U.S, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 88-62536 Copyright © 1988 The Asphalt Institute All reasonable care has been taken in the Preparation of this Manual; however, the Asphalt Institute can accept no responsibility for the consequences of any inaccuracy which it might contain. The principles and guidelines presented herein are to be used and interpreted by qualified engineers. Photographs and drawings of equipment used in this publication are for illustration only and do not imply preferential endorsement of any particular manufacturer by the Asphalt Institute. This publication incorporates dual units of measurement: the International System of Units, SI (metric), followed by U.S. Customary Units. PRINTED IN USAvil Foreword T his publication is the completely revised edition of The Asphalt Hand- book. Over an approximately fifty year period the Handbook became the standard reference work in the field of asphalt technology and construction. The Handbook was first issued in 1923 as the Asphalt Pocket Reference For Highway Engineers. This publication was the principal source of printed information of the newly formed Asphalt Institute. The Pocket Reference was reprinted at intervals without material change until 1937. In that year, owing to a rising demand for a more comprehensive volume incorporating design and construction principles in asphalt enginering, the newly desig- nated Handbook was published. Later editions during the next three decades broadened the scope of the Handbook and recognized continuing advances in asphalt engineering. Over this period there was a tremendous surge in asphalt technology. These advances complicated the task of subsequent Handbook revisions. During this period there were numerous editions and reprintings. In fact the 1962 edition had subsequent annual reprintings and the final 1965 edition was reprinted six times, Nearly 100,000 copies were distributed. In 1974 distribution of the Handbook was suspended. This decision was brought about due to the increasing production costs as well as the technical difficulties of keeping the publication updated. The Institute had concur- rently developed a complete set of other smaller, single subject manuals and informational publications. The just published Instructor's Guide (ES-1) was anticipated to take the place of the Handbook for a comprehensive textbook on all aspects of asphalt technology. While a success in its own right, ES-1 limited its audience and never satisfied the continual demand for reissuance of the Handbook. After a nearly 15-year hiatus The Asphalt Handbook is back. Combining aspects of the original version and the updated ES-1, this Handbook is more comprehensive than any previous version. Containing over 600 pages with nearly 400 illustrations and tables, The Asphalt Handbook is the definitive informational source on asphalt technology.xi Contents List of Asphalt Institute Member Companies . List of Asphalt Institute Offices . Foreword ........- vii Acknowledgements List of Illustrations . List of Tables Chapter 1. . INTRODUCTION TO ASPHALT................ 1 Section 1.1 HISTORICAL REVIEW ... 2 Background......... 2 Historical Milestones . 3 Section 1.2 MODERN A‘ 6 Asphalt ........ 6 Uses of Asphalt .. 7 Terms Relating to Asphalt and Its Uses 12 Section 1.3 ASPHALT PAVEMENTS 18 Basic Concepts ........2.2+00000- 18 Types of Asphalt Pavement Construction 23 Summary 27 Chapter 2...PETROLEUM ASPHALT . 29 Section 2.1] REFINING AND PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT CEMENT . 31 Introduction ......... 31 Refining Crude Petroleum . . 31 Desired Properties / Characteristics of Asp! . 33 Specifications and Tests for Asphalt Cement ......... 34 Section 2.2 EMULSIFIED AND CUTBACK ASPHALT 43 Introduction .......... see eeseee cee eee eens 43 Specifications and Tests for Emulsified Asphalts 47 Specifications and Tests for Cutback Asphalts . 33 Section 2.3 AIR-BLOWN ASPHALT ... 57 Introduction ........ 57 Properties and Tests .. 57 Section 2.4 CONTROL OF ASPHALT MIXTURE AND SPRAYING TEMPERATURES . 60 Mixing Temperatures .... 60 Spraying Temperatures . 60 Precautions 63 Section 2.5 SAMPLING AND TEMPERATURE-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS, MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS 2.2... cece eee eee en cent een eeeeeeee 64xii Page Sampling 64 Temperature- Volume Relationships 65 Section 2.6 SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR HOT ASPHALT .. 75 Chapter 3...MINERAL AGGREGATES ......-.-- sees eee 79 Section 3.1 AGGREGATES FOR ASPHALT MIXTURES.... 81 Introduction ... 81 Origin of Rocks. 81 Sources of Aggregates 83 Aggregate Properties ... 85 Section 3.2 AGGREGATE ANALYSIS. 90 Gradation ..... 90 Specific Gravity . 96 Surface Area ... 100 Section 3.3 GRADATION BLENDING CALCULATIONS 102 Introduction ... 102 Proportioning Determination: 103 Grading Adjustments 106 Chapter 4...HOT-MIX ASPHALT MIX DESIGN............. M1 Section 4.1 PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT HOT MIXES ve 113 Introduction ..........-.066 113 Considerations in Mix Design 113 Mix Design Procedures Hs Section 4.2 PROCEDURES FOR ANALYZING A COMPACTED PAVING MIXTURE Introduction ... Procedure Outline Paving Mixture Data for Sample Calculations 123 Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate . 124 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate 124 Maximum Specific Gravity of Mixtures with Different Asphalt Contents .. 126 Asphalt Absorption .. 127 Effective Asphalt Content of a Paving Mixture 127 Percent VMA in Compacted Paving Mixture . 128 Calculation of Air Voids in Compacted Mixture . 129 Section 4.3 ASPHALT HOT MIX DESIGN METHODS . 130 Introduction .......... essen eee 130 Marshall Method of Mix Design. 131 Hveem Method of Mix Design .... 147Chapter 5... MANUFACTURE OF HOT-MIX ASPHALT...... 175 Section 5.1 OVERVIEW OF A HOT-MIX ASPHALT FACILITY .. 177 Introduction . 177 Aggregate Storage and Cold Aggregate Feed 180 Aggregate Drying and Heating .. 184 Hot Aggregate Storage. . 187 Mineral Filler . 188 Asphalt Storage 189 Batch-Mixing Facility . 189 Drum-Mixing Facility . 193 Section 5.2 OPERATION AND INSPECTION OF HOT-MIX ASPHALT FACILITIES 199 Introduction ...... 199 Materials Storage . . 200 Cold Aggregate Feeding 202 Drying and Heating 204 Screening and Grading 207 Temperatures........ 213 Batch Facility Operations . 215 Drum-Mixing Facility Operations » 221 Miscellaneous Inspection Duties . . 226 Sampling and Testing . 228 Chapter 6.. .HOT-MIX ASPHALT PAVING ............-.-- 233 Section 6.1 ASPHALT PAVING EQUIPMENT . 235 Introduction ........ 235 The Asphalt Paver . . 236 Auxiliary Equipment .. . 247 Section 6.2 ROADWAY SURFACE PREPARATION . 250 Introduction .. . 250 Preparation of Unpaved Surfaces . 251 Preparation of Old Pavement Surfaces . » 253 Leveling Courses .........0..00-ee cues . 256 Section 6.3 PLACING HOT-MIX ASPHALT 259 Introduction .. « 259 Receiving the Mix - 260 Placing with the Paver » 262 Constructing Paving Joints ... » 267 Section 6.4 SUPPLEMENTAL ROADWAY PAVING AND APPURTENANCES . . 271 Introduction ....... . 271 Roadway Widening . 272 Shoulders » 273xiv Page Superelevation . 275 Asphalt Curbs and Dikes 276 Asphalt Ditches and Spillways. 279 Asphalt Slopes and Revetments. . - 280 Chapter 7. ..COMPACTING HOT-MIX ASPHALT .. 283 Section 7.1 COMPACTION BASICS 285 Need for Compaction ..... 285 Fundamental Principles . 285 Factors Affecting Compaction... 286 Section 7.2 COMPACTION EQUIP 291 Section 7.3 ROLLING PROCEDURES 294 Introduction ...... 294 Transverse Joints +» 294 Longitudinal Joints . - 295 Breakdown Rolling. 295 Intermediate Rolling 298 Finish Rolling ....... 