsoil; Hencethc flowilet ill the earthdarn be It c-'an as first cronstfuc:ted if it were placedon an inpervious foundation' the seeniiorn Fig. 4.16 tSatthe secoudtIOw line hits the intertacebetWeen darnaud the tbuldation soil. Now corne.downto the foundationsoil attd cornpletethe tlownet. Thc liileswill enterthe tbundation sccoM flow liue aswell asalllhe equipotential In a deviationat ihe interface. thc soil stralum,the flow,oil ,nO ,ritt undergo of the as orthogonallysquared, usual.However,a.s /c-value the net is drawn as of soil is only 1/l0th oflhat of the rnaterial the darn,eachtlow channelin the by c:arried a equalto 1/10thof the discharge soil stratumcrnie-sa discharge in the soil are tlow channel in the darn. consequcntly,the tlow chartttels nrarkedas2.l ,2.2elc. From the figure wc gct, lotal nulnberof tlow clrannels, Nr = 2.25 numberof headdroPs, k for clam-material g = 3 O- 3 = 2 7 m .
dal:ihavitiga toBwidrlr o| 2i} it:, lt Frc[,!,';.:4.11. i ?C In big,lie'anl] t , . . , . , ' i . 1 : t t i . f f i 4 q : 1 1e l l d ? f r * c b r r a E i ! + f , ! i ; i r f l r : : : . r ' : ! t d s * . o 6 0 n ' . t b i c k

Alre 'ilj! i.rj.,1 ii.i,.;.11;,1 ;r;,'-.-!.14;, rrr[jr'!r ]., :rnii'lrrai:l bJ'iti-,.i,'r',1er*teableSll:ill ,:f ;r;:lil*:iilriiify o1 l::, :iiier:ial of tirc Ca|l and{re lou:l'J:'itiali co-eilii:ii,Bls relptr:t'ive.ly, Diaw lhe flowner and soi! are 0.{}ti3 citijsec rrrd 0.f}fxl3 crn,,!cs:. the quantity oi scepage ioss in m-iriaY' rietermine
Na = lo'
= 0.003 cm,/sec = ?.592 m/daY.
(2.592\ q = ----l0
(27\(2.?5J ,. -5 = rr'i m3 /day.
problem yY' Fig. 4.17 shows the cross-sectiottof an eartlr daln of tbunded on a fervious stratum of 60 n thickness. The c--o-effic:icrtt o[ tbe materialqf the dam is 1.6 x 104 cm/secwhile that of the pcnneability itrundation soil is 1.6 x l0-1 crn/sec.Draw the flownet and detennine the loss in m'lday. quantity of seepage than solution : Here the tbundation soil is 10 times more Pe.nneable given ort seepage thc lnaterial of the darn. Heuce Inore emphasiswill be throughthis soil. Draw a kial flownet in thc. foundatiou soil neglecting the earth dam' Extend all equipotential lines frorn tlie foundation soil into the dam. These but lines shouldo.ui.t" from the inlerface, tlris shouldbe doneonly by hand Now draw the flow lines in the dam nnd eqn.(4.11) neednotbe considered. scction aud try to rnake the flow ilet orthogonally squared. This rnay tbr especially the last flow line in tbe dam, "".tuiu readjustments, necessitate which should enter intrr the foundation soil. AII previously drawn flow lines in tbe foundation soil may have to be lowered. The final flownet is shown in
-tii;
4 16
Fig.4.17.
il
li
t02
Problems in Soil Mechttnics ttnd Foundation Engineering
Seepageand Flownets
103
120m
2 0 m| _
''r /
-+ 4.sf r7-s
)b:t
,/ 0.2- 7
7:;?
k2=10k1
55m
Fig.4.l7 As tlre co-efficient of permeabilityof the darn rnaterialis 1/10tb of that of foundationsoil, a flow channelin the dam is equivalentto 1/10thof a flow c'.hannel the foundation soil. Consequently,the flow channels in the daru in are rnarkedas 0.1,0.2,and 0.3. No. of full tlow channelsin the soil skaturn = 2.5. Hence, Nf = 0.3 + 2.5 = 2.8. da=9 . ,1 1 =3 6 m && foundationsoil for . = 1.6 x 10-3cm/sec= 1.382m/day. (1.382)(36) (2.8) = ra4' t 1 * 3 / d u Y ' r 4 n=-, ,/ Problem 4.lQr/ Fig. 4.18 shows the cross-sectionof a zoned earth dam consisting of two zones. Zone I adjacent to the upstrearnface has t = 0.001 cm/sec while zone II adjacent to the downstream face has /c = 0.fi)3 cm/sec. Draw the flownet and determine the quantity of seepageloss in.37d"y. Solution : The material of zone II is 3 times more permeable than that of zone I. Draw the phreatic line in zone I arbitrarily. From the interface between the two zones,the phreatic line should deviate downwards, as water can flow more easily in zone II. Draw this deviated phreatic line arbitrarily. Now draw a vertical line and divide it into any number of equal parts of length AIf. From each ofthese points draw horizontal lines to intersect the phreatic linc. All these intersection points are springing points of the equipotential lines. In zone I, draw the flownet as orthogonally squared.Each t'low line enterszone II after undergoing a deviation at the interface. However, lhc flow elements in zone II will not be squaresbut rectangles, for each of Fig.4.18
rs, --J
rvhich the averagelength in the direction of flow is 3 times (sinc.e k2/\ = 3) lhc avsssgs width. In orderto copewith this condition,the trial phreaticline drawn in zone II may have to be either raisedor lowered and the flownet shouldbc completedby trial and error. Usingcqn.(4.4), N, q = l c H .# .
lrd
Now,NJ = 2.J, Nt = 6, H = 37n. k ftrr zone I = 0.001 cm/sec. = 0.864 m/day.
, = @P@
= 832 ^3/d^y.
It nraybe notedthatthemethods employed inProblem4.11through4.13, ht)wcvcr crude they may seem to be, will yield results which are within r.l0%, of the results otrtainedby a rnore accurateand vigorous solution.
EXERCISE4 4.1 On a waterlrout,a sheetpile wall of 8 m height is embeddedinto tht: soil upto 6 m bclow G.L. The free board is 1 m while water on the dowrrstreamside standsupto 2 m aboveG.L. The foundation soil consistsof a 15 m thick sand slratum (t = 0.009 crn/sec)which is underlain by an inrpcrviouslayer. Draw the fiownet and determinethe quantity of seepage Iossncrossa I m wide sectionof the sheetpile.
lO4
Probtems k Soil Meclmnics and Fottndation Engineering
Seepageand Flowmets
105
Fig. 4. 19 shows tbe cross-section of a concrpte weir. The 4.2 3 foundation soil has a co-efficientof peimeability of 1.25 x 1.0 cm/sec,avoid ratio of 0.88 and a specific gravity of solids 2.65. (i) Sketch the flownel loss in *3/dry liij O.termine the quantity of seepage (iiD Find out the factor of safetyagainstpiping.
4.5 Draw the phreatic lines for the ctamsectionsshown in Fig. 421(a) through(d):
(o) t ,2m
(b)
Drainoge Btqnket i C hmn e y Oroin
30m
"Tffi 'f-6
|
(c)
Fig.4'21
-|
Fig.4.19
o.st
_6fuNJ -r N__aom
i00m -------{ (d)
a3 (a) If a sheet pile cut-off wall of 3 tn depth is introduced in the upstream end of the weir shown in Fig. 4.19, determine the percent reduction in the quantity of seepageloss. (b) If in addition to tlis, another sheet pile of 2 m depth is placed at quantity change? the downstream end, how will the seepage 4.4 Fig. 4.2Oshows the cross section of a concreteweir founded in an anisotropic soil mass.The co-efficient of permeability in the horizontal and verticat directions are respectively 5 x 10* mm/sec and 1.25 x lO--rnm/sec. Sketch the flownetand ditermini the quantity of seepageloss in m3/hr'
4.6 Sketch the flownets and detennine tbe quantity of seepageloss the aqrossunir width of the earthdarnsslrowu in Fig. a.22(a) through (c)' All = 0.002 cmlsec' dams are foundedon impervioussoils.Take & ^ rJ1^n LL .3m lzom I
J--'!
i
!
I I
16m___l
2m
f_ro.sm__]
i-- 60m-{ ---------J 1s0m

(c)
Fig.4.22
I I I I
Fig.4.20
I I
"rd
106
Problems in Soil Meclwnics ond Foundation Engineering
4.7 construct the flow'et for the zone earth darn shown ,tFig.4.23. Hence cornputethe total quantityof seepage loss if the width of the re-servoir bc 125 m.
5
=0 ' 0 0 2 cm/ s e c k =0 , 0 1 rm/seE
STRESSDISTRIBUTION
S.l. Introduction: The applicationof an exte'ral load on a soil mass r(:sults in an additional vertic:al stress (i.e., iu addition to the existing ovcrburdenpressure) any point in the soil. The rnagnitudeof this stress at dccrt:ades with increasing depth anclincreasing radial distancefrom the line o l ' a c t i o u f t h el o a d . o The stressconditionsin a soil massdueto externalloadsc-an analysed be by thc theory of elasticity,assurning soil to be a perfectlyelasticmaterial the which obeysHooke's law of proportionalitybetweenstressand strain. 5.2 c)verburden Pressure: The overburden pressure any point in a soil at nrassis defined as the initial vertical stress due.to the self weight of the soil nrass, and can be obtainedfrom
---J--ism asm
Fig.4.23
---J
4.8 A'earth darnhaving an overall height of Lg rn, a top width of 10 m and a free board of 1.5 m is founded on layer of clean sand having a co-efficient of permeabilityof 0.01 cm/sec.A rock layer existsat a depth of 45 rn below the ground level. The earth-fill in the dam has a co-efficient of penneability 0.00.2 of crn/sec. Draw the {low net and detennine quantity the of secpage loss in m'/day. ' 4.9 Solve Probrem4.8 assumingthat the co-efficient of permeabiliry of the materialof the dam and the founctation soil are l5 m/daylnd 5 m/dav respectively.
o-' = Y' wltcre, Y= uuitweight theSoil of z = depth belowground level.
...(s.1)
5.3 Stress Increment: Thc stressincrenrent, Ao-, at any point nray be defilcd aslhe increase verticalstress to the applicationofexternal loacl in due on thc soil ntcss. Thc total stress, , at ally point 4 at'terthe applicationof au extenral okrad,is given by,
...(5.2)
s.4. Boussinesq'sEquation: Boussinesq's methoclof determinationof slrcssincrementdue to an extemalload is basedon the assumptions that the soil mass is elastic, hornogeiret'rus, isotropic and serni-infinite while the cxlcrnal load is c-oncentratcd a point and is appliedon the ground surface. at With reference Fig. 5.1, at a depth z below the ground level and at a to radial distancer from the line of actionof the load p, the verticul stressatr. is given by
108
ProLrlemsin Soil Mechanics and Fourdation Engineering
StressDistrihution C} A o , = K"o .z' + i
109
and
...{s 8)
ihc 5.5. lYestergaard's f,'4uation: Westergaardassurne<l soil not to be a horizontal.sheets Itotnogeneousbutcoitsistirgof trurnberofcloselyspaced o[ infinite rigidity but rregligiblethicknesswhich resrain thc soii ftom undergoingany lalgralslrain.According to Weslelgaard, Ao- =
i7
{6/e-rtl)
- + ftt - zfi/(Z zv) l/izfzn
...(s.e)
r = {/7Q R = {7;7
whc.rc,
p = Poisuon'sratio of tfte soil. It lbr a given soil, p = 0 , 9qn.(5.9) reduces to

Ac-.= tt; ' i*---J--:---l . xEt . r(;)"j l, '?'!;js
= 17;77
7
Fig.5.1
13i2
,..(-{.x0)
ij!{ il;*;i !:: ::'j,i:.i; 5 ti. 3 : I *isp';rrie:: ,1!*ti:r:ri : il' +n api.,;:r,.;i!11,;,ir': it ius rssuni':ii iiiri iir.,',:ii+{:t -*ian exlernal l*acl is ilisi',,,'r,:ri ;'ii;1'-t*iraigirt iiri*r.; irrclirredat 2l' : 1Il.
e A o Z- = il q '+ f R
or'
...(s.3)
...(5.4)
AU: l Ao.= =# 1, 1st2 9 l ; T ) /' lJ t \'

A o -= K r ' q
z-
(i BL. Ar a depthe, thisloadis distributed o?cran area(I + z) (B + z). Hence, s.he.ss intensit-v tbis level. at . Au' = oBL
l1r5i!3;1.r;l;'.1 : ,1:i)grpliii: r::tf r,rt, S i rif trtiith re'l!:isllr.' 9irFig. 5.3, i.,::i.li
&6tE;4
...(5.11)
or' whcre, KB
..(s.s)
s n
is called Boussinesq's influencefactor and is given by,
3 f 1 xa = 2n'l;/rf"l1
'(s'6)
l'
'lzl
The tangential pointare stressA r.. and,0" ,loru,trlr.r', o o, at rhesame givenby

NEr, =
KBT
,..(s.7)
r -..{*r3
{l rrJFis.5.2
1 I j
A
110
Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundction Engineering
Stess Distibution (3) Determine the radii of the circles frorn . t 1 l - t ) where, ) 3 / * l Ir:\tl 2 =n - ; n
1i1
5.7. kobar: If the vertical stressintensitiesat various points in a soil mass due to an external load are computed, and the points having equal stress intensities are joined by a smooth curye, a number of stresscontours, each having the shapeofa bulb, are obtained.Theseare called isobars.The zone in the soil rnassboundedby an isobaris called a pressure bulb. An infinite number of isobars can bc drawn. The zone contained by the isobar corresponding to a stressintensity v.,hichis equal to lOVoof the applied stress is taken to be the zone within which appreciableeffecls of the applied stress may oqcur. This zone is termed as the zone of influence. Str"rs due to a Uniformly Lcaded Circular Area: Frorn {,8/ Boussincsq's equation it can be proved that the stressintensity at a depth z below the centre of a circular area of radius 4 which carries a uniformly distributedload q, is given by, Lor=q
...(s.1s)
n = total nurnberof circles to be drawn ni = number of tbe circle whose radius is required r; = radiusofthat circle.
l1+ l-l I \'/ ) [
'
(4) Draw all the conceutriccircles. (.5) Deterrninethe deflectionangleof the radial lines from:
,ffi'"1
0 = $qm whcre, m = total numberof radial linesto be drawn.
...(s.16)
...(s.r2)
(6) Draw the radial lines with tbe deflection anglesthus calculated, With the help of the Newmark's chart (Fig. 5.15) the stressintensity at nrrypoint dueto a uniforrnlyloaded areaofanygiven shape canbedetermined ns follows: (i) Adopt a drawing scalesuchthat the depthat which the stressintersity is required is representedby the numerical value of z on the basis of which Ntrwmark'schart is drawn. '(ii) Draw lle plan of the toadedareaon a tracing paperwith this drawing rcxlc. l.ocate the point P below which the stressis required. (iii) Place the tracing paper on the chart in such a way lhat the point P on thc tracing paper coincideswith the centreof the circles. (iv) Count the number of elementscovered,fully or partly, by the plan of the area. (v) Calculate A o" as:
5.9. Newrnark's Chart: The stress intensity at any point due to a uniformly loaded area of any shape can be determinedwith the help.of Newmark's influence chart. It consists of a series of concentric circles of various radii and a seriesofradial lines drawn at regular angular intcrvals. The total area of the chart is thus divided into a number of elernents. The elements may havedifferentsize.s,buteach ofthem, whenloadedwith a given stressintensity, will give rise to the samevertical stressat a given point. ln order to preparethe chart, proceedas follows: (1) Select the number of elementsinwhich the chart should be divided, and determine the influence value for each element. For example, if 10 concentric circles and 20 radial lines are drawn, tht: number of elements = (20) (10) = 200. When any one of these 200 elernents is loaded,the shessintensityat a depthz is given by,
o,"=o#=#['
I I
L
Ao, = 4l(pirr + e/z).N2+ e/3]gf

whcrc, ill = number of elementsfrrlly covered. N2 = number of elernentshalf covered.
...(s.17)
...(5.13)
1y'3= number of elementsof which one-third is covered.
ort
or, = 0'005 Ao" c = radiusof the outermmtcircle

L a, = stressat a depth z due to the entire loaded area.
...(s.14)
t/ = influence factor = l/no,of elementsof the chart.
where,
(2) Selectan arbitraryvalue of z (say,z = 5 cm).
t. 10. StressDue to Vertical Linear I-oad: The load resulting from a long bul nanow wall, or a railway track, is an example of a vcrtical linear load
Ll?
Probiems in Sai!Mechanics trnd Foundation Engineering StressDistributian
tL3
(Fig. 5.3 a). The vrriical strcssat a depth z andat a.radial dirtaicr of ,- &+m the line of action of such a load of intensily f tlm, is given by,
rc==;ffry=#l,tb=]'
-oc
_T
q
\ \ l l
...(s.18)
/unit qreq
\.nzl
P(y,z )
- --
. i
\ l
I
N I
d,1 {1 --.q
\i
\ B. \-1 -..o(-r. i -y_

l! Yt'{
z
Fig.5.4
'.. -.: {
5.13. Embankment Loading: Stressesin subsoils due to embankment loadings can be computed using eqn. (5.20). Lt it be required to comput the maximum vertical stressintensity at a depth z below an embankmenthaving a top width 2b, abasewidth 2(a+ b) and a maximum intensity q t/m. The solution can be obtained in the following steps; 1. The embankmentis divided into two equal parts as shown in Fig. 5.5. Two symmebical Eapezoidalloadings are obtained.
A a, =
i{n
( + s i nc r c o s c r * . 2 p l)
...(s.1e)
, oJ ITITil] I'"i-"J-o-J L-"-l

F,i
. l
I
5.1?" r'i*stirtr!StFeii:i li , 1.,'fr!,iiio::li+ z'Y.-+*{a,:Ii,,::u.rr: r:li:i:'.r,: r , t l ; g i : 1 . ' r . i q 1 , i.C i i 6 i 1 ; , ' . , : i : e d t i ' ' " . . ,r ' , i a t * r l l r ; r - ' ; i a l i i , i r r $ ! ' . . . : r ' l ' c 1 .+ i . . . r : rl--r',. t loadings.
:.1;..;r. '!': . : t ,it..
c n1 f eI r ill
q -,
I
I
$r
t-.L-J
i l 1
I
t b\
-{ \ \
.' fq- ' -ra_r.r i "'i
"./2!l
'{l
ql-t
ss tr't
t I
1iP
Fig.5.5
\--
i j
1i4
Problerns in Soil Mcclmnics and Founcletion Engineering
Stress Distribution
2. Thc trapt:zoidABCDE is cxtcnded to fonn L AFD by adding an imaginarylriangular load BFC. 3. Stress intensity at the point P (lying below the ceutre of the enrbankmcni\due tr the triangular loadsAFD andBFC are obtained.The differencebehveenthese two givesthestress intensitydue to half theembankment. Hence for the entire ernbankrnent this intensity has to be doubled. 5.14. Influence Line for Vertical StressIntensity: The combinedstress interuity at any poitt due to a systernof extemal loads can be detennined usrng the concept of influence line diagrams.The melhod of drawing an influencelinc is explaincd bclou,: 1. Considr:ra unit load aptrilied the grouud surfaceat O. on 2. Considera horizottal plaueMrV at a depth zbelow G.L. .3. Using Boussinesq's equationdetermine vertical stressintensities the at various points on Mif due lo the unit load. 4. Choosea vector scaleand lay off the correslxrnding ordinatesat the rrspeclivt: points to represenl computedslresses. thr 5. Join theseordinates with a smoothcurve. This is the influenceline.
115
EX.A,MPLES ,/ Problem6/J. A concentratedload of 40 kN is applied vertically on a horizontal ground surface. Detennine the vertical stress intensities at the followingpoins: (i) At a depth of 2 m below rbe poinr of applicarion of the load. (ii) At a depth of L rn and at a radial distanceof 3 m from the line of action of the load. (iii) At a depth of 3 m and at a radial distanceof 1 m from the line of action of the load. Solution: We have from eqn.(5.4),
3Q ao, = ?n? (i) Here,
qt'l
|
1s"
Q = 4OkN, z = 2 n r/z=A
and r=O
Henceeqn(5.4)gives (3)(40] tQ" = Lo, = = 4.'17kN./rn2 (2n) (2') 2nt (ii) Inthiscase, O=40kN, z=lm, r=3m
= Ao, ffi
(iii)Here, O=40kN,
z=3.m,
t-tt]'n
=o.o6kl.r,/m2
= r.63 kN,zm2
,,=t*
Applying Maxwell's reciprocal theorem,the stressat any pointdue to an externalload can now be obtainedas follows: (i) For any given load P acting at O the sfressintensity ar any pointx is obtained by multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at X by the load P. (ii) For any given load y' acting at X, the stress intensity below O is obtained by multiptying the ordinate of the influence line atX by the load P'.
Problem 5.d e,reaengularfooting,Z m x 3 m in size,hasto carry a uniformly distributed load of 100 kN/mz.plot rhe distributionof vertical stess intensityon a horizontalplaneat a depthof 2 m below the baseof footingby: (i) Boussinesq's method. (ii) 2 : 1 dispersionmerhod. methd. Thc uniformry distribured road .s9!ution: (i) Boussinesq's carried thefootingis to beconsidered aconcentratea actingthrough by as toaa the centreof gravity of the footing. I = q BL = (100)(2) (3) = 6m kN.
-Lo"= (3)(4ol l-l--ft" '/ (?-n)Q)z lr * lrttl2l
tt6
Stess Distibutian Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
r1,7
Using eqn. (5.4), the stress intensity at a depth of 2 m and at a radial distancer from the line of action of Q is given by:
i Q= 600kN
I
La,=#l;4'"
A nurnber of points are chosenon the given plane and the sfress intensity at eachpoint is calculated. Thesearetabulated below:
,o.r*
f-l-fT-[fTT-l = I I I i r i I t i 11 100kN / m2 ^r*_ EOUSSIN O,S ES METHOD
(600)-= (3) t-l-=lt" (2)(3.14)(2') {rl-l 11* [ \'/l

r/z
= 1rr.ut) [--+-l''
l1 + (r/zYl
DISPERSION METHOD _\_

I
Radialdistance r (n)
< /', 1 | 1 - ' ' Stessintensiry As, l--------------;l
f t z . o ei
ll12.66
lr + (r/z)'I
0 t 0.5 t 1.0 t 1.5 *. Z0 x.2.5
&Nlm2 ) 71.62 4.97 12.68 3.72 t.28 0.50 givenby Boussinesq's method (iii) Evidentty, pressure distribution the field problems. be is morelogicalandshguld usedin ordinary
vertical load of 200 t is applied on the Problem 88t' A concentrated surface of a semi-infinite soil mass. PIot the disnibution of vertical stress intensity on a vertical plane situatedat a distanceof (i) 3 m (ii)5 m, from the line of action of the load, Solution: In Fig. 5.8, let P be the point of applicationof the load. kt Y1Y1 and Y2Y2 be the given planes,locatedat radial distancesof 3 rn and 5 m respectively from P. Using eqn. (5.4), the stressintensity at a depth z and radial distance r from the line of actionof a?N t load is,
,a
0
t 1.0 t 2.0 -r 3.0 * 4.0 = 5.0
1.0 0.572 a.n7 4.052 0.018 0.007 (100) /?\ (2)
Fig.5.7
(ii) 2:1 dispersion methodt Using eqn. (5.11),
sB =-----*=30kr\,,m', (2+21(3+2) Q + z)(B + z) The distribution of stressintensitieson the given plane, as obtained from Boussinesq's equation and 2 : 1 metlod, are shown in Fig.5.7.
- -, A o z= The following differences betweenlhe two stressdistibution diatryams arc to be noted : equation ii) The maximum stressintensity obtained from Eloussinesq's is 71.62 kN/m', which is nearly 2.4 times the maximurir sEessintensity given by2:1method. (ii) In Boussinesq's method, the maximum stress intensily occurs ditectly below the point of application of the load. The stress inrcnsity decreasesrapidly with increasing radial distance, but except at an inf,mite distance, it never becomeszero. Whereas,the stressiniensiry given by 2 : 1 method remains constant over a radial disgance 2.5 m on either side of the of cente line of &e loaded area. and suddenlv becomesnon-existent bevond rhat lirnit.
Lo,=ffi[;io1'"=lr;*1"' (i) r
95.49 )
Y1 The stressintensitiesat various points or the planesY_1 and Y2Y2may now be computed ftom eqn. (i). The resultsare shown in the following table.
I
l
,i
I I
j
'l
l--*.
118
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Deptlt (m) PlaneYlYl Plane Y2 Y2
r/t
StressDistribution
119
No.of point 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
r/z 6.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 t.2 1.0 0.75 0.60 0.50 0.375
L, o, (t/m2)
A,o, (t/m21 0.004 0.028 0.083 0.r68 a.273 0.380 0.568 0.685 0.28-s 0.062
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.4 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0
0.06 0.302 0.159 r.254 r.643 1.875 1.955 t.770 1.518 t.473
r0.00 5.00 3.33 2.50

2.{JO 1.67 r.25 1.00 1.20 1.60
consists a 6 rn thick clay laycrwhiclris uudcrlairr a l;rvtxof densc of lrv sand. Plot lhe dislributionsof: (i) Overburdcnpressur(' (ii) stressincrementdue lo footingloads (iii) grossstress intensity on a horizontalplanethroughtlre middle of the clay layu.'Ihe propr:rties of the clay are as follows: G =2.70. e =0.55. w=0,)'t Assunrethe footingslo be frrunded lhc grtlutxl lcvt ;. al Solutiern: (i) Overburden pressure:Using cqn. (.i i , :i ,' .irr.rrburdt'u prr:ssurc llrc nriddlc of the c{ay layer (i.tr.,I = 6,') = t ,', givct by, al o.^ = YZ
Now,
9 10
t'r',, t _ ( 2 . 7 0 ) {o r .,, = |+t, I**l'=l.74tzrn' = . L , = ( 1 . 7 4 ) ( 3 . 0 ) 5 . 2 2t , n l ,
distribution diagramsare shown in Fig. 5.8. The pressure
The intensity this;rrcssun: of ovcr lht'lrr ri.'orrlal planc.YYtirrough the nriddleof clay is conslant. (ii) In order lo dctt:nttitttr strcssillr'ir't'rr'tll fhc dur: l<i lirtr tltg loads at varirluspointsofXX, cqn.(5.4)caubc usctl. Tlrt:t,xupulctl slress.-'s shown art: belorv:
No. oJ point
Verlical stressintensity due to : Pt (1004

r/z (n)
aozl (t/n2)
Att
Pz (Iso t)
r/z (n)
Ao:2 (tln")
Pt (l)) t)
l+ A,,
(n)
'u' ao,, I l*A'r', { r ' , r : I 2)l

!ttt^21lttt^21
a -l
2
J
-o.6? 4 -o.33 4.08 -5

A
yr
FE. s.8
y2
6 7 8 I l0 1l t2 l3
" . / columrsof a building lie The footingsof threeadjacent Problem 5/ line and cary grosstoadsof 100 t, 150 t and 120 t on the sames{raight distancebetweenthe t'irst and second The centre-to-centre respectively. and the footingis 4 m while thatbetween second thethird is 3.5rn.Tbesubsoil
0 531 I 0.33 4.08 2 0.67 2 . r 2 3 1.00 0.94 4 1.33 0.4r 5 1.67 0.19 6 z.M 0.09 7 2.33 0.05 t-) 2.50 0.04 8.5 2.83 0.02 9.5 3 . 1 1 0.01
0
-3
-l 0 I
-2.00 0.14 -95 -3,1; I g.g2 ) ' ) A l s r l 3 'r -1.67 o.29 -a.5 -2.8-1 0.03 4.4(l I s ' , ' | -r33 0.62 1 < -2.5( I 0.04 5.97 -1.00 t . 4 l -4.5 - 2 . r i | 0 . 0 8 5.57 / |)-' il 4.67 3 . 1 7 -5.5 - l 8 r | 0 . 1 6 5.4-s< ) ' : ' -o.33 6 . l l -45 -i.5(l | (,.33 7.38 t 5 .*2-. : r | r 0 7.96 -3.5 -1.fi | 034 9 . 1 1I < : '
+--
1il:
;i ; : : ,l;;; ,l ; ; ,
|
;
3.5 4.5
0.33 6 . 1 1 J < -o.rJ-r | 1,72 8.02 o.67 3 . t 7 -1.5 -{..5(}3.64 7.76 I 1.00 t . 4 l -o.5 -o.r7 I 5.e3 7.:t() ''-| 't t . t 7 0.93 0 0 i 6.37 .3.1 5.22 '
r.50 0.42
1.83 0.20
1 I
).)
t 5.36 s.22 I 0.r'. i 1.5-l 2:7lI I 5 ) ?

0 . - 1 3i 4 . 9 2
i
t20
Problems in Soil Meclrcnics and Foundation Engineering
StressDistributian
t21
Lro=,*ffih?l = and,
S 0verburden tress
0.0764 _ A v - ( 3 ) ( 1 ) _ _ J . 1 t " = ,-______3n A o -:= l e r , ) ( zl.rr_ 4 1 z (1 + 0.16f) 1 L tz'sY

\ , 1
0.0306r
5.22ttn? X
The computed values of A o, and A t* at various points on the given horizontal plane are shown below:
(2.srJ
Lro
(t + 0.t6r)
ct52
No. S t r e s sI n c r e m e n t
r (m) 0 r0.25 r 0.50 r 1.0 r 1.5 r2.O * 3.0
a6t
No. L 9. 10. 11. 12. t3.
r (n)
t 4.0 t 5.0 t 6.0 x.7.0 t 8.0
ho,
Lto
(tlm21
@n?1
ftln?1 ftn?)
0.0032 t 0.0051 0.0014 x.0.0027 0.0006 tO.0015 0.0003 * 0.0009 0.0002 * 0.0006 0.m01 * 0.0004
1. 2.
5. ct ql o
(\l
rP o\
o GI
o\
l--
r\,
\l)
(\
.9
fn ''1 -t
*t q{ tn
cO Q GI
({
\D
rJ1
r.rl
4. 5. 6. 7.
0 0.0764 0.0745 r 0.0075 0.0693 t 0.0139 0.05n t 0.0211 0.0354 rO.0213 4.0222 * 0.0178 0.0G2 * 0.0099
* 9.0
I G r o s sS t r e s s n t e n s i t Y t s : V e c t o r c q t e '1c m= 1 0 / m 2} {
Fig.5.9
The distribution of A o" and Lr.-arc shown in Fig' 5.10'
at Tbe (iii'STotalstess. totalstress anypointis tlie sumofthe over-burdert in due increment to footingloads.Tbesearetabulated pr"r*r" andthestress the lastcolumnof the abovetable. stess incrementandglossstress The distributionofoverburdenplessurc, in intensityareshorvn Fig' 5.9. prcblem { Draw thc influencelines for thevertical andshearstress at a depthof 2.5 m below the groundlevel dueto a unit vertical interuities loadsappliedon the glound surface. concentrated Solutlon: We havefrom eqns.(5.6) and (5.7),
-5
-4
0 0 . 5 t | . 5 2
c\l
I n f l u e n c t i n e fa verticolstress e
and Here,
La,-#l-+if"' Lao'#lTi7l'"
Q=Lt" z=25m l n f l u e n c ei n e f o r s h e o r s t r e s s l ( s c o l e 1 c m= O ' O 3 i / m)2 :
Fig.5.10
122
Psoblems.in SoilMechtnics and Foundation Engineering
StressDistibution
1"23
/ P.oblem f.6. usi'g the i'fluence ri*e plotted in Fig. 5.r0 plot the distribution of vertical stress intensity on a horizontal plane through the rniddle of a 5 rn thick clay layer dueto theloadingschemeshown in Fig. 5.t t. Solution: At any point on the given plane, the combined stress rntensity can be obtained by summing up the stress intensities due to the iudividual loads,whiclr, in tum, rnaybe deterrnined the processexplained by in Art. 5.14. The following table shows the computed values.
Vertical stress itiletu;ty ilue to .
Prnblem Vrt ft is proposedto constructa sftip footing of 1.5 m width to carry a load <if 12 t per metre run. The footing is to be placed at the ground level over a hornogeneous depositofsand having the following properties: G=2.65,e=0.65,s=lOVo Determine the vertical stressinlensity at a depth of 3 m below the centre lintr of the footing, before and after its construction. Solution: The butk densityof the sand, G + se 2.68 t (0.10X0.6s)(1.0) = r.66t/m3 t = 1 - ; Z ' Y . - ., _ 1+0165
Pt (s0 t)
Dist. fro the origin (m) (m) Dist. Ordinate of ILD (t/^:)
A Ozr
Pz (80 0
Dist.
Pt (65
L azz
Refore the construction ofthe footing, stressintensity at a depth of3 m below the centre line of the footing is given by,
a oz3
Ordinateof II.D (tl^21
Dist.
Ordinate of il,D (t/m2)
! Au,
Qzo=lz
= ( 1 . 6 6 ) ( 3 . 0 )= 4 . 9 8 t / m ? .
(t/^2)
(t/m2)
(m)
(t/m-)
(n)
(tln2)
0
I
-2
-l
0
t
I
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll
3 5 6 7 8 I
0.0222 1 . 10 l 0.0527 2.635 0.0764-3.,-20 0.0527 2.635 0.Q222 l l 1 0 0.tK)82 0 . 4 1 0 0.0032 0.160 0.00! 0.070 4 o.(xn6 0.030 0.m03 0.015 0.0002 0.010 0.0001 0.005
-5 4 -3 -2 -l 0 I 2 3
f,
0.0014 0 . 1 1 2 0.0032 0.256 0.0082 0.656 o.0222 t.776 0.0527 4.216 o.07u 6.112 0.0527 4:216 0.0222 t.776 0.00a2 0.656 0.0032 o.256 0.0014 0 . 1 r 2 0.0006 0.048
-9 -8 -6 -5 4 -3 -2
-l
0
t
0.0001 0.006 0.0002 0.013 0.00c1 0.019 0.0006 0.039 0.0014 0.091 0.0032 0.208 0.0082 0.533 0.0222 r.433 o.0527 3.426 0.o7u 4.996 o.0527 3.426 0.0222 1.443
r.23
2.91 4.40 4.45 5.42 6.73 4.91 3.29 4.tl 5.24 355 1.50
Skess increment at the sarnelevel due to the construction of the footine may be determined using eqn.(5.19).
Ao, = 1,ro*sinccos(cr 2p)l + 1l'

The maximum stressintensitywill occur directly below the centreline of the strip load. With reference Fig.5.3 (b). to
u=ran-rf+) = o'245tad'
I
and
p =0
1Z
1l
\ J, ' /
cos 10.245+ sin (0.245) (0.245) l
The distributirxrof vertical stressintensityis slrown in Fig. 5.11.
= 1.83t/rYr2 Hence, lotal stre.ss intensity after the constructionof the footing, A, = Oro+ AO,
Isot
i t
laor
X{m)
l
Z
//
-4.98+1.83 =6.81t/m2
i
S c o l e : 1 c= J t / m 2 m
Fig. .11 5
Prcblemf$ Two long boundary walls of small width run parallel ro each other at aYistanceof 3 m apart.The self-weights of the walls are 25 and 15 kN/m. Plot thc distribution of vcrtical stess intensity due to the walls on a horizontal plane 3 m below the ground level. Solution: The point of applicationof the 25 kN/m linear load is chosen as the origin. The ground surfaceservsas tlre l/-axis while tie verticalaxis through the origin is the Z-axis. Mif is the plane under consideration.
124
Probiems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineu ing StressDistrii;tttion Usirrgeqn.(5.18),the verticalstress intensitydue to a line toad q is givc.n
t25
by:
Llu-
A-
.+.l------;l
2q I I f xtz it + \rtzl.l
The stressintensities variouspointson the plane arecoinputedand are at presented below in a tabular form: No. Dist. Stressdue to 25 kNlm lood 'Stress due to 1,5N/M Ioad Totai ,9tress Lor, + Loz2 (wlm2)
from origin
t Prcbiem 5.9. A long flexible strip footing of 2'5 m yiqt!-h-1uiog load of 80 kN/m run. io smooth i;.irir, is subjr+-:irri a uniformly distributed at itttettsities a depthof 2 rn below: Detenuiuc the vertical stress line of the footing ce.ntre {i) of (ii) side fac:e the footing of 3 m a li'e paraliel to the ce'tre line of the tboti.g at a dista'ce liiii liorn it. in Fig' of Solutlon: The r:ross-section the given tboting is presented ..*hichthe siresses to be determined repre$ented are are :i.12.1"Lciocations;il t-'ythe ;;r;itrtsr{, 6 tiid C respective.ly'
r (m)
r/z
Ao:r (kNlm2)
r (m)
r/z
Loz2 (kNlm2)
1. 2.
J.
.) -1 0 1 2 3
A
-1 0
1
4.67 -o.33 0 0.33 0.67 1.00 1.33 r.67
2.53
-) 4 -3 -z -1 0 1 2
-1.67
a.z2
2.75 4.73 6.10 5.83 5.09 4.51 3.7 1.89
4.3r
5.31 4.31 2.53 1.33 0.69 0.37
*1.33 0.42 -"1,00 4.79 4.67 4.33 0 0.33 0.67 1.52 2.56 3.18 2.56 1.52
4.
)
J
6.
1
8.
The distributionof vertical srress shown in Fis. 5.12. is
2 5k N/ m
I 5 k N/ n r
5ggls:1:50 Fig.5.13 {i'; Foittt A: By measurtmertt o. * 64' = l.1L? radian *0'558 radian l} * *J2' =
ai!
eipt. i5.19), usi-cg
+ c + A 6 , r ; r = : ' ' - i 1 . 1 1 7 s i n{ 1 . i 1 ? } o s{ 1 . 1 1 7
:i.
2 (- o.sssil l
Fig.5.12
= 51.3:1 kN/n::. Here, u = 51.5" = 0.899radian' (ii):1'n;r*t8;
F=0"
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundation Engbreering
StressDistribution
A o, 16)=
RN
cos I 0.899 + sin (0.899) (0.899 + 0) l
Now,
Of,
= 23.96 kN,/m'. s, = 26" - 0.454 radian. F = 36.5" = 0.637 radian.
FC = BC BE AE, (5.4) BE . BC =-J- r' s) nA = = 4.5t/m. nC = ln FD = FC + BE = 4.5 + 5.4 = 9.9t/m. q { y A o-, = - l i ' a /J.r\D - s i n- 2\ p l . ')
Lo,(r)=
if
A . 4 5 4 + i n ( 0 . 4 5 4 ) c o s ( 0 +4Z .4 x 0 . 6 3 7 ) l s . 5.
For
Usingeqn.(5.20),stress intensity to triangular due loadingis givenby,
= 9.81 kN,/m2. Problem 5.10. An embankment of trapezoidal cross-sectionis to be constructed by compacting a soil at its oMC (l6vo) and the corresponding 12-"* (1.55 Vm'). The top and bottom widths of the embankment should be 10 m and 22 m respcctively while its height should be 3 m. The foundation soil consis6 of a24m thick layer of soft clay. Detennine the maximum stress intensity at the middle of the clay layer due to embankment loading. Solution: Bulk density of the compactedsoil, y = yd(I + w) - 1.55(1 + 0.16) = l.80/m3Hence, the rnaximum surchrge intensity of the trapezoidal loading = (1.80X3.0)=5.4t/m'. Fig. 5. 14 shows the embankment cross -sectionABC DE The imaginary triangle BFC is added to complete the triangle /-ED.
LA.FD,
e = 9.9t,/m, a = 61o = 1.065rad., = 0 0 y = ?-b, i.e., y/b = 2. oo
oo", =
For LBFC, .
fitz
" 1.065 0) = 3.36 t/^2.
rad., B = g e = 4.5Vm, a. = 2l.5' = 0.497 y/b=2

AS
oo,, =
fitz
* 0.497 o) = o.ltt/m2
.'. Netverticalstess intensity themiddleof clay layer, at Aoz = L,or, - O arz- 3.36 - 0,71- 2.65t/m2. -/ Problen lJf/ Draw a Newmark's influence chart on the basis of Boussinesq's equition,fdr an influence factorof 0.005. Solution: Dercrminethe total numbcr of divisions in the proposed charton thebasisofthe giveninflucnce factor. .
c .T
E ---t. -\ I
llmt I
r-\
N-i-o'*5'2ou c
\ l
l
5'4^0 A
--_ 611
-<l
lp
2E.s'}'l
oP
If 10concenbiccirclesof aipropriateradii aredrawrqtre areaunderthe chartwill be dividedinto 10parts. will thenbe frrrther It dividedinto smaller segments drawing number radiallines.Evidently, number radial by a of the of . z f f i = ttnesto be drawn= 20. lbI
L i n e q rs c q l e 1 : 7 5 ,V e c t o r c o l e : 1 c m= 0 . 2 t l n ? : s
Fig.5.14
I
I
i
3!0' = The anglcbctween consecutive two radiatlines= tg. 20 at - Now, usingeqn.(5.72),theverticalstress a depthz belowthe cente of a circulararea radiusr, carryinga uniformlydistributea of loadg is given bv:
L--
128
Frr.iblcmsin Soil lr{edtttnics and Foundatian Engineering
StressDistibution
L29
Ao-= all
_ Ji-__L_ --
t
0f'
I r * 1 ' z ' t 3 iJ
1
", /? 7/)
" I
3'2 I
Ao. _ = = 1 _ q
[ J---
I lr + (r/z)"
ao. ) a f
l"'" " I
0fr
= l r'
l + (r/z)2 ! + (riz)z
{ l
of'
=i 1
I
a o, \,
-
-) /7
"'-
, l i
or,
/*-Ao.\-'r,.'r n"!( -'. - = Vll*-, ' . 4 I1 ,

Fer Ciifsrent values of
..'(s'21)
A o" /q (tangng lr*m ti,00 tc i't]* at lhe rate of 0.L0)the correspi'l:t1ii,g.,ri":,;s of riz can lrc dcterruined froin eqn' (5.21). Consequently,lhe r:illu* of I csu be obtained!f :: ie knor*'n.Wklle drawing tle chart, we u,ill arbitrariiy lake z = 2.5 cm. The cc,:aput*ti:ns arc given below in a tabvlar f'orm:
Circ ,t{o
fr Â "2-|-;T;F"',"1-^".T;; ;-l ' i

i, !
i^_f__j i ?. l 1 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 0 0 1. 5O . l , t ' i { ; j ' L } . 50 9 i 8 : 2 . 5 l ; . 1 { J

I I i
! 1 c n 1 l p m t l N o . _J__*_l__"*_ c m ) ; i _r_* l { c @ l ( -ls*Influencevalue= 0.005

Fig.5.15 PrcblemSs// Using the Newmark's chart preparedin problem 5.11, determine the vertical stressintensity at a depth of 2 m below the pointA of tbe raft fo"otingshown in Fig. 5.16. The uniformly distributed load on he raft is 8.5 Vrn'. Solution: In Problem 5.11 the Newmark's chart was prepared for z = 2.5 crn. In order to usethis chart for the rnmputation of vertical stressintensity at a depth of 2 m below any loaded arca, the plan of the area is to be drawn in sucha scalethata distanceof 2.5 crn in the drawing may representan actual distanceof 2 m.
I ri a i i * . r i o r t o . i , , u s l? jl o . .s7r i r o.i r s ! : . ; * ' r . " * s:x : i r o : .j l i * . t l c . C I r i : 5t . s o l a

_i
i, i | :.' i r.--0 E i o.+ii .r.l* z.s 't.lt i 0., l+.srs | . : : i i ; . - 5 e i i1r 0 r l i * lo.olo.0rtl i 2 . tl * ':'t_i_?"?6ili_i
I
i
l_ ll--_
i_
i._ | _- J
I
!, {ine ccncentrlc circles are drawn wrt} the r:cii sirowri-is rhe table. ,t rer of r*dinl lincs ar+ lheir drawn frtw lhe centre al ';;:ual deflectial:r"rf l8o.
Ibe resulting Nernna;k'ri chart is sbr:wn in Fig. 5.15
130
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fottndation Engineering
Stress Dbtributi tt, (i) Boussinesq's method (ii) Westergaard's method, assuming = 0 F
131
+4m.
--T
I
I
14m
t/n?1i;10.681 Vrn2] [Ans.(i) 1.058

5.2 A 2 rn x 2 rn square footing carriesa grossload of 550 kN. The tboting is foundedat a depthof lT5 m below G.L. The subsoilconsistsof a 2 m thick layer of sand having a unit weight of 1g kN/m3. The sand layer is underlain a 4 m thicklayerof softclayhavinga unitweightof lj.2kN/m3. by compute the maximurnvertical stress the rniddle of the clay layer betbre at and after the construction the footing.Use Boussinesq's of eguation . tAns. 70.4 kN/m' ; 80.9 kN/m,l 5.3 A vertical concentrated loadof 100 t is appliedat the groundlevel over a 6 m thick clay stratumwhich is underlainby a deepsandstraturn. plot the distributionof verticatstress intensityon a horizontalplaneat thc middlc of the clay layer by : (i) Boussinesq's melhod. (ii) Westergaard's metbod. (iii) 2; I disJrersion merhod. Given, Poisson's ratio, p - 0. 5.4 Plot tlre distribution of vertical stressintensity on a vertical plane due to a vertical concentrated load of750 kN appliedon the ground surface at a lateraldistanceof3 m from the given plane. 5.5 Draw the isobarsfor?Svo and10%stressintensitiesdue to a footins of 2.5 m x 2.5 m, carrying a uniformly clistributed load of l0 Vm2. UsI Boussinesq's method. 5.s A building is supportedby a raft t'ooti'g of 15 m x 1g rn pra* area. The gross load of the building, including tbe self weight of the ratt, is 405ffi kN. Plot the variation of vertic:alstressintensities with depth (z) below the ground level, taking 0.5 m < z s 5.0 m, at equal intervalsof 0.5 rn. Use 2:ldispersionmethod. s.7 Two adjacent footings of building, placed at a centre-to-ccntre distance of 4.5 m, have to carry gross loads of 750 kN each. using Boussinesq'stheory,plot the distribution ofvertical stress intensity at a deprh of 3 m below the baseof the footings. 5.E Three consecutivefootings of a building are carrying gross loads of80 t, 120 t and 110 t respectively.The centre-to-centredistance between the first and secondfooting is 3.0 m, while that between thc secondand third footing is 4.0 m. All tbe footings are foundedat 1.5 m below G.L. Determine tbe maximum vertical stressintensity due to the focting loads at a depth ôf 3.5 rn below G.L. t A,ns. 15.06 r/m2 ]
I I
15m
J-
I I
-f
I I
_L
6m
-f l--,0' r'--'l'
Fig.5.l6
Hence, the requirid linear scalett,
3#
= 1 : 80.
The plan of the given raft footing is drawn on a tracing paper to a scale of I : 80. The pointA, which is the point of intersection of the two diagonals, is located. The tracing paper is then held on the Newmark's chart in such a way that the point A coincides with the centl"of the chart. During such
th"_gl,g$l, glj!.gggcsilLp9!-er tqiEqte!er!4l=_ superpositioniog, The lines. with broken is In Fig.5.15,thep1-Iiofr-tegivenhrea drawn
nurnber of elements of Newmark's chart covered by the plan area is now counted. nt - no. of elements fully covered by the area = 39 n2 = no. of elernents1/2 of which is covered by the area = 15 43 = no. of elements 1/3 of which is covered by the area = 4 Tbe stressintensity at a depth of 2 m belowA is then given by, ' L a " = l x n x q
= (0.005) + 15/2 + aft)$.s) (39

o
= 2.A3Un?
EXERCISE 5 load of 50 t is applied on the ground concentrated 5.1 A vertical at intensity a point 3 m belowtheground theverticalstress Compute surface. and2 m awayfrom the line of actionof theloadby: level
!*
1i2
5.9 (a) Draw the influence line for the vertical stressintensity at a depth of 2.0 m bclow the point of applicationof a unit load. (b) Solve Problem 8 using the influence line thus drawn. 5.10 A strip footi4gof 2 m width carries a uniform load of 8 V*2. Tn. tboting is placed on the ground level over a homogeneous deposit of clay having the following p;operties : G =2.72, e =0.78, w = lZ%o , Determine the initial and final overburden pressure at a depth of 3 m below the centreof the footing. I i\ns.5.a9 Urt ;7lVr#'l 5.11 Two long boundary walls run parallel to each other at a centre-to-centredistanc-e 1.5 m apart.The width and height of the firstwall of are ?50 rnrn and 20fi) nrn respectively, while those of the second are respectively 125 mm and 3000 mm. Plot the distribution of vertical stress intensity due to the walls on a horizontal plane,2 m below G.L. The walls have negligible depth of foundation and are made of brick masonry having a unit wegnt of 1920 kdto3. 5.12 Fig. 5.16. shows the cross-section of an earth dam. The unit weisht of the carth-fill is 1.85 t/*3. Dlt.rmine lhe maximum stress intensity at a depth of 5 m below the baseof the dam. t
6
CONSOLIDATION
6.1 Introduction, (Wn"n an extemalstaticload is applied on a saturated soil mass, an excess pore watr pressure is developed. As water is incornpressible for the low stress ranges commonly encountered in foundation problems,this porewater now tries to escapefrom the void spaces. Such expulsion of water results in a decreasein the void ratio and, consequently, a reduction in the volume of tlre soil mass.This processis known as consolidation.I process.In coarse-grained Consolidltion is essentiallya time-dependent soils having high co-efficient of permeability the pore water escapesvery rapidly. The time-dependent volume change of the soil mass, therefore, occnrs only in less permeabletine-grained soils like clay and silt.
I Jzom
5.13 Draw a Newmark's +-influence chad, on the basis of Boussinesq's equation,for a n influencefactorof 0.00556. 5.14 The plan of a raft footing supporting a multistoriedbuilding is shown a in Fig. 5.18.The,raftcarries u.d.l. of 15 Vm'. Using the Newmark'schartgivenin Flg. 5.14, determinethe vertical stressintensityat a depthof 3 m below pointA.
95m----J
Fig.5.l7
6.2 Definitions: The following terms are frequently used to express, the compressibilitycharacteristics soils: of
|
(i) Co-efftcient of compressibility (a): void ratio per unit changeirr pressure.
t . e. ,
It is defined as the changein
-T
I
3m
a"=
:ae
Lp
eo-e
6oo
...(6.1)
I
12n
where, e6 and e are the void ratios of a soil under the initial and final vertical stresses and o respectively. tr6 (ii) Co-efficient of volutr,e change or volume compressibility (mu): It is definedasthechange involume ofa soil massperunitof itsoriginal volume due to unit change in pressure.
l'e't
_T
-'f
3m
L V l *, " -V.G
...(6.2)
-lr,]r-- - tzn-43n:r-
Fig. 6.1 shows a soil masshaving an initial void ratio eg . If the volume of solids be unity, then volume of voids is given by,
V u = e O . V "* 0 .1 = f o
.'. Total volume.
Fig.5.18
vn=vr+v,
134
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundotion Engineering = 1 + e o then in to Ifthe void ratio uow decreases e due to increase pressure, V t = l + e ' = Vo - Vt = | + eo - (1 + e) = e 0 - e = Ae.
Consolidation
But,
and
AC BC A C = % - e = L , e BC =logrcp - logropo
or, changeinvolume
LV
The value following ernpirical formulae:
= ...fu.ol logropfogropo =:+ togroq/p' \ I -eoffiffi[i iidilma} alsobe determined rhe from
eo-e
For normally consolidated clays (sensitivitys 4 ), For rernouldedclays, wherc, --woref----
, Ae
ui9h% C, = 0.007 (w1 -
...(6.sa)
10)
...(6.sb)
wt = liquid li;,&(n--
T1.
( r nedl
l+
Fig.6.1 From eqn. (6.2) we get,
I
o
Rec mpress o V i r g i nC o m p r e s s i o n
;
G, !
^,=#;0.*
of' L e 1 m'=Td r-"0
av
ffl- - = a-
'o
L + e g
...(6.3)
0.5 0'3 0.40.5 0.7 | 3 4 5 6789tO
Thc unit of both a, and m,rs atlt<g. It is defined as the gradient of the virgin (iii) Compression index (C ).' ccmpression curve drawn from the results of a consolidation test performed on a soil. Fig. 6.2 illustratesan evs. logp curve. Bydefinition, C" - gradientofA.B - tanO
t ogt' p ----{Fig.6.2
6.3 Terzaghi's Theory of One-dimensional Consolidation: The process of consolidation is closely related to the expulsion of pore water and dissipation of pore pressure. Terzhghi, in his theory of one-dimensional consolidation, investigated the relationship between the rate of change of. excess pore pressure and tle degree of consolidation, and dcduced the following d ifferential equation:
136
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fotrndation Engineering

6tt
Consolidution
t37
6l=u,
where,
a2u ---; al
...(6.6)
u stand for the excesspore pressureat a depth z t stands for the time elapsedafter the application of the load' C, = Co-efficient of consolidation,whici is defined as: Hu\n I i |"Y f-E--co-etficient ofpermeability, cm,/sec Tw = unit weight of water, gn/cE zy = coefficient ofvolume change, t^2 /g^
F:----T-l !L.. = -
...(6.7)
where,
(i) Estimating the probable consolidation settlement of a proposed struclure to be constructedon this soil. (ii) To determinethe time-rate of setflement. The sample is placed in an oedometerbetween two porous stones and arrangementsare made to keep the samplesaturatedthroughout the test. The loading intensities are generally applied in the following order: 0.25,0.5,1 A,2.0,4.0,8,0and 16.0kg&rn'. The vertical deformationsof the sampleunder each loading intensity are measuredwith the help of a dial gauge. The readings are taken at elapsed times of : ,. 1440minutes. 0.25, 0.5, L,2,4,8, 15, 30, ffi, 120,240 arnd From the results of the test, the following three curves are drawn: (i) e vs. logrOP curve, to determinethe value af. C. (ii) Dial reading vs. logls t curve ] (iii) Dial reading vs. Vt curve j ,o 0",".*ine,the value of c,
The unit of C, is "*2/r.". Equation (6.6) is a second order differential equation, the solution of which rrravbe obtained in the form,
u=f(T")
where, U = degreeofconsolidation. Cu' _Ft
...(6.8)
In order to plot the e vs. log16p curve, the void ratio of the sample at the end of each load increment has to be detennined from the corresponding dial reading. This can be done by either of the following methods. (a) Height of solids method.' After the corrpletion of the test, the sample is taken out from the oedometer,dried in oven and its dry weight 177 is detennined. Now, volume of solids,
I" = Time factor =

where,
...(6.e)
I = time required fotU%o consolidation, sec
ft = maximumlengthof drainagepath, un. In caseof double drainagecondition (i.e., when a clay layer of thickness ÊI befween two penneablc layen at top and bottom) the maximum length lies of drainage patb ft = Hlz,whercas in caseof single-drainagecondition (i.e., when the clay lies between a permeableand an impermeable layer), h = H' The time factor ?i, is a dimensionless quantity, the value of which depends on the degree of consolidation taken place at a given time, and not orrthe propertie.sof the soil. Terzaghi suggestedthe following equations for the determination of Iu :
""=T=Gy*
wd
W7
and, height of solids in the sample,
h,=Yi=h
where, areaof the sample. A = cross-sectional
...(6.12)
Let e be the void ralio correspondingto a height h of the sarnple.
"= n u\ t , = 4 \l f o'o ) / V "'(6.10)

ofr
vu v-v" A.h-A.hs = = A.lrrv" %

h-h,
hs
For
for
ocu<S3vo,
< 53%oU < t0070, T, = 1.781 - 0'933log (100 - U)'
e =
...(6.13)
'(6'llrlr/
6.4 Laboratory Consolidation Test: f h order to determine the cornpressibility characteristicsofa clay deposit,'laboratoryconsolidationtests are to be performed on representativesamplesof the clay collected from the site. A knowledge of such characteristicsis required for:
Thus if the value of ft is known at any tirne during the test, the correspondingvoid ratio can be determincd.The value of ft may be obtained from:
h =H - R.C
r
138 where,
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidotion fI = initial height of sarnple. R = dial reading. C = dial gauge constant (b) cfurnge in void ratio method: With referenceto Fig. 6.3, let, Vt = initial volurne of &e sample. V2 = volume of the sample at the end of compression under a loadirg internity p AV = changein volurne = Vt - V2
139
or,
a, =
g-t
=1]34
h
...(6.r4)
Thus, knowing the values of e1 and ft, ihe change in void ratio at any given instant can be determinedif t[e.conesponding value of A ft is known. 6.5 Determination of C, : For a given soil, the value of C, is not constant but depends on the magnitude of the applied skess. In order io determine the degree of consolidation of clay layer under an external load, it is required to determinethe initial and final pressures o , and o. + Ao, respectively ) on the ( soil. If, for example,the initial and final pressure beforeand after the application of external load be 1 kg/cm' andZ xglr:;rf , thenthe value of Cumust be obtained {rom this particular range of loading il the consolidation test. The value of Cumay be determinedfrom either of the following metlods : (a) Squareroot of time fitting method: Cu = (b) Logarithm of fime fitting method:
(T,)ss rt x
tq
a
--:--Wof -::: er
...(6.ls)
...(6.16)
,,
= 9)#!
So l i d
6.6 Computation of Settlement: given by,
The total setflement,S, of a footing is
S=S;+S.+S" Fig.6.3 Now V1 = h1.A and VZ = luZ.A where, Si = immediate settlement .Sc = primary consolidation settlement Ss = socondaryconsolidation settlement.
...(6.r7)
LV
= hA W h.A v -- -=
lq - loz
Lh h, =E
{ . ' . '" t =
The secondaryconsolidation setflementis of irnportanceonly in caseof highly organic soils and peats.
I f e l a n d e 2 b ethe void ratio conesponding volurneV1 and V2, to then,
Vt = V, + % = e1V" t V" = V"(1 + e1) V2=Vr(l+e2)
v"/v"l
6.6.1 Immediate Sctlement: The immediate settlementdue to a vertical concentratedload Q at a depth z and radial distancer is given by,
...(6.18)
Similarly,
L V = %(1 + er) - V"(l + e) = V"(et Therefore,
ez)
The immediate settlementdue to a uniformly loaded area is givel by,
h
M - = h
V"(e1 LV = T = Z E + e e2) r)
where, Le 1 +e 1 q I F E = = =
s ; = q B . $ - v h. r ,
intensity of contact pressure leastlateraldimensionofloadcd area Poisson'sratio of soil modulus of elasticity of soil
....(6.1e)
olr
140
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation
1/ = Influence factor, the value of which depends on: Type of rhe footing (i.e., wherher ir is rigid or flexible) Q (ii) Shapeof rhe footing (iii) The location of the pointberow which settrement is required (i.e., the centre, comer or any other point of the footing) (iv) Length ro breadrh ratio of the footing. be obtained from Tabte 6.1, wtrile Table 6.2 gives .r^ etasttcproperties ?t^!tt"u! rtreÎO^:,1,1t-". ofvarious soils.
L4l
Table 6,1 : Influencefactorsof various footings Inf'luence facnr
6'6'2' corcoridation settreme_nt: Fig. 6.1 represents soir sampre a subjected an initial stresspg to .I*r eg u.in" uororatioof thesoir.Due to a stress increment a,p,'hevoid ratioreduces e . Thecharge void to in ratio, Ae =.c0 - Again, let /16 andi{ be theinitiarancr finarthicknesses lhe soirmass. of MI=Ho_Ht Now, by dcfinition,
v a p For a laterally confined soll, area ofcross-sectio'.4
,,= +'+
LH.A
I L,p
is constant.
Square Circular Rectangular: L/B = 1.5 L/B= 2.0 UB = 2.5 L/B = 5.0 L/B = 10.0
LV t.t2 1.00 1.36 0.56 o.64 0.68 0.76 1.05 r.27 r.69 0.95 0.85 0.82 o.79 1.06
v =WT
= L HE
1 " =AH $
r.52 2.10
2.54 3.38
r.20
1.30 1.83 2.20 2.96
LzA
1.70
2.ro
3.4
...(6.20\ The change thictness-of soir rnass, in rhe andhencr the consolidation settlement, canbedetermined from eqn.6.mi, Again, by definition.
cr=
Table 6.2 : Elastic properties of various soils
or,
Le
l%rcPr/po
Le = c..logrcp;
0.41to 0.50
1.. Coarsesand (p = 0.15)
0.61to 0.70
Medium
Fine sand (tt = 0.25) Sandysilt = 0.30 to
$[i.^r (tr= 0.2) $[i"^r $[/"^r $[i"^r 0.3s)
Assumingunit vorume sorids, initiarand of the finarvorurne thesoir of are,
43 45200 N 45200 38 366A0 36 13800

38 39300 36 27600 34 1t700
38 32qO 35 3240/0 32 23500 30 10000

or, But Hence,
v o =l + e 0 ,
a n d V 1= l + e ,
AV= 1 + e g - ( 1 + e o ) = e o - e = L , e AV Le
vo
AH
: E
i.A
LV
6
...{6.2r)
142
Problcms in Soil Meclmnics and Foundation Engineering
(tutsolidotion
143
or,
= L,H Ht,fu.torro P o + L P
Po
...(6.2r)
Po = Zkg/crt Ap = t.s kg/ctt
In eqn. (6.21)pg andp1 represent averageinitial and final pressure the acting over the thickness flg of the soil. Wrile cornputing the probable consolidationsettlementof a clay stratun, generally it is assumedthat, the average stresses are those acting at the mid-height of the clay stratum. However, this assumption is not correcl because,as we have seenin chapter 5, the stress intensitydue to an externalloaddoesnot vary linearly with depth. If thethicknessof the clay stratumis substantially high, this leadsto erroneous results. In order to determine accurately the probable consolidation settlement of a clay layer of finite thickness, the following steps should be followed, (i) Divide the given clay layer into a number of sub-layersof small thickness. (ii) Determine the effective overburdenpresssure and stressincrement at the mid-height of eachsub-layer. (iii) Compute the consolidation settlement of each subJayer using either eqn. (6.20) or eqn.(6.21). (iv) Ihe probable sefflement of the clay stratum is then obtained by summing up the settlements all subJayers,i.e., of
n
s. = (3oo)
= 9'37 cm
' rosro [ti"]"-
A 3 m thick saturatedclay layer is overlain by a 4 m l'r..tblem 6;.{ rock.The unitweight of the sandandclay tlrick sandlayer and is unde-rlainby The clay has a liquid lirnritof 53Eo tut 1.72t/rn3and 1.85 V# respectively' load of200 t is appliedon the ground concentrated nrrda voiclratio of0.65. A of settlement the clay, surlhct:.compute the probableconsolidation the (i) considering entireclay layer of equal thickness. liij oivloing the clay layer into three sub-layers index of clay, Solution: CompJession
(wl c" = o.ooq - 1o)

(53 - 10) = 0.387. = 0.009 H,=3rn=3(X)crn eo = 0'65 of at pressure rnid-depth claylayer' (i) Initialoverburden . (1.85)= 9.65tln'= 0.965kg/cttf po = (4.0)(1.72) + (3.012) at intensity themiddleof stress eqn., FrornBoussinesq's themaximum claylayer,
S.=
i-1
s.,
...(6.22)
EXAMPLES Prcblem e/ enonnally consolidated clay stratumof 3 m thickness has two permeable layersat its top andbottom.The liquid limit and the initial void ratio of the clay are 36Vo and 0.82 respectively,wlrile the initial overburden presdureat the rniddle of clay layer is Zkg/an'. Due to the construction of a new building this pressure increasesby 1.5 kg/cmz. Compute the probableconsolidation settlemett of the building. Solution: Using eqn. (6.21),consolidation of settlernent the building, S. = H Again, using eqn. (6.5a) C. i", 'logrn
Ae_ '
(3)(2m) - =3.r6t/n?=asrckp/q} (4 (2)(3.14) + 1.5)'

togto 0.965+ 0.316 = 8.66cm tg6--
(300)(0.387) ^ r. = T_fTIil.
Po+&
p0
ofthickness (ii) In this casethe clay layer is divided into threesub-layers I m each,as shown in Fig. (6.4). Thc consolidation settlementgf each sub-layer is estimatedbelow: Sub-hyer I: Depth of the niddle of layer 1 below G.L = +'O+ f = 4'5 m
Cc = o.oo9(w7- 1o) = 0.009(-36- 10) = A.234 H=3m=300cm ea = o'82
p61 = (a) G.72) + (0.5)(1.85) = 7.805t/mz = O'7l7kg/cnf
6,,, =
(3)(200) - = 4.7tr/m2= a.4lrkg/rmz (2)(3.r4') (4.s)'
144
Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering
('tmsolidotion
145
I'robleu-5r3:- A 3 rn thick layer of silty clay is sandwitchedbetween pressure the ceutreof at lwo Iayersof densesand.Theêffective overburden thc silty clay layer is 2 kg/cm" . Howver,due to the constructionof a raft this pressure irtcreases 4 kg/on' . to lirurrdation, testwas performedon a 2.5 cm thick sarnple Laboratorycousolidation ol' thc silty c:lay.Under applied stresses 2 kglcnrz and 4 kg/c,m2 the of conrpressionsof the sample were found to be 0.26 cm and 0.38 cm of rcspcctively.Cornputethe probableconsolidation settlernent the raft. Solution : Using eqn.{6.20), = frr'Ho'LP S,
wltt'rc,
IlO = ittitial thickness = 2.5 cm for the soil sampleand 300 cm for the soil in-siru. 4p = changein effective pressure =4-2=Zk,/cnz. rangeof mu = co-etficieut of volume changefor the pressure 2kglcm'to 4 kg/cm'
--iltA-p-l--
Su b- toyer I
3m 1 m - - - LlJ e.z- -{ ILA!3.- S u b - t o y e r

II
1m
*--illo:--JrL^-P;Rock
Fig.6.4
Sub-toyer III
test: l'or lht:laboratory
(100) (0.387)'to8to 0.781+ 0.471 = ,s = 4.81cm. r", - -l-] gq66 -tt II: Depthof middle = 5.5m' Sub-layer . pm = (4) (1.72) + (1.5)(1.85) = 9.655t/t# Mc = = O.965kg/artz
= 2.5cm of Tlricknessundera pressure 2kglctnz =2.5 -0.26 = 2.24sn. crn. Thicknessuudera pressure 4 kg/on2 = 2.5- 0.38= 2.12 of
lrritialthickness the sarnple of .'. Changein thickness wh"en pressu.re the =2.24-2J2= 0.l2c.lrn. irrt'reases frorn 2 kg/cm" to 4 kg/on" Frorn cqn. (6.20)
(2) (3.14) (s.sr
(3) (200) = 3.157 t/ri
(2.s) (2.0) 0.t2 = (m")

= o.3l6kg/cnl
or, m, = 0.024. z/kg.
0.965+ 0.316 " = (100)(0.387). 2.89cm loglo -J", 0.965 1 + 05,5 Depthof rniddle = 6.5 m III: Sub-layer = + pw = (41(1.72) (2.5)(1.35) 11'5t/m2 = r-lllq/cmz ar._i@\=2.26cm
Again, using eqn. (6.2q, ilre consolidation setflernent the silty clay of Inyt'r, sc = @.024)(300) (2) = 14.4cm l'nrble4a$,4,.-' Due to the constructionof a new strucfure the average vcrfit'a"lpressure at.the centreof a2.5 m thick clay layer increases from 1 kg/r'rn" to 2 kg/cm". A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a 2 crrrthit:k undisturbed sampleof the clay. Under appliedstresses 1 kglon' of l rrd 2 kg/cm" the equil ibrium thicknesses the samplewere found to be 1.76 of r'ru lrrd 1.63crn respectively. reinovingthe stresscompletely,the thickOn
(6.sr (2) (3.14)
setllement = 4'81 + 2,89 + 2.26 .'. Totalcstimated = 9.96cm.
t46
Problems in SoilMeclmnics snd Fottndation Engineertng
('on.rolido lion .'. Rcquired cousolidatiou settlemeutof the clay layer in the field
t47
gravity Tht: final moisturecontentand the spec-ific to nessinc--reased 1.88c:m. Conlpute of the samplewere found lo be297o and2.7l respectively. of solids of the probableconsolidatiottsettlement the structure' Irt e; and Il;be the tinal void ratio and thicknessof the solution: sarnple. Then, Again,
,5. = rn,,llg Ao = (0.08)(2s0) (2 - 1) = 20 cm. llcnct:, lhc rt:quiredsettlement tlie structure = 20 cm of l)rrrblenr *Y In a laboratoryconsolidation test,the void ratio of the silnrlllc rcducedtiorn 0.85 to 0.73 as the pressure was increased from 1 to 2 kg/t'rnr. If the co-efficientof penneabilityof tbe soil be 3.3 x 10{ crn/sec, r l cl cr r n n c : i (i) co-efficicntof volume change (ii) co-elficicnt of coruolidation. Solution : Usingeqn.(6.2),
frv=
- = wG - -(0.29)(2.71)o.786 = = "t_ (1) ,

Le LH l + e r H l = due a giveu stress AH = changein thicluress changein void ratio' Ae = corresponding AH A e = ( t + e 7 ) . u .
"I
where, and, ol, Here,
L,e l+es
1. L,p
I lcrr',
eo = 0.85, Ae = 0.85
ef = O.lgO, and H1 = 1.88cm.
- 0.73= 0.r2 .1=0.065"*z/kg
Ae= (1 + 0.786) #t
of, when
N t = z - | = Ilf./cmz
"'(i)
mv
Ae = 0.95AH o = 2.okg/cn? , NI = 1.88 - 1.63 = 0'25crn 6s = (0.95)(0.25) = 9.239

o = Z.}kg/cm" = ef - Le = 0.786 - 0'238 = 0'548'
Agrin, usingequ.(6.7),
c '. , = k
lf trc, m, - 0.065 n2/kg " - 0.065 t 10-3 "rn2/grn = 6.5 x l}-s anz/gn k - 3.3 x 10-4 cmlsec. y- - 1 gm/cc.
frr\n
Hence,void ratio at
Again,when '
o=
l'0kg/cn?'
NI = 1'88- 136=
0'12trm
Le = (0.95)(0.12) = 9'114 o = 1.0kg/cm2 = 0'786 - 0'114 = 0.672.
Hence,void ratio at
Letm,,betheaveragevalueoftheco-efficientofvolunrechangeinthe pressurerange of 1'0 to 2.0 kg/on-. We have frorn eqn. (6'2),

mv
cr=
'f'lrc
3.3 x 10-a
(6.sx to-5) (t)
= 5.07" 2/""".
Le
l+eg
1 Ao
g6 rn thick clay layeris drainedat botq lop and bottom. f'nrblcnr d' rrr clli<'icnt of consolidation the soil is 5 x 1oe cn(/sec. Determine of llrr tirrrr rcquircd for 507oconsolidation the layer due to an externalload. of Solullon : Usingequ.(6.9),
=o.o8r2/kg' _ (0.672 0.548) . = = J ^ (2.0- 1.0) (1 + 0.548)
148
Consolidation
149
cr't
a
,,=sffq= crn 375

'=
T,' h2
If
ot,
Tr.t?
I =
C,
c,
(0.197) (375)' = ---0.0246 - mtn
For 50% consolidation,
Tr, =
H For double drainagecondition, h = 2

and,
Al-trrl
600 2
n(u\2
a[.'*/
300 cm .
r u / 5 0 \ 2=
= ffi0^' "
0.197.
= 782 days = 2 years 1 month and 22 days. Problem QV't"a laboratory consolidationtest, a 2.5 crn thick sample of'<'lay reached60% cnnsolidatiron 17 minutes under double drainage in corrdition. Determine the time required for 6OVo consolidation of a layer of lhis soil in the field under the following conditions: (i) when a 3 m thick layer of the given soil is sandwitched between lwo sandlayers. (ii) when a 5 m thick layer of the soil is overlainby a sandlayer and rundt:rlain a deeplayer of intact shale. by Solution : Using eqn. (6.11), the time factor for 60% consolidation T, = 1.781 - 0.933 logls (100 - 60)
5 x 10-a"nl2,/r.". (0.197) (300)2 , s e c =3.546 x 107sec 5 x l0-' 3.546x 107 . oays = 410 days. s6400
Problem fy Araft footing is to be constructedon a 7.5 qrn thick clay layer which lie3 betweentwo sandlayers.In order to predict the time rate of settlernentof the building , a 2.5 crn thick undisturbed sarnpleof the soil was tested in the laboratory under double drainagecondition. The sample was found to have undergone5O%corsolidation in 12.5 minutes.Determinethe time required for 5O%settlernent the building. of Solution : We hdve from eqn. (6.9),
= 0.?a6
Again, using eqn. (6.9) Tr,' h2
, - c''t 'r' It2 In thr: laboratory test,
' or, C, =
T,, In thelaboratorytest,
C r x t
= a t
of,
C, =
Tr-t?
h' 7, = time factor for 50% consolidation = 0.197

t = h =
t = 17min. h = 2.5/2 = 1.25cm
(0.2s6) (r.?52= vv = ---di-
0.A263cm'/min
12.5min. H 2 2.5 = l.?5 cm 2
( i ) Here the soil layer is drained at both top and bottom
H _ ( 3 )(2) o o ) = 1 5 o c m (1 (0'285X150f = z44nxamin= r70 days , ' 0.0263

( i i ) In this casethe soil layer is drained at top only H=5m=500cm
In case of the actual building, T' = 0'197
150
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundotion Engineering
Consolidation *rfl -L
151
(0'4q)-L5-00)z = =21l863nnirt = 1tt88rlays 5.17years. ' ,0.0263 ,/ of settletnent a new structuretbunded The consolidatiott Problem Q/ as on a 5 m thick layer is estimated 6.5 cm. The structurewas found to have settledby 1.6 cm in 6 monthsafter the completionof couslruction.If the c{ay layer is underlainby rock and overlainby a layer ofcoarse sattd,detennine: to (D tle timc required for 50% consolidation occut of settlementwhich will take place in the next six (ii) the amount montls. Solution : in oc:curred the first six months Degreeof consolidation 1..6 = x Lo07o = 24.627a ;; U = 24.62Vo T, = (x/4) (24.62/10q2 = 0.048. As single drainagecondition is prevailing, lt = 5 tn. Using eqn. (6.9),
= 0'0974'
()f,
,,== v&q*e-e.ozo = 35.22o/o u t 3.14

U=4;xr00
o.)
ll x be the amouutof settlernent. then
or,
'=T#
=z.z()cn
Time factor for
Problem &J${ndisturbed sampleswere collec-.ted from a 3 m thick t'lay stratumwhich lies betweentwo sandstrata.A laboratoryconsolidation It:sl was performed on a 2.5 crn thick sarnpleof the clay. During the test,water was allowedto drain out only throughthe top of the sample.The time required t<tr 50Voconsolidationwas found Io be 35 minutes. Determine the time rtquirt:d for 60% and907oconsolidation the field. in Solution : h=H=2.5crn As the samplewas testedunder single drainagecondition,
(o#8,)(t2) tu = -1o;1ru,1 =
Using eqn. (6.9), T,x h2
6.67x 1o-3^z/d^y.
7,,= O.197.
Again, for U = SUVo,wehave Tr= 0.t97. Usingeqn.(6.9),
(i)For50%consolidation, time factor,
'' = gfft
Now, tbr 607oconsolidation,
= o'o3s "'n2'l*i"'
= 1.781 0.933 logls (100- 60) = 0.286
(0.1e7) (s2) 6.67 x lO-'
C,
= 738.4 days = 2yearsand8.4days.
(ii) L,et U be the degree of consolidation that will take place in the next six rnonths, i.e. at the end of 1 year since the completion of construction. We have already found that the time required for 5O% consolidation is 2 years and 8.4 days. Thus, degreeofconsolidation occurredin 1 year must be less than 50Vo. The corresponding time factor may be determined using eqn. (6.10), T" = (n/4)(U/LOC)' = Again, using eqn. (6.9),
For a double drainagecondition,
n t,t = H = ; 3 i
t6o =
= l50cm.
-7:
Tu*'h'
"r.P
40000
(0.286) (1so)2 (0.03s) = 183857 min

= 127.7days o 128days For 90% consolidation,
(6.67x 1g-3) (36s)= o.oe74. Tr= (5")
T,x = l'781- 0.933 logls (100- 90) = 0.848.
r52

,u*.*
Consolidotion
153
tco =
C,
at 2 rn below the ground lev-el. The unit weight of sandabove and below water iable are 1.90 and 2.10 t/m'. Tbe properties tbe clay are as follows; of Initial void r'atio= 0.72
*"*tP
= 545143 min
= 379 days.
specificgravity of solids = 2.71 f iquid limit = 427o co-efficient of consolidat ion = 2.2 x I 0-3 cm2/sec. Dclennine: (i) Probablesettlemenrof the raft. (ii) The time required to undergo a settlementof 5 cm. Solution : (i) The soil profile is shown in Fig. 6.5. The clay layer is divided into three sub-layersof thickness 2 m each. The settlement of each rub-layer rnay now be computed using eqn. (6.21), .,*, Pt L , H = H- n ' r Q -'opo' l+e6 The computation of settlementfor the first sub-layer is shown below :
Pnoblem 6.1I. A flexible footing of 2 m x 2msize carries a total load 490 kN, inclusive of its self-weighlThe footing restson a sandlayer having of a modulus of elasticity of 400fi) kN/m' and a Poisson'sratio of 0.38. Estimate the probable settlement below the cenlre and below any orie corner of the
footing. Solution: We have, from eqn. (6.19),
s ; =- R 0
Here,
- t') r'I'
E
intensity of loading
= g99]- = 02.5kN./m2 (2) (2)

B = 2 m p = 0.38, E = 40000kN./m2 from table6.1., The influencefactor//may be obtained /y(corner) = 0.56 /1(centre)= L.12. belowthecentre, Immediate settlement
= (0.00e) - 10) = 0.288 (42
eo = A'72 Ho = 2m = 2l)0cm. Dcpthofmiddleofthe sub.layerbelowG.L. = 8 + 2D =9 m
11.6m_J
Roft ( I = 1 ' 9 0/ m 3 ) t
- @# si(centre)
* 0.59 crn Immediate settlement below the corner
'0.r2)
Sond
t Y =2 . ' t 0 t / m 3 )
S;1--e4
ff
= o.295crn.
6m
> zlzz>
Problen 6.12. A 6 m thick clay stratumis overlainby a 8 m thick shale.A raft sua$m of coarsesandand is underlainby an impermeable footing, supportingthe columnsof a building, is to be foundedat a depthof 1.2 rn below groundlevel. The sizeof the raft f 8.5 m x 13.6m, and it is intensity 9.ztlm' . Thewatertableis located of loadcduniformlywith a stress
Ctoy ( e e = , 7,2 = 2 . 7 1 , g 6 r o L = L 2 a / ov = 2 . 2 x t 0 - 3 c r l l s e c l C
>7 t>>7>rr>zt> r2l=t>z>7ztz ,>z ,2
I mpe viousShole r
Fig.6.5
154
Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundqtian Engineering
Consolitlalion
155
= 0.317
Initial effective overburden stressat a depth of 9 rn below G.L. = stressdue to sand above water table + stressdue to sand below water table + stressdue to clav /b = y ft1 + yru6h2 + y.1^,h3. Here, ulit weights of sand are : y = I'g t/m3 and, 'kat = 2.1t/m3 Ysub= Ysar- Y. = 2.1 - | = l'lt/m3 Again,
Iclay -
As single drainagecondition prevailsat site, h = H = 6m = 600crn. tlsing eqn.(6.9),
t=
7,,-fi
c,
G + e
l + e t w
(6od-) - (0.317) = 51872327 sec (2.2 x l0-'\ = 60,0 days

buildittg startedin of Problem 613. The construction a rnultistoreyed January 1989t'andwas cornpletedin June 1990. The total consolidation to scttlcmentof the building was estimated be 8 cn. The averagesettlement 1991andwas found to be 2.2 cm. in of tlrebuilding was lneasured Decernber probablesettletnent the building in January2001. of Cornputethe of Solution : Lrt C, be the cs'efficient of consolidation the soil in the appropriate pressurerange, and Il be the effective length ofdrainage path. Time elapsedfrom June 1990 to December l99I = 1.5 years Degreeofconsolidationoccurredin 1.5 years.
l'
(2.7r + 0.72)
(l) = 2.0 t/m3 - 2) + (2.o - 1.0) (1)
= !L.4t/rn2 = l.l4kg/cmz Again, depth of middle of this sub-layer below the base of footing =9-1.5=7.5m. Using the 2 : 1 dispersion method,
(e'2) (8's) (13.6) 6o = ----9 !!' (B + z)(L + z) (8.5 + 7.5)(13.6+ 7.5) = 3.15t/m2 = A31^5kg/cnl2 pr = po + Lp = 1.14 + 0.315 = 1.455kg/ctn2 But,
u - Q'2)iroo) = z7.5vo vo (8)

T, = (x/4) (27.5/rm)2 = 0.059 T, = C,
O l t
Cu' _Ft
Similarly, settlementsof the secondand third sub-layers are found to be 2.54 cm and 1.86 cm respectively. Hence,the total settlementof the raft = (3.55 + 2.54 + 1.86)cm = 7.95 cm. (ii) The degree of consolidation correspondingto a settlementof 5 cm, (5)(lm) f .^ = 62'8970 uf ='6 Using eqn. (6.11), the corresponding time factor is, T, = 1.78t - 0.933 togls (100 - 62.89)
^-, ,^ ) A r / _ ( 2 q g ) . ( 0 . 2'rogro( r . 4 s s \= r'55cm' 8 8_ (r + oJD r-14,J I
T,
0.059
H' ort
. =
7=
0.039
ls
C,, .= H'
...(D
Again, time elapsedfrom June1990to January2O0l = 10.5 years. Let U be the correspondingdegreeofconsolidation. Assuming U > 53Vo, But,
T, = 1.78I- 0.933logls (f 00 - Lr)
r, =
?;=
c.. I (o.o3e) (10.s) '..; = o.o3el H ' l
= 0.4095.
t55
Consolidation
t57
1.781- 0.933 lo916 (100 - U) = 0.40995

of'
(100 - u) = fog16
(1'781- -q'-4095) : = 1.47 (0.e33)
or,
NI=H #a
- (2)(1oo)(q.g9s)8.44crn = (1 + 1.25)
Taking antilog of both sides we get,
or,
100-U=29.51 -29.51=70.497o U= 100

Amoult of consolidation settJement January 2001 in (8) (70.49) _ < ai _ -(1oo) = = )'o4 cm'
of (iii) In the pressurerange 2to 4kg/crr2.
^"=#^.b
= = o.o2tcm2lkg. (2) (1 + 1.25) +
C, = J' frr\n
Probtem {a! e/ e,2 m thick layer of saturatedclay lies in between two penneable lEdrt'The clay has the following properties : liquid lifrit = 45Vo co-efficient of permeability = 2.8x 10-7 crn/scc initial void latio = 1.25 The iqitial effective overburden pressureat the middle of the clay layer is 2kg/at ,and is likety to increasei axg',t.2 due ro rhe "o*t,u"iilo or, new building. Determine : (i) the final void ratio of the clay. (ii) settlementof the proposedbuilding. (iii) time required for SOVo consolidation. (i) Compressionindex, C, = (0.009) (45 -10) = 0.315. But, by definition, Solution :
Using (6.7), cqn.