299 Section 7.4 CHECKING THE FINISHED PAVEMENT 300 Surface Texture. . 300 Surface Toleranc: 300 Pavement Density . . 301 Additional Procedures .. 302 Chapter 8...ASPHALT SURFACE TREATMENTS........... 309 Section 8.1 ASPHALT SURFACE TREATMENT TYPES.... 311 TYPes vo cece e eee cette e cere nee 311 Functions of Surface Treatment . 311 Section 8.2 ASPHALT-AGGREGATE, TREATMENTS . . 313 Types ... 313 Materials 313 The Asphalt Distributor . 314 Aggregate Spreaders 317 Other Equipment .... 320 Surface Treatment Design 322 Construction Procedure . . 323 Special Asphalt-Aggregate Surface Treatment . 332 Section 8.3 OTHER SURFACE TREATMENTS . 333 Introduction ............005 333 Sprayed Asphalt Treatments . . 333 Emulsified Asphalt Slurry Seals . 336Page Chapter 9...ASPHALT IN PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION ......... 20.000 e cece eee enneeee 345 Section 9.1 PLANNING FOR IMPROVEMENT/PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT. 347 Introduction ... Pavement Managem Strategies for Future Improvements Definitions Relating to Maintenance and Rehabilitation. Section 9.2 MAINTENANCE OF ASPHALT 347 347 349 » 351 PAVEMENTS ... . 355 Introduction . 355 Patching..... 356 Causes and Repair of Cracks . 361 Causes and Repair of Distortions .. Causes and Repair of Slippery Surfaces . Surface Treatment Problems Section 9.3 ASPHALT IN RIGID PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE .. Introduction ..... Joint and Crack Maintenance Causes and Repair of Distortio: Causes and Repair of Disintegration Eliminating Skid Hazards Section 9.4 ASPHALT IN PAVEMENT 367 373 « 375 379 379 380 385 386 - 389 REHABILITATION ... 392 Introduction ........ 392 Evaluating Pavement Condition 392 Asphalt Overlays + 399 Chapter 10, ..SOILS AND DRAINAGE FOR ASPHALT PAVEMENTS...... 0... s ese e eee cee cence ne en een e nee ee nee 407 Section 10.1 SOIL-SUBGRADE CLASSIFICATION Introduction . AASHTO Classification System . Unified Soil Classification System . . Secton 10.2 SOIL-SUBGRADE STRENGTH EVALUATION METHODS.. . Introduction . Plate Bearing Test . . California Bearing Ratio Method Resistance Value Method..... Resilient Modulus Method ...Section 10.3 DRAINAGE OF ASPHALT PAVEMENT STRUCTURES . Introduction .... Surface Drainage . Subsurface Drainage. Construction .. Chapter 11... STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS... 0s ccc cee sce cence cence e nee eenneene Section 11.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN BACKGROUND Asphalt Pavement Structure ... Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements ... Section 11.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHODS General Procedure ......... Subgrade Resilient Modulus . Section 11.3 TRAFFIC ANALYSIS DESIGN - HIGHWAYS . Traffic Analysis Thickness Design ... Section 11.4 TRAFFIC ANALYSIS AND THICKNESS DESIGN - AIRFIELDS ... Aircraft Analysis .... Thickness Design ... Section 11.5 TRAFFIC ANALYSIS AND THICKNESS DESIGN - HEAVY WHEEL LOADS. Vehicle Analysis .... Thickness Design ... Section 11.6 PLANNED STAGE CONSTRUCTION . . Advantages ... Design Approach . Section 11.7 PAVEMENT OVERLAY DESIG) Evaluating Structural Adequacy . Effective Thickness Analysis ... Overlay Thickness Determination . Chapter 12... .HOT-MIX RECYCLING...........606..00ee eee Section 12.1 HOT MIX RECYCLING BACKGROUND . Introduction Definitions .. Thickness Design ... Section 12.2 MIX DESIGN . Introduction .. Preparatory Steps... Page vee 438 - 438 - 439 - 443 » 447 451 » 453 » 453 . 453 . 456 . 456 » 456 vs. 460 . 460 se 474 » 474 » 476 vee 492 . 492 . 495 - 502 502 502 504 504 504 505 5u 512 512 512 513 514 514 514Material Evaluation .. Mix Design ........+ Section 12.3 RECLAIMED MATERIALS Pavement Removal... Pavement Size Reduction Stockpiling ........665 Section 12.4 FACILITY PRODUCTION METHODS Production Options .. Batch Facilities Drum-Mix Facilities . . Spreading and Compaction ... Chapter 13. ..COLD-MIX ASPHALT. ........----- ee seeeeeee Section 13,1 COLD-MIX ASPHALT PAVEMENTS ... Introduction ...... Mix Composition Types of Mixes .. Construction Meth Section 13.2 COLD-MIX RECYCLIN' In-Place Cold Recycling .......- Central Facility Cold Recycling . . Chapter 14... SPECIAL USES OF ASPHALT AND ADDITIVES 2.0.0.0: c eee e eect e rene tence ene e nena Section 14.1 MISCELLANEOUS ASPHALT APPLICATIONS ......----++++ Bridge Deck Paving Roof-Deck Parking Industrial Floors ... Athletic and Recreational Fa‘ Hydraulic Structures . Asphalt Roofs ...... Asphalt in Railway Roadbeds . Mulch Treatment ..........- Section 14.2 ASPHALT MODIFIERS Introduction Silicones . . Organic Anti-Strip Agents Hydrated Lime APPENDIX A .. N30 3110), @: eee | 3571 xvii Page 514 515 528 528 528 529 531 531 531 532 535 539 . 540 . 540 . 343 546 558 558 563 569 S71 572 573 574 375 | 578 * 580 | 582 585 585 585 586 586List of Illustrations Figure No, Chapter 1 Ll Pavement Placement—1907, Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, D.C... 1.2 U.S. asphalt consumption . 13 U.S. road mileage .. 14 Spread of wheel-load through pavement structure LS Asphalt pavement cross-sections showing some common and typical asphalt pavement structures... .....+e0eeeeeeee 1.6 Pavement deflection results in tensile and compressive stresses in pavement structures .......+..seeeceeeeees Chapter 2 21 Petroleum asphait flow chart for asphalt cement . 2.2 The Asphalt Institute vacuum viscometer. . 23 Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer . 2.4 Viscometer in bath . 25 Zeitfuchs cross-arm viscometer . 2.6 Viscometer in bath . 27 Penetration test .... 2.8 Cleveland open cup flash point test 29 Thin film oven test ......-. 2.10 Rolling thin film oven test 2.11 Duetility test 2.12 Petroleum asphalt flow chart for emulsified and cutback asphalts 2.13 Saybolt Furol viscosity test . 2.14 Particle charge test ........ 2.15 Distillation test for emulsified asphalts 2.16 Tag open cup test ......-.-.-.00e 2.17 Distillation test for cutback asphalts 2.18 Softening point test ... Chapter 3 3.1 Different aggregate classifications ............++.2+ esses 3.2 Gradation curve of an aggregate blend for an asphalt concrete surface course 3.3 Los Angeles abrasion machine . 3.4 Sieve analysis .........00-0+- 3.5 Sieve analysis data converted to aggregate gradation 3.6 Typical composition of asphalt concrete. 3.7 Standard sizes of coarse aggregate xix Page 32 36 36 36 37 37 39 40 4 42 48 sl 52 55 55 59 82 86 87 or 92 93 94xx Figure No. Page 3.8 Relationship between the different specific gravities of an aggregate particle 97 3.9 Calculation of surface area . 101 3.10 Trial-and-error calculations for combining two aggregates 104. 3.11 Trial-and-error solution for combining three aggregates . 105 3.12 Adjusting percentages by volume to percentages by weight .. 106 3.13 Adjusting gradation by wasting . 108 Chapter 4 41 Density-voids and volume relationships of a compacted specimen of asphalt paving mix... . 120 4.2 Weighing aggregates for batch mixes . 132 4.3 Heating aggregate batches in oven ... 132 44 Adding asphalt from a thermostatically-controlled asphalt heating kettle 4.5 Mechanical mixer for batch mixing of asphalt and aggregate 133 46 Mechanical hammer used in preparing Mars! specimens 136 4.7 Marshall procedure, compression testing device . 140 48 Test press. . 140 49 Suggested test report form for typici method 2.2.2... e eee eect eee e eee enn e nee nee 142 4.10 Test property curves for hot-mix design by the Marshall method 144 4.11 Minimum percent voids in the mineral aggregate . 146 4.12 Apparatus for Hveem C.K.E. tests 149 4.13 Chart for determining surface constant for fine material from C.K.E. Hveem method of design . 151 4.14 Chart for determining surface constant for coarse material from coarse aggregate absorption, Hveem method ...... 152 4.15 Chart for combining K, and K, to determine surface constant for combined aggregate, Ky Hveem method. ..........4 154 4.16 Chart for computing oil ratio for dense-graded bituminous mixtures, Hveem method ....... 0.0.0 se scee eee eens 155 4.17 Chart for correcting bitumen requirement due to increasing viscosity of asphalt, Hveem method .. 156 4.18 Transfer of mix to mold... 161 4.19 Rodding mix in mold... . 161 4.20 Mechanical kneading compactor 162 4.21 Diagram showing principal features o Stabilometer.... 6.6... eee c eee cece eee e eee 165Figure No. 4.22 Hveem stabilometer ........0--. cece eee eee ee eee eee 4,23. Chart for stabilometer values to effective specimen height 166 4.24 Swell test apparatus . 169 4.25 Suggested test report form for typical mix design, Hyveem method ....... cece eee ence eens eee ences 170 4.26 Test property curves for hot-mix design data, Hveem MCh oo. eves eee ce eee reece tee ee eeen reece Wt 4.27 Procedures for selecting optimum asphalt content, Hveem method 173 Chapter 5 5.1 Batch-mixing facility 178 5.2 Batch-mixing facility, portable type .. 178 5.3 Stationary drum-mixing facility ... 179 5.4 Portable drum-mixing facility . 179 5.5 Drum-mixing facility schematic 180 5.6 Three-bin cold feeder and belt . 181 5.7 Continuous belt feeder . . 182 58 Electromagnetic vibratory 182 5.9 Apron flow feeder . 183 5.10 Dryer at a batch-mixing facility. 184 5.11 Drum mixer .......eee sees 185 5,12 Typical baghouse dust collector 186 5.13. Other dust collection systems... . -. 187 5.14 Cutaway view showing details of flow of material through screens and bins ... 188 5.15 Asphalt return line ... 190 5.16 Hot-mix asphalt being loaded directly from the pugmill 190 5.17 Pugmill mixer for a batch facility ........... 192 5.18 Large-capacity insulated asphalt concrete storage silos . 193 5.19 Control station for automated facility 194 §.20 Drum-mixing facility ...... 194 5.21 (a) Counter flow drum mixer 196 5,21 (b) Facility with center flow drum mixer 196 5.22. Asphalt coater.......2-.-.. 0.00 197 5.23. Mix storage at drum-mixing facility . 198 5.24 A series of asphalt storage tanks . . ~ 201 5.25 Calibration chart for cold bin feeds. + 205 5.26 Drying and heating fine aggregate vs. » 206 5.27 Selecting size splits for 4-bin storage . 207 5.28 3-1/3 deck screen arrangement for 4-bin hot storage . . 208 5.29 Screen Wears. .e eee ee cece erence eens - 209 5.30 Segregation of materials in the hot bins 211xxii Figure No. 3.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 3.41 5.42 5.43 5.44 5.45 Chapt 61 6.2 63 6.4 65 66 6.7 6.8 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 615 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 Asphalt facility aggregate sampling device Page + 212 Correct use of sampling device . 212 Master cold feed control . 214 Typical sampling device .... .. 214 Basic batch facility operations shown in flow chart form and schematically. 0... eee se, 217 Sample computation for determining scale teadings for aggregate weigh hopper . - 219 Overfilled pugmill .. . . 220 Underfilled pugmill . 220 Pugmill “live zone” . 221 Basic drum-mixing facility . 222 Weigh bridge... 224 Asphalt inlet... 225 Zones in drum mixer . 225 Measuring temperature of mix in truck . - 228 Asphalt plant inspector's daily report ... - 231 ler 6 Hot-mix asphalt being delivered to paver ., « 235 Asphalt paver... 236 Flow of material through the asphalt paver 237 Low lift loader being used to transfer asphalt mix from windrow to paver Hopper. eee 238 Flow of material through self-propelled asphalt paver ..... 239 Vibratory sereed unit 2... - 241 Forces acting on the screed during paving operation . + 241 Components of an automatic screed device . 243 Short ski or shoe grade follower os 244 Long ski automatic screed control 245 Grade follower with stringline . 245 Small paver .........,., 246 Self-propelled small paver . 246 Small self-propelled paver .. 247 Flow of material through small paver . 248 Asphalt distributor .. , 249 Cold milling......, 254 Leveling wedge layers . 257 Limits for multilayer leveling wedges . 258 Ilustration of load ticket .......-,,... - 261 Overlapping of successive courses to help prevent a crack opening along a longitudinal joint........ 263 Checking mat thickness with a depth gauge .. . 266 Constructing and Preparing longitudinal joints . + 268Figure No. 6.24 Constructing and preparing transverse joints ............+ 6.25 Asphalt concrete base applied with special paver attachment in widening of road . 6.26 Trench roller .. 6.27 Suggested shoulder ; Full-Depth asphalt pavement 6.28 Building up superelevated curves with asphalt mix 6.29 Two types of curbing machines Chapter 7 TA Pavement durability vs. air voids ... 7.2 Time allowed for compaction .. 13 Forces at work during compaction 74 Summary of influences of compaction . 75 Two-axle tandem steel-wheeled roller . . 7.6 Self-propelied pneumatic-tired roller . 4d Self-propetled tandem vibrating roller 78 Rolling a transverse joint .... 79 Rolling a longitudinal joint 7.10 Correct rolling pattern .... 7.11 Forces acting when tiller wheel or drive wheel is forwar 7.12 Rolling straightedge for checking surface tolerance ... 713 Density tests... 6s. c sees eee cence ee eee 7.14 Taking core sample of finished pavement 7.15 Pavement inspection diary ..... 7.16 Road inspector’s weekly report . 7,17 Road inspector's daily report... Chapter 8 8.1 Asphalt distributor ........+ 8.2 Proper nozzle angle setting 8.3 Overlapping spray fans.... 8.4 Bitumeter wheel and bitumeter dial. 85 Tailgate vane spreader .. 8.6 Hopper type tailgate spreader ... 8.7 Truck-attached mechanical spreader 8.8 Self-propelled mechanical spreader . 89 Power sweeper .. 8.10 Surface treatment operation 8.11 Slurry seal machine ........: 8.12 Flow diagram of a typical slurry seal mixer ... xxiii Page 273 274 . 274 . 277 . 278 -+. 286 . 287 288 + 290 292 1 293 » 293 295 | 296 297 + 298 * 300 302 303 304 305 306 315 316 317 317 318 319 319 321 322 326 | 339 340xxiv Figure No. Page Chapter 9 9.1 Plan-development guide 348 9.2 Example of road deterioration vs time 350 9.3 Removing the surface and base ,..... 357 9.4 Applying a tack coat to the vertical sides . 358 9.5 Backfilling the hole with plant mix . 359 9.6 Spreading the mix ... 359 9.7 Compacting the mix . . 360 9.8 Checking patched surface with a straightedge . «. 360 9.9 Alligator cracks - 363 9.10 Edge crack.... 364 9.11 Edge joint crack . 365 9.12 Lane joint crack . 365 9.13 Reflection crack . 366 9.14 Shrinkage crack: 366 9.15 Slippage cracks 367 9.16 Channeling .. 368 9.17 Corrugations . 369 9.18 Shoving . 369 9.19 Cold milling 370 9.20 Depression .. 371 9.21 Upheaval 372 9.22 Pot hole. 373 9.23 Raveling 374 9,24 Bleeding asp! . 375 9.25 Polished aggregate in pavement surface 376 9.26 Loss of cover aggregate .. 377 9.27 Longitudinal streaking 378 9.28 Transverse cracks . . 382 9.29 Longitudinal cracks 383 9.30 Diagonal cracks ... 383 9.31 Corner cracks and spall 384 9.32 Restraint crack .. 384 9.33 Fault . 386 9.34 Pumping .. 387 9.35 Blow-up (buckling) . 387 9.36 Blow-up (shattering) 388 9.37 Scaling... 389 9.38 Spalling . 390 9.39 Polished aggregate in the pavement si 391 9.40 Asphalt pavement rating form 395, 9.41 Condition rating as a general indicator of type of Maintenance ......- 0.5 eee eee eee eee eee cence eeeXX Figure No. Page 9.42 A guide for the estimation of pavement condition rating and priority for flexible pavements .....-. 0.0. seee reer eee 396 9.43 A guide for the estimation of pavement condition rating and priority for rigid pavements - 397 9.44 Flexible pavement condition evaluation form . 