Hcrc,
k = 2.8 x 10-7cm,/sec. "z mv=0.021/u'g t'g/cc. ln = lgm/cc = I x 1o-3
(2'8 x 1o-')- = 0.0133orr2/r"" (0.021x 10-') . w consolidation, have, Tu= O.197 For 5OVo Usingeqn.(6.9), a.. " T,,.h2 (0.197) QN/z)z sec' ' = -T = -afi133; = 1.71 days. test on consolidation was performed a 2 Problem 6.L5. A laboratory wcreobtained ; of cm thicksample a siltyclay,andthefollowingresults Pressure (kglcm2)
Final dial gauge reading (mm)
cr=
Po+Lp , loglo pops + L,P

p,
0ft
A e = L" fo$19
L e = (0.31s) rogls{(2 + 2)/(2)} = 0.095 .'. Final void ratio = e6 - L,e = l.?5 - 0.095 = 1.155 (ii) Let A/1be theconsolidation settlement the clay layer. of LH Le _ - _ H 1+tu
Pressure (kslcnl) 2.00 4.00 8.00 0
Final dial gauge reading (mm)
o 0.25
0.50 1.00
5.590 5.234
4.gffi 4.6M
3.9U 3.515 2.785 5;224
The final moisture content of the sample after swelling was fouttd to be The specificgravity of solids = 2!lO. 32.57o.
158
Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineering
159
Consolidation
(i) Plotthee vs. logP curue' of (ii) Detennile the cornpressiolindex and the co-eft'icient volutuc changeof the soil. solution: Inordertoplotthe e vs. logp curve,thefinalvoidratios incrementare to be deterrnine.d' at the end of eachpressure The final void ratio of the sampleat the end of swelling . e=*G s _ ( 0 . 3 2 5 ) ( 2 . 7 0 =)0 . 8 7 t . , (1)
iE: 9,tl I:bv:ll. ilJ * noiff"T:; l""ail t""i-'*"a ri''t determined l:1":: 2 subtracting *':
:il":ffiffi ffi;;;;;"*'1ry:Aeo:*':l1 Tri of
;;i;il.6roPriaie values ratio to correspondi'g8kg/crn ;"id ;:ffi i'ipd;il;;il
= ef - Ae = 0'878 - 0'233 = 0'645' ) to andthatcorresponding 4 kg/on-
table',"t Ot:t Note that, in column5 of the above. ::t1"1tt:^?:::rT":
The thicknessof the sarnpleat this stage, H = H o - M l = 2.A - (0.5590 - O'5224)cm = 1..9634 cm. Now, we have,
= 0'645 - (-0'070) =0'715 c' and the co-effic:ient of volume The co-efficient of compressibility' ' rauge' and are slrowr in col' eachpressure change,tz, are then comput;d for Ct are siven in c'ol' 8' values of 6 and 7 rcspectively' fn"'"o'nput"d scale).hav: obtain the e vs. loglg P curve'
."0 lp (in log or Thevalues rc 1lo"i'ritirr.tvt".r"j to paper' graph Ttn on tneY anai-axis respectively a semi-log dr;;;"; Tnf ls sbown in Fig' 6'6
N] H
Le l + e 0.90 0.Es ...(i)
or,
MI ,. . + e) O" = T(1
Substitutingthe final valuesof e andH, we gel,
Ar/ Le = tH tt iO:#t' = 0.e565
lo.
I o
in The c.hange void ratio, and hencethe final void ratio after each load valuesof AH itt by are incrernent, llow detennined puttingthe corresponding in a tabular form : values are showttbelow eqn. (i). The cornputed
Pressure ranSe
Pressure itrcrement I ncrease
;0. o
L E'
in NT
(cm)
&
(kg/cn2) (kglcm2)
/t\
Change in void ratto Le
Equilibrium void ratio
'f/ Ae\ mav u \ 4oJ1 . =

/k91 (cn2/kg) 1c^2 (6) 0.136 0.104 0.068 0.061 0.027 0.015
C, L '"g. k/
6 0
e | 7 8910 l
(1) 0 to 0.25 0.25to 0.50 0.50to 1.0O lo 1.0O 2.00 2.00 to 4.fi) 4.00 to 8.00 to 8.0O 0
(5) (4) (3) -o.0356 -o.034 0.879 +0 .25 +0.25 4.O274 -o.026 0.863 +0.50 -o.0356 4.034 0.829 +1.00 4.0640 -o.061 0.768 +2.00 -{.0549 -o.0s3 0.715 +4.00 -{.0730 -o.070 0.645 -8.00
(1) o.072 0.055 0.036 0.019 0.014 0.008
(8) 0.086 0.113 0.203 0.t76 0.199
toglgp* Fig' 6'6
+0.2439 +O.233 0.878
befoundedin a 3 m thick layerof Problem 6.16. A raft footingis to sandlayel' The initial over iV underlain t nign-vpermeable "lry;;;;l; is likely orilt "fty layeris 2'0 kg/cmrandthis at pressure thece-nire burden A 2'5 cm thick of the raft' to to increase 4.0 kg/cm?'l;t to 'ht construction underdoubledrainage is iesteain a consolidometet of sarnple this soit
i
l
160
Consolidation
161
conditio.. The followi'g data.wereobtainedwhe'the pressure on the sampre was increased from 2to 4kglan" :
2000 1900 1800
0 0.25 1.00 2.25 4.00 9.00
I972 L92L 1870 1848 1813 1769
16.00 36.00 64.00 100.00 144.N
t727 1642 1555 I49r L449
1700 1600 1500 1400 13C0

tr
The dial gaugeconstantis, L division = 0.002 rnin. (a) Determine the co-efficient of consoridationof the soir by the square root of time fitting method. (b) Estirnate the time required for 50vo and g}Toconsolidatironto occur in the field. Solution: (a) The procedurefor obtaining the value of C,,by the square root of time fitting method is explained below I 1. The valucs of the squareroots of various time intervarsat which the dial readingswere taken are plotted along thex-axis while the corresponding dial readings are plotted along the y-axis ofan ordinary g.aph paper. 2' A number of points, each represe'ting a certain dial reading a'd the corresponding value of vl are obtained. A smooth curve is drawrithrough them. 3._ The straight portion of the curve is projected to intersect the y-axis _ at R". This is taken as the initial reading. 4. A point P is arbitrarily chosenon the curve. 5. Frorn P, a horizontal rine pe is drawn to intersect the y-axis ar e. Lx.l, PQ = 4. 6. The point R is chosenon projecred pe, such thal, pR = 0.15a. 7, R6 and R are joined. The line R6 is then projected to intenect the curve al S. The dial reading corresponding to s representsx)vo consoridation. Let t96be the corresponding time required.
10
Fig' 6'7
12
1L
16
18
From Fig.6.7,
y'tco= 1l'o min /so = 134'56
Now, Here,
.-u= _6_
Ir (m) = 0.84[t,
T,(n).hz
h = 2.5/2 = l.?-Scrrr
(1.25)2(- - (0.848)
" = llffiI&r
= L64 x
10-a.,.,2./r..
(b) The time required for 507oand90Voconsolidationto occur in the field may be obtained using eqn. (6.9).
(3oo)2 , r o = W =(0.197110- = 1.081x tossec 1.64x

= L?Sldays = 3 years 5 months and 6 days.
t* =
T,(gq-xh2
C, 5386days
= = (p.q{8)(iqql24.654 r'ssec x
1.64 x l}-a 9 14years monthsand6 days.
162
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering EXERCISE6
Consolidation
163
6.1. Estirnate the consolidation settlement of a 2 rn thick clay layer which is overlain by a layer of sandand underlainby a deep layer of intact the shale, ifthe construction ofa new footing itrcreases averageover-burden pressure by 50o/o.Tlre initial overburden pressure was 2 kg,/on'. Giveu, = co-efficient of volume c-hange 0.023 cm'/kg. [4.6 cml 6.2. An 8 rn thick clay stralurn lies between a 10 m thick sand stJatum at top and a reck layer at bottom. The unit weight of sand is 1.75 t/m3. The clay stratum has the following properties: L.L. = 42c/o, w = 28.5o/o, G = 2.72 A raft footing of 15 rn x L5 rn area and carrying a unifonnly distributed load of 20 Vm" is proposed to be constructedat the site. Determine the probable consolidation settlementof the footing. The clay layer should be divided into four sub.layers of cqual tlickness and the stress increments may be computedby 2: I dispersionmethod. f f 6 . 3 . A 3 m x 3 m s q u a r c o o t i n g , c a r r y i n g a g r o s s l o a d o1 2 5 t , h a s been constructed over a 5 rn thick sand layer whicb is underlain tirst by a 6 m thick layer of soft clay and then a layer of irnpermeableshale. Compute the consolidation settlement of the footing by considering the clay layer (i) as a whole (ii) divided into three layers of equal thickness. Given, unit weight of sand = 1.8 gm/cc compression index of clay = O.42 water content of clay =32Vo specificgravity of clay particles=2.7 KD 3.6 an (ii) a.29 cml 6.4. During a laboratory consolidation test, the void ratio of a soil sample decreasedfrom 1,2 to 1.05 when the pressureon it increasedfrom 2 to 4kglcn' . Determine the co-efficient of compressibility and tbe co-efficient of volurne change of the soil. Will thesevalues remain the sarne if pressure cm2ltg] increasesfrom ito 8 kg/crn2. [0.075 .t?/rg;o.o:+ 6.5. A consolidation test was performed on a samplc of saturatcd clay in the laboratory. Thc liquid limit and the initial void ratio of thc soil were 487o ard 0.96 respectively. What will be the final voîdratio of the soil if the pressur is increased from 0.25 kg/*rz to 1.0 kg/cnr2 ? [0.721 6.6. Sample of a silty clay wassubjected to a laboratory oedometertest. Under a veitical pressureof Zkglun'the equilibrium void ratio was found to be 1.05. On increasing the pressureto 3 kg/crn2, the final cquilibrium void ratiq reduced to 0.93. If the co-efficient of permeability of the soil be 1.2 x 104 cm/sec, detennine the co-efficient of consolidation in t# rc^y.
6J. Estimate the immediate settlement below the centre of a 15 m x 25 m flexible raft footing carrying a gross pressureof t}t/r*.The raft rests on a sand stratum having a modulus of elasticity of 4080 t/m' ard a Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The influence factors are as follows :
when LlB = 15, If = 1.36 when LlB = 2.A, If = 1.52
[5.8acm]
6.8. A footing is to be constructedin 3 homogeneous bed of clay having an overall thickness of 3 m. Thc clay layer is underlain by rock and overlain by a sand layer. If the co-efficient of consolidation of clay be 9.5 x 10-a cm-/sec, find out the time required for 907oconsolidation. [930 days] 6.9. The total consolidation settlernentof a building founded on a 5 rn thick silty clay layer, drained at both ends, is estimated to be 6.8 cm. The building is tbund to have undergonea sefilementof 2.5 cm in 3 months. The initial void ratio and the co-efficicnt of permeability of tlie soil are 0.88 and L2x lAa crn/secrespectively.Determinethe co-efiicient of compressibility of the soil. [0.265 cm"/kgl 6.10. A building is to be supportedby a raft footing laid in a 3 m thick bed of clay, which lies betueen two penneablelayers.A 2.5 cm thick sarnple of the soil is found to have undergone50% c<lnsolidation 3 minutes under in double drainage condition. Determine the time required for 907o consolidation of the building. days] [129.1 6.11. In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2 cm thick clay specimen reached 507a consolidation in 12 minutes. The sample was drained at both top and bottom. A 2 m thick layer of this soil lies below a sandlayer and above an impermeable layer of very stiff clay. Find out the degreeof consolidation
of theclay layerswhichwill takeplacein 1 year. [2?.SVol 6.12. An isolated footingof 2 rn x 2 m plan areais constructed overa saturated sandyclay sfiatumof 5 m thicftness. soil has the following The properties. . p=0.36, Cc=0.3, w=35Vo, G=2.69. E=3WkN/m', Estimatc probable thc settlcment the footingif it carriesa grossload of of 225kN. 112.57clnl
6.13. A 5 m thick layer of normally consolidatedclay supportsa newly @nstru,ctedbuilding. The weight of sand overlying the clay layer is 660 grn/cm' while the new construction increases stressat the middle of the the ilay layer by 450 grn/r:n2. Compute rheprobableconsotidafionsettlementof rhe building. Given,
LL =397a, G =2,7, w=457o.
[439 cm]
[r.Ttx toa rt/aay1
t64
6.14. The total consolidation seftlement of a.clay layer due to an imposed load is estimated to be 8.5 cm. A setflement'of 2 crtr tooL place in 15 days. Determine the time required tor 5O7oandgUVoconsolidation. [68 days; 292 daysl 6.15. The results of a consolidation test are shown below :
(kglcm2) Pressure
7
COMPACTION
7.1 Introduction: Constuction of structureson weak soils (e.g., soft clay, loose sand, etc) sometimesrequires "stabilisation" of the soil mass, i.e., an artificial improvement of ib engineer.ingproperties, There are various methods of soil stabilisation, the most common one being the mechanical stabilisation,and the simplest technique of mechanical stabilisation is compaction A soil mass can be compacted by cither a dynamic process or a static one. In the dynamic metlod the soil is compactedby repeatedapplications of a dead load, while in tbe static method compaction is done by a steadily increasing static load. Generally, the dynamic merlod gives better results in coarse-grainedsoils and tle static compaction is suitable for less permeable fine-graincd soils. 72 Moisture-densityRelationships: Whilecompactinga soil inthe field, it is always desirableto compact the soil in such a way tlat its dly density is maximum. If a given soil is compactedunder a specified compactive effort, its dry dcnsity will be the maximum at a certain moisture content, known as the optimum moisture contenL Hence, before compacting a soil in the field, its optimum moisture content and the corresponding dry density must be determined in the laboratory. The test employed for this purpose is called StandardProctor Test. 73 Standard koctor Test In this test, samples of the given soil are prepared at various moisture contents and are compacted in t cylindrical mould, 127.3 mm high and having an internal diameter of 100 mm. The eample is compacted in tfuee layers of equal height, each layer being oubjectedto 25 blows of a compaction rammer having a self-weight of.2600 gm and a heigbt of free fall of 310 mm. Samples are cornpacted in the mould at increasing moisture contents. After each test, weight of the sample compacted is detcrmined and ie bulk and dry densitiesare cornputed. A curve is then plotted to show the variation ofdry density with moisture content (Fig. 7.1). The curve is usually parabolic in shape.Initially thc dry
The sample had an initial height of 2 cm and an initial mass of ll2,.O4 gm. After the completion of the test the oven-driedsample was found io weigh 81.39 grn. The specific gravity of solids was 2.71 and the dial gauge consrant was: 1 divn. = 0.02 mm. (a) Determine the equilibrium void ratio of the sample after each toad incremeut. (b) Determine the values of co-efficient of compressibility and co-efficient ofvolume change for various pressureranges. 6.16, An undisturbed sample of saturatedclay, collected from a depth of 5 m below G,L., was subjectedto a laboratory consolidation test. The initial diarneter and thickness of the sample were 7.5 crn and 2 cm respectively. The mass of the sarnple in the wet and dry s[ateswcre L75.2 gm and 138.8 gm respectively. The final cornpressions under various pressures are shown below:
Plot the e vs logl6 p curve and check whether the soil is overconsolidated. so,determine preconsolidation If the pressure. Given,G = 2.67 .
? i
166
2.O t.9
U
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foutdation Engineering
Compaction
167
I A A S H 0T e t
l l
At any given moisture content, the dry density of a soil in the fully saturatedcondition can be derived as follows: We have,
'ld G,{n
ry
I
( l S t o n t ord Pr octer I Test
l + e
t'8 -) /
3
IA
and
wG=se
wG = e
> l 7
F o r a f u l l y s a t u r a t e d s o i ls = 1 , ,
3 rs
o
L
rd= ##c
\
"'(7'1)
r.5
From eqn (7.1) it is evident that, for a given soil, an increasein moisture in content will always result in a decrease y4. Hence the zero air voids line is line. always a steadily descendfurg 20 25 2'0 1.9
U U
t0
15
W o t e rt o n t e n t( 7 " )
Fig.7.1
,\ ^ 807' Soturation | , [i n e t l
density increaseswith increasingmoisture content, until a certain peak value is reached. Further increase in moisture content results in a decreasein the by dry dersity. The moisture content represented the peak of the cune is the optimum moisture content (OMC) and the corresponding dry density is the maximum dry density of the soil under that particular compactive efforl For heavier field compaction, the moisture-density relationship can be investigated by the modified AASHO test. The test procedure is similar to that of Proctor test except tbat a heavier rammer (weight = 4900 gm, free fall = 450 mm)ris used and the soil is compactedin 5 layers. Under heaviercompaction,the moisture-densitycurve (FigJ.l.) is shifted upwards and simultaneously moves to the left, resulting in a lower OMC but a greater y;.o. . 7.4 Zero Air Voids Line: Compaction is achievedby the expulsionbf air from the voids. However, as the external load acts for a very short time, it is nearly impossible to drive out all the air from the voids. Thus, during compaction, a soil is not fully saturated.If the remaining air could be driven out, its void ratio would have been reducedand consequently,its dry density would have increased.The zero air voids line (FigJ.2) is a theoretical curve which representsthe relationship between water content and dry density of the soil when it is l00To saturated.
I.E
- Z er r i o i r v ' o i d si n e I l ( 10.0cl' Soturotion I line \
I
= c 1,7
q,
N
l2
?'..
L
\ \
o t.5
1.4
l0
l4
l5
l8
20
22
WuterContent {7")
Fig.1.2 75 Califomia Bearing Ratio (CBR): The California bearing ratio test is
of immense importance in the field of highway engineering.The CBR value_
n8{fg3i!s1-prob&le
The California bearing ratio is defined as the ratio of the force per unit area required to drive a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter at.the rate of
168
Probiemsin SoilMeclnnics and FoundationEngineering
Compaction
169
1.25 mm/min into a soil massto that required to drive the same plunger at the same rate into a standardsarnpleof crushedstone.
Thus,
cBR=###"
xroovo
...(7.2)
or Y o gr c
L
C u r v eB
600 400
The test is performed by first compacting the given soil in tle AASHO mould at the specified compactive effort as stated in Art. 7.3. The sample is compacted upto a height of. 127 rnm at the particular moisture content and density at which the CBR value is required. The plunger is then driven into the soil under a steadily increasingstatic load. The settlement of the plunger is measured wifl the help of a dial gauge while the corresponding load is obtained fron the proving ring, From the results a load-settlement curve is plotted and the test loads for 25 mm and 5.0 mm penetrationare determined. The values of unit standardloads coresponding to thesetwo penetrationsare 70 kgcr# and 105 kg*? respectively. Therefore, the CBR-values at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrationscan be determined. Generally, the CBR valu e at 2.5 mrn penetation should be greater than that at 5.0 mm penetration. In that case,the former value is acceptedas the CBR value for design purposcs. If the CBR value correspondingto 5 rnm penetrationexceedsthat for 2.5 mm penetation, tle test should be repeated,However, if identical results are obtained once again, the CBR value for 5 mm penebation should be used. 7.5,1 Correction to the cume : The load-penetrationcurve should always be convex upwards (curve A in Fig.7.3). However, tiue to surface irregularities, tlre initial portion of the curve is sometimes concave upwards (curve B in Fig.7.3). The cuwe lhen. must be corrected in the following manner: (i) The straigbt portion of curve I is projected backwarclsto meet the X-axis at O'. (ii) The origin O is shifted to O'. (iii) Subsequently,all penetrationsare measuredfrom the new origin O'. Thus, the points corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penelration should be shifted towards the right by an amount equal to the shift of origin. In order to simulate the worst possible field conditions, the CBR test is sometimes performed on seakedsamples.After compacting the sample in the mould" the sample is kept submergedin water for a period of 4 days, after which the sample becomesalmost saturated.The CBR test is then performed on this soakedsample.
=
c o t ct o J
CL
t
200
5mm orrected Penefrotion
mm Corre cfed2.5 (mm Penetrqtion ) \F \ Shif of origin t

Fig.7.3
EXAMPL'ES below-: Proctor areshown test of 7.1. Problem Theresults a laboratorv

No. ofTesl Wt. of mouldandsoil (kg.)
Water content (%)
.'
3.526 3.711 3.797
3.906 3.924 3.882

L6.20 \7.92
8.33 10.40 12.23
20.39
of The mould is 12.7cm high andhasan internaldiameter 10 cm. The weightof the emptymouldis 1.89kg. the (i) Plot the moisturecontentvs. dry densitycurve and determine content themaximum density. dry optimummoisture and (ii) Plot tbezeroair void curveandtheL0Vo void curve. air G Given, =2.68. Solution: Volumeof themould= (x/4) (12.7)(L02)cc = 997 cr = 3.526 - 1.89 = L.636 = 16369m k.g w Bulk density,y = 1636 =
In the first test, weight of soil
v= 9n
l.64gm/cc,
l7O
Compaction 2-2 2.O
17l {-I z Z e r oa i r v o i d s
-o ,/
I
and,drydensity,\d *-
f#*S::
= 1.515 gm/cc.
9)--
The dry density y2"of the soil correspondingto the zero a ir void condition may be obtained from eqn. (7.1).
Y* " GG
G ' b -, , , ! ? 1 % l : 9 1 = .= Z . r e g m / c c
(2.68) I * (0.0833)
> 1.8 E
U U
1 0/o oir voids z :

d6or= 1.752 qm/cc /
.--q-:<
);--I
=t o
ta c o,
>\
*F-
h.
zo 22
Again, when the soil has IO% ait void, its degree of saturation isgOVo.
"_g_-(%|fa@ _0.248
(2.69)(t nt v, e o ,4 = t +0.2fr=zl47gm/cn similarly, the dry densities corresponding theactualproctortest,the to zero air void condition,andthe lovo afuvoidcondition computed the are for remainingfive tests. Table7.1 showstheresultsin a tabularform. Table 7.1
No. of test
Wt. of mould and soil (kg.) Water content (7o) Wt. of soil (gm) Bulk density (gm/c-c)
1.1 1.2
1s
='ts.z. louc
ro
Frg.7.4
15
Woter tontent {7.)
1 3.526
a a
3.7t1 3.797 3.906
Problem T.|/.-=T,\e optimum moisture content of a soil is 16.5% and its maximum dry density is 157 gnlec. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65. Determine: (i) the degreeof saturation and percentageof air voids of the soil at OMC. (ii) the theoretical dry density at OMC correspondingto zero air voids. Solution: (i) When the sorl is at OMC, it hasa moisturc content of 16.57o and a dry densityof 1.57Bm/cc. Now,we have, fd = * !'5't = 0r' (2'65)(1'0) l + e
3.v24 3.882
?n34
8.33 10.40
1636 1.641
12.23 16.20 L7.92 20.39

t907
t82t
1.826
2016
1992
1 . 9 1 3 2.V22
2.UO 1.998
1.730 1.660 1.810 L.747 t.733 t.67
Dry density, (gm/cc) ya

Dry density for zero air void, p, (gmlcc) Dry density for lOVo air void, y9o (gm/cc)
1 . 5 1 5 t.654 2.I90 2.I47 2.86 2.M6
r.705 t.740
2.018 1.964 1.869 1.808
= r + e f f i =t . e a
e = 0.688
oft
The compaction curve is shown in Fig. 7.4. From the curve we find, optimum rnoisture content = l5.2Vo and rnaximum dry density = 1.76 gm/c.c
Again, se = w G, or, ,f = n G e
(0.16s) (2.6s)= 0.635 = 63.5Vo (0.68s)

Hence, required the degree saturation 63.5%o thepercentage of is of and = air void is (100-63.5)Vo 36.5Vo (ii) At zeroair void thesoil is fully saturated, s = 1. i.e.,
7.4.
The zero air void line and the lovo air void line also are shown in Fig.
I7Z
Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Compaction
173
" = 8-
" (2.6s: ^' =1.844gm/cc ta=ffi,

Therefore, the theoretical dry density at OMC for zero air void = 1.844 gmlcc. During tie construction of an embankment, the density Probten.@. attained by field compaction was investigatedby the sandjar method. A test pit was excavatedin the newly compactedsoil and was filled up by pouring sand. The following were the observations: Weight of soil excavatedfrom pit = 2883 gm Weight of sand required to fill the pit = 2356 gm Bulk density of sand = t.52gm/cc Moisture content of embankmentsoil = 167o Detennine tle dry density of the compactedsoil.
(2.6s)= - (0.165) 0.437

l
existing soil is less than its OMC. Hence,a certainamountof water is to be added to the soil prior to compaction' Now, 14*= 1.66 gnlec = l -66t/n3
B u t , 1= i , o r , W 4 = \ d . V 7 the Thus,for every1fi) rn3of finishedembankmen! weightof dry soil is, required (100)t = 1661. W7 = "tit*, 'V = (1.66) And theweightof wateris,
Wt
'w*\ | W n = w . W d * = ' f r J; t | '

l-
sorurion: to"'";'="i:
L)z \ Volume of the pit = 1550 cc.
pit, the ffr J::
= = (0.22s)(166) 37.35t content its t/# and moisture soil of Thebulkdensity theexisting is 1'78 is9%6.
Dry densityoftheexistingsoil, y4 = #; or'
Yr=1|fu
-r'633t/nf
But, weight of the soil excavatedfrom the pit = 2883 gm
thesoil, t = .'. In-situbulkdensityof #i

And, in-situ dry densitv of the soil,
= 1.86 gm/cc
The volume of soil, V6 to be obtainedfrom borrow areain order to obtain 166 t ofdry soil is,
,r=Y - # = 101.65m3 l.oJJ ld

Weight of water availablefrom tbis soit, Wnr= Wd. w5 = (166)(0.0) = 14.94t .'. Quantity of water to be added=(37.35 -t4.94>t
It is required to construct an embankmentby compacting a soil Prcblerudl excavatedfroln nearby borrow arcas.The optimum moisfure content and the corresponding dry density of this soil were determined in the laboratory and vrere found ta be 22.57oand 1.66 gm/cc respectively. However, the natural moisture content and bulk density of the soil were 9Vo and 1.78 gm/cr respectively. Find out the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water to be added to it, for every !.00 m'of finished embankment. Solution: The embankrnentshouid be constructedby compacting the soil cbtained from borrow area at the optimum moisfure content and the corresponding rnaximum dry density. But the natural moisture content of the
'P=tfl=I-#G=r'66gm/*' ,a
to of Volume water beadded= ##Hi#

But,densitYofwater,Y,o = 1 gm/cc = 10-6 t/cc
= (1000) tzfit 1ro-6;

= l0-3 tlir
174
Problemsin SoitMechanicsandFoundationEngineering
Compaction
t75
.'. Volumeofwarertobeadded {22.4}) - 2L4l|litre. = (10-') Thus,101.65 of soil is to beexcavated m3 from theborrowpi ta,.dz24ra litre ofwater is to be added it. to Pnoblem?F. ett embankment constructed compacting was by a soir at a moisture content ISSVoânddry density t.ilTgmTcc. of a of ti"tn. ,p."ln" gravityofsoil solidsbe2.d8,derennine void ratioan-cl the degree saturation of of the embankment soilSolution: We have,p = la=l.72gm/cc,G=2.68
=udffiul cc=e43.8ecc
In the loosest state, bulk densitY = dry density, yd_, = ln the denseststate,
( 3 3 6 3 . 6 - 2 1 -i 0 ) _ 1 2 0 l'J39 gm/cc (r43^3r) = gm/cc. ------Y- =(t''?n)r. 1=) 1.2o6 ( 1+ 0 . 1 l+w
Here,
8857.4-2100I b u l k d es i.t V - f t * f f = l . f i 6 2 g m / c c n
_ 1.72(a*ga
ort ot, Again,
y,r* dry density, =
#Tfrb
= r.677 gm/cc
t+"-ffi
e = 0.558. se = wG, or " = Ag e (9.155)-g{s} " = - 0.744 = 74.4vo (0.55u1
In-situ bulk densityof the soil = 181 gm/ccand its naturalmoisture cortent = 7%b
= ln-sirudrydensity, Va ffi
- 1.505gm/cc Y/* ld - ldô Relative deusiw. R^ = x l00vo . Yd Y/r"" Ydro
={i#i{i#+#i 0oo)'/.
= 70.74 7o / Problernl]l It is required to construct an embankment having a total volume of 64000 cu.m. The required soil is to be collected from borrow pits. It was found that tbe cxisting soil has a moisture content of l4Vo, void ratio of 0.63 and specific gravity of solids of 268. I-aboratory tests indicate that the OMC and maximum dry density of the soil arc l9.5Vo and 1.72 gm/cc respectively. The soil is to be carried from the borrow pit to the construction site by trucks having averagenet canying capacity of 5.5 t. Determine the total number of trips the trucks havc to rnake for constructing the entire embankment.Also find out the quantity of water to be addedto the borrowed soil before compaction. Solution:
Problem7.6.rnorderto determine rerative the density a sandsampre, of its naturalmoistureconte.nt burk densityweredetermined and in the fiero and were found tobe 770and1.61grn/ccrespectivery. Sampres this soirwere of thencornpacted a procror'smourdof i/30 cft capaciiy, in at the toosest and thedensest states. followingdatawereobtained: The Weightofempry mould= 2100gm Weightof mould+ soil in theloosest = state 3363.6 grn Weigbtof mould+ soil in rhedensest = 3g57.4 state gm Moisture content thesarnple of used lests llo/a = in Determine relative the density thesandandcomment of on
Solution: Volunreof thc mould =
its type.
$"n
dry In-siru density thesoil, ,u = fP of l +
176
Compaction
177
= g'6CIi1'P L64sm/cr = (1 + 0.63)

= 1.64t/m3 .'. In-situbulk density, = \a(1 + w) = (1.64,(1 + 0.1a) = L87 t/m3 \ Now, in 1 n3 of borrowed soil, quantityof dry soil present 1.64t, and is quantity waterpresent (0.14)(1.64) Wn = w . W6l = of t... = O.23 t while constructing embankment, soil hasto be comDacted a rhe this at moisture content l9,5Vo at a dry density 172 t/m3. of and of For I m3of finishedembankrnent, soil required 1.72t, = dry andwaterrequired = (0.195)(1.72\ t = 0.335t. .'. For the entireembankment 64000m3 of quantityof dry soil required (1.72)(6.t000)= 1,10,0g0 = t and, quantityof waterreguired (0.335)(64000)= ll,llg 1 = - As the in-situdry densityof existingsoil is 1.64t/m3,everycubicmetre of excavation produce will 1.64t of dry soil. .'. Total volurneof excavation required be made= to *P = 6-7,122 n3
Solutiron: When the rock presentin the fill is compactedto the densest state, its dry unit weight is given by,
G'{n (2.s6) (t.o) = = gm/cc. Y/.- = | . " _ -i-; o;i _ 1.48

For the soil. 1d^, = l-63 gm/cc.
Let us now consider 1 gm of the given fill. According to the question, the weight of rock and soil present in the fill are 0.8 gm and 0.2 gm respectively. \_ Now.volumeof0.8gmofrock = #cc # = 0.54cc. = 0.123 cc:.
and, volume of 0.2 gm of dry soil = Total volurne of 1 gm of fill Dry unitweight of rhe filt
= 0.54 + 0.123 = 0.663 cc. = = W L - 1.508gm/cc. 0J63
Problem 7.9. The results of a laboratorv CBR test are shown below :
No. of tesl
3 0
0
Gross weightof thissoil = (1.84 (67,lZZ\t = 1,25*51g r .'. No. of trip to be made- l'2!'!L8 = 22.812.5 22,g22 5.5 Weight of waterobtainedfran 67,122m3 borrowed of soil = (67,122) (0.23)r = 15,438 r 'Weight of water = finatly required 2!,4N L
(-.)
Penetratron
0.5
1.0
1.5
)n
?.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
a)7 )
t0 't.5
II
L:
10.0 L?.5
Lmd (kg)
19.8 < t <
93.7 t3zl 171"9 20"t.o 288.8
401.7431.8458.3
Determine the CBR value of the soil. Given, unit standardloads for 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penefafions are 70 and 105 kg/cm" respectively. Solution: Fig.7.5 shows the load vs. penetraiioncurve. As the curve is initially concaveupwards, an initial zero correction is required. The shaight portion of the curve is projectedbackwardsto intersect the X-axis at O , which then becomesthe new origin. Consequently,all points on the penetration axis are shifted to the nght by an equal amounl From Fig. 7.5 we obtain, test load for corrected2.5 mm penetration= 200 kg. and, test load for corrected5.0 mm penetration= 332k9. = * fS.Ol'"*2 - 19.635 cmz 4 '
"" *".:il;,#'_',o,:HrTlffiX'l Quantitv'

Problem 7.8. The rock content in a filr is 8TToby dry weight. The rock can be compacted a rninimumvoid ratio of 0.73.The maximum dry unit weight to to whic.h the soil fraction can be compacted is 1.63 gm/cc. wbat is the maximurn dry density to which the fill can be compactid ? Given, specific gravity of the rock = 2.56.
Area of CBR plunger
178
Problems k Soil Mechanics andFoundation Engineering
Compaction
179
.'.Unittestload forL|mmpeneftarion = ffi. and,unittestloadfor 5.0mmpenetrat - I ion lv.oJJ

CBR value for 2.5 mm penetration = 10.19 CBRvalue for5.0mm penetration=I '
= 10.19 kg/cn| = 16.91ks7cm|
-t6.- *
105
(i) Plot the water content vs. dry density relationshipand determine the optimum moisture content and the correspondingmaximum dry density of the soii. (ii) If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.70, pl<rtthe zero afuvoid line. = [Ans. OMC = 17.6%,Y,rmax 1,74 gmlccl Proctortest are shownbelow. 7.2.The resultsof a standard
(%) Water C-ontent
= 1.007o 14.6%
x l(fi%o = 16.lLo
7.8
11.6
14.9
t7.7
20.r
22.s
Thus, CBR value for 5.0 mm penetrationis greaterthan that for 2.5 mm penetration"Therefore, the cBR test has to be repeatedand if similar results are obtained once again, then the cBR value of ie.tvo should be accepted. 500 400
)<
L
Wt. of soil and mould (gm) 3263.4 3523.28 3734.8 3852.9 3832.7 3765.1
ET
The height and intemal diameterof the mould are 12.6cm and 10.1 cm respectively. The ernpty mould weighs 1950 grn. Plot the compaction curve and determine ttre optimum moisture contentand the correspondingdry and bulk densitiesof the soil. line. saturation AIso plot the zcro air void line and tbe SOqo Given, specific gravity of solids = 2.69. [Ans: OMC = l7Vo,y7 ='1.6gm/cc, y = 1.87gm/ccl 7.3. Tlre in-situ dBnsity of a soil mass is being determined by the'''ifure cutter method. The height and internal diameterof the core are 12.7 cm and L0 cm respectively and is weight, wheu empty, is 1847 gm. When the core is filled with soil, it weighs 3674 gm.If the specificgravity of solids be 2.67 and the degree of saturation of the soil be 63%, determine the in-situ dry densityof the soil. The in-situvoid ratio of the soil is found to be 0.85.[Atts. 1.526gm/ccl d is 7.4. An embankmentof hapezoidalcross-scction to bc constructe for a 2 knr long highway. The embankmentshould have a height af 2.2 m and a top width of 10 rn. The sides of the embankmerttare to be sloped at 2H : 1' V. The soil obtained from the borrow area is tested in the laboratory and is found to have the following properties: Natural moisture content = l2Vo = 1.8{./m3 In-situbulk density moisture content= 19% Optirnum Drv derrsitvat OMC
EN
c,
=
crc o EI E CI
-,
m P e n e t r o t i o(n m l
Fig.7.5
!
i
E)GRCISET 7.1. The following are the results of a proctor compaction test performed on a soil sample" WaterContent(%) Bulk Density (gm/cc) 9.2 I.524 L2.7 1.749 15:5 1.949 18.3
i
I
= t.65thf
2A.2 2.4t9
Determine the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water the to-beaddedto it beforec<mstructing embankment. [Ans:65055 m'; 7318
I l1 i1
.31
7.5, Determine the magnitudesof compactive effort imparted to a soil during: (i) StandardProctor Test
,l jt
2.U9
';
)
I l
180 (ii)
Problems in Soil Meclunics ond Fottndatian Eng,ineering
Modified AASHO Test' x no' of [Hina: Compactive effort = Wt. of rammer x height of fall x no. oflayersl blowslayer 7.6.The speciticgravity of solidsof a soil is 2'65. Detenninetbe quantity of dry soil audwater requiredto c0lnpactthe soil iu a Proctor rnould having D = 10 cm and H = 12j cm, at a void ratit'rof 0.6 and at a moisture content of 207o.[Ans: 1652 gm; 330 crc] 7.7.T\ree identical triaxial test samplesof 7.5 cm height and 3.75 cm cliameterare to be preparedat a moisture content of 15Voand a dry density of 1.48 gm/cc. Determine the total quantity of oven-dried soil and volume of water requiredfor the purpose. [Ans: 367.8grn, 55.2 cc] 7.t. Determine the CBR value of a given soil from the following data obtained from a laboratory CBR test :
Load (kg) Penetration (mm)
8
SHEAR STRENGTH
When an external load is applied on a soil mass, 8.1 Introduction: afe sbearing stresses induced in it. Ii the shearstressdeveloped on any plane in the soil exceedsa certain limiting value, failure of the soil occurs. The maxirnurn shear stresswhich a given soil can withstand is called its shear strength. The factors goveming the shearstrengthof a soil are : (i) internal frit:tion, i.e., the resistancedue to particle interlocking (ii) cohesion, i.e., the resistancedue to the internal structural bond which tends to hold the particles together. According to Coulomb's law, the shearstrength,r, of a soil is given by: 'E = c + otan ...(8.1) 0 where, o = normal stressacting on the soil c = cohesion
19.8
50.1 1,0
81.8
0.5
r.5
120.0 170.1 421.7 605.9 699.3 662.8 '7.5 lo.0 r2.5 5.0 2.5 2.O
Plot the load-penetration curve and determine the CBR value of the soil' Conrment on the test results. fAns.23.7%l
0 = angle ofinternal friction The factors c and S are called the shearparametersof a soil. by When expressedgraphically, eqn. (8'1) can be represented a straight line called the failure envelope;The general form of failure envelope for a cohesionless,a cohesiveand a c - 0 soil are shown in Fig. 8.1 (o.),(b) and (c) respectively.
T {
T
(bt
Fig.8.1.
J-
L82
Shear Stength
183
The shearpararneters ofany soil dependuot only on the nature ofthe soil but also on such factors like rnoisturecontent and loading conditions. At very low moi_sfure content a cohesivesoil may developa certain amount of internal soil may show the friction. Likewise at high rnoisture conlentsa cohesionless signs ofhaving an apparentcohesion. 8.2 Mohr's circle of stress: This is a graphical representationof tle stress developed conditions in a soil masswhich enablesone to find out the stresses on any plane within the soil due to an external loading system. material, a plane which is subjectedto only a normal stress, In a stressed but no shear stress, is called a principal plane. Through any point in the material, two such planes exist. These planes are called the major and the miror principal planes, and are ortlogonal to each other. If lhe principal stresses,01 and g,3,?te known, the normal.stess o and shear stressr on a plane inclined at an angle 0 to the major principal plane is given by,
"=Y.rycos2o
and, " = 9l-:-or z ,in 29
...(8.2) ...(8.3)
8.3 Pole: The conceptof the pole, or the origin of the planes,is very usefrtl in such problems where the locations of the principal planes are not known. Consider the soil element subjectedto a system ofexternal stressesas shown in Fig. 8.3. It is required to determine the normal and shear stresses acting on the planeAA, inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal. Considering the free body diagram of the element it can be proved that the element can be in equilibrium only if, T, = ayx. The procedure for drawing the Mohr Circle and locating the pole are as follows: (i) Choose tle co-ordinate axesand selecta vector scale. (ii) Locate the points A and B such that they representthe stresses on tbe horizontal and vertical boundariesrspectively,of the element. (iii) JoinAB. It intersectsthe o-axis at C. (iv) With C as centre and CA = CB as radius, draw the Mohr circle. (") The point A representsthe stress conditions on the horizontal plane. From A, draw a straight line parallel to this plane. It intersects the circumference at P. Again, if from .B a line is drawn parallel to the vertical plane (since the point B representsthe stresses acting on this plane), it will intersect the circle at tle samepoint P" This is the pole of Mohr's circle.
Equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be represented by a Mohr Circle, as illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The co'ordinates of any point on the circumference of the circle give the stressconditions on a particular plane representedby that point ^ +?
T
(-r rTtyl
!y, .'A
xv'
QlqT) A Txy
cr
Try
(0,0) L/
^ -
c\
Io
(-,Tl \
T
Fig.8.3
a,
vlrv
-t- llqjor hincipol Shess -t- FliRor hincipol
"i+"3 2
,-
"i-"3
Strrss
-T
(uD From the pole P draw a line parallelto the planeon which the shesses required. are This line intersects circleatQ.T\e co-ordinates the of givethenonnalandshear stresses thegivenplaneAA. on Q Thus,thepolemay be defined a particular as point on thc Mohr's circte suchthat, if a line is drawnfrom this point makingit parallelto any given
Fi8.8.2
184
ShearStength
185
plane within the soil mass,lhen, the co-ordinatesof the point of intersection of this line with the circle will representthe stresses acting on that plane. 8.3.1 Sign convention' The following sign conventions are rormallv followed for plotting the stressco-ordinates: Normal stress: Compressive stressesar taken as positive and tensile stresses negative. as However, soils can with stand only compression and not tension. Hence the normal stresson any plane of a soil element which is in static equilibriurn is always positive. Shcirrstrcss: The sign of a shearstressis determinedon the basis of the direction of its moment about any arbitrary point inside the soil mass. If tbe moment acts in the anticlockrvisedirection, the shearstressis positive, whereas if it acts in the clockwise direction. the shear stress is negative. 8.3.2 Ltrcation oJ the failure plane : Fig. 8.4 representsa soil sample subjected toa rnajor principal stresso1 and a minor principal stress03. As the sample is on the verge of failure, the Mohr circle has touched the failure envelope at P. Evidently, the pole of the Mohr circle is at A. The highest point on the circumference of the Mohr circle is the crown R. The lineAR is inclined to the o-axis at 45'. The corresponding plane in the soil is MN, which is the plane subjected to the maximum shear stress, r,no. Howev er, theIntential failure plane in the soil is not MN, but theplane represented by the poiru P, becausethe stressco-ordinates given by P are
such that coulomb's equation is satisfied as the point P lies on the failure envelope. In order to determine the location of this plane,join PA and PC. Now, As LPCB=LPAC+/-APC AC = PC, LAPC = LPAC = a
q = 2 a ,
LrcB=ct+ Again,since InAPDG. or,

or,
DF llOB , LPGF = LPCB = 2c. LPGF = LPDG + LDPG 2 a = Q + 9 0 " [ ,. . P G L DE, .'. LDPG = 90" I
a = 45' + g/2
...(8.4)
In Fig. 8.4, the planeBB, drawn at (45' + Q/2) to the majorprincipal plane,represents failure plane. the It r:anbe proved that, at failure the relationshipbetweenthe two principal stresses given by, is or = 03 :filoz 145" + Q /2) +'zr'tan@s" + g /2) ...(8.5) or, where, o1 = o3.f{6 + \ctlfia " ffO = flo'w value = tan (45" + 0 /2) ...(8.6)
...(8.7)
8.4 Determination of Shear Strength: The following testsare employed tbr the evaluationofthe shearstrengthofa soil : A. l:boratory tests : 1. Direcl ShearTest 2. Triaxial Compression Test 3. UnconfinedCompression Test.
,B / , N
-3
Field Test : 1. Vane ShearTest For a detaileddescription the testprocedures, readeris refened to of the any standard textbook of Soil Mer:hanics. Only the essential poinf,s regarding the computationof shearstrengthwill be highlightedhere. B. 8.4.1 Direct Shcar Test: In this test,soil samplcscornpacted known at densities and rnoisture coutents a shear in box of 6 crn x 6 cm size,which can be split inlo two halvcs,is shcareC applyinga graduallyincreasing by !ateral load. Three identical sarnplesof a soil are testedunder ditferent vertical compressive stressesand the corresponding shear stressesat failure are determined.A graph is then plotted betweennormal stressand shear qtess. Resultsof eachtest are represented a singlepoint. Three points obtained by from the lhree testsarejoined by a straightline which is thc failure envelope for the given soil. The siope of this line gives the angle of internal friction, while the interceptfrom the r-axis gives the vaiue of cohesionof the soil.
H ,r8 , /
A
e
Fig.B.;
186
Problemsk SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering
Shear Strength
187
8,4.2 Triaxial Cunpressian Test: In lhis test, cylindrical soil specimens of 3.8 cm diameterand 7.6 cm height,enclosed an impermeable in rubber rnembrane, placedinsidetheniaxial cell.An all-roundcell pressure, are o3, is appliedon the sample.Simultaneously, gradually increasing a vertical stress applieduntil eithertle sample is fails, or its axial stain exceeds2A%. Stress straincurvesareplottedto determine normalstress failure. vs. the at This stress calledthedeviatorstress, The majorprincipalstress, is is od. o1, obtainedfrom the following relation(referFig. 8.5) : O1=O3*O4 ...(8.8) oi= "3*-d
A'= - nt i
where, Vt = initial volume of the specimen A 7 = changein volume due to drainage. Ir = initial length of the sPecimen AI = changein length of the specimen
V r t L V
...(8.10)
Compression Test : This is a special caseof triaxial test in 8.4.3 I) nconJirced = 0. We have, from eqn. (8.5) which o3 As + Q/Z) ar = o3vn4 (45' + 6/21 + ktang," 03 = 0, for an unconfined cotnpressiontest, or = 2c tan(45' + Q/2)
...(8.11)
q3ta6 r1 =
[o)
(b)
Fig.8.5
(c]
Three samplesofa soil are testedunder different cell pressures.From the results, three Mohr circles are construcied, and a common tangent is drawn to them. This is the failure envelope. The normal stressat any point during the test is determined by dividing the normal load obtained from the reading of the proving ring by the cross-sectionalarea of the sample. Due to the bulging of the sample during shear, the cross-sectional area should be modified using the following equation : Ac = As/(t - e) ...(8.e) where, Ac = coffected area A0 = initial area where, e = axial sf]ain = M/L A L = axial compression L = initial length
A number of tests on identical specimenswill give the same value of o1. Thus, only one equation is availablewhile two unknowns, viz., c and f , are involved. Hence, eqn. (8.11) cannot be solved without having a prior knowledge ofany one ofthe unknowns. P Due to this reason,the unconfined compression test is employed to determine the shearparametersof purely cohesive soils only. For such soils, S = 0", and hence, ol=2clan45" =2c Rod Torque The vertical stress o1 at failure, known as the unconfined compressivestrength and denoted by q* is obtained by dividing the normal load at failure by the correctedarea,asgiven by eqn. (8.9) Tlus, qu = 2c
Vones
or,
eu c=T
...(8.12)
8.4.4 Vane Sheqr Test.' This is a field test used for the direct deterrninationof the shear strength of a soil. Generally this test is conductedin soft clav situated at a lreat deoth- samolFdrEf,ich are
I .
In the drained tiaxial tests,the volume of the sample may changeduring the test due to expulsion or absorption of water. In that case, fhe corrected area should be detennined from :
airfi.ffil
consistsof fourmetal The apparatus blades, called vanes,mounted on a steel rod, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The device is pushed slowly upto the desired depth
r/
Vanes
l- o-l
Fig.8.6
188
Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Stength
189
and is rotated at a uniform speedby applying a torque through the torque rod. The amount of torque applied is recorded on a dial fitted to the rod. Failure occurswhen the vane can be rotatedwithout any further increasein the torque. For a cohesive soil, Q = 0. Hence coulomb's equation reducesto :
S = C
and,
a =
ol-('3
sin 20
Here,
ot = 2?,g/crf and o3 - t,lkq./cri
Thus, for a cohesive soil, the shearsrrengthis equal to its cohesion.In a vane
shear the test, cohesion, r"I:y
*.ryry*n
be derermined from:
where,
I : torqueapplied (= p.a) i/ = heightofthevane D = diameterof tlle vane.
_ i . - -
:,"=.d4{A \ I t2 6l I
' + - l
"(sr3)
But The givenplaneis inclinedat 30' to the majorprincipalstress. the to directiouof major principalstressis perpendicular the major principal between givenplaneandfte major the plane.Hencetheangleof inclination planeis, principal 0=90'-30"=60P (2 - l.l) (2 + t.l') x * --T-.cos(2 , /^ . 60") ar T = 1.55 + (0.45) (cos120') = 1.55 + (0.45) (-l/2) = l.32skg/cmz
and
t.5 sensitivity: when the shear stressesdeveloped in a soil exceeds its .shearstrength, the soil fails by shear and loses its strength. However, if rhe soil is left in that state for some time, it regains some of its original strength. The sensitivity of a soil is a measureof its capabilify of regaining strength after a disturbance has been causedin the soil. It is expressedas, shear stength in the undisturbed sute o ...(8.14) ' shear strength in the remoulded state on the basisof the sensitivity,clayey soils are divided in the followine categories:
Sensitivity I t-2 Nature of clay Insensitive f,owsensitive Medium sensitive Sensitive Extra sensitive Quick clay
Q r = #sin
- r.r\
.^ (2 x 60')
- (0.45)(sin120') = 0.39kg/arr2 TlKglcnz]r