398 9.45 Rigid pavement condition evaluation form 399 9.46 Schematic diagram of reflection cracking . . 403 Chapter 10 10.1 Liquid limit and plasticity index ranges 412 10.2 Plasticity chart 6.1... sees seer eee eee teens 413 10.3 Arrangement of equipment for plate bearing test . 421 10.4 Influence on deflection of repetitions of loading ... 423 10.5 Corrected total load vs, corrected deflection for ten repetitions of load . 424 10.6 CBR test assembly .. 426 10.7 Correction of load-penetration curves . 427 10.8 Sample form for recording CBR test information 428 10.9 | Mechanical compactor 429 10.10 Depositing soil into mold from compactor feeding trough 430 10.11 Moisture exudation indicating device . 431 10.12 Expansion pressure assembly . 432 10.13 Hveem stabilometer 433 10.14 Plot of laboratory test results and required pavement thicknesses for determining design 434 10.15 Apparatus for resilient modulus testing of soil . 436 10.16 Form for resilient modulus tests on compacted fine-grained soils .. 437 10.17 Typical side ditch . 440 10.18 Paving side ditches prevents ditch erosion 44t 10.19 Dike leading to discharge pipe to carry water down slope . 441 10.20 Roadside dike warped into paved ditc! 442 10.21 The effect on permeability of a minor change in grading ... 444 10.22 Frost heave is caused by ice lenses forming beneath the pavement structure ..... 10.23 Typica! bedding for trench conduits .. . 446 . 449xxv Figure No. Page Chapter 11 11.1 Spread of wheel load through pavement structure. . « 454 11.2. Wheel load deflection results in tensile and compressive stresses in the pavement structure ..........00..00000- 455 11.3 Approximate relationship between Plate Bearing Value and Resilient Modulus 457 11.4 Example worksheet for traffic analysis 463 11.5 Chart 1, Full-Depth asphalt concrete . 465 11.6 Chart 2, Emulsified asphalt mix, type II . 466 11.7 Chart 3, Asphalt concrete on untreated aggregate base 467 11.8 Chart 4, Full-Depth asphalt concrete ... 468 11.9 — Chart 5, Emulsified asphalt mix, type I]. 468 11.10 Chart 6, Asphalt concrete on untreated aggregate 470 11.11 Location and direction of tensile and compressive strains in a Full-Depth asphalt pavement system . +» 476 11.12 Steps used to determine design thickness . 478 11.13 Pavement thickness to limit subgrade vertical compressive strain under load repetitions .............. 479 11.14 Pavement thickness to limit asphalt concrete horizontal tensile strain under load repetitions . . 480 1LiS ChartA... 481 11.16 Chart B . 482 11.17) Chart Cc. 483 11.18 ChartD... - 484 11.19 Aircraft Traffic Worksheet No. 2 Subgrade vertical Compressive strain. 6... ese cece eee eee e eee ee eee 485 11.20 Aircraft Traffic Worksheet No, 2 Asphalt concrete horizontal tensile strain 2.6.66... 00 .cccceeeeeeee eens 486 11.21 Allowable traffic value and predicted traffic value curves for subgrade vertical compressive strain ......... 487 11.22 Allowable traffic value and predicted traffic value curves for asphalt concrete horizontal tensile strain . 488 11,23 Typical plan and cross-section for runway pavements . 489 11.24 Thickness design, Full-Depth asphalt concrete 490 11.25 Thickness design, emuli: CONCTELE oe eee eee ee ete tenet ete e nee enn 490 11.26 Thickness design, asphalt concrete over untreated base 491 11.27 Log handler... 2.0.0... 0c ccseeceee eee eee eens 494 11.28 Data for allowable single wheel load design curve 499 11.29 Allowable vs. equivalent single wheel curves . 500 11.30 Dual wheel load factors ...........00e0005 501 11.31 Data for equivalent single wheel load determination... 501xxvii Figure No. Page Chapter 12 12.1 Asphalt viscosity blending chart .. 521 12.2 Asphalt viscosity blending chart . 524 12.3 Asphalt viscosity blending chart .. . 527 12.4 Reclaimed asphalt pavement crusher » 529 12.5 Cold-milling . . 530 12.6 Cold-milling . . 530 12.7 Recycling in batch facility . . 532 12.8 Drum mixer ... . 533 129 Drum mixer . . 534 12.10 Drum mixer facility layout . 535 12.11 Drum mixer .......-.066 536 12.12 Spreading reclaimed hot-mix asphalt .. . 537 Chapter 13 13,1 Measurements for determining windrow quantities . . . 13.2 Blade mixing.......-.-..ee0e 550 13.3. Rotary mixer, pulvimixer type . 551 13.4 Travel plant, hopper type.. 553 13.5 Travel plant, schematic . 554 13.6 Cold-mix continuous mixing facility . . 555 13.7 Flow chart of cold-mix design procedure .. 559 13.8 An Ateco cutter-crusher-compactor attached to a motor grader . 560 13.9 The Bros Reclaimer size reduction machine 561 13.10 The Rexnord Pulvi-mixer .......... 561 13.11 The Hyster Model D GRID roller . 562 13.12 The Cedarapids cold planer......... 563 13.13 Cold-mix recycling facility continuous type ... Chapter 14 14.1 Asphalt concrete surfaced race track . . « 575 14.2 Los Angeles Stadium ............ 576 14.3 Asphalt railway roadbed cross-sections 581 14.4 Emulsified asphalt mulch on median .......... 584xxix List of Tables Table No. Page Chapter 1 Ll Some Uses and Applications of Asphalt . 10 12 Guide for Uses of Asphalt 24 Chapter 2 21 Required Tests for Asphalt Cement in Pavement Construction. 35 2.2 Required Tests for Emulsified Asphalts .. 48 23 Required Tests for Cutback Asphalts and Road Oils 53 2.4 Required Tests for Some Blown Asphait Cements 58 2.5 Temperatures for Uses of Asphalt (°c) 61 2.6 Temperatures for Uses of Asphalt (°F) 62 27 Guide for Loading Asphalt Products .... 66 28 Temperature-Volume Corrections for Asphalt Materials 68 2.9 Temperature-Volume Corre (°F) 10 2.10 | Temperature-Volume Corrections for Emulsified Asphalts .......seceeee sees eee eeeer tern eset ee eses 72 2.11 Percent Capacities for Various Depths of Cylindrical Tanks in Horizontal Position 74 2.12 Guideline Temperatures for Storage and Handling of ‘Asphalt Products ......1e0eceeeee eet eeeeeeneeeees 16 Chapter 3 3.1 Nominal Dimensions of U.S. Standard Sieves . . 90 Chapter 4 41 Basic Data for Sample of Paving Mixture ... 123 42 Suitability of Laboratory Design Methods . 130 43 Stability Correction Ratios .. 143 44 Marshall Design Criteria 145 45 Surface-Area Factors . 149 46 Hveem Design Criteria 172 Chapter 5 5.1 Screen Selection Table .... 5.2 Vibrating Screen Capacity . 5.3 Possible Causes of Mix Deficiencies in Hot-Mix Asphalt... 227 5.4 Suggested Schedule of Sampling and Testing ... «229 5.5 Size of Samples - 230XXX Table No. Page Chapter 8 Quantities of Asphalt and Aggregate for Single Surface Treatments .. 8.2 Quantities of Asphalt and Aggregate Per Square Metre (Square Yard) for Double Surface Treatment .......... 325 83 Quantities of Asphalt and Aggregate Per Square Metre (Square Yard) for Triple Surface Treatment .. 325 8.4 Suggested Temperatures for Spraying Asphalt .. 328 8.5 Quantities of Asphalt and Aggregate Per Square Metre (Square Yard) for Cape Seal 332, 8.6 Types of Asphalt for Surface Treatments 333 87 Slurry Mixture Gradings ............. 341 Chapter 9 91 Some Alternatives in Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation ........ 0... cee cece eee eee en eens 354 Chapter 10 10.1 Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures -» 410 10.2. Size Ranges of Soil Fractions «. 44 10.3. Symbols for Components, Gradation, and Liquid Limit ... 415 10.4 Unified Soil Classification -. 416 Chapter 11 11.1 Subgrade Design Limits............. 0... c sce c cece eee 458 11.2 Average Distribution of Trucks on Different Classes of Highways - United States «+ 460 11.3 Percentage of Total Truck Traffic in Design +» 461 11.4 Average Truck Factors for Different Classes of Highways and Vehicles - United States +» 462 11.5 Growth Factors « 463 11.6 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Concrete Surface Course .. 