0.75 0.50 0.25 0 f.5 c t-75 2.5 { ( K g/ c m 2 l
0 t1.33,0.39)
I
2-4 4-8 8-L6 >16 EXA.MPLES
I
0'39K9
Pnoblern V. A soil sample is subjectedto a major principal stressof 2 kglon- and a rninor principal stress 1.1 kg/r-' . Determinethe uonnal and of shear stressesacting on a plane inclined at 30o to the nrajor principal stress. sclution: (a) Analytical method: The normal stress,o and the shear stress,r on any plane inclined at 0 to the major principal plane is given by : o == --? * o 3 '* 0 -T - o 3 0 1 1
Fig.8:7
solution shownin Fig 8.7'The is Thegraphical (b) Grophical methad: below: procedure stated is with at = 2'0kg/cmz andcr3= 1.1kg,/cm2 (i) TheMohr circleis drawn
cos2o
L_--
190
Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Fottndation Engineering
Shear Strengtlt
(ii) From the centre C of tlris circle, CD is drawn at atr augle of 120o ( = 2 0) to the o-axis. This line intersects circle at D. the Altenratively, frorn the pointA correspondingto s3, a straight lineAD is drawn at an angle of 600 1= 0) to the o-axis.AD also intenects tbe circle at the samepohrt D. (iii) The co-ordinates D give the normal and shearstresses acting on of the given plane.From Fig. 8.7 we obtain,
l m2 y
N(40,'t0)
:16'5kN/m?--+1
t T =3'6 N/ k
30 19. LS S
o = 1.33 kg/cmz r = 0.39kg/crnz

Problem actingon a soil elementdre shown in Fig. 8.8 (a). m. stresses
Y.
10kN/m2
2 0 k Nm /
(20,-10)
Nl# iot<
to)
_T(kN/m2) tDr
Fig.8.8 (b)
D
Fig.8-8(a) (i) Detennine the magnitudeand direction of the principal stresses. (ii) Find out the stresses acting on the plaue XX. (iii) If the soil hasa colresion 5 kN/m2 and an angleof intemal friction of of 25o,find out whelher a shearfailure is likely to occur along the planeXX. in Solution:The graphicalsolutionof the problem is presented Fig. 8.8 (b). The procedureis as follows: 1. Two orthogonal c'o-ordinate axes and an appropriatevector scale (1 cm = S *NZm2) are chosen. 2" Tbe points M (20, -10) and l{ (40, 10) are chosen to represent the slresses the planesAB and8C respectively. on 3. M andif arejoined and the mid-point O of MN islocated. 4. Witlr O as cenlre and M]{as diameter, the Mohr circle is drawn. the 5. The pointilf represents stresses the planeA.B.FromM, a straight on line ifP is drawn parallel to AB, to intersectthe circle at P. P is the pole.
6. From P, FQ ll ,ttr is drawn to intersectthe circle at p. The solutions to tle three giveu questionsare now obtained as follows : (i) The points of intersection,R and $ between the circle and the o-axis give the principal stresses. Here, ol = 48 kN,/rn2 and ot = l6.2kN/m2
In order to locate the directions of the principal planes,the points R and S arejoined to the pole P. Through any pontZ in the soil elelnent, Z -lllPS and Z - 3 ll PR are drawn. The planes Z - t andZ - 3 give the directions of the major and minor principal planes respecrivcly. (ii) The strcsses on,lXare given by the co-ordinatesof Q. From the figure we obtain. on = 16.5kN/m2 andrps=3.6kN/rn2
(iii) The normal stresson.lXis 16.6kN/#. Frsm coulomb's equation, the shear strength of a soil is given by, s - c + otano
t92
Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering Here, c =5 kN/rn2,o = 16.6 kN/m2, 6 = ?5" .'; s = 5 + (16.6)(ran25') = 12.74kN,/m2 > 3.6 kN,zmz
Slrcor Strengtlt
193
< s, ^failure along)Q( isnotpossible. Problern si.]r4he stresses actingon an elementof erasticsoil mass'are shown in Fig. 8.9 (a). Determinethe nonnal and shearstresses the planeXX. on
Asr
AP conditionson the plane bc) d:,aw the (ii) FromA (representing stress bc, to intersect the circle at P. This is the pole of the Mohr circle. ll Alternatively, if frorn B, BP ll bc is drawn, it alsowill intersectthe circle at P. (iii) FrornP, drawPQll ,XX.It intenectsthe circle at Q. The co-ordinates on of Q give the stresses the planeXX. From the figure w'eob'.ain,
oxx = 2'35t/mz
artd
5Kg/cm2 ZKglcnz
rnr = 0'95t/n2
conditionson a soil elementare shown in Fig. 8.i0 Problem S;&;The stress
(a).
5Kg nz lc
on (i) Find out graphicallythe stresses the plane,4,4. stresses. andshow these (ii) Draw a freeboclydiagramof thesoil element (iii) Prove ihat the free body is in equilibriurn.
50kN/m2
(o) (a) Fig.8.e solution.'Fig. 8'9 (b) slrows the graphical solution. The solution is obtainedin thc lbllowiug stcps: (i) Locate the pointsA (2, 0) a^d ^B(5, 0) which represe^trhe pri^cipal stresses acting on the soil element.with AB as diameter.draw the Mohr's circle. a 7 ( K g/ c m 2 )
5 5k N / m 2 40kN/m2 T ( k N/ m 2 ) A 60kN/m2 55kN/m2 8.61 kN/m2

I
a?
50k N/m2
q__-L
8.57 N/m2 k cr ( k N/ m 2 )
30 + 2 0.95
40
Fig.3'it-'-
P.
-T(Kglcnzl
tb)
(b) Fig.8.e
solution: (i) The graphicalsolutiouof the problernis shown in Fig. 8.10 (b), from which we get, ,\ o = 55 kli/m-
t94
Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering r = 8.67 kN/m2
Shear Stength
195 = G + e Ysar ll;.Yw _ 2.68 = -l-a + 0.654,. ^, g654 tr'ut
(ii) The free body diagram of the soil element pqr, bounded by the vertical plaile, the horizontal plane and tbe given plane AA, is shown in Fig. 8.10 (c). (iii) The free body will be in equilibrium if the sum of the components ofall forces acting on it along any two orthogonal axcs separatelybe zero. Let, P4 = 1unit, p o l
Now,
pr=ffi=6;=2units
| ar 'o -PQ '7 tanh=m-{3n 1'732unia
Z.OTgm/cc= 2.02Vm3 (i) The normalstress thegivenplane., on a = ld, 21 + l*6. 22 = (r.62,(2) + (r.02)(3\ = 6.3t/m2 ..'. Sbear strength tbesoil at thisplane, of ., = c + otano - 0 + (6.3)(tan35') - 4,41t/n? (ii) In this case entiresoil mass submerged. the is o - ysub.z= (1.02\(5,- 5.tt/m2 = (5.1)(ran35) - 3.57t/mZ -/,, s Problen-td Specimens a silty sandweresubjected the directshear of to testin thelaboratory, a shearbox 6 cm x 6 cm size.Thc normalloadand in of theconesponding shear forces failureareshown at below : and,
gr'e and- '
unit of Considering thickness theelement, = (- 40) (1) - (8.67)(cos30) (2) + (s5) (cos60")(2) 2 Fx =-40-15+55-0. - (- 60)(r.732, + (&67)(sin30")(2) + (5s) (sin60")(2) xY - -103.92 + 8.67 + 95.25 - 0. Hencethe freebody is in equilibriurn. subsoit a siteconsists a 10m thick homogeneous at of layer Probbm ffie ofdense sandhaving the follouring properties: la - l.62gm/cc' G - 2.68,0 - 35' The nahrralgroundwatertablelies at 2 m belowthegroundsurface. (i) Determinethe shearstrenglhof tbe soil along a horizontalptane througbthe middleof sandlayer. the (ii) If duringmonsoon, walertablerisestothegroundlevef,how will alongthesameplanechange ? the shearstrength Assumethatthe soil is dry abovewatertable. planeunderconsideration at a depthof 5 m is Solution: Tbe horizontal below the G.L.
We have,
Draw thc failureenvelope determine apparent and the angleof shearing resistance anfcohesionof thesoil. Solution:Thecross-sectional of theshear = 6 x 6 = 36 cm2. area box Therionnalandshear stresses first obtained are usingtherelation, load = SlreSS
n{d -
GTn
area . . These are shown in a tabular form below :
lll'
Normal load (kg) Shearforce (kg) Normal stress(kg/cm2) Shearstress(kglcm") IU
or,
OI,
E?P ' r.62

e = 0.654
?o
t5.4t
0.56
30
20.88 0.83 0.580
9.90
o.28
0.275
0,428
L96
Shear Strength
tgl
In Fig. 8.11 the nonnal and shearstresses plotted along the horizontal are and vertical axes respectively. Three points thus obtained are thenjoined by a straightline. This is the failure envelopefor the given soil. r-axis representsthe apparent The intercept ofthe failure envelopeon^the cohesion,which is found to be AJZkg/an'. The apparentangle of shearing resistance is given by the angle of obliquity of the failure envelope to the horizontal, and is found to be 28.5'.
e\I
be tlre radius whicb must be perpendicularto OQ, since Oe is a tangen/to the circle. Tlrus, in order to locatelhe centreofMohrcircle, draw eC L Oe. eC meets thc o-axis at C, which then, is the ccntre of Mohr circle. (v) With C ascentreand Cp as radius,draw the Mohr circle. It intersects the o-axis atA andB, which, then, representthe minor principal stresso3 and the major principal stresso1 respectively. From Fig. 8.12, we obtain,oe = 1.08kg/5y1rrz, = 2.47 kg/cm?. ot
g0'5
8.5
q
o, L +
(vi) Dnw a horizontal lne PQ through Q. It intersectsthe circle at p. This is the pole of the Mohr circle. (vii) Join PA andPB. Thesetwo lines are parallel to the directions of the planes on which 03 and 01, respectively,act. From the figure we obtain, AAB - 32.5' and LPBA = 57.5' Hence the minor and the rnajor principal planes are inclined to the horizontal at 32.5" and 57.5" respectively. The orientation of the planes are shown in Fig. 8.12 (b).
3 a.t
v) u 0.2
ct OJ a./l
c =0 . l 2 k g l c n z
0| lo.2 0.4 06 O.g lo N o r m oS t l e s s , r ( K g l c m 2 l )
Fi8.8.11
Problenr 8/ A direct shearte.stwas performedon a sample of dry sand. of Under a nbnnal stre-ss 1.5 kg/on", failure occurred when the shear stress a reached 0.65 kg/cm'. Draw the Mohr circle and the failure envelope. Hence determine the orientation of the principal planes and the magnitude of the principal slresses. Solution: The construction is shown in Fig 8.12. The procedure is as follows: vectorscale. (i) Choosetwo orthogonal co-ordinateaxesand a_suitable problem is : I cm = 0.4 kg/cnr2. The scale chosen in this (ii) Locate the point Q corresponding to o = 1.5 kg/*rz 0.65 kgr'crn?. and r =
GI F
; t.2
gr .Y
7 o't oJ
CJ E t/l
+ t/l L 0 { o
Principot Ptane (b)
2,4q 2.8
(iii) Since the soil is a dry sand, it should not have any apparentcohesion and tle failure envelope should passthrough the origin, Join the origin O and the point 8.O8 is the failure envelope. (iv) The point Q representsthe stresseson tle failure plane. But in a direct sheartest, the failure plane is aly3lrs horizontal-.Now, the point p must must touci the iailure envelope. If Q can be joined to the centre of the circle the resulting line will
Normol tress(lQ/cm2l S (a)

Fig.8.12
Prrblem $r(flrree identicalspecimens a partiallysaturated of clay were subjected an unconsolidated to undrained triaxial test and the following results wereobtained:
198
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fowtdation Engineering No. ,Sample 1. 2. Crll?ressure(W*\ D.eviarorstress (tg/cmJ
ShearStength < l 1= o 3 l V 1+ 2 c ' l N 6 o3 In caseof tlre first sample, = o.Sl<g/crt itrd o1 = L.30kg/c.It Substitutingin eqn.(8.6) we get,
199
0.5 1.O 1.5
0.80 o.97 1..t3
0.5JV{+Tcfi=t.3
where ilO = t o? (45" + Q/21
....(i)
Determine shearparameterstle soil(i) graphically analytically. the of (ii) solution: In a triaxial testthe cell pressure as the minor principal acts stess,while themajorprincipalstress thesumof thecell pressure the is and deviatorstress failure.Tbe values o3 ando1 areshownbelow: al of
SampleNo.
Similarly, for the second and third samples, the following equations are obtained:
os (kg/cm2)
oa(kglw2) 0.80
or (kgcqr2) 1.30 I.97 2.67
and,
Nq+2c4$=1.97 + 1.5/V6 k,/q = L63
....(ii) ...(iii)
1. 2. 3.
0.5 1.0 1..5
o.97 L.t7
(i) subtracting from(ii) weobtain, 0.5f0 - 0,67, of, ilO = 1.34

ort 0rt olt oft f'
{i) Graphical solution : Three Mohr circtes are constructed and a common tangent is drawn tlrough them (Fig. s.13). The shearparametersare found to be :
c = 0.27W*r2 0 = 8.5"
ot,
haf (45' + Q/2) = 1.34 tan(45' + i/2) = 1.157 45'+$/2=49.7 {/2 = 4.2" 0 = 8'4'
Substitutingfor f in eqn.(i), = (0.s)(1.34) (2c) (1.157) 1.3 +

ort
c = 0.27 W*?
tle Check: Substituting valuesof c and0 in eqn.(iii), we get, L.H.s. = (1.s)(134) + (2)(0.27)(1.1s7) =2.63=RH.S. sandis tested thelaboratorytiaxial in of Problengp<A sample &y coarse of appamtus the undrainedcondition.Under a cell pressure 2 kg/cm', the in stress reached 4.38kg/cm'. samplefailedwhenthe deviator parameters thesoil. the of (i) Determine shcar (it At what deviator stresswill the soil fail if the cell pressurebe 3 kg/crn'? o3 Solution: Here, =2kglgri,aa= 4.38kgor?. 01 - <r3+ o/ = 2 + 4.38 = 6.38kg/cr*.
0.75 1-0 12.5 1.5 1.75 2-00 2.25 ?.50

N o r m o lS t r e s s( K g / c m 2 |
Fig.8.l3
(ii)Arulytical solution: Fromcqn (8.6)wc havc,
2OO
Problemsin SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering and o1 = 6'38 kg/cm2,a Mohr circle is drawn (Fig'
Shear Strength
SampleNo. Ccll pressu;e (kgicml Deviator stressât failure (kgicrn')
?ol
Pore pressureat failure (klcm')
With o3 =Zk{an?
8.14).i n c e t l e s a m p l e i s m a d e o f c o a r s e s a n d a n d s i n c e i t i s i n t h e d r y s t a t e ' 's passesthrough no apparent cohesion will develop and the failure envelope the origin. to the Mohr.circle Iriorder to locate the failure envelope,draw a tangent fromtheorigin.Byrneasurement,theangleofobliquityofthislineis3l'' are: Hence, the shearParameters ' c = O , O= 3 1 ' (ii) We have, from eqn; (8.6)' o1 =o3Nq+2c4$ Asc = 0, ". or,
(\a
1.
1.0 1.5 2.0
2.U2 z.t8
2.37
0.41 o.62 0.70
2.
J.
Detennine the shearparametersof the soil considering (ii) (i) total stresses effective stressess. given in the and deviator stresses solution: The values ofcell pressures may problern aia the total stressvalues.The conespondingeffective stresses be obtained from the relation :
o1 = 03 lV6 "'(i)
o ' = 6 - l l
01 = 03 tan21+5' + Q/2')
the considering total stress The major and minor principal stresses, below : are analysis, tabulated as analysis well aseffectivestress
Sample No. o3
ad (kg/cm2)
E
c'l
=
+ tt o, E 3/'l
L E L
v, v, o,
gg"r"1
o1 (- ol + oa) (kg,/cm2)
g'l o'3 ( - a s - * ) 1- ot -;r) Gc/"-1 (kg/cm") (kg/cm:)
1. 2.
t,
1.0 1.5 2.0
2.U2 2.t8 2.37
3.U2
3.68 4.37
0.41 0.62 0.70
0.59 0.88' 1.30
2.59 3.06 3.67
NormolStress (Kg/cm2)
Fig.8'14
o3 Here, =3k{u?,0
= 31'
g'37kg/ctt o1 = (3)[tan(45"+ 3r"/2)f =

o7 Deviatorstress' = 01 - 03 - g.37-3=6.37 kg.tt ^ problen g.l {Tl" tollo*ing resultswereobtainedfrorn a laboratorytriaxial measuremenls: for test with aX6ngements porepressure
Total stressanolysis:Three Mohr circles are drawn using the three sets of values of o1 and o3. In Fig. 8.15, thesecircles are shown by firm lines. A common tangent is drawn through them, which is the failure envelope for toal stressanalysis.From the figure we obtain. ' c =o.75 Wt"f and O = ?.5 Effective stess analysis:In this casethe Mohr circles are drawn with the three sets of values of o1' and o3'. In Fig. 8-15 the effectivc stresscircles are representedby broken lines. Thc values ofthe correspondingshearstrength paramete$ are, c' = 0.65 kg/un2 arld O' = 13'
t
202
Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
SIrcar Stengtlt Now, a7 = a1 - 63
203
e .Y
o
q
-+ o-I.
: 6.05- 2.5= 3.55us/""?

Herrce the required deviator stressat failure is 3.55 kg/cm2. (iD Let the required cell pressurebe xWMr?.
6l=6d,
olt
O -13o
lo!'
01 =l;68+r
...(ii)
_G
c -
' 0 5
c =0 ' 7 5
Substituting for o1 and 03 in eqn. (i), we get

t.5 nn 2-0 -33 a.o oil
ntitni''
l--.
0ft
1.68+x=2.Il7x+O.757 l.Ll7x = 0.923
'
N o r m oS t r e s s l l Q / c m 2 ) l Fig.8.15
ot,
x = 0.83
,.' -of Problgm S.|{'fle shearstrengthparameters a given soil are, c 0.26' kglcm" an{ 6 = 21'. Undrainedtriaxial lests are to be carried out on specinensof this soil. Determine: be , (f deviator stressat which failure will occur if the cell pressure 2.5 kglont.
(ii) the cell pressure d-uring the test, if the sample fails when the deviator stressreaches1.68 kg/crn'.
is cell .'. The required pressure 0.83 kglonz. triaxial tests of Problem $A*Tlie following aretheresults a setof drained and mm specimensof3S diameter 76mmheight: performedffiree identical
Sample No. i i' $ll preslure , (kN/n')
load Deviator at failure (kN) 0.f/11 0.659 0.0956
Change in Volume (cc)
Axial Deformation (mm) 51, 7.O 91
1. 2. 3.
:50 i00 150
- 0.9 - 1.3 - 1.6
Solution: (D We havefrom eqn.(8.6). 01 -o3'lVq+zc'l$ For thegivensoil,g = O.26kgc#and Q - /1'
ffo * t"n2(as"+ Q/2) = ut(45" + 21"/2) = 2.1!7.
and 1fr; - AtrI
- 1.455
Determine ttre shearparametersof the soil. Solution: The deviator loaJs at failure corresponding to each cell pressurearegiven. In order to determinethe correspondingdeviator stresses, these loads are to be divided by the correctedarea of the sample,which can be obtained from
to Hence,eqn (8.6)reduces : or - 2.117os + (21(0.26)(1.455)

ot;
^ "c
....(i)
Here,
=vrtLv
Lr-LL
at - 2.1!7 a3 + o.757 a3 - 25Woo2 o1 -(Lll7)(LS)+0.757 - 6.05kg/ct&
Vr - Initial volume of the specimen - (n/4)(3.82) (7.6) cc = 86.19cc Lt - 7'6crrr
When
zo1
Problems in SoitMechanics ttnd Fottndation Engineering
Shear Stengtlt
/r'
205
A For the first sarnPle, V = - 0.9 cc and AI = 5.L crn - 0.9 86.19 = 12.03 c-mz = I2.A3 * 10-4 m2 n" =
7f,:ilf
:.
ad=
0.0711 = 59.L0kN/rn' 12.03x 10-a
problenr SWAv unconfined compression test was performed on an clay, having a diameterof 3.75 sampleof norrnallyconsolidated undisturbed crn high. Failure occuned under a vertical compressive load of cm and 7.5 at t 16.3kg. The axial deformationrecorded failurewas 0.9 cm. A remoulded sAnrpleof the same soil failed under a compressiveload of 68.2k9, alrd the was 1'15 crnaxial cornpression corresponding Determine tle unconfined compressivestrengthand cohesionof the soil in the undisturbed as well as remoulded state. Also determine the sensitivity of the scil and hence classify it accordingly. Sofution: (a) Undisturbed state : As = (ni4) (3,7il2 = 11'04crn2 ofthe sample, Initial areaofcross-section
kN/rn2 and,o1 = 03 + oa = 50 + 59'10 = 109'10 in are for The majorprincipalstresses two othersarnples computed a similar below: are Thc results tabulated manner.
Sample No.
I
o3
1rxlm2)
50 100 15(l
Fa (kN)
LV (*) - 0.9 - t.3 - 1.6
AL ("m) 5,1 7.0 9.1
Ac (".2)
od
o1 ltcN/m2)
GN/#)
69.50 75.61
0.0711 0.085e o.tB56
12.O3 5 9 . 1 0 t7^36 12.65
109.10 169.50 225.61,
t =+ Axialstrainarfailure, = ffi = o.r,

Corrected atea,Ar= = *
and their common tangent is drawn. Threc Mohr circles are constxucted Ttris is the failure envelope of the soil (Fig. 8' 16)' By neasurementwe obtain, " c = 25 kN/rn', O = 3.8
T=-d.tz #
11'04 - 1"55cm2 = L.'
at Normalstress failure=
= 9.27kg/anz
stength,4u = 9'27kg/cri compressive Unconfined J

; t00 o Y o h s n ct 0 c
F
= and,cohesion, + = stote: (b) RemouMed
t4 L
= 4.64kg/cn?
= 1 . 3 5 = L1 5 3 T 1 - 1.
:y!_L__
50 -3t
a. = , 1l#sl = 13'o3cm2
r00 150
It Az ( N o r m oS t r e s s K g / c m 2 l l
Fig.8.16
n32nn
n'= #.L* = 5'?3ks/cm2

4u 5'23 or' c=;=;=2'62kglcIn' ) in sttength theundisturk Scnstttvlty=@t"
246
Prablems in Soil Mechanies and Foundation Engineering - 9 ' n - L "' 7 ' 7 1 ' 5.23
ShearStrength
2W
As the value of sensitivity lies between I and2,the soil is classified as a low sensitivesoil. Probfem S.+4.;lftf ,9U triaxial test, a soil sample wa^s consolidated at a cell pressure ot}Yg/cffiz and a back pressureof I ig/cm2A for 24 hours. On the next day, the cell pressurewas increasedto 3 \E/cm'. This resulted in the development of a pore pressure,of 0.08 kgfcrn'. The axial stresswas then gradually increasedto 4.5 kg/crn', which resulted in a failure of the soil. Tlie pore irressurerecordedat failure was 0.5 kg/crn'. Determine Skempton's pore
torque head at failure was 417.5 kg-cm. The vane was then rotated very rapidly in order to comptetely remould the soil. It was found that the kg-cm. d remoulded soil can be sheare by applying a torque of ?-83.2 Determine the shearstrcngthof the soil in the undisturbcd and remoulded."statesand its sensitivity. Solution: Weknow tha!
S -
"nfr '?)
pressure parameters andB. A Solution:We have L , u = B [ A o 3 + A ( A o 1 Aor)1, whereAandBare Skernpton'sporepressure parrmctcls.

hrthefirstcase,Ao3 = 3 - 2 lkg/em2' Ao1 - I
Here,If=llJS cmandD= 7.5cm,

S -
Orr
- s -
T (xl (7.52) (rr.25/2 + 7.5t6) T ttr3.67
or,
o.08+B[1 A(O-1)l + B(l - A) - 0.8 A cr1- 4'5 - t - lsVcrf, Ao3 - 0 0.50- 0 . 0 8 - 8 l O + A ( 3 . s - 0 ) l
state, = Ctl.Skg-cm, f In the undisturbed 4175 S -
...(D
rtt}.67
o37Wr;rr2
In the second case,
In the remoulded state,T = 733,2kg-cmr
or,
Dividing (i) by (ii), weget,
O.42- 35A8 l-A - 0.08 15 A 0.42

1 - A
...(iD
Sensitivit, -W-
1.48
EXERCISES planesof a soil acti4gon two orthogonal 8.1. The normal stresss stresses sample 250kNlm2and110kN/m{ Findoutthenormalandsbear are " of sress. ofl a planeinclinedat 60 to thedirection themajorprirtcipal r [Ans. o = 215 k]-.[/m2, = 60.6 trtl/m2] on conditions a soil elementare shownin Fig. 8.17. t.2. The stress Dctermine: and of (D The orientation magnitude thc principalstesses. (ii) The stresses and actingon thehorizontal thc verticafplanes.
[Ans. (i) ot = 2,76kg.t] at 98.5'witb horizontal; 03 = 0.83 Ug*rz at 8.5' -0.3k4/cm2; withhorizontal(ii)o11 - 0J7kg/artz, aH ov = 2.72kg/c.rr?,av= 0.3 Ugl*r2l
oft
T-o'6'l
'or,
l - A - 0.67A, or, A - 0.6 Substituting valueforA in (i), wc obuin this I B(l-0.6)=0.08 ^ E = a 7 = u n^ .z 0.08 I
I .
oI,
Problem ttfl6. A vane sheartest was carried but in the field to determine the sbearing strength of a deep-seatcdlayer of soft clay. The varte was 11.5 crn high and 7.5 cm across the blades. The equivalent torguc recorded at the
248
Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Foundotion Engineering Slrcar Strength 209
lKglcrs? 2Kglcn2
lKglcn?
8.5. In problem 8.4, if the water table rises from a great depth to the ground surfaceso that the soil becomesfully saturated and its natural moisture content increasesto l9%o, how will the shear strength on the given plane change? [Ans. Reducedby 0.85 t/m'] 8.6. The stressconditions on an infinitely small soil elementare shown in Fig. 8.19.Find out the magnitudeand directionof the principal stresses. [Ans: o1 = 1'68 kg/cm2 at 12' to the horizontal 03 = 0.47 kg/cn? atl02' to the horizontal]
0'5Kglcr]
Fig.8.17 8.3. Fig. 8.18 illustratesthe stressconditionson a soil elemenl (i) Determine the normal and shear stresses the planeX-X. on (ii) Draw a free body diagram of the element bounded by plane X-X and show thesestresses.
015Kg1c62
1l tn2
X
Fig.8.l9
2.5iln2 2 . 5 tt n ?
8.7. The results of a direct sheartest perfonned on a soil sample in a shearbox of 6 c-rnx 6 crn size are given below:
Shearforce at failure (kg.) Fig.8.18
(iii) Prove the o'iii', trrat u*
Plot the failure envelopefor the soil atrd detennine its shear parameters.
rg.'/,l i,TJi::?ftg*,r, r =0.65
8.4. Thesubsoil a siteconsists a5 m thickstratum a cohesionless at of of soil which is underlain a rock layer.A surcharge 5 t/m2is placed the by of on groundlevel.Theproperties thesoil areasfollows: of = G = 2.68, = A,7, --6Vo,S 30' e w
Determinethe shearstrengthof the soil on a horizontalplane at a depth of 2 m below the G.L. [Ans : 4.8? t4n']
[Ans.c=0,0=33'] 8.8. A given soil has a unit cohesio of 2 vumz an angleof internal n and friclion of 28'. Samples the soil were testedin the laboratoryi4 a triaxial of apparafusunder the undrained c-nndition. Determine : (i) Deviator stressat failurc when the cell pressureis 1.5 kglcm2. (ii) The applied cell pressure,if the sample fails under a total vertical pressureof 5.09kg/on2. , tAns. (it332 k4.lcmz (ii) z.s kg/cmzl 8.9. A set of triaxial testswere performed on three samples of a isoil. The cell pressures the deviatorstresses failure are given below: and at
210
Problems in Soil Mechsnics and Fottndation Engineering

Sample.No.
I
Shear Stengtlt
ztL
CellPr. (kN/m2)
Deviator stress(kN/m-)
2M 300 400
690 855 1030
8.f3. A set of triaxial tests were perfonned on three samples of a line-grainedsoil. The height and diameterof eachsamplewere 75 mm and 37.5 mm respectively.The following are the results:
2
J
SampleNo.
Cell Pr.
Deviator load
Axial Deformation
$il"fi
1 2 3 1.45 2.70 ?
(tg)
29.5 37.9 42.8
(".)
0.98 L.t3 1.16
Plot Mohr's circles of slressand determinethe apparentcohesionand "1 angle of internal friction. [Ans. c = 112 kN/m' , 0 = 27 8.10. A direct sheartestwas performedin a 6 cm x 6 cm shearbox on soil. Under a nonnal load of 40 kg, failure a sample of dry, colresiortless occurred when the sheariug force reached 26.65 kg. Plot the Mohr strengtlr of resistance the soil. Detennine envelopeand detenninetbeangleof slrearing at graphic:ally rnagnitudeand direction of the principal stresses failure. the = [Ans. $ = 36"i o3 = 0.64 kg/crnz at 27" to Il, o1 2.47 kglcn? al ll7" ro Hl 8.11. Two triaxial tests were perforued on sanples of a moist soil in during thesetwo tests condition. The all-round cell pressures an unelrained were 2.5 kg/crn' and 4.0 kg/on' afid the sarnplesthiled under deviator stresses of 4.85 kg/crn' and 6.70 kg/crn' respectively. Detennine the apparent of cohesiou and the apparent angle of shearing resislanc:e the soil (i) analytically (ii) grapbicallY. Do you expect to obtain the sarnevalues of the sbear pararnetersif the samples were tested in a drained condition ? Explain your answer with reasons. [Ans; c = 0'59 kg/crn', Q= 22.q'l 8.12. Irboratory triaxial testswere perfornred on three soil sarnplesof 3.8 cm diameter and7.6 on height.The following resultsrvereobtaitted: No. Sample Cell Pr, (kdcm')
Deviator load at failure (ke) Changein volume (cc) Atial Deformation (cm)
valueof cell pressure testno. 3. Determine missiug the in 8.14. The following resullswereobtained frorn a set of consolidated with arrangernents porepirssuremeasurernents: uudrained tests for
Tlest No. Cell Pr.(kg/cmJ
Deviator Stress(kgicm')
2 2.0
I.62
1.0
L.31. 0.18
3.0
1.89
(kg/cmJ Porepressure
0.42
0.86
Detennine the shearparametersof the soil, considering (i) total stress (ii) Effective stress. [Ans. (i) c =A.46kglclr2,0 = 6.5' (ii)c' = 0.42kg/crt, 0' = 9.8'l 8.15/ Aa unconfined compressiontest was perfonned on a silty clay samplq/of 4 cm diameter and 8 cm height. The sarnple failed under a compressiveload of 23 kg and the deformation recordedat failure was 1.42 cm. A triaxial test was performedon an identical sampleof the samesoil. The all rouncl cell pressurewas 1 kglon2 and the sample failed under a deviator load of a 39.5kg, The axial deformation recorded failurewas 1.L8cm. Find at out the apparentvaluesof shearparameters graphicallyand (ii) analyti(i) "J cally. tAns c = O.70kg/cm',$ = 4.5 8.16. 421.5 cn long c:ylindrical soil sanrplehaving a diameterof 10 crn was subject to an increasingvertical compressiveload. Failure occurred
0.5 1.0
45 52 79.5
1.1 L.5 L.7
0.92 1.15 L.22
z
3
'/ z.o
Plot Mohr's circles and determine the apparent val'ues ot\hear paramelers of the soil. [Ans. c = 1 kg/crn', e = 18.7"]
2t2
Problemsin SoilMeclnnics qnd Foundation Engineering
whentheloadreachedl5lkg,andlhecorrespondingaxialdeformationwas : 2 cm. The sarnplewas made of clay and had the following properties G=2.67,s=O.69,w=26Vo o, = [Ans' 0 = 0 c A'77 kglc11n'i cylindrical 8.L7. An unconfiinedcompressiontest was performed on a a height of 75 mm' The sample soil sample having a dihmeter of 3?.5 mm and recorded at failed afa vertical cornpressiveload of 23.5 kg. The axial strain plane was observed to be inclined at 53' failure was L.16 "* .od the failure the soil' to the horizoiltal Determine the apparentshearparametersof = 16"] [Ans. c = 0.68kg/on2, 0 an 8.L8. A triaxial test was performed on a sample of dry sand having applied 5 of "ppui.",6urlue of 36'.Initialiy, a chamberpressure TglT.ytt Keeping this and the deviator stress was gridually increasedto 3 kg/on'' was the. gradually reduced. Al deviator stressunchanged,the cell pressure what value of cell pressurethe sample will fail? Determine the sndarparametersof the soil
9
BARTH PRESSURE
9.1. Inhoduction: It is often required to maintain a difference in the elevation level of the ground on the left and right hand sides of a vertical section. Such sihtations call for the construction of an earth-retaining structure,e.g., a retaining wall or a sheet-pilewall. The earthretainedby such a structure exerts a lateral thrust which is of paramount importance in the design of the retaining structure. Depending on the conditions prevailing at the site, tle lateral earth pressuremay be divided into the following three categories: (i) Earth pressuteat rest. (ii) Active earth pressure. (iii) Passiveearth pressure. 9.2. Earth kessurc at Rest: Fig. 9.1 (a) shows a retaining wall, embedded below the ground level upto a depth D, and rctaining earth upto a height l/. If the wall is perfecfly rigid, no lateral movement of the wall can occur. And hence,no deformation ofthe soil can take place.The lateral pressureexerted by the soil is then called the earth pressureat rest.
S o i tW e d gA B t e
[Ans. 1.05tg/"*2]
to prevent 8.19. Determine the minimum lateral pressure required" to a total vertical stress of 10 kg/on'. The shear failure of a soil subjected "' = 17'5 parametersof the soil are given as : c = 0'3 kglcm', I [Ans.4.94 xgcrtl an undisturbed 8.20. A laboratory vane shear test was performed in vane were 6'3 mm and sample of soft clay. The diameter and height of the torque of 110 gm if .: *- respectively' The sample failed under an applied by rotating the vane rapidly' cm. The ,.*pl" was ttren "ott pi.t"ly disturbed Determine the The rernouldid soil failed ,tna"t " torque of'45 gm-cm' in the undisturbed an{ remoulded states undrained shear strength of the soil respectively; 2'5] and compute its sensltivity.[Aor.0. 55 and}.22kglurr2 in 8.21. If a field vane shear test is performed on the soil mentioned determine above problem,witha vane of 11.3 cmheightand 7.5 crn diameter, required to fail the soil in the undisturbed and remoulded states' the torques [Ans. 670.6 kg-cm; 268'2kg-cm]
Ur', Pa
Fig.9.l
214
Problems in SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering
Earth Pressure
2t5
Theconjugaterelationshipbetweenthelateralearthpressureandthe vertical overburden pressureis given by: "'(9'1) ol = Ko'ov, or oh = Ko'\z where K0 = co-efficient of earth pressureat rest'
Y = unitweightof soil z = depth at which lateral pressureis measured' The value of K6 dependson the properties of the soil and its stresshistory, and is given by:
4. On any vertical plane in the soil adjacent to the wall a coiljugate relationship existsbetweenthe lateral earlh pressureand the vertical overburden pressure. This theory was later extendedby other investigatorsto take into account cohesivebackfills and walls with batteredbackface. The equation governing the relationship between the major and minor acting on a soil element, is given by, principal stresses,
o 1= o 3 N 4 . k - q where,Nq= (45" +"Q/2)

0 = angle ofinternal friction c = cohesion.
...(e.3)
& =t h
where, p = Poisson'sratio of the soil.
.,(e.2)
9.3. Active and Passive Earth Pressupes: In reality, a retaining wall is not rigid, but flexible, i.e', it is free to roiate about its base' In Fig' 9'1(a)' let pl and pg,be the at-restlateral thrusts acting on the back and front faces of the wall respectively. Due to the difference in elevation levels, Po , Po'' Hence, a flexible wall will yield away from the bac$fill. The soil wedgeABC will then tend to slide down along the potential slidilg surface BC. This FR condition is illustrated inFig.9.1(b). The frictional resistance againstsuch will act upward alongBC. Its horizontal componentFs will act in movement will the opposite direction to that of Pg. Thus the net pressureon the wall decreaie. Such a stateis called the active stateof plastic equilibrium, and the lateral pressureis called fte active earth pressure' simultaneously,thesoil w edgeDEF inftontof the wall getscompressed. The frictional resistanceFn' io this case acts along ED and its horizontal componentFg' actsin the samedirection asthat of P6', Hence the net pressure on the wall increases. Such a state is called the passive state of plastic equilibrium and the lateral pressureis called the passiveearth pressule.. are The active and passiveiarth pressures usually computed by either of ""tth pr"tt.tte theories, viz., Rankine's and Coulomb's the two classical theory. g.4. Rankine's Earth Pressure Theory: This theory is based on the following assumPtions: l.Thesoilishomogeneous'semi.infinite'dryandcohesionless. 2. Theback of the wall is perfectly smooth and vertical' 3. Deformation of the wall is sufficient to create a state of plastic equilibrium'
Let us consider an intinitesimally srnall soil element at a depth Z below the ground level, adjacentto a retaining wall, as shown in Fig. 9.2'
3m
1'5m/
J-
Son t.toyey d I = 1 ' 8 5/ m 3 t Q=2t" c=1tlm2 0enseSantl t/m3 Y = 1'95 @=36o

Fig.9.2
J-l
o,, = vertical overburdenpressureon lhe elemenL orr = lateral earth pressureon the elemenl According to the fourth assumption stated above, a conjugate relationship exists between,ou and otr . The relationship is similar to the one by expressed eqn. (9.3). However, the exact form ofthe equation dependson thi prevailing conditions, i.e., whether the backfill is in an active state or in a passive state. (i)Active state : In this cas, <r1 = oy, and 03 = ott
But, o, = 1z
2t6
and,
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering or, = active pressureintensity = pr'
EarthPressure
f
.'. Eqn. (9.3) gives,
of,
\z = pa'ilq + 2cVF 2c \z : n ro = L 'l{o vflo
...(9.4)
I I
H
/. .t t{d
(ii) Passive state : Here, o1 = oy, and ot = 6u But, ot, = yz
;,ta^ h ^
-r.tlt
intensity = po pressure and,o7, = passive .'. Eqn. (9.3)gives, PP=YzNq+?*fi 9.4.1. Computation af Eorth PressureUsingRsnkine's Theory z e: (A) Act ive Earth Pressur soils: (a) Cohesionless soil, For a cohesionless c = 0. to .'. Eqn (9.4)reduces
Pa = N+ or,
l
(ol
Average pressureintensity,pou
toT
Ht3
-J *otH+(b)
Fig.9.3
_L
...(e.s)
Fig. 9.3 (b) shows the disnibution of active Pressure intensity. The magnitude cf resultant thrust per unit length of wall may be obtained by multiplying the averagepressureintensity by the height of the wall. 0+K-yH = 1 i.*or,
_ t L = _ n . : = ^ = y r . i1; * lsin \F + f Q tan" 145" + g/2)

"'(9'6) "'(g'7)
= = .'. Resultantthrust,P4 l,*'rrr' IX,IH'H
...(e.8)
Po = Kalz
where, Ko = co-efficient of active earth pressur" = i;*l*
It is evihent from eqn. (9.8) that the resultant thrust is given by the area of the pressuredistribution diagram. This thrust acts through the centroid of the hiangleA.BC, i.e.,is applied at a heigbt of Hl3 abovethe baseof the wall. (ii) F ully Submerged B aclfill: This condition is shown in Fig. 9.a (a). As the soil is frrlly submerged,its effectiveunitweightis' T, = ysar_ yw
t
I I
Eqn. (9.6) and (9.7) can be usedto compute the active earth pressurefor below: various backfill conditions, as discussed (i) Dry or Moist Baclfill with Horizotxal Ground Surface: Fig. 9.3 (a) shows a retaining wall supporting a homogeneous'backfill of dry or moist soil, uPto a height.FL At any depth z below the top of the wall. Po = Ko'{ z Ar the top of the wall (z = A), Po = O
At any depth z below the top of the wall, the total active pressureis the sum of pressuresexertedby the soil and water. According to Pascal's law, a fluid exerts equal pressurein all directions at any given depth. Hence, at a depth z, Pa=KaY'z+Ynz
...(e.e)
At the base of the wall (z= 14, Po = Ko:v'H
is diagram shownin Fig. 9.4 (b) pressure distribution The corresponding d (iii) Part ially Submerpe Bqcffit t: and above belowwatertable: (a) Backfill havingsimilarproperties
218
Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineertng
Earth Pressure
219
Eqns. (9.10) and (9.11) may be usedto determiile the resultant thrust aild its poirit of application correspondilrgto any pressuredistribution diagram'
T lB
Y1 Pz P r l (o)
Fig'9.4 Ilr Fig. 9.5 (a), the retainiug wall has to retain earth upto a heightfl. The ground water table is located at a depth ft1 below ground level. The active pressureintensities are given bY: Above ground water table: Po = Koyz (O s z s h) Below ground water table: Po = Koyhl + Koy'z + ynz (A < z s h2, zbeing measuredtfromG.W'T.) Fig. 9.5 (b) shows the correspondingpressuredistribution diagrarn.The resultant active thrust pbr unit run of the wall is given by the entire area of this diagfam. It is easierto detennine the areaby dividing it into a nurnber of triangle and rectangles' In Fig. 9.5 O). Pt = LABP, P2 = areaof BCED
KqYhr D
(b)
Yz
iPs
F_ I
(o)
Fig.9.5
(b)
(b) Backfill having ditterent propertiesabove aild below water table: Fig. 9.6 (a) and (b) illustrate this backfill condition and the corresponding pressuredistributiott diagratn.
11I I'
H I
Kqrlrhr
Ps = LDEF,
P4 = LDFG.
n
ttst
I ,
q=11h1
a Resultant ctive thrust, Pn=Pt+P2+P3+Pa=)4

j-1
...(e.10)
The point of application ofP4 canbe determinedby taking moments of individual pressureareasabout the baseof the wall' Thus, Pa'l = Pfr + PzJz + P1Y + PaYa
f
(q) Fig.9.6
y'ro **r,n, i*"rtin4 l

(b)
0f'
v=-;2
i-l
2 't''t
lp,
t- 1
(iv) Baclcfill with UniformSurch'arge: a wall supporting backfill loadedwith a Fig.9.7 (a) illustrates retaining pressure distnbution diagram is q. The corresponding a uniforrn surcharge shownin Fig. 9.7 (b). Frdm the figure it is evidentthat the effect of the
220
Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering
surchargeis identical to that of an imaginary backfill having a heightzo placed above G.L., where,
EarthPressure
221
'- " _ q -Y
.,(e.r2)
l-t,, zs=gtt
9/unitareq
* -)r
H
Fig.9.8
J(o)
Fig.9'7
J*ou
-J tQlH'
(b)
...(9.14) BC = H (1 + anetan p) planeBC, pressure thisimaginary usingeqn. on (iv) Determine active the (e.13). of the the (v) For designing yall, compute self-weight the soil wedge is ABC andconsider effecton thestabilityof thewall separately'
(v'S aclfill with a SlopingSurface, B at The conditionis shownin Fig. 9.8 (a). The activeearthpressure any of the top of thewall actsin a directionparallelto thesurface depthz below is givenby: the backfill and Po = KolH
where, &=cosp #
(vi)Wall Having an Inclkd Bac$ace:
...(e.13)
In order to determine the active earth pressure in this case using Rankine's theory, the following stepsshould be followed (Ref. Fig. 9.9) (i) Draw the wall section and the ground line. (ii) Draw a vertical line through the base of the wall to intersect the ground line at c. (iii) Compute the length8C from: (b) Cohesive-ftictional Soils:
Fig.9.9
From eqn. (9.4), the active earth pressureat a depth z is given by, .rz 2c n re = L /{6 : Vffo
'JrrQ+L{w4 r Ipv'
222
Problems in Soit Mechanics {tnd Fottndotion Engineering
Earth.Pressure or, where, Pp = Ko\z pressure earJh Kp = co-efficientof passive No=oo'(a5"+$/z) 1 1 + sin$ l-tittq=4
223
Atz = 0, pa =
v1%
A t z = H , f rt e^= f
intensity is zero. Let H"bethe depth at which pressure '{H" ^{H" 2c 2c ^
rt-q
=U,Or, ", ZE\q

I
=&
state' to wall subjected a passive Fig. 9.11(a) arld(b) showsa retaining diagram' distribution pressure passive andthe corresponding
or,
H, _
...(e.1s)
]'1b
, 2 c --{G
-46.j r 2clNo y
H
L
, {o} d I o h e s i o n l e sS o i l s (b)
Fig.9.11
C- * Soil (c)
J.-tH/-r,_l o ' N @ F
{o}
Fig.9.10
l
(b) Cohesive-fr i ct iono I Soi Is: From eqn. (9.5), we havc' P p = Y z N q+ 2 c ' [ $ For the retainingwall sltowu in Fig' 9.1i (a)'
(b)
Fig. 9.10 (b) sbows the distribution of active pressure.The negative side of this diagram (i.e., A abc) indicatesthe developrnentof tensiottupto a depth flr. Since soils cannot take tension, rracks will be formedin this zone. Tbe depth .I{, is, therefore, called the zone of tension crack. The resultant lateral thrust is obtained by computing the area of the positive side of the diagram (i.e. L, cde). (B) Pcssive Errrtl, Pressurei (a) Cobeslonless soils: soil, eqn.(9.5) reducesto: a cohesiortless For PP = ^lzNf
Atz=0,po=Zcfi alz=H, Pe=tHNr+Ufi

ThecorresponctingpressuredistributiondiagramisshowninFig.9.ll (c)'
224
EartftPressure.
22s \
6i+Qtz
andthc failurc In the activc statc,thewall rnovcsawayfrom thc backfill As it slides down' frictional wedge C.BCtends to move downwards' of r"sisln"es actupwardalongthebackfacc thewall (soil-walllifion),anO of In absence rhefrictionalforceFar, the failureplane(soil+o-sol rruion;. Butnow normallyonthebackface' acting theactivethrustPwouldhavebecn Fx, is inclincdat an angle6 to the normalon the P4 the resultant of P and
B a ) A c t i v eS t o t e
Fig.9.t2 9.5. coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory: Instead of analysing the stresses on a soil element, coulomb considered the equilibrium of the failure soil wedge as a whole. The rnajor assumptions Coulomb's theory are: in (i) The soil is dry, homogeneous and isotropic. (ii) The failure surfaceformed due ro the yielding of the wail is a plane surface. (iii) The failure wedge is a rigid body. (iv) The backface of the wall is rough. (v) The resultant thrust acts on the backface of the wall at one-rhird heigbt and is inclined to the normal on the wall at this poinr at an angle 6 , where, 6 = angleof wall friction. Basedon this theory,the lateralearthpressure be determinedby the can trial and error method. As the location of the actual failure surface is nor known, a numberof potentialfailure surfac'.es chosenand the lateralearth are pressureis determinedfor eachof tbem.The one for which the lateralthrust reachesa certainextremevalue (rninirnumfor active stateand rnaxirnumfor passivestate) is accepred the true failure surfar:e, as and the corresponding lateral thrust is accepted {he active or passivetirrust.as the casemay be. as 9.S.l Wallfriction: The conceprof wall fricrion is illustratedin Fig. 9.12 (a) anri (b).
b) Possive tote S
o
backface.Duetosimilarreasons,thcsoilreactionR4willalsobeinclinedat an angle{ to thc normalon thc failurclurfacc' Thesamcargqmcntsleadustothcconclusionthatinapassivestatealso to the normalson 0 nr rii arwill b! inclinedat angles andf respectively -{n the state, linesof actionof Pa andR4 lie ^nafC.However, in thc actlve state'thelinesof action inthe passive whcreas normals, belowthc respectivc them. ""'A of P- andR- lie above tqr methods tllaejgrn]i'ation of il"b.t oigt.pniol andanalytical or prorit"iave beenproposed thebasisof Coulomb'stheory' trt"rui ""rtl arc: methods The mostirnPortant (i) Culmenl.'smethod Graphicalrnethod: construction (ii) Rebhann's (i) Trial wedgemethod' Analyticalmethod: may refer to any the methods, reader dcscriptions these For detailed 'Soil of Howeverthe applicationof these Mecbanics. text-bookof standard of workcd-out by ,n"*noO,havebeenillustated in this chapter a number problems. requiredto enableus to solve more Some of the special techniques in the shapeof complexproblemsinvolving externailo;ds, or irregularities bcendealtwith' havedso the watt or the groundssrfacEXAMPLES ./ wall hasto rctaina backfill of dry, prcblem g.{ nS m brghrigid retaining soil cohesionless havingthe following properties: (i)Plotthedistributionofhteralcarthpressureontbewall. andpoint of appticationof rheresultant tiii ij"t"rrr"e rhc magnftude thrust if e"ng-" in thelateral'thrust the waler table tbe (iii) Compute pcrcent ' ' to from agpeatdepth the top of the backfill' rises
I
of Solution:(i) Bulk density thc dry backfill,
226
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fotrndetion Engineering
EarthPressilre
227'
rd=*=?T#?
Co-efficient ofearfh pressure rest, at
=t,54t/nf.
As the wall is rigid, the lateral pressureexerted by the backfill is earth pressureat rest.
to Problem 9.2. A retaining wall with a smooth,vertical backfacehaos retaiu of upto a leignt of +.5 rn.A unifonn surcharge 5 t/rn" is placed a sandbacktill over the backfill. The witer table is at 2 m below G.L. The specific gravity The of solidsand the void ratio of thebacktill are2.68and 0.82 respectively. The angle of soil above the water table has a degree of saturation of lo7o. internal friction of the soil, both aboveand below water table, is 30'. of and point of application the resultantactive Detenninethe magnitude thruston the wall. Solution: Bulk densityof the soil abovewater table, G + s e y= | +7'l*
= 'o'tf='=A56?5 Ko==L 1-p 1-0.36

At the top of the wall (z = 0), po = 0 At the baseof the wall (z = 5 m), p0 = Ko\z
(0.s62s) (s.0) (1.s4)

= 4.j3/mz The distribution of lateral earthpressure shown in Fig. 9.13. is (ii) Resultantlateral thrust on the wall (consideringunit width),
Ps = lKgyH'
(0.82) 2.68 + (0.10) (1) = 1'517t/rn3 1+0.82 densityof thesoil belowwatertable, Submerged 2 . 6 81 r , , = 0 . g 2 3 t / m 3 G-1. Ysub=lllY,=11-537(r/ of Co-efficient activeearthpressure, 1-sin30' 1
= (r/2!(0562s) (1.s4) (s.o)z

= 10.83 t per m run The resultant thrust is applied at a height of 5f3 = t.67 m above the base of the wall. (iii) If the water table rises to the top of the backfill, the soil wilt get.fully submcrged.
K"=fi61F=5'
= due Activepressure to surchatgeKo I =
/l)<t.ol = t.67t/mz
Ir l watertable at Active pressure B dueto moistsoil above
= +;+' t,"= (##) Ysub

Resultant thrust =
1 n
t/nz ttr = o'e65
= Kr,tz=
[})
tt.ttt)(2) = r.or ttmz-
Active pressureat C due to slbmerged soil
|*oy,ubH2
|t.tf
= = = KaTsubr fl Q.gz3)(2.5) 0.77t/mz . \'/

exertedbY water Lateral Pressure
= (r/2) (s.0f [(0.e6s) (o.s62s) U +

= 19.?8t per m run in Percentincrease lateralthrust 19.280 A10.83 =ffixI Vo = 787o,
5m
I JFig.9.13
= \wz = (1) (2.5) = 2.5 t/trf . The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9'14' The resultant active thrust is equal to the areaabcde. For convenie this areais divided into a numberof trianglesand rectangles.Considering width of thewall,
228
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatbn Engineering
EarthPressure Solution: Coefficient of active earth pressure,
229
5t ln2
^ "or m ff-o'K d = c o s e0
=(coslu=l:
t-
*70= 0.296
. coslo"-G-'1{-re
cos10" + Vcos' tO" - cos'32"
thrust,P4 = I *" ,rf Resultant
= []l1o.zro) (s)2 (r.82) Yl

= 6.734t/m This thrust is inclined at 10" to the horizontal (i.e., acts parallel to the ground surface) and is applied at a heigbt of 5/3 = 1.67 m above the base of the wall. Problen 9.4. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back has to retain a backfill of cohesionlesssoil upto a height of 5 m above G.L. The soil has a void ratio of 0.83 and the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. The water table is located at a depth of 2 m below the top of the backfill. The soil above the watertabl eis2}Vosatutated.The angleof internal frietionof the soil above and below water table are found to be 32' and 28' respectively. Plot the distribution of active earth pressureon the wall and detennine the magnitude and point ofapplication ofthe resultantthrust. Solution: Bulk density of the soil abovewater table, G+se
t l + e t w
/1\
(bl
Fig.9.14
P1 - ( 1 . 6 7 ) ( 4 . 5 ) 7 . 5 1t P2
!r=4.52=2.?5m
\") (2.5) - 2.52 | Ps - (1.01)

/r \
= fif 1t.ot1(2) 1.0tt -
=3.r7 + m h= 2.5 2t3

h= = 2.512 1.25m
Pa
- l|l1o.tt + 25)(2.5) 4.691 ta= Z.SR 0.83m = \"1

Rcsultantthrust P6 - Pt + P2 + Pg + Pa - 15,13t pcrmrun.
2.8 + (0.2)(0.83)
The point of application this thnrstabovethebase the wall may be of of obtaincdfrom eqn.(9.11). (7.s1)(2.2s)+ (1.01)(3.17)+ (2.s2)(1.2s)t(4.0e) (0.83) . - Y_ 15.13 ?5.64 Prublem ?3/ A 5 rn high masonryrctainingwall hasto rctain a backfill of sandysoil fi6vinga unitweightof 1.82gm/ cc andan angleof internalfriction of 32'. The surfaceof the backfill is inclined at an angle of 10' to ihe horizontal.Determinethe rraFitude andpoint of applicationof the active thruston thc wall.
,1"".--
ffi-(1)
= 1.55 t/m3
densityof thesoil belowwatertable, Submerged
Ysub ?#
0) t" = ?u-!;sl - o'etttnf

i#fffffff -0.307
Gfr /
l'76m'
Active earth pressureabove water table: Co-efficient of active earth pressura,Ko, -
AtA(z - 0), pa = 0 AJB(z-zm|pB-Kor\zl
- (0.307) (2) - o.sS (1.55) vrt
234
Earth Pressure
231
Active pressure below water table: In this casethe upper layer (i.e., the moist soil above water table) should be treated as a uniform surcharge, for which the interuity 4 is equal to the self-weight of the layer.
./ For the retaining wall shown in Fig. 9.16 (a), plot the Problem 95 distribution of active earth pressureand determine the magnitude and point of application of the resultant active thrust.
"
Now,
q = yzr = (1.55) = 3.I\t/mz (2) I - sin 28" K,r=i;;;F=o-361
-1o7st_
-1vd41-1m A L oose Sond (y=1.54tlm3,+= ) 2f L,o Sond ose 1'8 {lro1= t/m3 9=22o;1 C Dense Ssnd (Yo1= 2.05t/m31 + = 32o)
AtB(/ = 0), pa = Ko.e = (0.361)(3.10) t.tTt/n? =

AIC(z'= 3m), pc = Ko"e t Ko",y"o6z' ynz' +
= r.1,2+ (0.361) e.92)(3) + (1X3) =1.12+0.99+3 = 5.llVmz The pressure distribution diagram shownin Fig. 9.15(b) is
1.2m
f-
= Now , P= l : l @( O.e s) 0 .e 5 t/n 1 Yl

P2=0.12)(3)=3..36ttm
/1 \
yrJz+2/3=3.67n lz = 3/2 = 1'5rn
D
(q)
f zooJ"l--2.30-+
(b) Fig.9.16 exertedby various strata are as follows: Solution: Active pressures StratumI:
< i i ' 7{ " n ? o =0.2106 1 + sin25" pe=o I -
= "r = fll(0.ee 3)(3) 5.e8t/m!3 3/3 = rn = +

= ResultantthrustP4 Pt + P2 + P3 = 10.29t perm run.
\.J
(t) t_-p!6)(1.5)+ (s.e8)

10.29 = 1..41. m .', The resultant thrustof n.29 t per m run is appliedat 1.41, above m thebase thewall. of
K"at = '
(1.64) (1.0) = 0.67t/m2 pB = Kor,trHr = (0.406) While computilg theactive Statum II: This stratum frrlly submerged. is eadhpressure this region,shatum is to be treated a unifonn surcharge in I as of intersity q1,where,
t 0 . 9 5/ m 2 '
3'67mI
Now,
= Qr = Trq = G.64)(1.0) I.64t/nf . | - sin22' = 0 . 4 5 5 K""= t*G6

pB = Koz ql = (0.455)(1.64)= O35t/^2. Pc = KozQt + Kory'2H2 + ynH2
(sl
- 0 . 7 s + ( 0 . 4 s 5 ) ( 1 . 8 0 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 )+ ( 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 ) Fig.9.r5
232
Probkms in SoilMechanicsandFoutdation Engineering = 0.75 + O.M + L.2 = 2.3gt/n? surcharge III: Stratum Equivalent eZ=ltH1 +y'2H2 - (1.64) (1.0) + (1.80 - 1.0)(1.2)
-.Z.ffiVtt. sin 32', t |' K",-i;jffi-0.307 -
Earth Pressure
233
Hence the resultantactive tlrust of 10.315t per m run is applied at 1.409 m abovethebaseof thewall. I Prcblen-{.5. A retaining wall with a smoothvertical backface has to retain a backfill of c - $ soil upto 5 m above G.L. The surface of the backfill is horizontal and it has the following properties: y = 1 . 8t / r f , c = l.5t/m2,0 = 12'.
Pc=K".82+lnHZ - (0.307) (2.60) + (1.0)(1.2) - 0.80 + !.2 - 2.0OVn?.

PD-Pc+Ror{gHg+l*Hg
pressureon the wall. $)?tot the dishibution of active earth the magnitude and point of application of active thrusl .(iipetermine (flglDeterminc'the depth of the zone of tension cracks. (iv) Detennine the intensity of a fictitious uniform surcharge,which, if placed over the backfill, can preventthe formation oftension cracks. (v) Compute the resultant active thrust after placing the surcharge. Solution: Thewall section is shotrn in Fig. 9.17 (a)
- ZtX) + (0.307)(2.85 ' 1.0)(2.3) + (1.0) (2.3) * ZW + OJ4 +,L3 = 5.04tht. Fig.9.16p) is The distibution of activeearthpressure shown-ih of Computation forcesandleverarms: t/m /r = 3'5 + l0/3 = 3.83m P1 = (0.5)(1.0)(0.67) = 0.335 Pz = Q.2) (0.?5) = 0.90t/m h = 2.3 + t.2/2 = 2.90m P 3 = ( 0 . 5 ) ( r . 2 ) ( 0 . 4 4 ) = 0 . 2 6 4 1 / m- 2 . 3 + L - 2 / 3 = 2 . 7 o m h = (0.5)(1.2\(1.2\ 0.72t/m Pa lq = 2.3 + 1.2/3 - 2.70m = Ps = (2.3)-(2.0) 4.6t/m fs = 2-3/2 = 1.15m P6 - (0.5)(n)Q.74) - 0.851t/m % = 2.3/3 - 0.77m P7 = (0.5)(2.3, (2.3) = 2.&5 t/m h = 2.3/3 = 0.77m
' , t
1?fht2'06n
fI
'94m
I
s-I
c
J-!
(o)
(b)
Fig.9.17
'17r/#l-
= Pa, D Pi = Lo.3tSt/m
i-L n IAaa
at For a c - $ soil, the intersity of activeearthpressure any depthz is givenby: vz o , - f r -2c @ Here, and, = ff' = oo'(45' + t2'/21 - 1g11251' 1.525 = 1.235 4 At the top of thewall (z = 0),
Y='--=ffi=1'409m
\ P , Z.
;- l
i-l
234
Earth Pressure
235
(?{1'i) t/m2. + = - r.235 = -2.43 Vilo

At the base of the wall (z = 5 m),
- :'z t !t='--e)(s) - (2]=(1'l 5.et/n2 = 1.525 1.235

The pressuredistribution diagram after placing the surchargeis shown in Fig. 9.17 (c). The resultantactive thrust in this caseis given by, PA = (0.5)(5.9X5)= 14.75t/m, appliedara heighrof 5/3 = 1.67m above the base. Problem LZA'ietaining wall of 5 m height has to retain a stratified backfill as shown in Fig. 9.18 (a). Find out the magnitudeof total active thrust on the wall and locate its point of application. Solution: (i) Sandy silt layer:
pr=(#
W=3.47t/mz.
The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9.17 (b). The depth of the zone of tension ffack is given by,
H"=?:ifi,
olt
(2)(t'tlt'zrst 2.06m. r. -
(45" + 2o'/z) = z.o4 iv{ - tan2
The resultant active thr,ust is given by the part abc of the pressure distribution diagram.
166 -
1.438
The point of application of P4 is located at L946 = 0.98 m, above the v baseof the wall. at the top of the The maximum negative pressure intensity developed wall = -2.43 t/mz. Evidently, the formation of tension cracks canbe prevented by placing a surcharge q on the backfill which can neutralise this negative pressure, Now, after placing the surcharge4 the vertical shess oy at any depth Z is given by,
= .^ = fl Q.s4)(3.47)5.!ot/n2 -/ \" J
= 2)( 3E _ rtr l Pn - _-( - r z1 . 0 ) - a - r ' o , / y 1 2 .

PB
_ = (1.8ilg'e) (2](1.i0)0.33t/m2. =
2.04 7.438
(2)(l'-o-)lt'a3e) = 1.55 H" = m

(ii) Loose sandlayer:
a,=f-ffi=033
Equivalent surcharge interuity, = (1.85) (1.9)= 3.5LVri 41 = pB = Kozql = (0.33)(3.51) t.t7th#. (1'72) (1.0) Pc = KozQr+ Koz\2H2= 1.L7+ (0.33) ' = l.I7 + 0.57 = t.74t/^2. (iii) Dense sand layer:
ov=q+\z
/ ) rA ^ = + - :
o+vz No
2c Vtro
...(i)
2c # A t z = 0 , p e =,,0. - VFo'
But the magnitude of q is such that, at z = 0, pA = O,
ft-#,r=o
or,
a,=l-ffi=o'26
Equivalent surcharge intens = ity,qz=(f .S5)(1.9) (1.72X1.0) 5.?3r/mz + Pc = Kot,qz= Q.26)(5.23)= 1.36t/mz
PD=Kotch+KorlsHl
= (r.23s) 3lt/m2. Q = ?rvN; = (2)(1.s)
atz Again, = H, O^=
ft
= 1.36 + (0.26) (1.88) (1.6)
236
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundqtion Engineering
Earth Pressure
237
= 1.36+ 0.78= 2.14th? arms: and of Computation forces lever
at 10' to the horizontal. The angle of wall friction is 20'. Determine the total lateral pressureexertedby the backfill, using: (a) Culmann's method (b) Rebhann's method. Solution: (e) Culmann's method: Fig. 9.19 illustrates the solution of the problem by Culmann's method. The procedurpis explained below:
1.9m Sondy itt S Y= 1'85 t/m3 c = 1.0t/mz Q= 20"
a139/,htr
,
t \
T 1.55m
0'33t/m2
1.0 m
(i) The backfacc' -B is drawn to a scaleof I : 100. (ii) The ground line AC, S line BC and rp line 8X are drawn. Here,
I 1.6m
+-
Sond Loose 't=1'72tlm3,@=30o
to;il,
P1 Yt )-
{ - 9d' - (o + 0) - 90" - (n" + 8') = 62'.

(iii) The pointsD1, D2, .'., Dg arc chosenon AC at equal intervalsof 1 joined. m. BDyBD2, ...,BDgare (iv) From B, BN L AC is drawn. Its length is measuredand is found to be 4.06 m. F) Alternatively,BN = BA'cns(cr - F) = rr'cosG: (l cos = (a.0) cos (10'- - 8') = 4.06 m cos 10'
I
(o)
Dense Sond Y= 1 ' 8 8 t / m 3 0= 36o

D
lo.zs I r.:s I
{bt
Fig.9.18
P1 = (0.5)(0.35)(0.33) = 0.06r/m, y1 - 2 . 6 + 0 . 3 5 / 3 = 2 . 7 2 m (1.0) - L.t1 t/m, P2 = (1.17) Y 2 - L.6 + 1.0/2 = 2.10m P3 - (0.5)(1.0)(0.57)- 0.29t/m, (1.6) - 2.l8/m, P4 = (1.36) h = 1.6 + l.O/3 = 1.93m Y 4 = L.6/2 = 0.80m
(v) Considering unit width of the wall, the self-weights of various wedges are computed.For examPle, Weigbt of the wedgeABD1 = W, = *'AD1' BN '7
= (0.5) (1.0) (4.06) (1.78) = 3.61 t per m' Weight of the wedgc
(0.78)= A.62t/m, ys = 1.6/3 = 0.53m (1.6) P5 = (0.5)
ABDr = Wz = TWr = (2) (3.61)- 7.22t/m. = t/m,W+=14.44tlm,Ws 18.05 Vm Wr Similarty, = 10.83 t/m. Wo=2l.66tlm,W =?5.27Vm,W3= 28.88 = 3,61 t/rn, the weightsof various (vi) Using a vectorscaleof 1 crn wedgesare plotted alongBC, and the points C1, C2, ..., Cg are
i - 1 n i-l <t<
* - 4'32t/m
!---;--*ffi,=1.216m
Z. i - l
S P- t .
Problem 9.8. A 4 m high retaining wall has a backface inclined at a positive batter angle of 8'. Thebackfill (1 - 1.78 t/nf , 0 - 30") is inclined upwards
BXfrom of (viii) Similarly,a number lincsaredrawnparallclto thery-line points intersection thc pointsC2,C3,...,Cg,alld thecorrespgnding are E2, Eg,".,, EgwithBDz,&fu,, ..., BDgrespectively located' by cuweis obtained jotnngEy E2,...,Egby a smooth (ix) The pressure curve'
Oii) iHffi',Cr/,rll
atr1. to 8x isdrawn intenectBDl
238
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundarion Engineering
Earth Pressure
0\ O. oo
c-! 6 oo lJ.
N (o ll l-
24O
EarthPressure
CE denotes the (ix) A tangent to this curve ls drawn at E, such that is joined and extended maximum ordinate of the pressurecurve' BE plane' to intersect the ground line at D' 8D is the failure is given by the distance C4 The magnitude of t6 resultant active thrust the length of which is found to be 1'58 cm' P,1 - (1'58) (3'61) - 5'70 t/m' (b)Rebhann'smethod:Fig.g.20illustratesthesolutionbyRebhann's method. The procedure is as follows: (i) The backface is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100' 8C and rp-line BX ate draq'n' lilj fn" ground lineAC, $-line is <irawnwith BC as diameter' fiiii e semfcircle drawn to intersectBC at E' iiui fto* A,AE ll BX is ff I BC is irawn to intersect the semi-circle at F' f"l BF as radius, an arc FG is drawn' It intersects liij Wm a as centre and BC atG. (vii) From G, GH ll 8X is drawn to intersectAC at 'FL and GIr as radius, an arc I{r is drawn to intersect li.iiii witn G as centre BC atI. (ix) IIIis joined. (x) HJ LBC is drawn' The total lateral thrust is now given by, P,q - weight of the soil wetlgef/IG
2.41
= +'GI'HJ'y
rough backface-taving a Problern g"9. A gravity retaining wall with a backfill upto 4.5 positive batter angle of 1b", has to ietain a dry, cohesionless : m above G.L. Tbe properties of the backfill are \*llkN/m3,Q-?5 Theropoftbebackfillisslopedupwardsat20.tothehorizontal.Theangle the total active thrust on the of wall friction *"y u* taken as 1i" Determine wall bY Rebhann's construction' by the conventional Solution: This protrlem cannot bc solved and f-line will meet at a great distance Rebhann's rnethod, as te groundJine However, certain modifications over Rebhann's l'.' B is nearly equa! to 4 i' Fig. * u,olu*the problem. The solution is presentedin method will enable * 9.21, while the procedure is explained below : of 1 : 80' (i) The backface of the wall, A8, is drawn to e scale
t/m' = ,-0.r, (2.76,(L35t(1.78)5'77
Fig.9.2l (ii) The ground-lineAC Q-line BD and rf-line BX are drawn' Here,Q = ff) - (10' + 15') = 65' (iiD An arbitrarypoint E is taken onBD' (iv) A setni-circle is drawn with BE as diameter' A-B (v) EF lleC is drawn.lt intersccts at F. BD at G. r.G ll BX is drawn. It intersects (vi) (vii) GIl L BD is drawn. It intersectsthe circle at-Fl arc II1 is drawn to intersectBD 1"iiij witn B as centre and 8Il radius, an at I. (ix) F/is joined. AD atJ. ( x) N ll F/ is drawn. A"I intersects JK ll BX is drawn to intersectA C at K' (xi) From .[ an arc KL is drawn to intersect lxiii Witn J as cente and JrK as radius, BD AtL.
242
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Fotrndation Engineering
Earth Pressure
243
(xiii) KL is joined. (xiv) FromK, KM I BD is d,rawn. Now, P4 = weight thesoil wedgeJKl = l.XU of a .LI -y
= (0.s) (3.0)(3.3) (17) = 84.2 kN/m' Problem 9.10. Determinethe magnitude the resultant of ac:tive thrustexerted by a cohesionless backfill on a 4.0 m high retainingwall having a backtace inclined at 10" to tbe vertical. The top surface of the backtjll is inclined to the horizontal at 25", The unit we ight and angle of internal friction of the backfill are 1.8 Vrn2and 25" respect-ively. angle of wall friction may be The taken as 15". Solution: In this case,the Q-line and tbe groundline are parallel to eaclr other (since F = 0 = 25") and will never rneet each other. The linal soil wedge may be construcled anywhere on ilre $-line. With refere.nce Fig. g.Zz,the procedureis explainedbelow : to
(i) The backtaceAB, ground litte AC, S-lirc BD and E-line BX are drawn as usual.Here,q, = 90' - l0' - 15' = 65". (ii) An arbitrary point E is rakenon the O-line. (iiD EF' ll BX is drawn to inrersect.AC F. at (iv) Witb E as ceutre,an arc FG is drawn to interseclBD at G. (v) FG is joined. L EFG is rhepressurelriangle. (vi) FH LBD is drawn. Now, P1 = w-eightof the wedgeEFG = 1 .y ;.GE.FH
= (0.s) (4.28) (3.e0) (1.8) = 15.02 r,/m run.

Prob[ern 9.11. It is required to constructa gravity retaining wall to retain a sandbackfill upto a heiglrtof 3.5 m. The wall is requiredto have a backface which is batteredat 10'. The surfaceof the packfill has an upward slope of 8' and carriesa uniform surcharge I tlm?.The unit wciglt and ary;ie of of intenralfriction of the backfillare 1.80t/rn'and 33'respectively.Delennine the total active thrust on the wall. solution: As the value of angleof wall friction has not been supplied, ) = (z/3) (33") = 22. we wiil assume, = 0 ;0 The unifonn surchargeplaced over the backfill may be repracedby an equivalent soil layer which will exert the samevertical stresson the backfill. The beightof this equivalent soil layer is, , q tt" = 1= . 0 = U.56m. m i The problem can tlow be solved by Rebhann's rnethod, with a few modificatiorn as explained below : (i) The backfaceAfl ground line AC, g-line BC and rp-line BX are drawn as usual(ii) FrornA, a vertical line AA' is drawn and the diskncer4.41is laid off from it such that,r4A| = he = 0.56 m. (iii) Through Av A1c2 is drawn parallel to the ground line to intersect the g Jine at C2.AB andA1C2 are projectedbackwards to meet at Az. A2B andA2Ct will now be treatedas the modified backfaceand the ground line respectively. The problem is then solved by Rebhann's construction in the usual maruler.With referenceto Fig, 9.23, the resultantactive thrust,
Fig.9.22
Earth Pressure 244

245
s cl !b r
E
I Fte.9.23 Pa = weight of the wedgeFGH = z . ,, \ . GI . y
= (I/2)(273)(2.32)(1.80)= 5.70 tpermrun. backfill upto a wall hasto support homogeneous Prublem 9.12. A retaining 3.6 m aboveG.L. A long brick wall, 375 mm thick and 3.5 m high, runs of parallelto the retainingwall at a horizontaldistance 2.8 m from the top the cornerof theback of the wall. Determine total lateralthruston thewall, given, y = 1 . 8t / m } , 0 = 3 0 ' , c = 0 , c r = 7 8 ' , F = 6 ' , 6 = 1 5 " . = Solution: Unit weight of brick masonry t92Okgl.3. .'. Self-weigbtof thebrick wall permetrerun = (0.375) (3.s)(1920)=2.52t. linear load on the backfill. The The brick wall actsas a concentrated problem can be solved by Culmann'sgraphicalmethod.The solutiott is procedure stated is below : presented Fig. 9.24 andthe step-by-step in
246
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (i) The backthce A.B, ground lhte AC, Q-line BC and rp-line BX are = drawnasusual'Here,rp cr - 6 = 78'- 15" = 63". points,Cr C2,...,C5 arechosenon the ground lineand (ii) A numberof 8C1 through.BC5arejoined. Thesepoints are chosenin sucha way through one of them. that the line of aclion of the linear load passes In the presentproblem, thesepoittts are chosenat equal intervals of 1.41m. (iii) Sell'-weightof the trial failure wedgesare now cornputed.
Earth Pressure
247
It = eachwedge, AB'cos(12' 6") = +;ffig' Altirudeof

= (3.6) (cos 6')./cos 12" = 3.66 m .'. Self-weight of eachwedge = (ll2\ (1.41) (3.66) (1.8) = 4.64t|m. Vector scalechosen: 1 cm = 4.64t1m. (iv) Lay- otTthe distancesBD pnd BD2 from BC, using the chosenvector scale, to representthe self-weight of ABCI andABC2 respectively. into action, and has to Just after crossingC2,the linear load c.omes be addedto the self-weightof ABC2and all subsequentsoil wedges' From D2 lay off the distanceD2D2' to representthe linear load.
i.e.,
='# D2D2'
= 0.54m.
,7
?F5
(v) The distancesD2'D3,DPa and DaD5are laidoff torepresentthe weightof thewedges C2BC3, C3BC4 allrd CaBC5respectively. (vi) From DyD2,D2',...,D5 a numberof lines are drawn parallel to rp-line to intersectBCy BC2, ..., BCs at EyE2,E2',...,E5 respectively. (vii) The pressure cune is drawn. A tangent to this curve is drawn at E2', which is the farthest point from the $-line. BC2 representsthe potential failure plane. By measuremenl,E2'D2' = 1.37 cto. .'. Total lateral thnrst -- (1.37) (4.64) = 6.36 t/m. Problem 9.13. A 5 m high gravity retaining wall hasto retain a cohesionless backfill (y = tg kN,/m3, 0 - 33') upto a heightofs m.Thebackfaceofthe wall has a positive batter angle of 12', and the ground surfacehas an upward inclination of 15". The angle of wall friction is Z)". Determine the total active thrustby the hial wedge method. Solution: Fig.9.?5 (a) shows the section of the wall, drawn to scale. The ground lineAC and tle S -line BD are drawn.
,'r< |
)4-l
?0.\
Rr\'\^4
bl
o a - \ 1 " '\l\ l \i
**_{ l-r l"\ |

\*.
noA \
)Yt1
\-,,\-,,\i
Fig.9.25
Prr= 63'5kN/m
\_, = Par=110.1 tt=rnU*r.torriaU*r, A? 94'9kN/m kN/m
248
EarthPressure
249
AC1 = CtC2 = ... 3 C4C5 = 1.5 m are laid off from Equal distances AC. The lines 8C1, BC2, ..., BC5 arejoined. Theseare tle trial failure lines. ..., of Let W1,W2, ..., W5 be the self-weigbts the wedgesABC1,C1BC2, C&CS:Accordingtotheconstruction,l[ = Wz =...= W5 = lf(say). Altitude of each wedge = BN = 5.15 m.
(v) At E, a tangent XEY is drawn to the curve, making it parallel to AC. The distance of this tangent from DE gives the maximum value ofP4. (vi) From E, draw EC' LAC'. Join BC', which now represents the potential rupture plane. From Fig. 925weget,Pn = 113.5kN,/m.
(1e) (s.1s) = 73.4 kN/m. :.Wr= (rl2)(r.s>

For each wedge, the resultant aclive lhrust acts at an angle 6 = 20", to the normal to the backface of the wall. Again, for the failure planesBCyBC2, ...,8C5, the resultantsoil replanesat, actions.R R2, .. .,R5 areinclined to the normalson the respective 1,
wall retaining "r. Jf*l:lt"tlun, e.1.A
vertical has back , smooth
o .=33'.
to retain a sandbackfill having the following properties: y=1.85t/m3,q=3g". (i) Detennine the total active thrust exertedby the backfill on the wall. (ii) Determine the percentchangein active thrust, if the water table rises from a great depth to a height of 2 m above the baseof the wall. ] I Ans. (i) 4.93 tlm (ii) Increasesby 27.2%b 9.2. A6 m high earth fill is suppodedby a retainjng wall with a smooth vertical backface and canies a surchargeof 30 kN/m'. The angle of internal friction of the fill soil is 30", while its bulk density is 17.5 kN/m'. Plot the on distribution of activeearthpressure thewall. Also determinethe magnitude point of application of the resuitantthrust. and I Ans. 165 kN/m, appliedat236 m abovebase] 9.3. A vertical retaining wall has to retain a horizontal backfill upto a height of 4 m above G.L. The propertiesof the backfill are : c = 0, 0 = 28', G = 2.68, w = ll7o, s = 55Vo, F = 0.5 If the wall is rigidly held in position, what is the magnitude of active thrust acting on it? I Ans. 15.5t/m ] 9.4. With referenceto Problem 3, determinethe percentagechangesin active thrust if the wall moves : (i) towards the backfill (ii) away from the backfill Assume that, the lateral rnovementof the wall is sufficient to bring about a stateof plastic equilibrium. t Ans. (i) Reducesby 63.97o (ii) Increasesby 17697o I 9.5. A masonryretaining wall, 5.5 m high, retainsa backfill of cohesionless soil, having a horizontal top surface.The soil has an angle of internal friction of 27.5", a void ratio of 0.83, and the specificgravity of solids is 2.65. The water table is located at 2.2 m below the top of tle wall. Above the water table, the averagedegreeof saturationof the soil is loVo,Plotthedistribution
Constructionof Force Triangles : Let us consider the first ftial wedgeA8Cl. The forces acting on it are : (i) Self-weight W1 @oth magnitude and direction are known). (ii) Soil reaction R1 (only the direction is known). (iii) Wall reaction P,4, (this is equal to tle resultant active thrust on the wall and only its direction is known). Let us choose a suitable vector scale. A vertical line a1b1is drawn to represent I4r1in magnitude and direction. From c1, a1c1is drawn parallel to the direction of Pa, while frombl, b1c1isdrawn parallel tofi1. They intersect at c1, and tle force triangle a1b1c1is closed. d1c1now representsthe lateral thrust for the trial failure plane BC1, in magnitude and direction Force triangles for all other kial wedges are constructed in a similar manner. Note that for eachwedge, (i) The magnitude of lTandPn change,but their directions do not. (ii) Both magnitude and direction of,R change. In order to compute the actual value of the resultant thrust and to locate the corresponding potential failure plane, a pressure curve is drawn as follows: (i) At any height aboveAC, DlD5llAC is drawn. ar ( i i ) A t C y C 2 , . . . , C 5 t h e l i n e s E 1 C 1 , E 2 C 2 , . . . , E 5 C 5c d r a w n perpendiculattoAC. (iii) The dist ances 1Dy E 2D2, . . ., E 5D5 arelaid off from thosenormals, E to representP4 PAr, .. ., Pn, to the chosenvector scale. ,, (iv) The points E1, E2, ...,E5are joined by a smooth curve. This is the pressure cufle.
250
Probkms in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
EarthPressure
251
of active earth pressureand compute the magnitude and point of application of the resultant rhrusr. I Ans 12.56 t/m applied at 1.5g m above the base ] 9.6. A cohesionlessbackfill, retained by a 5 m high retaining wall with a srnooth vertical back, is bounded by a horizontal surface. Tbe water table is at 2 rn below the top of the wall. Above the wa-tertable, the angle of internal friction andbulk densityof the soil are 18 kN/m3 and 30; respeJtively.Below the water table, the bulk density increasesby Lovo while the frictiln angle decreases 2ovo. Detennine the resultant active pressureon the wail. by
(a) Determine the active thrust on the wall if the backfill has a horizontal top surface. (b) Determine the percentchangein the active thrust if, insteadof being horizontal, the backfill is now sloped upwards at an angle of 15" to the by kN/m.(b) Increases 8.85%l horizontal. I Ans.(a)39.52 9.10. A masonry wall has to retain a cohesive backfill having an unconfined compressivestrengthof 4 t/m' and a bulk density of 1,72 gmlcc. The overall height of the wall is 6 m. Determine : (i) the depth upto which tensioncrackswill be extended. (ii) the magnitude and point of application of the active thrust IAns. (i) 2.32m (ii) 11.63kN/rn at 1.23m abovebase] 9.11. With referenceto Problem 9.10, detennine the minimum intensity which when placedover the backfill, will prevent the of a uniform surcharge, tAn formation of tension cracks. I Ans.3.08 ] 9.12. A5 m high masonry retaining wall with a vertical backfaceretains a horizontal backfill of dry sandhaving T = 20 kN/m3 and 6 = 32'. Compute the resultant active thrust on the wall by : (i) Rankine's theory (ii) Coulomb's theory, using the trial wedge rnethod. Which one of the results is more realistic and whv?
cohesionless backfill. State, giving reasons, how the active earth pressure exerted by the backfill will change in each of tlre following cases: (a) the backfill becomes saturated due to capillary-water, while the ground water table rernains belgw the baseof the wall. (b) the ground water table rises above the base,but there is no capillary water. (c) the given backfill is replacedby a cohesionlesssoil having : (i) sarneunit weight but greater angle of internal friction. (ii) same angle of internal friction but greater unit weighl (iii) same unit weight and angle of internal friction, but having a small apparent cohesion. 9.8. cornpute the total active thrust and its point of application for the retaining wall shown i'Fig. 9.26. The wall has a smooth backface. I Ans. 3.6 r/m, 0.90 m above the base]
e,7.Aretai'ing havingsmooth wau a vertical rjffjfiTfi:
0 I Ars. (i) 76.75kN/m (ii) 79.3kN/rn,assuming =
!t
3m
I -r1'5m
Ctoyey Sond f = 1 . 8 5/ m 3 t * =2lro c= ll/ p2 Dense and S I = 1 . 9 5/fm 3 g=36o