11.7 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Bases ....... sess cece ee eee ce eee eeeen ees 471 11.8 Design Values for Yearly Average Daily Temperature 497 11.9 Design Values for Yearly Average Daily Temperature ..... 498 11.10 Conversion Factors for Converting Thickness of Existing Pavement Components To Effective Thickness ......... 506Table No. Page 11.8 Design Values for Yearly Average Daily Temperature ...., 497 11.9 Design Values for Yearly Average Daily Temperature ..... 498 11.10 Conversion Factors for Converting Thickness of Existing Pavement Components To Effective Thickness ......... 506 Chapter 12 12.{ Formulas for Proportioning Materials for Recycling Hot Mixes ........ ccs eee esee eee ee eee eeee 517 Chapter 13 13.1 Guide for the Uses of Asphalt in Cold Mix .. 542 13.2. Aggregates for Open-Graded Emulsion Mixes. . 544 13.3 Aggregates for Emulsified Dense-Graded Asphalt Mixtures ... 545 13.4 Sand Mixes . 546 13.5 Typical Asphalt peratures for Cold-Mixed COMStruction 6.6... csc eee cece erence een e een enenee 549° 13.6 Types of Rollers Suitable for the Compaction of Cold-Mix Asphalt Bases 0.00... cece cece eee nee entree eenne 557MS-4 1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Asphalt his chapter introduces the field of asphalt technology. It presents a broad overview of past and present uses of asphalt as well as an introduction to some of the basic concepts and definitions associated with asphalt. SECTION 1.1 Historical Review O Background O Historical Milestones SECTION 1.2 Modern Asphalt Usage O Asphalt O Uses of Asphalt O Terms Relating to Asphalt and Its Uses SECTION 1.3 Asphalt Pavements O Basic Concepts O Types of Asphalt Pavement Construction O Summary BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Abraham, H., Asphalt and Allied Substances, 6th Edition, D. Van Nostrand Co., 1960. 2. Barth, E.J., ASPHALT, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962. 3. Introduction to Asphalt, MS-5, Asphalt Institute. 4, Annual Survey of Asphalt Usage, Asphalt Institute. VISUAL AID 1. Asphalt Through The Ages, VA-2V, VHS Tape (color/sound 12 min.), Asphalt Institute.2 Introduction to Asphalt 1.1 Historic Review Background The word “asphalt” is believed to be derived from the ancient Accadian term “asphaltic.” The term was adopted by the Homeric Greeks meaning “to make firm or stable.” “Asphaltic” was carried over to late Latin, French “asphalte”, and ultimately English “asphalt.” From its ancient past to the present, asphalt has been used as a cement for bonding, coating and water- proofing objects. Asphalt truly is one of nature’s most versatile products. Asphalt is man’s oldest engineering material, having been used since the dawn of civilization. In Sumeria, about 6000 B.C., there existed a thriving shipbuilding industry that produced and used asphalt. In building the ziggurats, of which the Tower of Babel was only one of many, asphalt was used for mortar. Near the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, there was a thriving asphalt production. Asphalt was used by the Egyptians as a waterproofing material as early as 2600 B.C. and from the Persian word for asphalt, mumiya, we derive the word mummy. In the ancient world, asphalt continued to be used widely as a mortar for building and paving blocks, caulking for ships, and waterproofing in numerous applications. These early asphalts occurred naturally. They were found in geologic strata both as soft, readily workable “mortars” and also as hard, friable black veins of rock formations. The soft asphalt material is typified in the Trinidad Lake depository, on the Island of Trinidad, in Bermudez Lake in Venezuela, and in extensive “tar sands” throughout western Canada. These “soft asphalt” products have come to be referred to as natural asphalts and were used extensively until the early part of this century. Inthe early 1900's, the discovery of refining asphalt from crude petroleum and the overwhelming popularity of the automobile created an expanding industry. Asphalt appeared to be a cheap and inexhaustible resource that would be used for smooth, modern roads and numerous other applications (Figure 1.1). As the asphalt paving industry blossomed, the physical properties and character of asphalt needed to be determined, To ensure asphalt roadways were durable and reliable, numerous tests and procedures were developed in the early 1900’s. Probably the first scientific approach to designing asphalt paving mixes was determining an asphalt content based on aggregate voids. In order for design samples to represent field performance, compacted samples needed to contain desired void and asphalt cement contents. In the middle 1920's, one of the earliest methods of evaluating the physical properties of a compacted asphalt mixture was developed by Prevost Hubbard and F.C. Field of the Asphalt Institute. The empirical Hubbard- Field test indicated the stability of a mix by a punching-shear type of failure.Figure 1.1 Pavement Placement—1 907, on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C. Francis Hveem developed another test in the 1930's to ensure compacted asphalt pavement mixtures were stable and did not bleed excessive asphalt. The principles of the Hveem method are based on triaxial compression and an estimate of asphalt content determined by the surface area of the aggregate. The Hveem Method is still practiced today. With the advent of World War U, a simple test was required for proper design and construction of the military airfields. An asphalt mix design method was conceived by Bruce Marshall to determine the desired density and asphalt content to withstand the heavy aircraft wheel loads. The Marshall method provided satisfactory design criteria. Today, this empirical method is extensively used throughout the world. Historical Milestones Prehistoric: Skeletons of prehistoric animals are preserved intact to present day in asphalt surface deposits, La Brea Pit, Los Angeles, California. 3000 B.C. - 476: Following discovery of the wheel, the first man-made roads were built in Southwestern Asia. Later, the Persians developed roads, in many instances with the use of asphalt. The Romans effected early colonization by means of a military road system spanning their empire.4 Introduction to Asphatt 1599: First classification of asphalt and attempts to trace connection between asphalt and petroleum. 1777: First exposition of the modern theory of the origin of asphalt by P.C. LeSage, France. 1780: First asphalt composition of prepared roofing, Sweden. 1802: Rock asphalt used in France for floor, bridge and sidewalk surfacing. 1815: In London, John L. McAdam began building and improving roads with an interlocked and compacted stone surface. This “macadam” innovation had a profound impact on the roadways of the future. 1824: First use of asphalt paving blocks. 1829: First use of asphalt-mastic pavements, Lyons, France. 1837: The first account of asphalt deposits in the United States revealed in Connecticut. Also, publication of first exhaustive treatise on the chemistry of asphalt, by J.B. Borissingault in Paris, 1838: Rock asphalt imported and used in sidewalk construction in Philadelphia. 1844: First composition asphalt roofing in the United States. 1858: First modern asphalt road laid in Paris, composed of 50 mm (2 inches) of compressed asphalt mastic. 1869: First compacted asphalt pavement in London. 1870: First U.S. asphalt roadways laid in Newark, New Jersey. 1876: First sheet asphalt pavement laid on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., with imported asphalt from Trinidad Lake. 1899: Barber Asphalt Paving Co. heavily involved in early paving equipment, development and construction of nearly half of all the early sheet asphalt pavements. 