Fig.9.26
9.13. An RC.C. retaining wall, having a backfaceinclined to the vertical at 10', has to retain a horizontal backfill of dry sand upto a height of 5.2 m. The soil has a unit weight of 17.5 kN/m' and an angle of internal friction of 28". The angle of friction between soil and concrete may be taken as 18'. Determine the point of application, direction and magnitude of the active thrusl Use the trial wedge method. I Ans. 98 kN/m, at 18" to the normal on the backface] 9.14. Solve Problem9.13 graphically,using : (i) Culmarur's method. (ii) Rebhann'sconstruction. 9.15. A gravity retaining wall has to retain a 6 m high backfill of dry, cohesionless soil (1 = 19 kN,/m3, O = 36') having a surchargeangle of 8'. The back of the wall has a positive batter angle of 10". The backfill carries a linear load of 5 t/m, running parallel to the wall, at a distanceof 3 m from the top of the backface, measuredalong the ground. Compute the total active thrust on the wall by Culmann's method.Locate the point of application and
9.9. A smooth vertical retaining wall has to retain a backfill of cohesionlesssoil uptoa heightof4 m aboveG.L. The properriesofthe backfill are :
y = 19 li.{,/m3, 0 = 36'
., directionof thisthrust.Assurne, = i 0. 6 J
I Ans. 155kN/m]
252
9.15. Qompute the total active thrust exerted by the backfill on the retaining wall system shown in Fig. 9.27. Locate the position of the potential rupfure surface.
EarthPressure
253
Cleon ond S (Y=19kN/m3, @ = 3 3 oc = g 1 ,
0 = 25', G = 2.65, e = L.05, s = 0 The back of the wall is relatively smooth.Compute the total active earth pressureexertedby the backfill using any suitable theory. A few months after construction,the backfill was thoroughly compacted and consequently,its Q -value increasedto 32'. However, the top surface of the backfill was depressedby 80 cm. Determine the percent change in the total active earth pressure. ).20. A 4 m high earth-retaining stucture having a smooth vertical backfacc retains a backfill having the following properties: c = 2l/m2, Q - 22', rl = 1.85t/m2 Plot the distribution of passive prssureon the wall and determine the magnitude and point of application of the total lateral force. I Ans. 56.3 Vm ; 1.61 m above the base ]
Fig.9.27 9'17. T\e backfit praced behi'd a 5 m high masonry retaining walr consists of a partiaily sarurated crayeysilt, havin! rhe follo;ing p-fir,i.r, unir weighr = 18.5 kN/m3 cobesion= 10 kN/mz angle ofinternal friction = 21" angle of wall friction = 12. adhesion between soil and wall = g kNlm2 surchargeangle ofbackfill = 10. The back of the wail is inclined to the horizontar g0'. at Determine the magnitude and direction of the aclive thrust by the triar wedge -"rtoJ. arro determine the depth to which tension cracks wiil be extende-d. 27.5kN/m run; 1.57m] IAns. A retaining wall, 4.5 m high and having a positive batter _ _^ ?.18. angle of 15" has to retain a cohesionlesstactnfl having a unit *.ight of 1.g5 t/*?;; an a.gle of internar friction of 31'. usi'g Reiharur,s meilod, aetermine rne magnitude of laterar thrust on the walr, ii the surcharge angle of the backfilr is: (i) 10'(ii) 2s. (iii) 31". 9.19. A4 m high retaining wall with a vertical backface was eonstructed to retain a backfifl of loose send with a horizontal top surface nurt.a to tn. top of the wall. raboratory investigations revealed that the sand had the following properties:
Stability of Slopes and,
255 a = o" silB = yz cosBsinp ...(10.3)
Failure will occur ifthe shear stressr exceedsthe shear strength rJ of the soil. The faclor of safety againstsuch failure is given by,
10
STABILITY OF SLOPES
10.1 Introduction: A slope in a soil mass is encountered when the elevation of the ground surface gradualy changes from a rower lever to a h.igherone. Such a slope may be either naiurar 6i lirty region) or man-made (in artificially comkucted ernbankrnent excavations). or The soil mass bounded by a slope has a tendency to slide down. The principal factor causirrgsuch a sridi'g fairure is the serf-weight of the soil. However, the failure may be aggravateddue to seepageof water or seismic forces. Every man-rnadesrope has to be properly desig'ed to ascertai. the safety ofthe slope againstsliding failure. various methods are availabre for anarysing tbe stability of slopes. Generally these methods are basedon tbe following assumptions : 1. Any slope stability problern is a two_dirnerrsional one. 2. The shearparameters the soil areconstant of along any possibleslip _ surface. 3. I* problerns invorvi'g seepage of water, the flow'et ca' be constructed and thc seepageforces can be determined. 10.2 stability of rnfinite sropes: In Fig. 7o.r,x-x represe'ts a. infinire slope which is inclined to the horizontal at an angre p. on any prane yy (YY ll w at a depth z below the ground lever thJ roil prop"rti"i and the overburden pressure are constant. Hence, failure ,my o""ui along a plane parallel lo the slope at some depth. The co'ditions for such a failure may ue analysedby co.sidering the equiribrium of the soir prismA,BCD of width b. Considering unit thickness,volume of the prism V = z b cos F and, weight of the prism, W=yzbcosp Vertical stess on llPdue to the selt'-weight.
T
Fig. 10.1.
r = T!
\t):f olrcsionlesssoi/s: We have frorn Coulomb's equation,
...(10.4)
rf = c + otano soil, For a cohesionless c = 0, r/ = otan0 in Substituting eqn.(10.4) ohno F =

a for Again, substitutingthe expressions o andr. c o s ' B . t a n O_ t a n O , / F _ 11 = /
''tzcos sinP= ;;ft P
r1t "'(10's)
When S = p, F. = 1. Thus a slope in a cohesionlcss soil is stable till s Q, provided tbat no extemal force is present. F ((ii)) c - f sor/s: In this case,the factorofsafety againstslopefailure is glverf by, n c * otano
T
",=l=yzcosp
o = o, cosp = yt.or2B
...(10.1)
This vertical stressrranbe resolvedinto the following two componenfs:
) ^ ,' _ c + yzcos'Ftan0 yzcospsinp /
...(r0.6)
...(r0.2)
Stability of Slopes
6 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Let H" be the critical heigbt of the slope for which F = 1 (i.e, ,f = r) YfI" *tB or,
Of,
257
sinp = c * yH, "*28
t nq
4_ffi
y "or2 p (tanf - tan p) Eqn.(10.7)mayalsobewrifrenas:
C
Hc-+
...(10.7)
q) Foce
:?
or'
- cos"B(tanF tano) -
...(10.8) ...(10.e)
Foiture
b) Toe Foi [ure

Fig. 10.2
c) Base Foilu re
Sn= cos2B(tanB tano)
where, s, is a dimensionlessquantity known as the stability number and is given by :
the (a)Purely cohesive soils: I.etAB represent slope whose stability has to be investigated.A trial slip circleASlC is drawn with O as centre and OA = OC = R as radius.
s'= yt
cn=q
Then, ^ c r"- c yE= F;yH
c
...(10.10)
If a factor of srfety F, is applied to the cohesion such that the mobilised cohesion at a depth H is,
...(10.11) ...(10.12)
,+' I
---
P
\!
\ \ B
---
tr
r-o
From eqns.(10.10)and (10.12), ger, we
y4=+rH or, F, = + = Fn.

Fig.10.3 acting vertically downwards Let Wbe the weigbt of the soil rnassA.SICB of through the centre of gravity and c be the unit c-ohesion the soil. The self-weight tends to causethe sliding while the shear resistancealong the planeASIC counteractslt. Now, arc le4gth ASIC = R '0 where, Q = IAOC (expressed radians) in Hence, the factor of safety againstcohesion,.F., is tle sameas the factor of safety with respectto height, Fa . 10.3 stability of Finite slopes: In case of slopes of limited extent, three tlpes of failure may occur.Theseare:facefailure, toe failure and basefailure (Fig. 10.2 a, b and c respectively). Variousmethodsofanalysingthefailureoffinite slopesarediscussed below. 10.4 Swedish Circle tleUgAL In this merhod, rhe surface of sliding is
assuffiill-i6Efifll
oI a circle.
258
Problems in Soil Meclutnics rrnd Foundotion Engineering
Stobiliry of Slopes
.'. Total shearresistance along the plane ASIC = R 0 c Restoringrnornelt = shearresistance lever arrn x ot Mn = nOc x R = R20c
...(10.13)
il),r-l>l ! o. (r.t d lL-k

I , . I \ l r \ \
Consideringunit thicknessof the soil rnass, W = A . I . y = A t where, Y = unit we.ightof the soil A = cross-seclionalareaof the sectorASr CB. The areaA can be detenninedeitherby using a plauirneteror by drawing the figure to a proper sc-ale a graph paper and counting tht'.number o[ on divisions ofthe graph paper coveredby the area. Now, disturt'ring rnornent, MA = W .a where, d = lever ann of lIlwith respectto O.
- \ \ u V Q
Nr
The distancedrnay be detenninedby dividitrg tbe areainto an arbitrary numberof segrnents small width, andtakingmLrnlents all thesesegrne of of nts about O. Thus, the factor of safety against slope failure,
l -
-<
M*
= - = - - a
cRzo {rWd
MD
...(10.14)
Fig'l0'4 C = c'la whert:, c = unitt:ohesion, lengthofslice lo = average slices,El andEp .In simplified analysis (iii) I-ateraltlrrusttiorn adjacent it is assurned that, E1 = ER 'Hence the effects of these two forces are neglcctcd. According to the laws of friction, when the (iv) Soit reactionR ac.ross arc:. the soil is about tc slicle R will be inclined to the normal at an angle Q. , V1 (v) The vertical stresses, and7p , which areequal and oppositeto each other and henceneednot be considered. The weighl W is resolved into a normal componentN and a tangential the colnponent L For sorneof the slices Twill enhance failure, for the others it will resist the tailure. The algebraicsurn of the normal and tangential conponentsare obtainedfrom :
A rrurnber of trial slip circles are cboseu and tbe lhctor of sal'ety with respectto each of them is computed.A curve is then plotted to show the variation of factor of safety with various slip circles (the curve F1 F2 Fg in Fig. 10.11).The slip circle corresponding tbe minimurn factor of sat'etyis to identified from this curve. This is the potential slip surface, and the corresponding factor ofsafety is the factor ofsafety againstfailure ofthe slope
AB.
(b) Cohesite frirtional soils: With reference to Fig. 1O.4,a trial slip circf eASlC is taken and the sector 1,SlCB is divided into a nunrber of verticzl slices,preferablyofequal width. The forcesacting on eachslice are: (i) Self-weight, 17,of the slice, acting verticalty dounwards through the centre of gravity. ConsiCeringunit thickness of the slice, W=\xboxln ...(10.15)
where, boant-lo represent the average height and length of the slice i respectively. (ii) The cohesive force, C, acting along the arc iu a direction opposilg the probable motion of the sliding soil.
and, Now,
2 T = 2 ( U rs i n c ) t t/ = E (I4zcoso) Mo=R2T driving lllomellt,
...(10.17) ...(10.18) ...(10.1e)
260
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundotion Engineering
Stability of Stopes
261
and,Restoringmoment, Mn = R[clAI + x/V tan$] = >At = totallengtbofarcASlC R0 But Mn = RIcR0 + trYtanOl ty, .'. Factorof safe M^ - RlcR0 + xNtan0l '- R'T MD
F = -
...(10.20)
(iv) From 8, drawBP,making it inclined to the horizon lal at a2' BP and AP intersect atP, which is a point on the desiredline PQ' (v) The other point Q is located at a deptl ,Frbelow the toe of the slope join anOit a horizontal distanceof 4.5 II away frorn it. Locate tlris point and slip circlc will be located on PQ' PQ.The centre of the critical
Table 10.1
Slope (V, H) Slope angle ($)
of Values angles
cr1
Q.,t
or,
.y't c{_9__t_X_ffeLQ. Vr = zr
...(10.21) 1 : 0.58 1:1 1:1.5 L:2 1:3 1:5 60' 45" 33"48' 26"36' 18"24' 11'1g'
A number of txial slip circles should be consideredand the factor of safety for each should be determined.The one correspondingto the minimum factor of safety is the critical slip surface. 1O5 Method of l-ocating the centre of the Trial slip circle: The number of rrials reguired to find out the critical slip circle can be minitnised by an the empirical method proposedby Fellenius. According to _him, centre of the critical slip circle is located on a straight lne PQ, which can be obtained as follows: (i) Draw the given slopcAB and determine the slope angle-,[ (ii; Oetermine the values of the anglesa1 and crz (Fig. 10'5) from Table 10.1. (iii) FromA, drawAP at at *ngle of c1 to A8.
29" 28" 26" 25" 25' 25"
40' 37" 35' 35' 35' 27"
10.8 Friction Circle Method: This methodis basedon the assumptionthat the resuttant forceR on the rupture surfaceis tangential to a circle ofradius y = R sin Q which is concentric with the tial slip circle. Various steps involved ate givenbelow : 1. Draw the given slope to a chosenscale' 2. Seleeta triatslip circle of radius R, the centre of which is located at
o (Fig. 10.6a) r 3. ComPute (= fi sin Q) and draw anothercircle of radius r, with O as the centre. 4. Now considerthe equilibrium of the sliding soil mass under the following forces: (i) Self-weightWof the sedorABCD. 1il; fne cohesiveforce C along the planeADC, the magnitudeand as directionof which canbe computed follows : \\e Let c be the unit cohesion. arcADC is dividedinto a numberof forcesalong cohesive be l*t smallelements. C1,'C2,.-..,Cn themobilised them. by C The resultant of theseforcescanbc determined drawinga force polygon. c-', Now, themobilisedunit cohesion, is givenby :
Fig.10.5
262
Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundation Engineering
Stability of Slopes
263
W line rtb to represent (Fig. 10.6(b))' (i) Drawa vertic:al (ii) From rr clrawac, making it parallelto the line of action of Fp . (iii) Frorn b drop a perpendicularbd on ac. The line bd now represents' CR requiredto maintain the in magnitudeand direction,the cohesiveforc.e ABCD along the closen slip circle. equilibriurn of the soil mass 6. Dek:rmine the unit cohesioncrrequired for stability from :
c, =
i
c cr
...( 1{) .26)
w.r.t. cohesionis now obtainedliotn : 7. The thctor of sal'etv

F
acfualcohesiorl requiredcohesion
-
...(10.27)
8. The factor of safely w.r.t. shearstrengthc:anbe obtained as follows: (i) Assurne a certain factor of sat'etywith respectto the angle of intemal triction. Let it be,F6.The mobilisedangleof intenni frictiott is then given by:
(q) Fig. 10.6 , c ' c ^ = n
' c
(b)
= tan 0 tanOz n
r'= Rsin0n
...(10.28)
(ii) Draw a uew tiiction circlewith O ascentreand r' asradius,where,
.,.(r0.22)
...(10.2e)
where, F. = factor of safety with respectto cohesion. The cohesive force is givel by , C=C^tr= c'L.. O:
w.r.t. cohesionF. is thenobtainedby tbnning (iii) The lactor of sat'ety CompareF6' and F6. If they are different, go for anothFr triangle of forcres. alother trial. (iv) In this mauner, adjust the radius of the circle until ,FOand F. as becorneequalto eachother.This value is theuaccepted the factor ofsafety for shearstrengthof the soil w.r.t. the given trial slip circle. 10.9 Taylor's Stability Number: Taylor carried out stability analysis of a heights, slope angles and soil large @rious basisof the results,he proposeda simple method by which properties.On the the factor of safety of a given finite slope can be easily detennined with parameter,called accuracy.Taylor introduccda dimensionless reasonable Taylor's Stability Nurnber,which is given by,
...(10.23)
But, sumrning up the moments of all forces about o and equating to zero, we get, C'Lo'R=C.Lr.a
...(1o.24)
where, a = perpendicular distanceof line of action of c frorn the centre of 'the slip circle.
"= !^
Lc
...(10.2s)
,./r,, = F , \
...(10.30)
(iii) The other force is the soil reaction d which is assumedto be trngential io the friction circle. 5. Draw the triangle of forces in the following lnanner :
The value of S,, rnay be obtained frorn Fig. 10.7.
Problems in SoitMechanics and Fottndation Engineering
Stabilityof SloPes 0'18
265
0-20
0.16
I I 01s
L' (U -o
L
%
/, /
z a.n >
=
+ t/l -ct
2 #
/ / /
+ 0.14 I
e. a
! @
4.12
E a z
t
5 o +
../l
0.10
0.05
,l
10
/,
0.06 90 0.05 ; F Depth cctor,n6*

Fig.10.8 where, D - Depth of bard stratumbelow toe f/ = Height of sloPeabovetoe' slope angles'-Each Fig. 10.8 consists of a family of curves for various curveconsistsoftwoparts.Theportionsdrawnwitifirmlinesareapplicable while the portions drawn with to field conditions iffustraiea in Fig' 10'9 (a), shown in Fig' 10'9 (b)' broken lines are meant for the conditions with broken lines' Tbe figure also consiss bf a third setof cuwes' shown the where n represents distanccx of the rupture circle for various values of 4 given by' from the toe, as illustated in Fig. 10'9 (a), and is
20 30 /.0 50 60 70 80 ----* (Degrees) -Angte Slope

Fig.10.7
w.r.t cohesion, The stability numbers are obtained for factor of safety w.r.t' friction, Fq is initially taken as unity' while fte factorof safety ThevaluesofS'obtainedfromFig'10'Tareapplicableforslip.circles of limited passingthrough tne ioe. However for slopesmade in cohesivesoils below the the critical slip circle passes ieptn i'na "nierlain bya hard stratum, toe.Insuchcases,thevalueofs'shouldbeobtainedfromFig'10'8'Intlis as : figure, the depth factor plotted along the 'r'axis is defined
nc=
D + H H
...(10.31)
n =xf r
-l
266
Stttbility of Slopes
261
{o}
Fig. 10.9
(b)
EXAMPLES / Problern l0y'J A slopeof infinite extentis rnadein a densesandlayer at an angle of 30'to the horizontal.Detenninelhe factor of safety of the slope againstshearfailure if the angle of internalfriction of the soil be 36'. Solution: With referenceto Fig. I0.I, XX represents given slope, the while )Yis a plane parallel to it at a depthz. Vertical stresson XIldue to overburden. oz=lz where, Y = unit weight of the soil Normal stresson YY, Shear stressorr YI, o = oz cos2p ([] = slope angle)
L Ftow ines
Fig,10.10
at P' line PQ represents oue sucli equipotential line, which intersects \Y Hence, the piezonetric head at P is given by PR'
of Fromgeotnetry the tigure, PR = P0 cosF PQ = zcos9 and, PR = zcos2 0

al Therefore,neutralpressure
1 ^ P = 'l', z cos- p
a = o" c.osF sin 0
Shearstrengthof the soil on the plane 17, "f = otanQ = o-(:os2ptanQ. But, tactor of safteyagair:stsheartailure,
a
at Now. total vertical stress P due to overburden,

Z o= = Ysat
Total nrlrmal slressat P, Shearstressat P,
',r - - ' f r
o"cos'F tanO
p o = o; c:os2 = yr",, "or2 p r = o : c o s p s i n 0= Y s a tc o s P s i n P z
- t a n0 ozcosBsinB lan0
Effec-tivenormal stressat P = total normal stress- neutral stress or, o' = ysat', .or2 B - Yrz coszP = Z cos2F (y"ar- y.) = ysuu, "or2 P . However,tbe shearingstressis entirily intergrannular. Shearslrength of the soil on Ylz, "f = o' tan S = ]116z cos2P tan $ .'. Factorofsafety againstshearfailure, 'is ]*5 z cos2p tan Q -
tan 36' =rr"3tr=I'46' / Problem nd fslope inc:linecl 16' to the horizontalis to be made in at a cohesionless deposithaving the following properties: G=2.70,e=0.72,0=35', Detennine the factor of sat'ety the slope againstshearfailure if water of percolatesin a direction parallel to tlre surfaceofthe slope. Solution: The given conditiousare shown in Fig. 10.10. YYis a plane locatedat a depthzbelow the slope.As water percolates in a directio;rparallel ro the slope,all llow lines rnust be parallel to the slope. Therefore., equipotentiallines should be perpendicularto the slope. The all
" = i = l;;"'P't"P
y.ubtan 0 yr", tan p
268
Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundatian Engineering
Stability of SloPes
Now,
ysar Ysub
(2'79-* 0J3li1'0) 1.988 = r./rn3 Il +*e " n = u... (l+0.72) '

1.983-X=0.988t,/m3 (0.988) (tan35') 1.55 ,
Fs=
6trsffi=r'2r
Problern 10.3 A slope of 35' inclination and 6 m vertical height is to be rnade in a purêlycohesive soil having a unit weight of 1-.85Vmt and a cohesion of 6 t/m' . Determine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding failure. Solution : The problem will be solved by the Swedish circle method. The solution is presentedin Fig. 10.11 and the procedure is explained below: (i) The given slopeA3 is drawn to a scale of 1 : 200. (ii) The values of c1 and cr2for p = 35' are determined from Table 10.1 by making linear interpolation between F = 33"48' and B = 45". The following values are obtained : al = 26.2", eZ = 35" (iii) The point Q lying at a depth of .EI= 6 m belowA and at a linear distance of.4.5 H = 2'7 m fromA is located. (iv) FromA and .B, two straigbt linesAPand BP are drawn such that, LPAB = ?.6.2", and LHBF = 35" AP and BP intersect at P. (v) PQ is joined. The centre of the critical slip circle should be located on this line. (vi) PB is measuredand found to be 4. 6 m. On projected Q,two more p o i n t s P ' a n d P " a r e t a k e n s u c h t h a t , P P '= P ' P " = & = 2.3m.
J-o,
I
Fig.10.11
rr 2?'5m
(vii) Three trial slip circles are drawn with P, P' and P" as centres and PA, F A and F' A respectively as radius. The factor of safety with respect to each circle is determined separately. Fig. 10.11 shows the determination of Fg with respect to the first trial slip circlg having its centre atP. The ptocedure is statedbelow : (i) The area under tle slope and the slip surface is divided into 7 slices. The first 6 slices have a width of 2 m each while the width of the 7tb slice is
r--'=
distutbittg (ii) Considering unit thickness; the area, weigbt and the sliie are d9trmine4'Thes?a4 lablla o*K f*.".h
lstu"Width llVo.
(n) I
Averagelenglh (n)
Area
Weight Level ' Moment f t x A x l ) arm aboutP

(t) abovl P (m)
o*t
2.2
(t-m) -15.06
2.0
4.07
3.7
2.2m.
210
Slice Widtlt No. (m)
Problcms in SoilMe:hanics and FoundtrtionEnginecring

Aterage Iengrlt
Stabilityof SloPes
27L
Area
Weiglt (yxAxI) (t)
(m)
(^2)
Let,er Moment Qrm about P ebout P (m) (t-m)

1 . f
50' to the Problern 10.4 A 10 rn deep cut, with the sidesinclirted at conditionsareasfollows: horizontal.hasto tretnadeat a sitewlrerethesubsoil No. Depth (m)
Typeof soil
Very sotl claY Mediurn claY Stiff clay Roclk
y (Wlmi)
Q ( /
c (kNlm2)
2.0
- - =
2.4+ 4.0 2 *
1 l
6.2
T1.47
-19.50
I
1
0-4 4-1 7 -t4

14-o
r7.5
18.0 19.0
0 0 0
L2 35 68
" 9.3 11.6 t7.21

tr.J
2.0 4 5 6 .|
gfl=o'ut
5.3+ 6.3= 5 ' E 2 6.3+5.6_.o. -"2
5.16
J
2.0
2.0
2r.6
22.01 17.58
7.94
z.)
49.36 94.64
r 1.9
9.5 4.29
.1. -t
2.0
2.2
wl2=o'" ff=r.ns
MD
6.3
8.4
r10.75
66.1O
probablebase Cotnpute tlre thctor of safetyof the slopewith respectto a of 13.5m radius' lailure along a slip circle can prcibletn solution: Fig. l}.l2illustrates the given conditions.The be solved by the Swedish c:irclemethod' this 1DGE representsthe slip circle of radius 13.5. O is the centre of circle.Astheslipcirclepassesthroughthreedifferentlayers,thefailure
2M = 292.A5t-nt Disturbing Mornent, 292.05 t-st c R2.o
k - l Y l= 1 ? ' 5 N/ m 3 qI tr = 78 ril/m2 1 - r Y 2 = 8k N / m l r g2= 35;1r11s2 ln
Again, restoring lnornenl, MR Here,
c = 2.5t/nt? R = PA = 9.9rn g = LAPD = 102.5'= 1.789 radian = MR = Q.s) (e.e-)(1.789) 438.35 t-m
[ = 1 9k N / r n 3 ?m C3=15 P7612 1
= Facforofsal'ery= #; ffi=
1.50
Fig.10.12
In a similar manner,thc factor of safcty of the slopew.r.t. the two other slip circles (having their ceutresat P' and P"1 aredetenninedand are lbund to be 1"55 and 1.66 respectively. curve representing variation of factor A tlre of safety is then plotted. Tbe minimum factor of safety of the slope, as obtained from this cuwe, is 1.45.Tlie corresponding critical slip circle will bave its centrelocatedat P^.
iones. lrt IV1,W2and W! be the weights of of wedgeconsists threedifl'erent lever arms about O. th" t[r.. zonesand.r1,.r2and .'3 be the corresponding FromB,drawBlLHF.Zorrelmaylrowbedividedirttotlretriangle BHI and the rectangleB/FE Weight of
I
kN. (3.3) (17.s) (4.0) = 11s.s kN L BHI = (0.s)
272
Problems in SoiI Meclmnics and Fottndation Engineering
of Sttrbility StttPt's
273
Weight of sector BIFE = (17.5)(6.5)(4.0)kN = 455kN. Wr = 115'5 + 455 = 560'5kN. (115.s) (7.2 - 33/3) * (65)Q2 + 65/2) = 9.?4m. 560^5 to the HFGJ is assurned be a parallelograrn, centroidof The second zone which lies at the intersection thediagonals. of W2 = (18)(10.6)(3)= 572.4kN 'l = x2 = 7.5m (by measurement) The area, In orderto find out W3andx3,zoneIII is dividedinto 7 slices. slice aboutO are determined. Theseare lever arm and momentof eac.h tabulated below:
Slice No. Widtlt Average Imgtlt (m)
Asthes|ipcirclcpasst:sthrclughtlrrccdift.ererrtsoillayers,tlreresisting of along the three segtneuts o[ tbrce cotrsists thc cohesivclbrcesmobilised figure' anglesare shown in the the slip circlc. Thc corrt:spcnding lllorllellt rcstoriltg Thcrclbre,lotal = c t R 2 o 1+ c r R ? 0 , + c 3 R : 0 3 = .41(cr + cr $ + ca 03) 01
(16'2)] (r4'2)+ (78) + = (13.s2) (101'5) (36) # [(26)

= 14039.69 kN-rn' Factor of safetyalonglhe givt:n slip circlt:
= tm)
Area (^2) Weight (kN)
Lever Moment 4rm about O ubaut O ( w- m ) (m)
Tzsollg
14039.69 =
1.09
l.
3.5
!{o*r.u)=t.t
a 1
4.55
96.3 t79.5 140.6 342.1 370.5 3A2.1
7.6 4.6
-:731.8 -825.7 -295.3 120.8 t259.7 L933.4
z.
2
A q.
l{z.u*t.r)=t.rt
= lo., *6.e) 5.3
3
9.45 1.4
made in a-siltyclay having Problem l0.5 A slopeof l V : 2 H is to be a t r a t r g l e o f i r r t e n r a l r r i c t i o n o f 5 . a r r d a c o h e s i o r r o f 0 . 2 5 k g l o n " . T hthe r r i t eu of cut is 8 m' Cornpute *"isf, of the soil is 1-85grn/cc, and the depth circle method' faclir o[ saft:tyof the slopeby the Swedish 10'13 (t)' T1" centreof a Solution: The given slope is showuiu Fig' The sliding wedge is divided is trial slip c:irrrle lo"ut a uy Feilenius,method. width of 4 rn' while slice no' 6 7 slices.The tirst five sliceshave equal into ftngth of eachslice is tneasured' average and ? are 2.8 rn wide each'The
z.l
0.4 3.4 6.4 9.9
15.9 19.5
/ii'i\
N1 T1
-----'72sF
6.
Itu.n*6.1)=6.5 = *4.5) 5.3 15.9 lrc.t |o.s ro)=zzs

9.0
/ ri\.\/(
r7r.a
1692.9
2 M = 3153.9 W3 x x3 = 3153.9 - m kN
Now, total disturbingmoment = Wtxt + WZvZ + W3x3
- (s60.5) (7.5)+ 3rs3.e (9.7$ + (s72,4) = 12906.L9
Ws &=l'ls
Tg=0
f,
1"1
(a) Fig.10.13
274
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engincering
Stahility olSlqtas
275
%(1 6 s) /
Pzn't+9) P8 {1.82) Ps(1,65 ) \t1.71
In lhis nranncr,lhc nomral ancllangential components eachslice are for detcrmined. Thc rt:sull.s labulated are below : Slice No. Widtlr (m)
q
Average length (m)
Weight (t)
t{ (r)
t4.7 44.7 64.4 73.8 62.3 30.1 10.1
T (t) -10.1 -9.9 0 19.4 34.6 31,.2 15.9

= 8 1 . 1t
(t.eq)
P1
2.4 6.2 8.7 10.3 9.65 8.4 3.6
17.76 45.8t1 64.38 76.22 71.4r 43.51 18.7
z
J
4 4 4 4 2.8 2.8
5 6 7 ||
I t
4 ' 5H
(b) Fig.10.13 The weight of any slice may now bc determinedas : !7 = width x averagelength x unit weight of soil The selt'-weightis assumed act along the centralvertical line througlr to each slice, and not through its geometrical centre. The norn.raland tangential components/y' and I respec-tively, the self-weight are deternined by of constructinga triangle of tbrce. An easyrnethod of doing this is explained here with reference to lhe slice no. 4. Draw the centralvertical line throughthe rniddleof the slice (shownwith a broken line). Measureits length.Extend the line and lay-off an equal length frour it. This new line now representsthe self-weight Wa in magnitude and direclion. The corresponding vector scale used is 1 cm = width of slice x unitweight of soil = (4) (1.85)= 7.4ln In order to construct the force triangle, join tlre cetrtre ofthe slip circle to the mid-point of the bottom of slice. Extend this radial line and drop a perpendicular on it from the terminal point of the line representing IVa. The nonnal component.lf4 and tangential component14 are now detennined frorn the force triangle.
2 W = 3 3 7 . 9 t ,X N = 2 5 5 . 4 t , : r
It should be noted tlrat.as the width of slices6,ard 7 are70Voof that of lhe olhcr slices,lhc length of the vertical lines representing and W6 are W7 701 of the. avcragelengthof slice no. 6 and 7 respectively. The tactor of sat'ety the slopew.r.t. the slip circle underconsideration of may now be determined using eqn.(10.24) : c R 0 + I y ' y 't a n q Ir t z r By rneasurernent, = 15.8m, R
and,
= o = 115" (lffiLI*o.= z.oo7rad.

(2.007) (2s5.$(tan5') (2.s)(15.8) + =l.E Fs=
In order to Iocate the critical slip circle, i.e., the slip circle with the proceedas follows : rniuirnumthctor of sat'ety, (i) Measure. distance the PyB,l-e.tit be I. (ii) With P0 as centre fonlr a grid consistingof 9 points such that the length of each side of the grJd= 712. (iii) Draw trial slip circles taking each of these9 points in turn as the ccntre.Computethe faclor of safetyof the slopefor eachslip circle. (iv) Plot the values of F5 thus obtained for each grid point and draw contour lines for different values of F5. The slip circle having the minimum value of.F5 can be detenninedfrom this contour.The conespondingvalue of F5 is the fac-torof safety of the slope.
Sttrbility of SloPes 276 Problems in Soil Mechanics und Foundation Engineering
271
The processis illustratedin Fig. 10.13(b). It is found thal tht: slip circkr ly having the rninimum factor of safe is lhc outr drawn with P,7 lhc ct:nlre. as Thus, Fellenius'methodyields an accuratc rcsult in this case.Tlre tactoro[ safety ofthe slope. found lo be 1.25. is Prolrlern 10.5 A 12 rn high ernbankutcut sidc'gtopc.s I V :2 H. has oL The soil has a unit weight of 1.8 Vmr, cohesionof 1.5 t/m/ and angle of with r(:sp(:ct internalfric{ion of 15".Determint:the factorof saft:tyof tht:skrpr: to any chosenslip circle. Use the tiiction circle rncthocl. Solution: The slopeis drawn in Fig. 10.14.A triat slipcircle AEC is drawnwith a radiusR= 20.5m. The cbordAC isjoined and ils lcrrgthis lirund to be 32 m. [,etD be the rnid point ofAC. The centre of the slip circ{e P rs jointd lo D aud PD is r:xltndcd. It intersectsthe slope at .F and the slip circlc at E. Thc rnid-point G of EF nray be taken as the centreof gravity of lhr an:aABCE. Norv, areaABCE = MBC
l
Tlrroughtltcpoirrtofintcrsecticltrof!Vatt<lC,drawastraightlirrernaking the third force F. it tangent ti tt " tii.iio,r circle. This line represe'ts to representW in Choose a vc(-lor scale and draw :t straight line of actiort of C and F' ,nugil*J. and dircctiorr. Using the kuown lines of C tiorn it' .oipt"t. the t'orcetrianglc attd detennine the tnagnitude The.valut: of Cj oblainedhere'is 41 t' Mobilised cohesion,
"*=?=*t"=r.rtt/mz
to The factor of safety wilh respecrt cohesion is' 1.5 c ^ t
F,=;=ii=1"34
friction' F0 = r'0' F, = l.34when the factor of safetywith respectto that they 4reequal However,thesetwo factorsof safetyshouldbe so adjusted to one another' Fa = l'20 As a tlrst trial, let
+ Ar(:a ADCE
)
tanQ-=s8=q#
or, 0- = 8'36''
= :.BH.AC + 1AC . DE z _ t = :(2.2) (32) + ;(31) (7.4-s)

, . J
= 194.1 r' n unit width of tbe slope,weight of thc soil wt:dgt: Consiclering ( A B C E = ( 1 e 4 . 1 ) 1 ) ( 1 . 8 )r = 349.38t. Now, deflectionangle 6 = 102" = 1.78radian . ' . A r c l e n g t h o f A E C = L = R 0 = ( 2 0 . 5 ) ( 1 . 7 8 )= 3 6 . 4 9 r n . with respec to P is given by, The lever arm /o of the cohesiveforce.
Rsin @ Rsin m @
t" = ?.R
LC
#(20.s)
= 23.38 m
I At a distanceof 23.38m from P, draw a line paralle to the chord AC. This gives the direction of the cohesive force C. Again, tfirouglr G, draw a vertical line to represnt the self-weight of the soil wedge Iv. The lines of action of W awJC intersect at p. Now, radius of the friction circlc,
(sin r = R sinO = (20.5) 10') = 3.56rn.
Fig.10.14
278
Problems in Soil Mechtrnics ond Foundttion Engineering
Stabitityof SloPes
279
The new radius of the friction circle is, r' = R sin S,, = (20.5) (sin 8.36") = 2.9ttm Draw anotherfriction circle with this radius. A The direction of F slightly changes. new tirrce triangle is cottslructed. 'fhe value of C obtainedfrom it is 46.7 t. c 46'7 t Mobilised cohesiol , c m = T = 1 6 , = l . 2 l t / : n 2 w Factorofsafety .r.tcohesion, = l.l8 F- = + , r.zl
Assume that friction and cohesion of safety of the slope againstshearfailure' their ultimatevalues' are nobilised to the sameproportionof of friction (i'e" Fq = 1)' the solution: In case of full mobilisation = L5' and p = 30" as obtained value of Taylor's Stability Nurnber for 6 from Fig. 10.7,is, S,, = 0'046' Using eqn.(10.30)
s"= F.fu' ot' F' =

or, 1.6 =1.61 'E. - (0.046) (12) (1.8)
However,asfrictionwillnotbefullyrnobilised,tlreactualvalueofF. by trials' will be less than this, and is to be found out LeI
F'-F+
Hence the l'a<{orot safety of the given slope for the slip circle under is consideration 1.18. Problern 1\7 It is requiredto makea 6 m deepexcavationin a stratunr of soft clay having 'l = 18 kN/m'aud c = 26 kN/rn'. A rock layer exists at a depth of 9 rn below the ground level. Determine the factor of safety of thc slope againstsliding ifthe slopeanglebe 40'. Solution: The problem will be solvedby Taylor's method. ,o I = rc
I
'Fo = l'25
= tan 15" = o'2r43 tanQ ffi

or' 0 = 12'1" to Referring Fig. 10'7,for F = 30" S"=0'075 when 0=10", when Q=15", S'=0'046
Here, lhe depth factor,
For n4 = 1.5 and F = 40", the value of Taylor's Stability NurnberS, as obtainedfrom Fig. 10.8 is, So = 0.172. But, we have from eqn. (10.30),
. ' . w h e nb = 1 2 . 1 ' ,
s,=0.46.ffi
= u.058.
sr, =
F"=
F r n (H
' or, F.
Sny/{
26 = 1.40 (0.172) (18)(6)
+=offina=r'277-r:5
of safety of the slope Hence, as F. and F6 are nearly equal' the factor may be taken as 1.25' E)GRCISE I,O slope of 35' inclination 10.L. Compute the factor of safety of an infinite madeinasanddeposithavinganang|eofinternalfrictiorrof4o".[Ans.1.2] l0.2.Arrirrfiniteslopeof6mheightand35.inclirrationismadeina : layer of densesand having the following-propcrties G=230' w=o7o s = 4 . 5 V r n - ,d = 5 o , e = o ' 8 5 , againstsliding' (a) Determine the factor of safety of the slope
Hence, the required factor of safety of the slope = 1.46. from Fig. 10.8that, for p = 40"and nd= 1.5, It may be further observed the value of n is approximately 0.7. x = n H = ( 0 . 7 )( 6 ) = 4 . 2 m Hence, lhe critical slip circle will cut the ground level in front of the toe at a distanceof 4.2m4 Problern W.{/ n cutting is to be made in a soil mass having ^ \.{ y - 1.8 t/m3, cA- te tt^2 and Q = 15', with.slide slopes of 30' to tle horizontal, upto a delth of 12 m below the ground level. Determine the factor
280
Problens in Soil Mecl:onics and Foundation Engineering
Stability of Slopes
281
(b) How will the fac:tor of safety changc if the slope gets fully submergcd? [Ans.(a) 1.2s(b) 1.e81 10.3. Detennine the fac'torof safetyof the slopeAB with respectto tht: given slip circle shown in Fig. 10.15.The soil hasa unit weigtrt ot ig.5 kNln3 and a cohesionof 42 kN/m'. Use the Swedishcircle rnethocl. [Ans : 1.42] 10.4. A 12 rn deepcut is rnadei'a silty clay with side slopesof 3()".The soil has the tbllowing properties: Y = 1.9gm,/cc:, c=0.25 kg/cm', O = 8".
l15m
%
/
,/ ./
3.tn
y= 6m ;f;,',';,t,H'=,:;: /
sirt crou.r
6'5m ,/ 12n
\Y-
y=1.9f/mc =1.5t/m2 3, cb=6o Stiff ttov
\=195t/m3,:yr/
Rock
Fig.10.16
Fig. 10.15 Locate the ccntre of the critical slip circle by Fellenius' method and detennine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding tailure by the Swedislrcircle rnethod. lArrs. 1.45] 10.5.Deterrninethe factor of sat'ety theslopeshown in Fig. 10.16with of respectto the given friction circle by the standard rnethodof slices. 10.5. A 10 m deep cut is to be made in a soil with side slopesof 1 v: 1 .F/.The unit weight of the soil is 1,.8gm/cc and the soil has an uncontjned cornpressive strength of 0.63 kglcm". Deterrnine the factor of sal-etyof the slope againstsliding, (i) neglecting tensiou cracks (ii) consider:ngtensioncracks 10.7. cornpute tbe factor of sat'ety the slopeshown i' Fig. 10.17 with of respectto the given slip circle by the tiiction circle methocl. 10.8. An unlined irrigation ca'al hasa depthof g rn and a side slopesof I : 1. The propertiesof the soil are as follows: c=2.0Vr12, q = 15", y = l.gt,/nr3 slidirrgby Taylor's nlethod.
1'9 m/cc g 0 . 4K g c m 2 1 -o ) 9m
Fig.10.17 Detenniue the thclor of safety of the side slopes of the canal against
[Ans.1.25]
10.9. An ernbankment constructed is with a c-Qsoil havingthe following properties : c=2.5Vm2, q = IZ', y = 1.851,/m3
?82
Problems in SoiIMechanics and Fotrndation Engineering
to both The ernbar*rnentrnusthave a ihctor of safetyof 1'5 with respect friction' cohesionand angle of intemal of the (a) What will be the maximum allowable slope if the height be embartkrnent 12 rn ? of the (b) What will be thc maxitnutn allowable height if the sides enbankment are sloPed Lt45" ? l0.l0.A6rnlriglretnbaltklnenlistobemadewnitlraclayeysoilhaving exists a unit weight of 1.7itlm3 and a cohesionof 3.5 t/mz. A hard stratum wlmt should be the slope a'gle if at a depth;f 3 m below the ground level. [Ans' 33"] the requiredtactorof safetyJgainstslidingbe2'0 ? l0.ll.DetennirretlrefactorofsafetyoftheslopeshowttirrFig'10'18 with respect to the given slip circle. use the friction circle method.
11
BEARING CAPACITY
ofall typeshaveto rest on the soil existing 11.1 Introduction: Structures is at the site.The load of the superstructure transmited to the supportingsoil calledfootingswhich ate to be designed properly throughstructuralmembers so as to ensure: (i) The shearstressdcvelopedon any plane in the loaded soil mass does not exceedthe shearstrengthof the soil. In other words, shearfailure doesnot occur. (ii) The settlenent of the footing due to the applied load does not excred the tolerablclimit. The bearing capacity of a given footing hasto be detenninedcorsidering both of these factors. The present chapter deals with the detennination of bearingcapacityof a footing from the point of view of shearfailure. ll.2 Definition of Terms Related to Bearing Capacity: l. Grossloading intensity (q): This is the intensity of total pressureat the baseof footing due to the load from the superstructure, self-weight of the footing and the weight of earth fill above the baseof footing. Before the conskuction of a footing, the 2. Net loading intensiry fu): soil at the foundation level is subject to an overburden pressuredue to the self-weight of the soil mass. The net loading intensity is the difference between the gross loading intensify and the overburdenpressure. If a footing is founded in a soil rnasshaving a unit weight y at a depth D below the ground level, then,
k Y = 1 8 N/ m 3 c = ' lf / m 2
Fig.10.18
e, = e - ,(D
...(11.1)
3. Uhimste bearing capacity (q): This is the minimum intensity of loading at the base of the tbundation which will causea shear failure of the soil. This is rhe minimum net 4. Net ultimate bearing capacity (q,): pressure intensity due to the applied load (i.e., excluding the existing overburdenpressure)which will causea shearfailure.
284
,routeryyA A:tEjc{ya Sunttit-nn{leet!9t,
Bcaring Copacity
285
5 . Net safebearing capocity (q,u): The rninirnurn net pressureintensity at the baseof tbotiilg with respectto a specifiedfactor of sal'etyagainstshear failurc,i.e.,
Qu,t -f Q"r =
the following expressionfor the ultimate bearins capacity of a footing of width B, placedat a depthD below G'L.:
.,(rr.z)
6. Safe beoring capacity (q"): The maximum gross loading intensitY whicb the tooting will sately carry without the risk of shear tailure, irrespectiveof the rnagnitudeof settletnettt. 't ...(11.3) Thus. Q, = Qr" + D
0l'
r--B --J l l 9 u
-+
F i g .l l . l
e'=!+Yn
.,(1r.4)
7. AIIow,abIe bearing cupaciry @): Tlris is the net intensity of loading which the foundation will carry without undergoing settlernentin excess of the the permissiblevalue but not t:xceeding net safebearing capacity' 11.3 Types of shear Failure: The sheartailure of a soil masssupporting a structure may take place in either of the following modes: (i) General shear failure (ii) Local shearfailure (iii) Punchingsheartailure In dense sands and stiff clays, when the loading intensity exceeds a certain limit, the footing ge.nerallysettlcssuddenly into the soil and well defined slip surfaces are fonned. The shear strength of the soil is fully This is calleda generalshearfailure.' rnobilised along thesesurfaces. In relatively loose sands and in medium clays, the footing settle.s gradually.The failure planesare not so well definedand the sbearstrengthof the soil is not tully rnobilised.No heavingof soil takesplaceabovetheground level. This type offailure is called local shearfailure. clays, a footing is often found to In very loose sandsand soft saturated planeis formed at all. Sucira failure is virrually sink into the soil. No failure due to the shear thilure along'the vertical face around the perilneterof the baseof the tbotilg. The soil beyond this zoneremainspracticallyunaft'ected' Tltis type of failure is called puttchingsheartailure' The type of shearfailure expectedto occur at a site has a direct bearing on the theoreticalcompulationof bearingt:apacity. 11.4 Terzaghi's Theory: This theory is an extension of the concept originally developedby Prandtl. The mode of general shear failure of a footing is illustratedin Fig. 11.1 (a). Consideringthe critical equilibriurn of the.soil we dge xyz underthe forcesshown in Fig. 1 1.1 (b), Terzaghi derive.d
4n = cN, + YDNo + o.5YBi/i,
...(11.5)
No wherc, N, , Nqarrd arebeariugcapacitylactorswhich dependon the atgle of intt:rnalfriction of the soil' shear [ailurc.For local shearfailure, to Eqn.(1 1.5) is applicable geucral the followlng equatiollis to be used:
Q n = c ' N r ' + Y D N+. 0 . 5y 8 { ' '

whcrc,
...(11'6)
c' = 1c 5
...(11.7)
tioln Q', lactorsobtained anct, Nr', No' and Nr'are the bearingcapacity
rvhcrrr,
Q'= r an-(l3t." )
...(11.8)
for Eqn. (1 1.5) is lncattllbr slrip foolings.Horvt:ver, squareattdcircular thtr follorvirrg nrodified equalionsshould be uscd,whic* take into lootings accountthe shapethclors: For squarcfootings, Q u = 1 . 3c N . + t D N q + 0 ' 4 Y B N , For circular tbotirtgs, Q n = 1 . 3c N . + Y D I ' ! n + 0 ' 3 Y B l { t
...(11.e) ...(11.10)
tboting or the diailreterof a where, ^B stattdstbr the widtb of a square circular footing. are faclors givcn in Table 11.1. bearingcapacity Thrrvaluesof Terzaghi's
286
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Table 11.1: Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Factors
Beoring Copacity e,, = cNrs,dri, where, q ='{D s., sg, sy are the shapefactors dc , dq , 4 un the depth factors factors. ic, iq, i, arethe inclination + q N o s u d u i u + 0 . 5y B . l / r t y d , r \
287 ...(11.16)
a
0 5 10 15 20 ?5 30 35 40 45 50
N.
Nq
1gY
N.'
N;
NY,
5.7 7.3 9.6 12.9 17.7 N.1, 37.2 57.8 95.7 172.3 347.5
1.0 1.6 2.7 4.4 7.4 12.7 22.5 4r.3 81.3 r73.3 4r5.1
0 0.5 1.2 2.5 5.0 9.7 19.7 42.4 100.4 297.4 1153.2
5.7 6.7 8.0 9.7 11.8 14.8 19.0 25.2 34.9 5r.2 81.3
1.0
0.o
0.2 0.5 0.9 1.7 3.2 5.7 10.1 18.8 37.7 87.1
r.4
1.9 2.7 3.9 5.6 8.3 12.6 20.5 34.1 65.6
The valuesof all thesefactorsare given i4 Tables 11.2through 11.5: Table 11.2 Hansen's Bearing Capacity Factors
0
N.
N,I
0'
5'
10" 1 5 '
20"
25'
30'
35'
40'
45"
50"
. I 4 6.48 8.34t0.97 14.8320.72 30.r446.1 75.32133.89 266.89
1.0 r . 5 72.47 3.94 6.40 10.6618.4033.2964.18134.85 ]18.96 1.0 0.09 0.47 r.42 3.54 8 . 1 118.084n
KC
&
95.41240.85 t81.84
11.5 Skempton's Equation: This equation is applicable to tbotings tbundedon cohesive soils.The net ultirnatebearingcapacilyof sucha tboting is given by:
Quu=7N.
Table ll.3: Shape Factors for llensen's Equation
Shopeof footing
Contiuuous Rectangular Square Circular
Sa
sq
sy
...(1 I 1) 1.
1.00 L + 0.2BIL 1.3 1.3
1.00 L + 0.2BlL
1.00
c = cohesion. = Bearing capacityfactor which depends tle shapeof the on t'ooting as well as on the depth of foundation. The ultimate bearingcapac'ity given by: is where, It qn = cN, + YD Skemptonsuggested following valuesofy'{. : the (i) yhef D = 0 (i.e.,when tlre footing is at the ground level) for slrip footingslM. -!!l* folguglg,aLd-circurar-fioorings' N-=*6 2a ...(11.13)
L -0.4BtL
0.8 0.6
r.2 r.2
...(rr.r2)
Table 11.4: Depth Factors for Hansen's Equation

dc dq
dr 1.0 (for all values g) of
(ii) when P.E:?j:{; !! *YI+P/B) N' (sur,race)