1901: Warren Brothers built the first successful, reproducible asphalt concrete pavements. They also pioneered development of early hot-mix asphalt facilities. 1902: Approximately 18,000 tonnes (20,000 tons) of asphalt produced in the United States from the recent discovery of petroleum asphalt refining. 1910: First drum mixers and dryer-mixers were used at mixing facilities. 1919: The Asphalt Association was founded (later renamed the Asphalt Institute) in New York City to serve the users of petroleum asphalt through programs of engineering, research and education. 1921: The Federal-Aid Road Act of 1916 was amended, enabling the U.S. to progress in building and improving roadways. 1930: The Asphalt Institute was instrumental in the crusade to develop early pavement material and construction procedures. 1941: The U.S. Defense Act of 1941 authorized the building of roads essential to the war effort.MS-4 5 1946: After World War II, the U.S. started a new era of roadbuilding. In the next ten years 80,000 kilometers (50,000 miles) of new roads were constructed. In the same period, enough automobiles were manufactured to stretch 322,000 kilometers (200,000 miles) bumper-to-bumper. 1956: President Eisenhower signed the history making Federal Aid Highway Act, authorizing the building of 66,000 kilometers (41,000 miles) of the U.S. Interstate and Defense Highways System. 1960: Full-Depth pavement concept was conceived. 1979: Record high usage of asphalt in the U.S., exceeding 34 megatonnes (38 million tons).6 Introduction to Asphalt 1.2 Modern Asphait Usage Asphalt Asphalt is of particular interest to the engineer because it is a strong cement, readily adhesive, highly waterproof, and durable. It is a plastic substance that imparts controllable flexibility to mixtures of mineral aggregates with which it is usually combined. It is, moreover, highly resistant to the action of most acids, alkalies, and salts. Although a solid or semi-solid at ordinary atmospheric temperatures, asphalt may be readily liquefied by applying heat, or by dissolving it in petroleum solvents of varying volatility, or by emulsifying it. Modern asphalt is a natural constituent of petroleum. Most crude petroleums contain some asphalt, and sometimes crude oil may be almost entirely asphalt. There are some crude oils, however, that contain no asphalt. On the basis of their asphalt content, crude oils are often broadly described or classed as: 1. Asphalt base crude; 2. Paraffin base crude (containing paraffin but no asphalt); and 3. Mixed-base crude (containing both paraffin and asphalt). Crude petroleum from oil wells is separated into its constituents or fractions in a refinery. Principally, this separation is accomplished by distillation. After separation, the constituents are further refined or processed into products meeting specific requirements. Hence, asphalt, paraffin, gasoline, lubricating oil, and other highly useful products are the output of an oil refinery, depending on the nature of the crude oil being processed. Because asphalt is the base or heavy constituent of crude oil, it does not evaporate or boii off when crude oil is distilled. Accordingly, asphalt is obtained as a residue or residual product, and is valuable and essential fora great variety of engineering and architectural uses. Practically all asphalt used in the United States is produced by modern oil refineries and is called petroleum asphalt. Asphalt is also a bituminous material because it contains bitumen, which is a hydrocarbon material soluble in carbon disulfide (CS,). Tar obtained from the destructive distillation of soft coal also contains_ bitumen. Consequently, both petroleum asphalt and coal tar are jointly referred to as bituminous materials. However, petroleum asphalt should not be confused with coal tar because their properties differ greatly. Petroleum asphalt is composed almost entirely of bitumen, whereas in coal tar the bitumen content is relatively low. In view of these differences, it is imperative that coal-tar products and petroleum asphalts be considered and treated as entirely separate entities.MS-4 7 Asphalt is used principally in this country for various paving purposes. However, considerable asphalt is consumed in the roofing industry as well as for numerous miscellaneous products. The next section discusses this in greater detail. Petroleum asphalt for use in pavements is usually called paving asphalt or asphalt cement to distinguish it from asphalt made for non-paving uses, such as roofing and industrial purposes, Paving asphalt at normal atmospheric (ambient) temperatures is a black, sticky, semisolid, highly viscous material. It is composed primarily of complex hydrocarbon molecules, but it also contains other atoms, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Because paving asphalt is sticky, it adheres to aggregate particles and can be used to cement or bind them into asphalt concrete. Paving asphalt is waterproof and is unaffected by most acids, alkalies, and salts. It is called a thermoplastic material because it softens as it is heated and hardens as it is cooled. This unique combination of characteristics and properties is a fundamental reason why asphalt is an important paving material. Asphalt pavements are sometimes incorrectly called flexible pavements, perhaps as a result of asphalt being a viscous, thermoplastic material. Petroleum asphalt, as previously stated, is the principal paving asphalt in use today, although natural or native asphalt is still used in the United States and other countries. The extent of native asphalt used, however, is relatively small. In fact, only a few thousand tons of natural asphalt is used in the United States each year. Natural asphalt is durable and has been used throughout history. Modern petroleum asphalt has the same durable qualities, but it has the important additional advantage of being refined toa uniform condition free from extraneous organic and mineral matter. Natural asphalt, however, is nonuniform and contains various amounts of extraneous material. Uses of Asphalt Asphalt is used for a great variety of purposes. Annual worldwide consumption of asphalt is over 90 megatonnes (100 million tons). The production and consumption of asphalt in the United States has shown a steady growth from about 1.4 megatonnes (1.5 million tons) in 1920 to about 34 megatonnes (38 million tons) in 1979 (Figure 1.2). The use of asphalt in roadbuilding has grown concurrently with overali consumption. Of the approximately 3,466,000 kilometers (2,154,000 miles) of paved roads in the United States, 3,267,000 kilometers (2,030,000 miles), or 94% are surfaced with asphalt (Figure 1.3). The major coverage of this manual will be to describe asphalt con- struction and design procedures as they relate to the predominant use of asphalt: pavements carrying vehicular traffic. However, as Table 1.1 indicates, asphalt is used today, as in the past, for a multitude of special applications and products.8 Introduction to Asphalt Annual Sales of Petroleum Asphalt to Domestic Consumers in U.S.A. (in Millions of Tons) 40 : Total Sales N -- “rN aoc - Paving > N va N Miscellaneous ne eeneneeneee Vey sunny Hered saree 5 77 ‘79 ‘81 83. ‘85 ‘87 Source: US. Bureau of Mines Charted by the Asphalt Institute *1 ton = 0.907 tonnes Department of Energy Asphalt Institute Annual Survey Figure 1.2 U.S. Asphalt Consumption.MS-4 Total Existing Length of Roads and Streets, U.S.A. Total Mileage 6,243,000 kilometers (3,880,000 miles} Paved Mileage* 3,466,000 kilometers (2,154,000 miles) *94% Asphalt Surfaced Total Existing Mileage of Roads and Streets U.S.A. Portland Cement Concrete 200,000 kilometers (124,000 