(iii) when DlB > 2.5: ji.=1.5.xNc(surface) (iv) For rec:tangular footings: i/.=(1 +O.28/L)N,6
| + 435 DlB of (for all values g)
q For = y", dq=r.0

ForQ>25', dq=d,
...(11.14)
Table ll.5: Inclination Factors for Hansen's Equation

l6
tq
ly
...(11.ls)
ultirnatebearingcapacityof a footing 's given by,
11.6 Brinch ".","#:rr#;;;ffi'#T
J.Brinch Hansen, the

{ l I
,'
H 2cBL
| -o.s+
i?
, t
288
Problems in Soil Mechonics and Foundation Enginecring
Bearing Capacity
289
Validupto: H s V tanb - c5'BL
. . .( 1 1 . 1 7 )
of wlrere, H attd V arethe horizontaland vertical courponelrts the rcsultant load acting on thc footing. I = lengtlr of tboting parallelto H. c+ = cohesiottbetweetttboting and sc,il. 6 = angle of tiiction betwcentbotittg and soil. 11.7 Bearing Capacity Equation as per IS Code: Hansen's bcaring capacrity equationwas lalt:r modified by Vcsic. In IS:6403 - 1981, thc following equalions were proposed,which incorporated Vesic's modificalions: l F o r g e n e r as h e a rl a i l u r c : Q , ,= c N r s r d . i , + q N n s n d n i , + 0 . 5y B N . , s r d r i r W ' for local shearfailure. ) , -;. q,, = /y'.'t. dri, + qNq' tqdri, ...(11.1ti)
of the soil. When the soil is fully submerged,the submerged density 1ru6 baseof the footing, shouldbe usedin placeof 1. But if thewatertableis at the. atfected.The generalbearing capacity equatiou is, only tbe third term is theretbre,moditied as: "'(11'20) Qu = cNc + 7D1N.W1 + 0'5yBNrW2 where, W1 and W2are the correction factors. For most soils, 1*6 is nearly equal to half tlre value of y' Hetrce,the correctionfaclon are given by (Referto Fig. 11.2):
Wr = 0.5(I + 4/D) Wr = 0.5 Whenthewatertableis at G.L., of whenit is at thebase footing,I4l1= 1-0 and Wz = 0.s (l + z2/B) of , Whenthewatertableis at thebase footing W2= 0.5
.,(rr.2t)
...(rt.22)
+ 0 . 51 B N r s r d r t r ' v y ' ...(11.1e)
sc and s, are thrr same as lhose used in Brinch The shape fac:tors , .eg liorn Tablc 11.3. Hansen'sequationand canbe obtained The dcpth factorsare given by: d,=l+{t.2(DtB\'$q dn=dr=1tb rQ<1 0 '
d,r = d, = 1 + o'1(D/B)' fr,

The inclinationfactorsaregivenby: i, = iq = (l - s/g}f . . 2
rct o ' 10'
-.t-Fig. 112 When it is at a depthI below the baseof fmting, Wz = L.O. that, if the water table is at a depth egual to or greater Here it is assurned the base,tbe bearing capacityremains unaffected. than B betow IS : 6403-1981 recsmmendsthc usc of a singtc correction factor Iy' to in be use.d rhe ftird rerm of equarions(11.18) and (11.19). The value of ly' is as follows: (a) If the water table is at or below a depth of D + B beneaththe G.L., then ly' = 1' 0.5 O) If it is at a depth D or above, t{ ("i rf O. depth of water table is such tiat, D < D n < (D+B), &e value of ly' sbould be obtainedby linear interpolation.
i I^ . = f r - g l
t\ a /l
rvhere, NO = ton2(45" + q/2) tbrce oIt the footing. c( = angle of inclination of the resultatrt for fa<rtor water table. In eqns.(11;18)and (1 1.19),Iy' = correction The N. andNn - valuesaresirnilarto thosegiven in Table 11'2,while the {-values are sligli.tlyditterent. and I I.8 Fffect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity: In Terzaghi's bearing orr and third termsaredependent the unitweight capacityequation,the second
290
Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndstion Engineering
Bearing CaPacitY ,
291
ll.gEccentricallyLoadedFootings:Afootingissaidtobeeccentrically thc cre[lreof gravity of loaded if the resultantload on it is appliedaway from theload.Suclrfootingsrnaytredesigrredbyeitlrerofthetbllowirrgrnetlrods: (alMetlwdl:[nthisrnetbodtheloadQofeccetttricityeisreplacedby of magnitudeM = Q'e' un .i*t concentricload Q and a balancingrnorneilt load as well a.sthe Stress distribution digrams due to the concentric: maximum stressintensity of moment a." plotied (Fig' 11'3)' The. balanc:ing allowablebearingcapacity the superlnposeddiagramstroutaU" lessthan the of the footing.
the ntricity (Fig' 11' a) the effectivedimensionof In caseof single ecce by 7 e' fotrting in the direition of eccentricityis reduced
i.e.,
B ' = B - 2 e
A' = L(B - Ze) "'(11'23)
Incastlofttoubleeccentricitythe<limensionsinbothdirectionsare as rcttuct'.<I fol lows: L ' = L - Z e t . a n c lB ' = B - Z e B - 2eBl A' = L' x B' = (L - 2e7)(B "'$l'24)
f--i=
1.p
Ptan
n
*f
l
t
t
I
_I
. l
r-B
-I
I
F i g1 l ' a .
st'l
r+-t--_]
-{eFEievot'ion
J_ o/A
0riqinotFooting
Ete votion Footinq Unden Loodinq Eouivo-lent
capacity of a footing 11.10 Bearing Capacity from N'value: The bearing Te st irom ile N-value obtainedfrorn StandardPenetration may be.de.ternrL"o carried,out in the field from the following equalions: For striP footings:
T-
nw, + enu= a.785(100 tf1ow, + o'47rfi

For squaretbotings:
Qnu
"'(11'25)
M.e/l I
Q M e A . I -f' P
I1.3 Fig. this method if a footilg is (b) Methotl II (Meyertwf's method): In a portion ofthe plan area ofthe footing is "*polJaio an eccentric ioto, ooty the effective area' "o*ia*t"e to be useful' This area is termed as
J - l
J_
BW2 "'(tr'261 * fi)owt + o.3rlt'f = 0.e43(1ry
where,
N = averagecorrectedblow count' D = depth of footing. f i = width of footittg.
Disltt-lgilg! ressurc
w'r wz = correction fataors[u;

Qnu =
r'-:'dr table'
net ultimate bearing capacity in kN/m2'
BearingCaPacitY 2gZ Problems in Soil Mecltnnics ttnd Fottndution Engineering = 186.5 - (1'85)(1"s) = $t't/n]' 11.11 Bceri4 capacity frnrn P]ate Load Test: The bearing capacity of from the results of a a footing to be placld ori a soil rnass may be assessed plate load test carried out at the site at the desireddepth. However, the process has got several limitations. The method of computing rhe bearing capacity of a prototype footing from the plate load te$tdata is illustratedin Problem 1l'10' The iettlement of the prototype footing, when founded on granular soils, is given by the following relationship suggestedby Terzaghi and Peck' (iii) Net safebearingeaPacitY: Q^=\ Q n "- - 1 8 3 ' 7 = 6 l . Z t / m 2 . 3.0
293
(iv) Safe bearing caPacitY: Qs = Qns+ \Df
Pp=PtB@.0t.|
where, Pp - seftlernentof the Plate' p = Settlement of the prototype footing' Bp = width of Plate' .B = width of the prototype foottng. EXAMPLES
I Be@ + 0.3) l2
...(rr.27)
= = 612; (1'85)(1'5) 64t/m2' -/ beenfounded Pr.oblemlil$,Asqnre footingof 2'5 m x 2'5 m sizehas soil groondlevel in i cohesive havinga bulk densityof at !.2 mbelow tbe the of strength 5'5 t/rn'' Detennine uno]nnt .a comprcssive ;:8 rJ;;;r, of safetyof 2.5, of ultimateandsafebearingcapaciiy thefootingfor a factor by theory' theory(ii) Skempton's (i) Terzaghi's of Solution: Cohesion thesoil, ^ 4u - 5.5 c = T = _ T - =_L a a< t/nt? .trl soils cohesive ($ = 0) we have' tlrcory:For (i) Terznghi's = 1'0, NY = o' N. = 5"7, Nq Usingeqn.(11.9), + qu = (t.3)(2.7s)(s.7) (1'8)(1'2)(1'0) = 22.54t/ri
Qs
problem 1l.l/ A 2 m wide strip footing is founded at a deptb of 1.5 m the below the gtouM tevel in a hornogeneousbed of dense sand, having following properties: 0 - 36', T = 1.85 1,/rn3. Determine|heultimate,netultimate,nctsafeandsafebearingcapacity of the footing. Given, for E - 36" /Vc - 60, Nq = 42' Nt= 47' Assume a faclor of safetYof 3.0. Solution: As 0 - 36', a general shearfailure is likely to occur' (i) Ultimate bearing caPacitY:
= l}.3lt/rri'
(ii) SkemPton's methd:
1 7
Here,
4u n cN" + TDNo + 0'518/Vt c = 0, y = 1.85Vnt3,o = 1.5m, B =L}m' Nq= 42 and N, - 47 (1.8s)(2.0)(47) 4u - (l.ss) (1.s)(42) + (0,5)
Here,
D/B=#=o'4at2'5'
is Eqn.(11.13) aPPlicable. N" = (1 + 0.2D/8, ff.lsrrrace) = footings, ffc (surtace) 6.N' But for square
t/n]' 786.5 (ii) Net uttimatebearingcapacity: 4*-4n-lD - 186.5 - (1.85)(1.5) = t83.7t/rt
4 = { t . r y a } t u . r o l- 6 ; e
Bearing CaPacitY
295
294
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foandatian Eng'ineering Q^, = cN"
I issubjccttoa Sross Problem LI{4. Asquare footingof 2m x 2msize
""r,i;;iffio?Yio
t/t# = (2.75) (6'7s)= t8.67 = + e, = e* + 7D = 18.67 (1.3)(1.2) 20'83t/n?

Q" = 7-s + \u ,
Qnu
sandhavinga bulk densistyof 1.85Vm' attd an coilsistsof a depositof dense of safety againstshear ,ngte or intcrnal friction of 3d. Determine the factor failure. Solution: We havc, for Q = 36" N"=60, Nq=42,N\=47 as c = 0' Using eqn.(11.9) and noting that the first term vanishes q, = (1'8s) (1'0) (42) + (0'4) (1'8s) (2.0)(47) = tql3t/n]. = 1455 t/mz' uuu = 147'3 (1's5)(1'0) Now, actual bearing pressureat the baseof footing'
soil is i. me o.,ptlof ioundation I m.Thefgynda{on
1e 6't
(r'2) = 9.63 t/m2. + (1'8)
Detennine the safe load that can be carried by a square Problem llJ. G'L' The footitts of 2.2V x 2'2 m size, placed at a depth of 1'6 rn below foundition soil has the following properties:
t/m3, s = l!l)/mz, 0 = 20', y = 1.65 for a factorof safetyof 2.5' GiCEn, Q = /6', Assume N, = 17.7, Nq = 7'4, ffr = 5'o lV.' = 11'8, Nq' = 3'8' NY' = 1'3 thatthesoil Solution: Thelow valueof unitweightof the soil suggests failure is Moreovet,Q = Zff < 28"' Hencea local shear is in the loosestate, capacityof the likely to occur.Using eqn.(11.26),the net ultimatebearing
qa =
But,
qb=
o _ t 8 o = 4 5 " /'|' 'z . - -J t m T Ae>
? *,o,
o,,
footing-*Tit: !.3c'N"'+ vD(N,- 1) + o.4vBN,

Here, , 2 ^--,,-^2 " = j,=(2/3)(1.2)=0.8r/n} N"' = 11.8, ffq' = 3'8, xy' = 1'3 (1'6)(3'8- 1) qn,,= (r.3) (0.8)(11.8)+ (1.65) + (0.a)(1.6s)(2.2)(1,3) = 12.27+ 7.39 + 1'89 = 2t.55 t/rt of The safebearingcapacity thefooting: 2l='25 (1.65)(1.6) lr.?tt/mz Qnu = + q " = F ; - + ' ,o = ?.j by load to be carried fte footing' Grosssat'e - es X Areaof footittg - {ll'76)(2'2f - 5a'51'
Problenr tt$/Acoluntn of a building, at footing'The footingis to be^placed ,ffipor,"o by a square 125;;;;;;. bed a hornogeneous bf soil having the followittg 1.2 m below G'L. in properties: y=1.82grn/cr,O=30" to the rninimumsizeof the footingrequired havea factorof Detennine formula' failure'UseTerzaghi's shear against safetyof 2.5 = Solution: Net loadon columnfrom superstructure t25t. Addt07ofor the selfweightof the footing = t25 t r37.5t =137.5 138t(saY). t= Grossload soil footingon a cohesionless of capacity a square safebearing Now, the is givenby
1 r + + a , = i f t . s c l U . y D ( N n t) + O.aVafrl y D
=3'3i. F,= #i4=*-ffi#do a net verticalload of carrying
Nq for 0 = 30', N" = 3'7.2, = 22.5,N., = 19.7 Frorntable11.1,
296
1
BearingCapacity
----a-1'^-'^
297
(B) (1.2)(22.s 1) + (0.4)(1.82) (1e.7) l e, = zs t (1.82) (1.2) + (1.82) = 18.78+ 5.748 + 2.18 = 2O.96 5.748 + by The safeload that canbe carried the footing, Q = Q " x A = (20.e6+ 5.7a4*
/( RC.C. column footing of f.8 m x 1.8 m size is Problem tt/.'en founded at 1.5 m below G.L. The subsoil consistsof a loose deposit of siity sandhaving the following properties: | = 1.75t/n3' q = 20", c = l.lvrt tbe ultimate bearing czpacity of the footing when the ground Determine water table is located at: (ii) 0.6 m below ground level. (i) ground level (iiD 2.0 m below the base of footing (iv) a.0 m below the base of footing.
= 5 .7 4 f + 2 0 96r t
Bz 5.7483 + 20.96 = 138, or, . f+3.6582=24.04 B=Z.O6m=2.10m(say)
Hence, the reqyired size of the footing = 2'10 m If the size of the footing in Problem 11'5 has to be Problern [rd. restricted to 1.7Ym x 1.75 m , at what depth the footing should be placed? Solution: The bearing capacity of a footing placed in a cohesionless soil increases with depth. In Problem 11.5, the depth of the footing was specified as 1.2 m. The corresponding size required for supporting a gross load of 138 t was found to be 2.45 m x 2'45 m' However, if the size of the footing has to be restricted to 1.75 m x 1.75 m (such restrictions are sometimes necessary for avoiding encroachment on adjacent land) and if the its column still hastowithstand the samegrossload, depthhastobe increased. Let d be the required depth. Now,
frr'= 3'8, fry'= 1.3' Given,for Q = 20",fr.'= 1L.8,

Solution: Assuming a local shearfailure, the ultimate bearing capacity of a square footing is given by,
by Solvingthe aboveegrration trial anderror,we obtain, Here,
eu = 1.3c' N.' + I DNq W1 + a.4y BNi w2
= , ' = ? , = Q / 3 ) ( 1 . 1 )0 . 7 3 t / m 2 .
, \ = 1 . 7 5 t / m l D = 1 . 5 m ,B = 1 . 8 m = G3) (0.73) (1.s) wl (11.8) (1.75) (3.8) + s, ' (1.8) (1.3) (1.7s) wz + (0.4)
olt
Qu = ll.2 + 9.97W1 + t.64W2 (i) Whenthewatertableis at thegroundlevel, z1 = g. Usingeqn.(ll.2l), Wr = 0.5 (1 + 0) = 0.5. (i.e.,W, = 17. W2is notapplicable Qu = ll.2 + (9.97)(0.5)+ 1.64 = L7.82t/mz
...(i)
q, = I[lo{ivu - rl +
Q"=
0 . a V B N r ]+ \ D
z1 = 0.6m,
(re.1) (1.82) (r.7s) (r.82) (22.s 1) + @.4$.82) d + d

2.5
(ii) When the water table is at 0.6 m below the ground level, tYr = 0.50 + A.6/7'5) = 0'7 W2 is againnot applicable
0f'
Qs=77.472d+10'039
pressure,A" = contact Again,actual

or, d=2.fi)m.
ffi = 45.061 + 17.472d 10.039
= 45.M1 t/rt
(0.7)+ 1.64 Qu = tl.2 + (9.97) = 19.82t/m2 (iii) Whenthewatertableis at 2.0m belowG.L., z2 = 2.0-1.5 = 0.5m Wz = 0.5(1 + O.5/2.0)= 0.68
The footing has to be founded at a depth of 2'00 m belorv G'L'
2g8
Problems in soil Mechanics tnd Foundotion Engineering, Here 171is not agplicable Qu = lL'Z + 9.97 + (1.64)(0'625) = 22.19 t/mZ
BearingCaprcity er,
299
(iv) when the ground water table is at 4 m below tbe baseof footing, no In corr.ectiondue to ground water table is necessary. other words, the ultimate bearing capacity is not affected by the ground water table' = 22'81 t/nz Qn = 11.2+9'97 +l'64 that, thebearing capacityofa footing It is evident from the aboveresults, ground water table' with increasingdepth of the increases prublern l\$/Twoadjacentcolurn's of a building, canyi^g a vertical oeaclr, by are supported a cornbi'ed footing of 2 rn x 3.5 m torrne load of e size., foundecl at 1.2 m below the ground level. Determine lhe maximurn allowable value of Q if the foundationsoil consistsof a deep,homogeneous strafutn of : silty clay (f = 1'9 t/tn3 , c = 4'6 t:nh (i) Saturated inorganicsilt (ii) Partially sarurated (y = 1.e t/n3, $ = 10', c = l'6t/m2) solution: Total c:olumnload to be carried by the combined footing : = (a) loadfrornthecolutnns Q + Q = 2Q =O'ZQ ib) self-weightof footing (say l0% of columnloading) g r o s sl o a d = 2 . 2 Q (i; t' tnis case,as the tbundatio^ soil is purely cohesive,Skempto*'s formula may be applied' Here. DIB = t.22.A =O.6 <2.5 U s i n g e q n s . ( 1 1 . 1 1 ) ,( 1 1 . 1 3 )a n d ( 1 1 . 1 5 ) ,t h e n e t u l t i r n a t eb e a r i n g capacity of a rectangularlooting is given by,
Q=37.5t tbe requiredsafeload on eachcolumn = 37.5 t' Hence, (ii) In this case,Brinch Hansen'sequationis expectedto yield a more reliable result.We have tiom eqn. (11'16)' stdttt 4 , , = c N r s r d r i . - + T D N u s n d n i o+ 0 ' 5 v B N r For Q = 10", referringto table 1L'2, N. = 8.34, Nq = 2.47, Ny = 0.47 The shapefactors,cepth factors and inclination tactors are obtained trorn L t a b l e s L . 3 ,1 1 . 4a n d 1 1 . 5 ' footing of 2.0 m x 3.5 m size,foundedat a depthof 1.2 For a rectangular we gct, m below G.L., s" = rs = 1 + (0.2)(2.0/3.5\ = l'll4 sY = 1 - (0'4) (2/3'5) = 0'77
(r'2/2'0) = r'71 d. = | + (0'35)

when Q = 0", dq = 1.0and when$ = ?5', dq = dc = I'21
Bylinearinterpolation,for = lO", dq = 1.0 + $
{14;-1!} rtol
= 1'084 is the Since loading vertical, i, = iq = ty = 1 (2.47)(r'rL4) (1.0) .'. 17,= (1.6)(8.34)(1'114)(r.2r) + (1'84)(1.2) (1'0)(1'0) (0.77) (2.0) (0.47) (1.0) + (0.s)(1.84) (1.084) = 17.99+ 6.59 + 0.67 = ?5'?5t/m2
Qt
* =='o'l.,',: :'-T*]u.,i i 0,,,,,,n ; :?'1,' u,

n,=t#=rr.Bt/mz
,o ql
25.25- (l'84)(1'2) + (1.8a) ' ,(1.2)= L1.42t/mZ ' 2.5
= 29.51. t/nz capacity, a Considering factorofsafetyof2'5, thesafebearing
(2.0)(3-5)=79'97t' loadon tboting= (11.42) Totalgross t 2.?Q = 7e.97 = 36.35t or, A footing of 2.4 m x 3.5 rn size is to be Problem N.g/A rectangular prope rties: the at coustrucrectt.YrnbelowG.i. in a c-g soilhaving following = ?1", c = l.at/mz' VmT, 6 Y = 1.75 The footing hasto carry a grossverticalload of 70 t, inclusiveof its In self-weight. addition,the columnis subjectto a horizontalload of 11 t
Safe gross load on the footing = Q"'A
= (11.8) (3.s)= 82.6 (2.0) t 2.2Q = 82.6
300
Problems in SoiI Mechanics andFottndation Engineering
BearingCapacity eqn:We havefrom eqn.(11.16)' H (i) Brinch. ansen's = eurt cN.s"d.i" + yDNrsndnio + 0'5 yBN,tsy4\' For 0 = 20", N" = 14.83,Nq = 6.4, Ny - 3.54 s" = sq - 1 + (0.2)(2.4/3.5\* 1.137 s' = 1 - (0.4)(2'4/3'5) = 0'7t4 dc = | + (0'35)(l5/L4) For = L'219
301
applied at a height of 3.3 m abovethe baseof the footing. Determine the factor ofsafety ofthe footing againstshearfailure : (i) using Brinch Hansen's method. (ii) As per IS : UIJ3 - 1981. solution: The loading condition of the column and the footing is shown in Fig.11.5. Due to the presenceof the horizontal force, the rcsultant load on is inclined, and the footing becor4eseccentrically loaded. Let e th" ilu-n be this eccentricitY'
(E%:P i = zot;'do = t.o * 4=l'o'
(20) 1.262
'1.8 m
i, = | - H/TcBL = 1 - lt/(2 x 1.0 x 2.4 x 3'5) = 0.345
e = 0'52m
11.5 Fig. Let R be the resultant soil reaction, applied at P, which can be resolved ? into two components,Ry and Rg. 2H = 0 gives, Rs 31.1t 2V=0gives, Rv=74"t
G,
iq- | - o.t+- t - 0IlJlU= o.elr

(1.5) (1'137) (0.34s) (1.75) (6'4) (1.21e) + (1.137) q, = (r.o)(14.83) (0.84t|) (0.7ro(1.0) (L4\ (r.7s) (3.s4\ (0.s) (0.e21) (1.262) +
= 33.79Vmz capacity, Safe bearirqg
\-it=$.szrf-0.&48
o"=ff*to
n"=E2=#U?
Actual contact pressuredue to the given loading' ,' 7n Q'-*g=ll'86t/m'
summing up tle moments of all forces about tbe mid-point of the base Q,weget,
+(r.75)(r.s)
RvxPQ=LLxz.
ort
,p o -_( 1 1 L ( 3 ' 3 ) = 0 . 5 2 m v 70
Of'
o"=ry+2.68
e = O.52m Effectivelengthof thefooting, L' = L - 2 e = 3.5 - (2)(0.52)= 2'46m Effectivewidth, B' = B - 2.4m .'. Effectivearea A' - L' B' = (2#) (2.41= 5.gn?
Qfr
3t -I" ' 1 g l L 6 l r - 1 1 . 8 6 +
F" - 3'37 (ii) As per15:6403-1981:
Problems in Soit lt[echttnicsttnd Foundation Engineertng For = 14.83, Nq = 6'40, ffv = 5'39 S = 20", i/.
Bearing CaPacttY (i)Plottheloadvssettltnenlcurvearrrldeterrrrine,theultimatebearing capat:ityof the Plate. ' x 1'5 m' placed (ii) Detenninetheultirnateloadwhich a iboting of 1'5 rn is samesoil, will ixrry if the allowablesettlernent at 1.2 m below G.L. in the
2 rrnt.
Valtresols',snallcls,aretlresarneasilroseobtainedtbrBrirrclr Hansen'snrethod. VFo = tan (45' + 20"/2) = r'428 Now
d,=1.@!#Jg=1.18 t d q = d y =. U T f @
load, Anglc of inclinationof tht resultant
= l'oe
is crulve shown in Fig' 11'6' In ordcr Solution: (i) The load-settlenent were the'ultimate bearing capacityof the plate' two tengents to <tetermine in the figure' The load drawn to the load-settlemeutcurve as showu is found to be .-orr.:sponding1o the intersectioil point of theset*'o tangents 3.75 kg/cnt-. = 37'5 t/m2 = {a (plate) 3'75kg/cntz lboting is given of (ii) Using eq. (11.27),the settletucltt the prototype by'
cr = tan-lE = tou-tft = s'n:'

1
i , = if^ = ( t - *9I0 i
\-
= o'81i
)
P=Ppl4iffio'j
Here,
I B (8, + 30.5) l2
(r-8'93\-=0.:oo ' ,r=l.'n ,|-v.Jw (1'137) (6'4) + (14.83) i. Qu= (1.0) it.rtt't(l.18)(0.811) (I.75)(1.s) (0'306) (1'0e) (0'714) (r'7s)(z'4\(s'3e) (0.811) (0.5) (1.0e) +
= 35,72t/nt2
= lQ gq1' 2 c n r = 2 0 m m , B = l . 5 m = 1 5 0 c ' m 8o
t 150(30 + 30.5)12 = 2 A = P" (iso - 3o.t
|-30
f,.XO9 pp
3 s . 7 2 g . 7 s ) ( 1 5 )+ ( 1 . 7 5 ) ( 1 . s ) Sal'ebearing caPacitY, 4s = r"

or, 33.095 or,
or,
20 = P p = 2.809 7 . 1 2m m .
n"=#
= * o"_.-- 2.6L5 *s
F" = 3.Sg
+2'6?5
U
a t
L
E A "
./ were obtainedfrom a plate load problem ll.116. The following rc.sults dcpth of 1'2 m test perforne<! on a squareptate of :C cm x 30 cm size '1 2 ofsand: bed belorv the ground level in a homogeneous Applied Load (ks/cm') Settlement (mrn)
E
GJ
'Efr
e12
o
c,
I
L ttu. j6
* " ' 18
F i g .I 1 . 6
1?
3O4
Problemsin SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering
Beoring,Copucity
305
of curvewe get, for a settlemettt 7.12mrn of From the load-settlement load the plate,the corresponding on theplate = 3.7okg/artz = 37 t/m2. Ultimateload=J)7\L5) (15) = 83.25t. of bearingcapacity a 2 m x the Preblern lft,ff. Determine allowable 2 m squarefooting foundcdat a depthof 1.5 rn below the groundlevel in a properties: deepstratumof silty clay havingthe following avrage = 1.8t/rf, c = 3t/m2, 0 = 0o, Cc = 0.89, ea = 0'85 y of settlement the footing is 7.5 crn. The The maxirnurnpermissible of atthesiteis at a depth 1.0mbelowG'L' of highestposition thewatertable
c , " = + z- +) + = B . z E t / r n 2 . f s .
As (ii) Computation of Settlementz the underlying soil is saturatedsilty clay, only consolidation scttlcmcnt will take place. The zone of influcnce below the brse of tboting is extendedto a tnaximum depth of twice the width of the firoting, i.e., 4 m below the base.lnFig' ll.7,X-X is a horizontal plane throqgh the rniddle of this consolidating laycr. Norv, initial cffcctive ovcrburdenpressuronX-X pe - 'l zl + ^{subz2 = ( 1 . 8 )( 1 . 0 ) + ( 1 . 8 - 1 ) ( 0 . 5 + 2 . 0 ) = 3.8t/n2 = 0.38 kg/cmz Usirrg 2 : 1 dispcrsion method, stressincrement al X'X, Lp = ' (8'28) (2'{J)(2'0) (2.0 + 2.0)' = 2.07 t/ntl = 0.207kg/m2
1m
Po
Ap
lJ tLl __ l
Fig.1r.? Solution: Fig. 11.7 shows the given footing.
with 8.28 t^n2). (assumingthc footing to bc loadect idatiousettlerncnt, "'. Consol pn + Lp C.. :po: p, = H i__ "..togro (0.259) ' ,^. logto0.38 + 0.207 _ (400)
tr + ossi
oJ8
= lu')d ctn'
(i) Computation of Bearing Cupacity: We have, from Skernpton's equation,

Qau = cNc
As the estimated settlernetttis greater than lhe uraximum permissible limit of 7.5 cXr,the allowablebearingcapacityof the footing shouldbe less than 8.28 t/m-. Let, q be the load intensity on the footing which results in a settlemenl ol'just 7.5 crn. Let A p be the stressiltensity onX-Xwhen the footing is loaded witb q t/m-' pn + c'-7;: L p
H'
| . "o'
logro
= ,-t
wtere, Here,
N" n
5 ( r + 0,2D/Br(l + 0.28/L)
B = L - 2.0m.
0ft
(4o0) (o.2se)
(1 + 0.85)
m Q - 1.5 ,
Nc 4nu
Po + LP = 7.5 logro
l \ - (6.9){31 - ZOJ - 6.9c t/mz
= 6.e sf r . (o.?P)tt * (0.2)(o.r)) ''v

Oft
Po
logro
P o + L P=
p0
0.1339
For a faclor of safety of.2.S,thc nct safe bearing capacity is givenby'
Po+LP= 1.1433. Po
306
Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Foundotbn Engineering But the value ofpg atX-Xis constant,and is equal to 0.38 kg/."nz
Beuring Capacity
307
t+*^1
Solving,we get,
= L36r2
fridion of 28" anrt a bulk densityof 18 kN/mr. The water table is locatedat a a grcat depth. Dt:lerrnine the safebearing capacity of the footing' As-sume = 32'5' ff, = 18'8 atd gJreral shear thilure' Given, tbr Q = 28" N. Nv = 15.7.Thc faclorof safetyshouldbe takenas3.0. [AIs. 373.7kN/rn'] riseslo the groundlevel due to 11.4. In Problern11.3,if thewater.table ill the sal'ebearifig capaeityof the noodiilg, detcrminethe percentchange s [Ans: Decrea esbY l8.6Vol lootirtg. I 1.5. A squarefooting of 2.2 m x 2.2 msize is foundedat a dpthof 1'2 bed ofdry sandhavinga unit weight of 1.95 m bclow G.L. in a honogeneous aild an angle Of intemat tiictiou of 3d. Determinethe safe load the Vrn3 sheartailure. footing .un ..rry with respectto a factorof safetyof 3.0 against = 54' Givt:n, forq = 36', N. = 65.4, Nu = 49.4, Ny 'be foundedin a bed ol' t 1.6. A 2.0 nr wide strip tboting is requiredto sa'el havi*g a bulk 4ensity of 2.0 Vm' and an angle of shearing 4cnsc capacityof the tbotittg of rcsistance 35'. Plot thevariationof ultirnatebearing = 35"' wilh depth of tbunclatiou, Dp tbr 0 s Dy s 3.0m' Given, for q N. = 58, Ns = 41.5, Ny = 42.q. footingof5 m diameterfouuded the I1.7. De.rermine safeloada Circular at a depth of 1.0 rn below G.L. can caily. The foundationsoil is a saturated claV lraving att uucoutineclcolnpressivestrengthof 6 t/rn2 and a ulit weight andTerzaghi's .rf i.fS t/nr5.Assumea faUorof iafety of 2.5.Use Skempton's the results. State,givilg reasons'wltich one is more nrelhods attd cotupare rcliable. t, Skempton'smethod] [Ans: Terzaghi:154-92t,Skenpton: 131.48 I I .8. A strip footing has to carry a grossload of 120 kN per tnetre run. sandstratun. at Tht. footing is plat-ed l.?5 m below G.L. in a homogeneous 19 kN/rn' and The unit *.ignt and algle of internalfriction of the sandare 32' respectivily. Detennine the rninimum width of the footing required in = 44, or<ler to lrave a factor of sat'ety of 3.0. Given, tbr S = 32", N" [Ars:2;18m] Nq - 29, Nt = 2a' to footingmustbe restricted 1'5 m x 1'5 m' The I 1.9. The size of square The footing has to cany a net load of 150 t coming from the superstructure. tbundation soil has the following properties: y = 1.91gm,/cc. c = 0, 0 = 36" For I = 36', N' = 65, Nq = 49, ffY = 54' Deterrnine the rninirnurn depth at which the footing has to be placed in ordertohaveatactorofsafetyof2.5againstshearfailure. [Ans: 1.10m] 11.10. cornplete shear tailure of an RCC footing took place under a of grossload ot6245}kg. The dirnensions the footing wetezE mx2.75 n
I
But,
6,p = o.l3T2kg/crt = 1.372t/m2 . sBL = qf
uP =
@iAT;d
q(*)^ (2 + 2)'
@- zf
L'372= or,
Q=5.49t/m2-5.5t/ri will result in a consolidatiott Hence, a loading intensity of 5.5 1,1p2 setflement of 7.5 cm. Therefore, the required allowable bearing capacity of the footing = 5.5 Vrn2. EXERCNSE 11 11.1. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the following footings depositof firm soil placedat 1.2 m below lhe ground level in a homogeneous having y'= 1.8 t/nf , O = 20' and c = l.8t/n2. (i) a strip footing of 2 m width (ii) a squarefooting of 2m x 2 m size (iii) a ci'cular footing of2 m diarneter. given,forE = 2g', N. = 17.'7, Nq ='7.4, ffy = 5.0
tln?l r/mz liii; 62.80 (i) tAns. 56.rrth# (ii) 6s.12

11.2. A2.5 m x2.5 m square tboting is founded at a depth of 1.5 m below G.L. in a loose soil deposit having the following properties: ,{ = r.65 t/m3, c = o.2kg/cmz, 0 = 15" Determine: (i) the ultimate bcaring capacity (ii) the net ultimate bearing capacity (iii) the net safe bearing capacity (iv) the safe bearing caPacity. The factor of safety should be taken as 3.0. Given, for Q = 15', N, = 12.9, Nq = 4.4, Nr = L5, N"' = 9.7, Nq' = 2,.7, fly' = 0.9.
vrnzl (i) QDzz.srtl# (lii)7.s0!n? (iv)9.98 [Ans. 24.s8t/n?

11.3. A circular footing of 2.5 m diameter rests at 1.3 m below G.L' in a soil mass having an average cohesion of 10 kN/m', an angle of internal
Bearing Capacity 308 Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Foundation Engineering
309
and the depth of foundation was 1.4 m, The rubsoil consistedof r deepstretum of medium clay (y - 1.8 t/m3). Find out the averageunit cohesion of the [Ars: c = 3.5 tlnzl clay. 11.11. The fmting of a column is 1.5 m x 1.5 m in size, and is founded at a depth of 1..25m belcnvthe ground level. The properties of the foundation soil are: c - 0.1 kg/un2, 0 - 15', \ - 1.75 gm/cc' Detennine tlc srfc load the footing can carry with a factor of safety of 2.5, when thc water tablc is at: (t) 0.5 m below the ground level. [Ans: (i) 24.99 t (it) 28'29 tl 1iq O.Sm below the base of fmting. bed of ilormally 11.12. The subsoil at a site consistsof a homogeneous consolidated soil having the following properties: y = 1.85 t/m3, c = 3.5 t/m?, 0 = 10' AZ m x 3.5 m footing is to be foundedon this soil at a depth of 1'5 m' Detennine the safc load the fcroting can cary with a factor of sat'ety'of 2.5. Use Brinch Hansen's method. Given, for $ = 1g', N. = 8.34, Nq - 2.47, Ny = 0'47' [Ans:152.44t] the method recommendedby IS: 11.13. Redo Problem 11.12 using = l'22' 6403-1981. Given, for $ = 10', N. - 8.35, Ns - 2'47' NT [Ans: 152'0$ tl 11.14. Detennine the factor of safcty against shear failure of a 1.5 rn wide strip footing located at a depth of I m below the ground level in a bed of dense sand having Y = 1.9 t./m3 and 0 = 40", if it canies a uniformly distributed load of 22tpet metre run. Use Terzaghi's equatiou. Given, for - 64.18, and flr - 95'et' [Ans:2'61] 0 - 40o, N, = 75.32, Nq 11.15. An R.C.C. column is subject to a vertical force of 900 kN actittg through its centrc line and a horizontal thrust of 120 kN actingat2.T m above G.L. ihe column is supportedby a squarefooting of 2.5 m x 2.5 m size, placed at a depth of 1.2 rn below G.L. The foundation soil bas an angle of internal friction of 35' and a bulk density of 18'5 kl'I76'' Assuming a factor of safety of 3.0. detennine the safe load. Use: (i) Brinch Hansen's method (Nc - 46'12, Nq = 33'3' /VY - 4[.69) (ii) Recommendation of IS: 64O3- 1981 (N. = 46'12, Nq = 33'3, IVY = 48'03) [Ans: (i) 3458 kN (ii) 2687 kNl
the I1.15. In order to assess bearingcapacityof a 2.5 m squarefooting, at a plate load test was conductecl a site with a squareplate of 60 crmx 60 cm size.The tbllouritrgresultswere obtained:
180 | 360
Seulement(mm)
720
1080 144A 1800 3.62 5.40 9.30
0.82
1.78
the If the allowablesettlerneutof tbotingbe 1.5crn,find outtheallowable t] [Ans:284.4 load on the footing.
Pile Foundotions
3tl
L2
PILE FOUNDATIONS
According to Terzaghi, a foundation is called a de.ep12.L Introduction: Various types of fcrundationif its width is less thin its depth (i.e., DIB > L)' are: deep foundations 1. Pile foundations 2. Well tbundationsor opell caissons' 3. Pier foundations or drilled caissons' thc load of a l2.2 Pile Foundations: Piles are generally used to trhnst'er The other applications of piles strong soil stratum' structure to a deep-seated, are as follows: (i) to compacr a loose soil layer (compaction piles) subject to uplift or overturning forces 1ii) to nori down structures (tension Piles) provide anchorage against borizontal pull applied on earth(iii); retaining structures(anchor piles) vessels (iv) to protect waterfroni structures from the impact of tnarine (fender Piles) (v) L resisioblique compressiveloads (batter piles)' |2.3C|assificationofPilesAccordingtol-oadDispersalCharacterktics: classified into the on the basis of the rnode of load dispersion, piles can be following two categones: but its tip (i) Bearing piles. when a pile passesthrough a iveak stratum the pile transfers the p"n"ii.Gilrrtoa stratum of substantialbearing capacity, a bearing pile. ioad imposed on it to the stronger stratum.Such a pile is called a pile is extendSdto a considerable depth in a (ii\-Fri9!ion!!9When capacity, it derives ia load carrying capacity from sratumTt poii66riirg -tn.rt on ihe sides of the pile. Such a pile is called a the friction-of the soil friction pile. of a pile may be 12.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles: The bearing capacity by a pile without defined as the maximum load which can be sustained producing excessivesettlement'
The bearing capacity of an individual pile may be determinedby the following methods: (i)bynamic lbrrnula (ii) Staticlormula (iii) Pile load test 12.5 Dynanric Forrnulae: The dynamicformulaearebasedon the conct:pt rhar a-p=il-e-jerj-\,-i;lG5;fiingcapacity from the energy spent in driving il. The following dynamic formulaeare most widely used: According to this fonnula, the safe ,IrEfigineering News Formuls: ol'a pile is givenby: capacity bearYng
Er,u.r =#r
where, g = safHoad in kg
a=#+4
...(12.1)
W = weight of hammer in kg H = fallofhamrnerinctn s = averagepenetrationof the pile in the last n blows in cm For drop hamrners, n = 5 for steam hamnters,n = 2A additional penetratiou of the pile which would have taken placehad therebeenno loss ofenergy in driving the pile. For drop hatntners, d = 2.5 cm. for steam hammers,g= 0.25 cm' c = Equ. (12.1) gives the general fonn of the Engineering News Fonnula. The specific fonns of this fonnula for dift'erent types of harnrters are given below: h = (i) For drop hammerI A = -J 6 (s + 2.5)
...(r2.2)
= (ii)ForsingleactingsteamhammertQ OG r ) (W + a p) h (iii) For doubleactingstean hammer: n 6 (s + 0.25)
wh
...(12.3) n2.4)
areaof thepistonin cm2 where, a = eft'ective pressure kg/cm2. in p = meaneffectivesteam the Hiby Formula: IS : 2911(Part1) - 1964recommends ;filoatfUa expression originallyderivedby Hiley: on following formulabased an
312
Problems in SoilMeclmnics and Foundotion Engineering ^ t l f t' W ' H ' " t 1 s
Pile Foundations
313
9"=
,*u,
...(12.s)
where, O - ultimate load on pile (kg) W, H, s and c have the samemeaningas in eqn' (12'1) Il - et-ficieucYof hamtner'
rla ' efficiencYof hammerblow thc ratio of energy after impact to the striking energy of the ratlr.
I
I
?
The value of F" shouldlie between2and3. 12.5 Static Forrnulac: The strtic formulae are based on the concept that the ultimate load bearingcapacity(0,) of a pile is equal to the sum of the total skin friction acting on the surfacearea ofthe ernbeddedportion ofthe acting on the pile tip (pb), as illuslrated pile (p1) and the end bearingresistance in Fig. 12.1.
-1?r
Q"=Q1+Q6
...(12.13)
But, Q1 = Qf. Af alndQ6 = qb.Ab Q1 = q''+S + Qa'At wbere, ql ...(12.14)
When ff > eP,
\b =
w +3P
w--;;
"'(12'6)
when W < eP, where,
w t t b - - + e-zl - F l-w we- P 1 2 w P l- r 1
.,(r2.7)
aver;r+euniiskin frihion
P = weight of the pile alongwith anvil, helmet, etc e = co-efficient or restitution,the value ofwhich may vary between 0 and 0.5, dependingon the driving systemas well as the material of the Pile' wltich is the In eqn. (12.5), C represents temporaryelasticcornpressiou, given by,
qO = poittt bearing resistanceofthe Pile tiP A/ = surfacearea ofthe Pile on which the skin friction acts. Ab = c/s area of the pile at its tiP'
9u
Fig.12.1 l. Colrcsive Soils:
C=Cr+C2+C3,
...(12.8)
of elasticcompressions the dollyand where, Cl,CZand c3 representthe respectively. Their values may be picking, the pile and the soil obtainedfrom:
/-l
The methodt of evaluating Qy and q6are below: explained
Average unit skin friction, 4y = a c where. c= unitcohesion
,..(r2.ts)
c, = t.77Y! ' A p c, = o.ostQiL Ap

.,
I
...(rz.e)
...(12.10)
cr = adhesionfactor, which dependson the consistencyof the soil and mav be determinedfrom Table 12.1 Average point bearing resistance Q b= c N "
q =3.ssfr
where, Ap = cross-sectionalareaof the pile, cm I = length of pile, m The safe load on a pile may be obtainedfrom:
/',
...(12.16)
.4rLrl)
According to Skemptou, for deep foundations,lV"= 9 qb = 9c Qu=scAl+9cA6 For a pile of diarneter^Band embeddeddepthD'
.'(12.r7)
...(12.18)
eu
V s = \
...(r2.r2)
Ou=X* andAy=nBD
314
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundstion Engineering
Pilc Foundotions
315
to: reduces Eqn.(12.14)thercfort: 225 x 82 c e,, =-F(B D cJ,+ Factors Table 12.1:Adhesion
Pile moterial Timber & Concretc Steel Consistency soft nrediurn stiff solt ntc:diurn sriff Colrcsion (tlm2) Adltesion foctor ct
...(r2.re)
is soil, c = 0. Henc:ethe point bearingrcsistance , For a purcly cohesionless given by, ...(r2.22) qb = lDNrso + YBNrst whcrtr, No. N, = Bearingcapacityfactors' tactors Jq. sY = ShaPe of B = width or diatneter Pile D = length of Pile pilc, sy = 0'5 For a squareor rcctangular tbr a circular pile,
o -3.75 -7.50 3.75 7.50- 15.0 0 - 3.75 -7.50 3.75 7.50- 15.0
1 - 0.90 0.90- 0.60 0.60- 0.45 1.0-0.80 0.80- 0.50 < 0.50
sv = 0'3
ternr of eqn. (12.22) is For piles of snrall dianrcteror width, the sec:orrd to the first tenn. Tltus, t'orall practicalptt4loses, negligitrleas cornpared
soils, Soi/s: For piles driven in cohesionless 2. Cohesionless
e u= , t D N o s o
...(12.24)
...(12.23)
q, = fiu K,tan6 ,t r
where, i.e.,
Qa= qa=
by The value of Nomay be detennined the tbllowing methods: tq (i) Vesic'smethodiAcc'ordingto Vesic:, = 3'
and,
averageou.rffi v"z
...(12.21)
Hence,
g5 Nq= u3'8{tano'tun2 " + Q/2) qr=3QNq "'(12'24)
thevalue of which tnay K " = co-efticient of elrth pressure, varv frorn 0.5 for loosesandto 1.0 for densesand. " 0 = tiictionangiEof-GE6iiloithepilEl\ilEiC[?EpiiGon the a:rgleof internalfriction Q of the soil. The value of 6 mav be obtainedfrom Table 12.2. Table 12.2: Friction Angle
The valuesof Nn for variousvalucsof Q aregiven in Table 12'3' Table 12.3: Bearing Capacity Factors Q @egrees)
Nq
$ (degrees)
Nq
0 5 10 15 20
1.0
30 35 40 45 50
9.5 18.7 42.5 115.0 422.4
t.z
1.6 2.2 3.3 5.3
Smootb (polished) Rough (rusted) Parallelto grain to Perpendicular grain Smooth (maciein metal form work) Grained (made in tirnber tbrrn work) Rough (cast on ground)
0.54 0.76 0.76_ 0.88 o.76 0.88 0.98
0.64 0.80 0.85 0.89 0.80 0.80 0.90
,q
(ii) Berezantsev's methodi According to Berezantstu-tl: Nn values Aependon the D/B ratio of the pile and the angle of internal friction of the soil. TheN4value may be obtainedfrorn Fig. 12.2'
3r6
200
Problems in Soil Meclmnics qnd Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations
317
150
I
,
piles is generally less than the product of capacityof a single pile and the numter of piles in the group. In or4er to determine the bearing capacity .f a pile group, 9g, a correctionfactorrl, is requiredto be used. ...(t2.28) Qr - nQut1, whe.rc, n - number of piles in the group Ou - ultirnate bearing capacity of eachpile rls - efficiencY of the Pile grouP The value of 11,may be obtainedfrom the following empirical formulae: -Lttbtrre' Formula: (i) Converse
I|
rt z.
100
50
f;/
re
/.0 /.5
20
25
30 35 S(Degrees)*
Fig.12.2
,rg=1 [W] *
where, tn = nunrber of rows of pile in the group ,t = numhr of piles in each row g = tan-l 4 where, d - diameterof eachpile s = spacingofthePiles (ii) LosAngelesformula: . a ,lr o -;#, | ,
...(r2.2e)
12.7 Pile Capacity frorn Penetratfun Tests: The pile capacity czn also be detennined from the results of the standard Penetration Test or statie cone Penetration Test performed in the field, using the following equations: (i) Standard Penetration Test: Qr=4NAu+O.OZNA1 where, Oa - ultimate bearing capacity of pile in kg l{ - blow count (witboul overburden correction) Aa = base area of pile in crn2 A/ = tutfu". area of pile in cmZ However, for a bored pile, Qu=1.33NA6+0.O2NAf (ii) Statb cone penetration test: Qu = Q"Ab +
...(r2.2s)
L^ln
,r;--: -r) + n (m-r\ +,/T@:11@-r11 ..'(12.30)
to 12.9 Dcsign of a Pile Group: The piles in a group are conttected a rigid is pile cap so that the group of piles behaves a unit. The group capacitymay te derirmined by rhe efficiency equation (eqn. 12.24). A more rational
...(r2.26)
l,u"o,
...(r2.27)
Where, Qc= Co11.e resistanceat tip. 12.t Group Action ln Piles: A pile foundation consists of a number of closely spaced piles, known as a pile group. Due to the overlapping in the stressed zone ofindividual piles, the beariug capacityofa group offriction
fI I L
L
r---B
r]-f r ll
SoftSoit
Fig.12.3
S e cA - A
t t-
318
Problems in Soil Meclranics ond Foundatian Engincering
Pile Foundotions
319
by melhod is the rigid block method recontutended Terzaghi and Peck. According to this method the ultimatebearingof a pile group cqualslhe suru of tlre ultirnate bearing capacity of block occupied by the gronp and the shcaring resistancenrobilised along the perimeter of the group. With referenceto Fig. 12.3. ...(12.31) Qs = Q,BL + DIQB + 2l)s - yDSBL where, Qg eu ultimate bearingcapacityof the pile group. ultirnatebearingcapacityper unit areaof the stressed areaat a depth D1
transmittedto the soil at (ii) The load o1lthe pile group is ett-ectively poitrt. this lower one-third of (iii) The presence. pile below this level is ignored' as load is dispersed 60" to the horizontal' (iv) The tratrsrnitted of to With reference Fig. 12.4,the settlement the group is given by: o6 + Ao o6
P= H # " ' r o s r o
...(r2.34)
B, L = width and lengtb of pile group Y = unit weight of soil of s = averagcshearingresistance soil per unit areabetwt:t:lt ground surfaceand the bottom of pile of D/ = depth of enrbedtnent piles. The safeload on the pile group is given by,
0rr=?
value of F" shouldbe takenas 3.0. The rninirnurn
...(r2.32)
arc lo soils. For crtd hearing Tbe aboveequations applicable coltesive piles on hard rock (inespective of the spacing) and ort deusc sand (with the t:qualslht: sum spacinggreaterthan 3 timcs pile diamt:tt:r) group capacrity i.e., of individualcapacities.
Rock
12.4 Fig. of where, I/ = thic-kness lhc layer ittdex, eo = ilitial void ratio C. = cornpiession at oo = initial stress the ceutreofthe layer due A o = stressinc:rement to pilt:s
Qr = N'Q,
...(12.33)
of 12.10 Spacing of Piles: As per thc reccrtuurcudatious IS : 2911 @art 1)-1964,the spacingof pilcs n'raybe oblainedfrorn lhr: following gcneral rules: (i) tbr triction piles, s f 3 d s (ii) tbr end bearing piles passingthrough conrprcssible oil, s ]2.5d ssiblesoil but restitg (iii) tbr endbearingpilespassing throughcornpre <rnstiff c:lay, s * 3.5 d (iv) tbr compactionpiles, s = 2 d l2.ll Settlementof Pile Group: The colsolidationicttlenrentof a pilt: assutnptions: group in clay is detennined the basisol the Lbllorving on (i) The soil urassbetweenthe top of tbe piles and their lorver tliiril poiut is incornpressiblc.
= A%
A' = areaover which the load is distributedat the centre of tlre layer. 12.12 Negative Skin Friction: Thc downwarddrag actingott a pile due to the ing the relativemovementof the surround soil tnassis c-alled negativeskin
320
Problems in Soil Mcchonics and Foundation Engineering
Pile Foundations Solution: Frorn equ. (12.5),the ultimateload on pile,
321
the load canying capacity of the pile. Its friction. This tcnds to reduc-e can be dctermined from: magnitude
soils: (i) for cohesive
Q6 ' P' r' Lf
...(r2.3s)
.,(t2.36)
H 11'w 'n5 vu = --rll7lHere, W = 3.0 t, H = 91 crn, Tln = 757o = 4.75 s=10mm=1-.0cm N o w , e P = ( 0 . 5 s ) ( 1 . s )= 0 . 8 2 5 t W > eP Using eqn. (12.6),
soils: O^f = | 4 Oy K tan6 (ii) for c.ohesionless where, p = perimeterofrhepilc

c - averagecohesion ofthe soil
I/ = thickness of soil layer which tends to move downwards Y = unitweightof soil K = co-efficientoflateral pressure (Ko s K s Ko) 6 = friction angle, (6 s Q) , EXAMPLES
rlb=
+ (o.ss2)(l.s)0.7 w * &p = -2.00 + 1 . 5 = 7.

w+P
In order to find out the value of Q, assutneas a first approximation, c = 2.5 cm.
Protrlem tU{. e dmber pile is being drive n with a drop hammer of weighing 20 kN and having a free fall of 1 m. The total penetration the pile in the last five blows is 30 rnm. Detenninethe load carrying capacily of 1he pile using the Engineering News formula. Solution: Using eqn. (l2.lr,
e , = W & Q+ $ I = 4 2 . 4 7 t l.O - 2.5/2

Now, using eqns.(12.9) through (l2.ll),
cr = r.779"- \ft\@z'!) = o.1o6crn Ap

I x (30)2 4
o = Y
Here, I,I/ I/ c s = = =
wH
6(s + c)
weight of hammer = 20 kN. height of free fall = I m =" 100 crn' 2.5cm penetration the last 5 blows for ave.rage
,r=94JJ2,/9)J4J. = 0.868
I x (30)2 4 (3.ss)(42.47)= /, 3 _ - , 0.213 cm w- =
3[l = ? = 6mm = 0.6crn )
x (30)2
C = Ct + C2 + Cs = t.187 cm < 2.5cm.
O= f f i =
1 0 7 ' 5 k N
Let
= = Qu Sot, :. c = tt'tat/:l+totL.397cm
Problem 12.2. Determine the safe load that can be carried by a pile having a grossweight of 1.5 t, using the modified Hiley's formula. Given, weight of hamtner = 2.4 t = 91 cIn height of free fall hanmerefficiency =75Vo averagepenetrationunder the last 5 blows = 10 mm = 22 n length of pile = 3iX)rum. diatnr'tt:rof pile co-efficicntofrestitution= 0.55
e,=PffiP=56.2st
Let Qu=55t,.'.c=W=L.537
Q,=ffi=sot
322
Probletns in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Pile Foundatians Here, d = arerageoverburdeupressure

= \ ! 7 = L
373
In the third iteration fhe assumedand computed values of Q, are quite close. Hence, the ultimate load bearing capacity of the pile is 54 t' Consequently, the safe bearing capacity
,tH
a
1 = g'1- Q u = 4 = r r . u r . 7." z.)

Problem l?^3ftiurRcC pile of 18 m overall length is driven into a dee;r strengthof 3'5 Vm". stratumof soft c*f having an unconfinedcompressive the pile is 30 cm. Determine the safe load that can be carried The diameter of by thc pile with a factor of safety of 3.0. Solution: From eqn. (12.L4),
t1
= {!ggq = rzt/m2
For loose sand,Ks = 0.5 The value of 6 may be obtainedfrorn Table l2.2.For a srnoothRCC pile embeddedin dry sand, 6/q = 9.76, or, 6 = (0.76)(25') = 19'
Q, = e1.41+ u-Au. e
As the pile is driven into a cohesivesoil, Q f= a ' c The value of adhesion factor cr may be obtained from Table 12.7-Fot a q,, i-5 1 = 1.75t/m"crmaybetakenas0.95. = softclayhaving, = ; t Again,wehave, % = 9c Ab = c/s area of pile tip ) n = - x l - -/EOt2 = 0 . 0 7 m ' .=l
ey = $2) (o's) (tan1e") =2.A66tln? Using eqn.(12.24), qt=3eNq = (3)(1.6)(1s)(s.3) 38r.6t/mz = = Af = xBD = r(0.4t))(15) 18.85m2
= (0.40\ o.r?sm2 n, = f,az = @/41

go = (2.066) (18.8s)+ (381.6) (0.126) = 38.94 + 48.08 = 87.02t = 87 t
areaof the Pile At = surface = r(0.30)(18) = L6.g6ilf (0.07) gu = (0.e5)(1.7s) (16.%) + (e) (1.?s) = 2f..2 + l.l = 29.3t
U0o/
e,=+=Y=2gt
f s J
.'.safeload,= P"
ff
- s.ter.
concretepile of 400 mrn diameter and havirqg Problem l&.ff{bored is embeddedin a saturatedstratum of c - S soil an overall length of 12,5 n having the following properties: c= 1 5 k N . / m 2 ,Q = 2 0 " , yr*-18kN/m3
Problem 124/Asmooth RCC pile of 40 cm diameter and 15 m length is d;iven into a d/eepsratum of dry, loose sand having a unit weight of 1.6 t/mi and an angle of internal friction of 8". Determine the safe load which can be carried by the pile. Given, for Q - 25", Vesic's bearing capacity fectoriVo - 5.3. Solution Using eqn. (12.20r, qf=dK"tanE
Derermine the safe bearing capacity of the pile. Given, for Q = 20", the bearing capacity factors are: N"=26, Nq=10, Nt-4.
Assume reasonablevalues for all other factors. Solution: For piles embeddedin a c - f soil,
4b = cN" + \'D 0ro - tl + 0.5y'B,lV,,
Pile Foundations
325
= (0'80) (5\ = 4 t/na a
324
Engineering Problems in SoilMeclwnics and Fottndation
(10 - 1) = (1s)(26\ + (18 - 10)(12's) + (0.5)(1s - 10)(0'40)(4) = 390 + 900 + 6.4 = 1296.4 Qf=ac+flK"tan6' cr = 0.5, K" = 1, 6/$ = 0.80' 6 = (0.s0)(20') = 16" (125/2) (1'0)(tan16") a1 = (0.s)(15) + (1s 10) = 21.84kN,/m2 Af = n(0.4)(12.5)= r5'71m?
'7, -D
For tlre secondlayer, Qf, = nc,
and' Af, = n (0'5) (3'0) = 4'71m' For the third layer, the skin triction rnaybe neglected' Again, using equ' (12'24), =(3)(1.85 x 5 + 1'9 x 3 + 1'8 x 2)(9'5) eu = 3qNq = 528.67r/nz
Ir ,^-" a r r < . 1e u = i ' ( 0 . 5 ) ' = 0 . 1 9 6 m 1
Assume,
(0'196) + (5?f-67) + Q, = Q.4)(7.85) (4)(4'7r)

= 18.84+ 18.84+ 103-62 = 141.3| n -s l4l'3 = 47.rt - 4it. E 3
U"t ft [o undation i s supported Ot I O -t-t:-ul,::is.tiit * P roblem ly'{'ra and lengthof eachpile are 300 in 3 rows' The diarneter of ti pit", "no-ng"a ft' the piles t: mm and 15 m respectively'The spacingbetween ^t'?,*l having g = 3'2 t/m' and foundation soil consists or a sori clay layer group' y = 1.9 t,/rn3'Detenninethe capacityof the pile of piles: Solution: (i) Consideringindividualaction = Q1 ac = (0.9) (3.2) = 2'88t/mz' Ar = n(0'30)(15) = l4'I4mz = ? (3'2\ = ?l,3t/m2 Qo = 9 c [Assuming c = 0'901
Again and,
m2 = \(0.40)2 = 0.126
4.
gu = (2r.s4)(1s,71)+ (r2e6'$ (0'126) = 343.1 + 163.3 = 506.4 kN.
O" =
p-Ul"-
ty
kN. = 168.8 s 168 kr{
at a deplh of 1'5 m tZ.l fl"colurnn of a footing is founded 10 by a number of piles each having a length of b"b;;I.;,Mrupp-,.d which are given the properties of m. The subsoil consists of thiee layers' below: rll=6'5m I-ayerlzc=3t/rT?., 1=1'85t4t3' 0=0"' rl=3m \=t'go;/nr3' 0=0" LayerIII c=st/r&, = 30" rI = 15m 1 - 1'80t'/m3' 0 kyertrI i c = o, Determinethesafeloadoneachpileifthediameterofthepilesbe500 25' Assume' adhesion factor mm and the required factor of safety be ct = 0.80. piles in the three layers are Solution: The depth of embedmentof the respectivelY,5 m, 3 m and 2 m' Forthe firstlayer' and, Qf, oc1 = (0'80) (3't = z'atltt'
= m2 eu = i(o'302) o'o?l
of caPacitY eac.h Pile, Individual = Qff) (14'14)+ (28'8)(0'071) Q,
Af, = n(0'5) (5) = 7'85 m2
i
I I A
I
= 42'77t = Groupcapacity, Qus = (15)(42'77) 641'55t
l>
I
326
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatibn Engineering
PiIe Foundutions
3n
(ii) Considering group action of piles: Assuming a block failure, the capacity of the pile group may be obtained from eqn. (12.31): - YDTBL Qs = QaBL + D/28 + 2L)s With refercnce to Fig. 12.3, B = Z(I.2) + 2(0.15) = 2.7 m width of the block, length of the block, deptlr of the block, L = 4{1.2) + 2(0.15) = 5.1 m Df = 15 n
= 17757 kN a block failure'width groupactionof pile-s:.Assuming (ii) Considering B=2(1.25) + 2(0'50/2) ofUloct<, = 3m. lengthofblock, L =3(1'25) + 2(050/2)= 425m depthof block, D/ = 30 *' = 337'5kN/m2 4f = lOkN,/m2,% (30) (3) capacitY, = (337.5) (4'25)+ 3A(2x3 +2 x 4'25) Group Qs - (11)(30)(3) (4.2s) < = 13145.6kN 17757kN of the groupactiongoverns capacity thepile group' Hence, kN. O, = 13145.6
qb = 9c = (9) (3.2) = 28.8r/n2 s = q f = c r c = ( 0 . 9 ) ( 3 . 2 )= 2 . 8 8 t / m 2 .'. Qs = Qs.8) (2'7) (5.1) + r5(2 v 2'7 + 2 x 5'1) (2'88)
- (1.e) (2.7) (s.1) (1s)
= 678.05 t > 641.55 t Hence, the ultirnate bearing capacity of the pile group is 641'55 L Safe bearing capacity w.r.t. a factor of safety of 2.5'
a, = ry
- 5x8kN. = S?;i8.ZkN
Q,c=ry=:x6'62t-r,6t'
.,.. problem qr{ of egroup of 12 piles,eachhavinga diameter 500 rnm in The piles are arranged 3 rows a and 30 m long,-supports raft foundation. soil areasfollows: of atl.?s m c/c.Theproperties thefoundation andspaced 'l|kN/m2, y' = 11 kN,/m3, Qu 0 = 0"' the Assumingcr = 0.80 andF" = 2.5, determine capacityof the pile group. individualactionof piles: Solution: (i) Considering = Qf = dc = (0'80)(75/2) 30 kl'[/m2 kN,/m2 qb = 9c = (9) (75/2) = 337'5 Af = x(0'50) (30) = 47'Dt#
of 40 mm Problern 12.9/ Agroup of 20 piles,eachhaving a diameier + rows at a spacing1'0 m c/c' The capacitvof ""d i0;i;;; ,i(-^"îerdin the piles' each pile is :g0 kN. Determinethe group capacity of pile group' Solution: Using eqn. (12.28), the capacity of the Qc = n' Qu'rls' Here, n = 20, g, = 380 kN. by either of the The efficiency of the pile group' Ie may be determined following formula: (i) Converse- Labarre Formula: Using eqn' (12'29)'
,rr=, Xlffi
e ol - 1 o t trl
Here, m=4, n=5,
= m2 eu = X(o.sd) 0.1e6
of Capacity eachPile, (0.196) g, = (30)(47.12)+ (337.5) = 1479.75 kN Groupcapacity= (I2) (1479.75)
4 o = tan-rs = arr-r l ' u i = 2t'8' f94q'l \ 2 L'8 s - t) + + ( 4 - t) s l - 0.624 = 62.4To [( = 'r8 , -
(ii) I.os Angeles fonnula: Using eqn' (12'30)' ,1"= t d ;-,*Im{n-1) + n(n-1) +
{T@:TJ6:T
328
Engineering Problemsin SoilMeclnnicsandFoundation
Pile Foundations
329
+ y6 + ) = .' - ; 1 a0.40y ( r ) t 4 ( s - 15 ( 4 - 1 ) y ' 2 1 + - 1 1 6 - X , = = 0.771 77.r%

of The lower valueshouldbe used.Hence,the capacity the pile group Q8 = Qo) (380)(0'624) = 4742.4kN - 4742kN. to Problern l?.lf It is proposed drivea goup of pilesin a bedof loose Thi group will consistof 16 piles, eachof 300 mm sandto suppoflvrafl performed tests penetration of ani Oiameter 12m length.Theresults standard
at the site at various depths are given below:
pile group with a t/# a'd an effective unit weight of 0.9 Vm3. Design the shearfailure' factor of safety of 3 against piles in a squale solution: Let us use 16 Nos. of 400 rnm o R.C.C. formation. Let the spacings be equal to 3 d, s = (3) (0'40) = 1'2 * i.e. Let I be the length of each Pile'
Now,
,=t=+=2.4t/mz
J .
cr = 0'901 qf = ac = (0'9)(2'4) = 2'l6t/mz' [Assuming = at = 9c - (9)(2.4\ X.16t/n? nL Af = nBL = (0.40) = l'?57 LttJ
1'5 Estirnate the capacity of the pile group' if the spacing of the piles be m c/c. 8 + 10 + 8 + 11 + 9 = 9 . 2 o 9 Solution: Average N-value = Using eqn. (12.6),the capacityof a driven pile, Qu=4NAt+O.02NAS Here, the averagevalue of N = 9
4 = I ' (40 . 4 0 ) 2 = o . L 2 6 r r ?
CapacitYof each Pile,
(0'126) L) gu = (2.16)(r.2s7 + (21'6) or, Qu = 2.715L+ 2'722

ofeachPile, caPacitY bearing Safe n
L Ot = 7 = o'eos + o'eol
= 15'6?5 t'
n,=f,{lo)Z =7n.86cm2 cm2 Af - u(30) (12) = 1130'97 (1130'97) ke Q, = (4) (9) (706.86)+ (0'02)(e) = ?5650k8 = 25.65t' Asthespacingofpilesisashighas5D,itcanbeassumedthatthereis zones. of no overlapping stressed caPacitY, = n'Qu GrouP Qs = (16)(25.65)t = 4101 by has Prpblem 12.1L A raft foundation to be supported a group of groupis 250t' inclusive by loadto be carried thepile piles.Thegross concreie of of or tnewegnt of the pile cap.The subsoilconsists a ?5 m thick stratum of strength 4.8 compressive clay normallyJonsolidated havinganunconfined
pift by Actualloadto becarried each = # or,
0'905t+0'907=15'625 L = I6.2''lm- 16'5m
Checkforgroupaction:Consideringtheshearfailureofablockof dimension, BxLxD, + B = L = 3s + d = 3(1.2) 0'4= 4m D = 16.5m (2'16) of .'. Capacity the pile grolrp' Qs = Qr'6) (*) + $o's) (4 @ + 4)
- (o.e) (r6.il(4)
= 894.24t of capacity thepile group bearing Sar'e
ii
330
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Fottndatian Engineering 894.24 ^ Q,t=T=298t>250L
Pile Foundations
33t
block Hence the designedg4onpof piles is safe from the considerationof failure. ,/ e'rcn footing founded at a depth of 1'5 m below G'L' Pr.oblen n.d a dense in a 19.5 thick stratum of normally consolidated clay underlain by 16 piles oflength L2 m and diaby sand layer, is to be supported a'groupof be carried rneter 400 mm arrangid in a squari fonnation. The gross load to the self-weight of pile cap) is 350 t' The piles are by the pile group (including level. The ;;"""d at r.2 m "/". tn. *uter rable is located at rhe ground foundationsoil are: propertiesofthe w =32Vo, G=2.67, L.L= 4tVo the probable consolidation settlementof the pile group' Estimate Solution:WithrefererrcetoFig.L2.4,theloadfromthepi|egroupis point, assumedto be transmitted to the foundation soil at the lower one-third ) "t" tZ = 8 m below the pile cap and 8+ 1'5 = 9'5 m below i.e., at a depth of = G.L. The tirickness of the clay layer undergoing consolidation settlement of threesub-layers thickness3 m, 3 m and 10 m. Let us divide this zone into 4 nr resPectivelY. The settlementof eachsub-layermay be obtainedfrom:
Assurningtheloadtobedispersedalorrgstraight|inesinclinedtothe horizontal at 60", the area over which tf e grossload is distributed at the rniddle of thc first layer, At = Q + 2H/2'tan30') (B + 2H/2'tan30')
= (B + FI, tan30';2
rt = (4 + 3 tan30")2= 32.86 350' o t/mz ^ o = f r = 3 L s -6 10.65
(0.27e) ,-- e.e-tlq4l = 14'32cn' (300) r'",= f1 frffi'' losto tr

sub-layer: of Settlement thesecond (1.5 + 8.0 + 3'0 + 3'O/2) - I7'6t/m' os = (0.90) ri A2 = (4 + 2 x 4.5 x tan30")2= 84'57 ,,
oo=*=#h=4.r4t/m2
(0.27e) ,^- 12'61]!-! = 5'57cm = (300) losto P", fr'dffi' tr
Settlementof the third sub-laYer: o6 = (0.90) (1.5 + 8.0 + 6.0 + 4'0/2\ = 15'75t/r] A3 = (4 + 2 x 8 x tan30')2 = 175'?3m2
p, = H' f;
Now. we have,
o 'tor,o 0 + wG s
Ao
o6
w G = se, or' e =
eo=
v c -
ryP=08s4
(II 0.0@09 - 10) = 0.009(41 - t0) = 0'279
lo = ffi
= r.997t/mz
AgaiIr, and,
Ysar=
?#r*=Ti..,'s1
= (1) l'eotzm3
15.75+ L99J - 3.12cm (0.279)' (400) roglo 'pca 1SJS 1 + 0.g54 = P., * Pc, + Pr. Totalsetflement, Pc = 14.32+ 5.5'7+ 3.12 = 23 cm. EXERCISE12 of capac:ity an RCCpile drivcn the l2.l. Determinc safeloadcarrying a 3 weighing t andhaving freefall of 1.5rn, if theaverage by a drophammer [Ans'20'3t] p.n.nrtion for thelastfiveblowsbe 12mm'
- 1'00 = 0'90 t/m3 Ysub= 1'90 of Settlenrent the fint sub-laYer: at oo = initial overburdenpressure the middle of the layer = \' z = (0.90)(1.5 + 8.0 + 3.02) -- g'st/^z Ditnetrsionsof the block of piles, L = B = 3 s + d = 3 ( 1 . 2 \+ 0 . 4 = 4 m
332
Problems in Soil Mechnttics and Fottndation Engineering
PiIe Foundations
JJJ
of 10 rn 12.2. An RCC pile having a diarneterof 400 rnrn and a length natrunerweighi*g 30 kN, with a heightof free tall is bei.g driven with i Orop been recorded of 1.2 rn. The averagepenetration for the last few blows has or ettlciency of the hammer be 7O% aud the co-efficient as 9 rnrn. If the lnoditied using restitution 0.50, detenninettre safe load the pile can carry a factor of fornula. Given,unit weight of RCC = 24 kN/m'' Assume Hiley's Ans' 200 kN] I safetyof 3.0. of 500 mm is driven into a 12.3. A22 m lorrg pile having a diameter strengthof 5.6 deep straturn of sofl clay having ai unconfinedcompressive capacityof the pile with respectto a t/#. Detennine the staticload bearing tAns' 40 tl facror of safety of 2.5. l2.4.Aconcretepileof30cndiameterisernbedd-edinastratunrofsoft clay straturnis clay lraving 1 = 1.7 t/rn3, Qu= 4'2 t/mz'Thethickness of lhe g m and the pild penetratesthrough a distance of 1.2 m into the underlying = 36"' Detennine the sat'e straturnof de;rsesand,havilrg Y = 1'85 t'lm3 and Q of safety of 3' load carrying capacityof the pile with a lactor faclor Given, O = O.gO and for Q = 36', Vesic's bearing capacity Q [Ans.32.3 t] Nq=23,c[=1,K"=1. is driven 12.5. A stnoothsteelpile of 8 m length and 400 rnm diameter properties: into a cohesionlesssoil masshaving the following = 30' Y"ar= 1.8t,zrn3' Q = 0'60 Qand Vesic's The water table is locatedat the ground level' If 6 = 30" be 9'5' determinethe safecapacityof bearingcapacity faciorNn for 0 = [Ans' 12'1 t] rhe pil! with a iactor of sifety of 2.5. Given, Ks 0'7. at a 12.6. A 12 m long pile having a diameterof 300 mm is cast-ih-situ site where the sub-soilconsistsof the tbllowing strata: = 10kN'/m2 StratumI: thiclness =5 m, Y' = 10kN,/m3, 0=30" c = = kN'/m2 Stratun II: thiclness= 16 m, Y'= 9 kN'/m3, 0 0', c 60 Detenninethesafeloadonthepilewithafactorofsafetyof2.0.Assume ieasonablevalues for all other data' of 500 mm is 12.7. A 16 m long bored concretepile having a diameter silt having the following properties stratum of sandy ernbeddedin a saturated 'Yru,= 19'5kN'/m3' c = rlkN'/m2' 0 = 2o' with a factor of Detennilte the safe load canying capacity of the pile safety of 3.0. Given, = O'75 adhesionfactor ofearth pressure = 0'85 co-efficient
=16. friction angle [Ans. 279 kN] q = 20', Nc = ?.6, Nq = 10, Nv = 4' for an RCC pile of 500 mm 12.8. Deterrninethe ultimate load capacityof of a colutnu' The sub-soil conditions are diarneter supporting the tboting in skt:tchcd Fig. 12.5. Given' = 0'9 adlrcsiontactor tbr soft clay = 0'7 silt claYeY and that t'or water table is bcaringcapacityfactorNufor 0 = 30' is 9'5' The Vt'sit"s be neglected' [Ans' 232 t] lrx nlcrl rtt il gr(raldcpth.Skin friction iir sandmay
Soft CtoY
10m
S Ctoyeyitt = t5 1y=1.E/nF),c 6llm2
J
T
I
Ssnd (t=1.75 @ t/m3, =30o)
Fig.12.5
2.0m
i
I
I
6 rows wi-th a 12.g. A pile group consists of 42 piles anan$ed in Each pile is 22 rn long spacing of 1,5 rn in each direction. centre-to_centie pile using: and 500 mm in diameter.Find oul tbe group capacity of the (i) Convene-Labane formula (ii) tns Angeles formula' Given, load bearing capacity of each pile = 78 t' q [Ans. (i) 2142 t (ii) 2624 12.10. A pile group consistingof 25 piles anangedin a sqlare fonnation are L5 m and is to support a iaft iooting. The length and diameterof eachpile c/c Thg-foynfation soil is 300 mm respectively,wiile their spacingis 85ocm clay having c = 5 t/mt and y 1'85 VT'' Determine a normally consotiAated Take cr = 0'85 and F" = 3'g' the safe load bearing ""p""ity of thi pile group' [Ans' 527 t] placed 12.11. A multistoried building is to be supportedby a raft footing raft consistsof 96 piles on a pile foundation. The pile group supporting the water of 26'm length and 400 mm diameter,with a spacingof 2'0 m c/c'The the propertiesof the foundation table is located near tle ground surfaceand soil are as follows:
334
Problems in Soil Meclwnics snd Foundation Engineering Y " . r = 2 . 0 t / r n 3 c = 3 . 6 1 / m 2 ,O = 0 ' . ,
The adhesionfactor may be taken as 0.95. Determinethe capacityof the pile group with a factor of safetyof 3.0. 12.12. Designa pile groupto supporr raft footing of 8 m x 12 m size a and carrying a gross load of 760 t. The self weight of the pile cap rnay be assumedas 20o/oof tlre gross load on footing. The subsoil consists of a homogeneous layer of soft clay, extendingto a great depth and having the following properties: y' = 0.85 t/nr3, qu = 5.7 t/m2 Design the pile group with a factor of safety of 3 againstshearfailure. Given. a = 0.85. 12.13. It is required to drive a group of piles in order to support a raft footinqof 10 m x 10 m plan area,and subject to a gross pressureintensity of 15 Vm". The subsoil consists of a 12 m deep layer of soft clay (y = 1.8 t/rn3 , qu = 4.5 Vm2) which is underlainby a densesand layer (y = 2 tlnr3 , 0 = 35'). The raft is founded at 1.5 m below G.L. In order to utilize the bearing resistanceofthe sand layer, each pile should penetratethrough it at least 4 D. The adhesionfactor for clay = 0.90. Vcsic's bearing capacity factor .lfu for 0 = 35' is 18.7. Design a suitable pile group with a factor of safety of 2.5 againstsbearfailure. Assume that the self weight of pile up = 25Voof pressureintensity on the raft. 12.14. A raft footing is founded at a depth of 3.5 m below G.L. in a ?A rn thick stratum of soft clay having the following properties: y""1= 2.05 t/m3, C, = g.3 The gross load to be carried by the pile group, including the self weight of the pile cap, is 8O0L The group consistsof 81 piles of 400 mm $, arranged in a square formation, and extended to a depth of 12 m below the pile cap. The spacingof the piles is 1.25 m. The water table is located at the ground level. Cornpute the probable consolidation settlement of the pile group.
Otherusefultitles:
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Soil Mech D Moitra

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PROBLEMS IN SOIL MECHANICS AI{D FOT]NDATION ENGINEERING

A'M'LE'(ndia); [ForB.E.(Civil);M'E'(Civil); Examinationsl and U.P.S.C' otherC-ompetitive

of Department civil Engineerilq University College Deemed BengalEngineering Howrah'

DH NpA_r- F_uB_ o hls(p) LrD. A LtcATt 84! ' FIRSTFLOOR,.6ZI+

OTHERUSEFT'LBOOKS 1. Advance TheoryofStuctures

FirstEdition1993 Reprint : 1998 (

Ish Kapur for Dhanpat Rai Publications (p) Ltd.

1 24 49 81 to7 133 165 181

10. L1. 12.

s -V RelationshiP eight ofume W i.e., v t=ixrWva

The massof air presentin the voids is negligible' Vu=V"+Vn Thus,

massolunitvolunggllglids Ts O of of mass unitvolume water Yor' T"= G'Y'

Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering

s Weight -Volume Relat ionslriP

"' e = v - v"= (v:W

= Cqnsideringa soil masshavir:ga totalvolume V l, - n' V . .= l ' n = n , o r , % = V - V , = | ...e=Vs

vr/v, vu o r ' ng v J v " = Wm=

e, newion between G, w ands :

to With reference Fig 1.1' u

Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering

Weight -Vo htmeRelationshtps G + e l-Jl'Yw

= Ysar (v) Expression for y1 :

= = vr.Gr" y" .G (vr/v,) ' c

V".G\n Vr,+V" G/e | + l/e Iw

G.Vs,/Vv (V, + V")/V, 'w

Vn.\n + %.y" Vr+V" Vn + G.V"

Eqns.(1.14) and (1.15) may also be derivedfrom,eqn.(1.13) as follows : Forasaturatedsoils=1.

From (1.13) Bet, = eqn. we Tsar

(1.13) From.eqn. we get, = fd

_ (s.e + G)/e ., = G r s .., ttt' tw

(iv) Expressionfor y.", :

W n + W " vn"(n + %'Y" = W Bydefinition,ysar = i Vr+V, ffi

W " - ' t , = l t * W . " /l ' r o - ( l + w ) . y a \

Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering

Weight-Volume Relationships Solution: may be :

From theconsideration degree saturation, soil sample of of a

(i) Completely dry (s = 0)

V(Y."r - Y,r) W' Ysub=V = V or,

Y .,. ' d - l + w y = unitweightof thesoil = 1.9gm/cc lr = water content = l2%o = 0.t2

Two differentmetlods :ru

""t"Toyedto solvethe numerical

The expression y7 may also be used. of

Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineermg

Weight-Vol umeReIat ionshiPs

Porosity, Dry densitY,

I -W' - "' 3 * , , = 0 . - "7 7 c r = c\"= (2f5)(l)

n' '1"' cir"n,fr wg5 cf+ Required t' t I ' "

and the soil

Volume of water, Total volurne of soil, .'. Volume of air,

Wa = 456 gn' W-='W -Wa= 498 -456 = 42gm'

cc v = l! t- l'rz9 = 0.589 ' Y .

Vo=V-(%+V)=0.092cc = .'. Volume of voids, V, = Vo t Vn = 0.12+ 0'fp.2 0'2l2cc vn o.r2 =

= 0'0921 9'21% Watercontent,w - Y = +wd 456 G'r'u \d=T;e Dry densitY,

wa -456 = r.szpm/cc v 300 G'tn = L5z

:-------- ter-- : ----: - -_:_- Wo _-_-_-_-_-_----_-

1.s2(r + e) = (2.7)(r) +1.52=2.7 L.S?z e -- 0.78 Void ratio= 0.78

0.78 = 0.438= 43'8vo ,ft

From eqn. (1.12), t+G= st

Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

(o.oe2r\ (2.7\ "=ff=0.319=3l.9flo

Given ,W, VEe+

Unit weight of the soil,

Problems in Soil Mechnnics and Foundation Engineering Weightofwater, Wn = V'\ = (9.77)(1.0,

W=(Wo-Wi-(Vo-Viy - Wi - (Vo- V) t* *^ _(Wo w " d