miles) Earth 603,000 kilometers (375,000 miles) 2,174,000 kilometers (1,351,000 miles) | Gravel or Similar OOOO 3,267,000 kilometers (2,030,000 miles) Asphalt Source: Federal Highway Administration. Figure 1.3 U.S. Road Mileage.10 Introduction to Asphalt Tabie 1.1 Some Uses and Applications of Asphalt AGRICULTURE (Aiso see Buildings, Hydraulics and Paving) Cattle Sprays Dampproofing and waterproofing buildings, structures Disinfectants Fence Post coating Mulches Mulching paper Paved barn floors, bamyards, feed platforms, etc. Protecting tanks, vats, etc. Protection for concrete structures Tree paints Water and moisture barriers (above & below ground) Wind and water erosion control Weather modification areas BUILDINGS (Also see Industrial, Paving) Floors Dampproofing and waterproofing Floor compositions, tiles, coverings Insulating fabrics, papers Step treads Rooting Building papers Built-up roof adhesives, felts, primes Caulking compounds ‘Cement waterproofing compounds Cleats for roofing Glass wool compositions Insulating fabrics, felts, papers Joint filler compounds Laminated roofing, shingles Liquid roof coatings Plastic cements Shingles Walls, Siding, Ceilings Acoustical biocks, compositions, felts Architectural decoration Bricks Brick siding Building blocks, papers Dampproofing coatings, compositions Insulating board, fabrics, felts, paper Joint filler compounds Masonry coatings Plaster boards Putty, asphalt Siding compositions Soundproofing Stucco base Wallboard Miscellaneous Air drying paints, varnishes Artificial lumber Eborized lumber insulating paints Plumbing, pipes Treated awnings HYDRAULICS & EROSION CONTROL Canal linings, sealants Catchment areas, basins Dam groutings Dam linings, protection Dike protection Ditch linings Drainage gutters, structures Embankment protection Groins Jettias Levee protection Mattresses for levee and bank protection Membrane linings, waterproofing Ore leaching pads Reservoir linings Revetments Sand dune stabilization Sewage lagoons, oxidation ponds Swimming pools Waste ponds Water barriers INDUSTRIAL Aluminum foil compositions using asphalt Backed felts Conduit insulation, lamination Insulating boards Paint compositions Papers Pipe wrapping Roofing, shingles Automotive Acoustical compositions, felts Brake linings Clutch facings Floor sound deadeners Friction elements Insulating felts Panel boards Shim strips Tacking strips Underseal Electrical Armature carbons, windings Battery boxes, carbons Electrical insulating compounds, papers, tapes, wire coatings Junction box compound Molded conduitsMS-4 a1 Table 1.1 Some Uses and Applications of Asphalt (Continued) INDUSTRIAL (Cont) Compositions Black grease Buffing compounds Cable splicing compound Embalming Etching compositions Extenders, rubber, other Explosives Fire extinguisher compounds Joint fillers Lap cement Lubricating grease Pipe coatings, dips, joint seals Plastic cements Plasticizers Preservatives Printing inks Well drilling fluid ‘Wooden cask liners impregnated, Treated Materials ‘Armored bituminized fabrics Burlap impregnation Canvas treating Carpeting medium Deck cloth impregnation Fabrics, felts Mildew prevention Packing papers Pipes and pipe wrapping Planks Rugs, asphalt base Saw dust, cork, asphatt composition Textiles, waterproofing Tiles Treated leather Wrapping papers Paints, Varnishes, etc. Acid-proof enamels, mastics, varnishes Acid-resistant coatings Air-drying paints, varnishes Anti-corrosive & anti-fouling paints Anti-oxidants and solvents Base for solvent compositions Baking and heat resistant enamels Boat deck sealing compound Lacquers, japans Marine enamels Miscellaneous Belting Blasting fuses Briquette binders Burial vaults Casting molds Clay articles Miscellaneous (Cont) Clay pigeons Depilatory Expansion joints Flower pots Foundry cores Friction tape Gaskets Imitation leather Mirror backing Photograph records Rubber, molded compositions Shoe fillers, soles Table tops PAVING (Also see Hydraulics, Agricutture, Railroad, Recreation) Airport runways, taxiways, aprons, atc. Asphalt blocks Brick fillers Bridge deck surfacing Crack fillers Curbs, gutlers, drainage ditches Floors for buildings, warehouses, garages, etc. Highways, roads, streets, shoulders Parking lots, driveways PCC Underseal Rool-deck parking Sidewalk, footpaths Soil stabilization RAILROAD Ballast-treatment Curve lubricant Dust laying Paved ballast, sub-ballast Paved crossings, treight yards, station platforms Rail fillers Railroad ties Tie impregnating, stabilization RECREATION Paved surfaces for: Dance pavilions Drive-in movies Gymnasiums, sports arenas Playgrounds, school yards Race tracks Running tracks Skating rinks Swimming & wading pools Tennis courts, handball courts12 Introduction to Asphalt Terms Relating to Asphalt and Its Uses Asphalt Materials Asphalt—A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the predominating constituents are bitumens which occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing. (ASTM* Designation D8.) Asphalt is a constituent in varying proportions of most crude petroleums. Asphalt Blocks—Asphalt concrete molded under high pressure. The type of aggregate mixture composition, amount and type of asphalt, and the size and thickness of the blocks are varied to suit usage requirements. Asphalt, Blown or Oxidized—Asphalt that is treated by blowing air through it at elevated temperature to give it characteristics desired for certain special uses such as roofing, pipe coating, undersealing portland cement concrete pavements, membrane envelopes, and hydraulic applications. Asphalt, Catalytically Blown—An air-blown asphalt produced by using a catalyst during the blowing process. Asphalt Cement—Asphalt that is refined to meet specifications for paving, industrial, and special purposes, (See Specifications for Asphalt Cement, ASTM Designations D 946 and D 3381, or AASHTOt Designations M 20 and M 226). Its penetration is usually between 40 and 300. The term is often abbreviated AC. Asphalt, Cutback—See Cutback Asphalt. Asphalt Joint Sealer—An asphalt product used for sealing cracks and joints in pavements and other structures. Asphalt Joint Sealers, Preformed—Premolded strips of asphalt mixed with fine mineral substances, fibrous materials, cork, sawdust, or similar materials; manufacturerd in dimensions suitable for construction joints. Asphalt, Emulsified—See Emulsified Asphalt. Asphalt, Mineral Filled—Asphalt containing finely divided mineral matter passing 75 «m (No, 200) sieve. Asphalt, Natural (Native)—Asphalt occurring in nature which has been derived from petroleum by natural processes of evaporation of volatile fractions leaving the asphalt fractions, The native asphalts of most importance are found in the Trinidad and Bermudez Lake deposits. Asphalt from these sources often is called Lake Asphalt. Asphalt Paint—A fluid asphalt product sometimes containing small amounts of other materials such as lampblack, aluminum flakes, and mineral pigments. Asphalt Panels, Premolded—Generally made with a core of asphalt, minerals, and fibers, covered on each side by a layer of asphalt-impregnated felt or fabric, coated on the outside with hot applied asphalt. The panels are *American Society for Testing and Materials. +American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.MS-4 13 made under pressure and heat to a width of 0.9 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 ft) by 3 to 25 mm (‘% to | in.) thick, and to any desired length. Asphait, Petroleum—Asphalt refined from crude petroleum. Asphalt Planks—Premolded mixtures of asphalt, fiber and mineral filler, sometimes reinforced with steel or fiberglass mesh. They are usually made in 0.9 to 2.4 m (3 to 8 ft) lengths and 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in.) wide. Asphalt planks may also contain mineral grits which maintain a sandpaper texture throughout their life. Asphalt, Powdered—Solid or hard asphalt crushed or ground to a fine state of subdivision. Asphalt Primer—A cutback asphalt product of low viscosity that penetrates into an aggregate base/subbase upon application. Asphalt, Rock—Porous rock such as sandstone or limestone that has become impregnated with natural asphalt through geologic process. Asphalt, Semi-Solid—Asphalt that is intermediate in consistency be- tween emulsified and cutback asphalt products and solid or hard asphalt— that is, normally has a penetration between 10 and 300. Asphalt, Solid or Hard—Asphalt having a normal penetration of less than 10. Bitumen—A mixture of hydrocarbons of natural or pyrogenous origin, or a combination of both; frequently accompanied by nonmetallic deriva- tives which may be gaseous, liquid, semisolid, or solid; and which are completely soluble in carbon disulfide. Cutback Asphalt—Asphalt cement which has been liquefied by blending with petroleum solvents (also called diluents). Upon exposure. to atmos- pheric conditions the diluents evaporate, leaving the asphalt cement to perform its function of cementing and waterproofing. a. Rapid-Curing (RC) Asphalt—Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt cement and a naphtha or gasoline-type diluent of high volatility. (See Specifications for Rapid-Curing Asphalt, ASTM Designation D 2028 or AASHTO Designation M 81). b. Medium-Curing (MC) Asphalt—Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt cement and kerosene-type diluent of medium volatility. (See Specifications for Medium-Curing Asphalt, ASTM Designation D 2027 or AASHTO Designation M 82). c, Slow-Curing (SC) Asphalt—Cutback asphalt composed of asphalt cement and oils of low volatility. (See Specifications for Slow-Curing Asphalt, ASTM Designation D 2026). d. Road-Oil—A heavy petroleum oil, usually one of the Slow-Curing (SC) grades. (See Specifications for Slow-Curing Asphalt, ASTM Desig- nation D 2026). Emulsified Asphali—An emulsion of asphalt cement and water that contains a small amount of an emulsifying agent, a heterogeneous system containing two normally immiscible phases (asphalt and water) in which the water forms the continuous phase of the emulsion, and minute globules of asphalt form the discontinuous phase. Emulsified asphalts may be of either14 Introduction to Asphalt the anionic, electronegatively charged asphalt globules, or cationic, electro- positively charged asphalt globule types, depending upon the emulsifying agent. (See Specifications for Emulsified Asphalts, ASTM Designation D 977 or AASHTO Designation M 140 and Specifications for Cationic Emulsified Asphalts, ASTM Designation D 2397 or AASHTO Designation M 208). Flux or Flux Oil—A thick, relatively nonvolatile fraction of petroleum which may be used to soften asphalt to a desired consistency; often used as base stock for manufacture of roofing asphalts. Gilsonite—A form of natural asphalt, hard and brittle, occurring in rock crevices or veins from which it is mined. Asphalt Pavements and Surface Treatments Aggregate--Any hard, inert, mineral material used for mixing in graduated fragments, It includes sand, gravel, crushed stone, and slag. Aggregate, Coarse—That retained on the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve. Aggregate Coarse-Graded—One having a continuous grading in sizes of particles from coarse through fine with a predominance of coarse sizes. Aggregate, Fine—That passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve. Aggregate, Fine-Graded—One having a continuous grading in sizes of particles from coarse through fine with a predominance of fine sizes. Aggregate, Macadam—A coarse aggregate of uniform size usually of crushed stone, slag, or gravel. Aggregate, Open-Graded—One containing little or no fine aggregate and mineral filler or in which the void spaces in the compacted aggregate are relatively large. Aggregate, Weil-Graded—Aggregate that is uniformly graded from the maximum size down to filler with the object of obtaining an asphalt mix with a controlled void content and high stability. Asphalt Base Course—A foundation course or pavement layer consisting of mineral aggregate, bound together with asphalt material on which successive course(s) are placed. Asphalt Block Pavements—Pavements in which the surface course is constructed of asphalt/aggregate blocks. These blocks are laid in regular courses as in the case of brick pavements. Asphalt Concrete—High quality, thoroughly controlled hot mixture of asphalt cement and well-graded, high quality aggregate, thoroughly com- pacted into a uniform dense mass typified by ASTM Specification D 3515. Asphalt Emulsion Slurry Seal—A mixture of slow-setting emulsified asphalt, fine aggregate and mineral filler, with water added to produce slurry consistency. Asphalt Fog Seal—A light application of a slow-setting asphalt emulsion diluted with water and without mineral aggregate cover. Asphalt Intermediate Course (sometimes called Binder Course)—An asphalt pavement course between a base course and an asphalt surface course.MS-4 15 Asphalt Leveling Course—A course {asphalt aggregate mixture) of variable thickness used to eliminate irregularities in the contour of an existing surface prior to superimposed treatment or construction. Asphalt Macadam-—A type of pavement construction using a coarse, open-graded aggregate that is usually produced by crushing and screening stone, slag or gravel. Such aggregate is called macadam aggregate. Asphalt may be incorporated in macadam construction either by penetration or by mixing, Asphalt Mastic—A mixture of asphalt and fine mineral material in such proportions that it may be poured hot or cold into place and compacted by troweling to a smooth surface. Asphalt Overlay—One or more courses of asphalt construction on an existing pavement. The overlay may include a leveling course to correct the contour of the old pavement, followed by uniform course or courses to provide needed thickness. Asphalt Pavements—Pavements consisting of a surface course of mineral aggregate coated and cemented together with asphalt cement on supporting courses such as asphalt bases; crushed stone, slag, or gravel; or on portland cement concrete, brick, or block pavement. Asphalt Pavement Structure—A pavement structure with allits courses of asphalt-aggregate mixtures, or a combination of asphalt courses and. untreated aggregate courses placed above the subgrade or improved subgrade. Asphalt Prime Coat—An application of a low viscosity cutback asphalt product to an absorbent surface. It is used to prepare an untreated base for an asphalt surface. The prime penetrates into the base and plugs the voids, hardens the top and helps bind it to the overlying asphalt course. Asphalt, Sand—-A mixture of sand and asphalt cement or cutback or emulsified asphalt. It may be prepared with or without special control of aggregate grading and may or may not contain mineral filler. Either mixed- in-place or plant-mix construction may be employed. Sand-asphalt is used in construction of both base and surface courses. Asphalt Seal Coat—A thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof and improve the texture of an asphalt wearing surface. Depending on the purpose, seal coats may or may not be covered with aggregate. The main types of seal coats are aggregate seals, fog seals, emulsion slurry seals and sand seals, Asphalt, Sheet—A hot mixture of asphalt cement with clean angular, graded sand and mineral filler. Its use ordinarily is confined to surface course, usually laid on an intermediate or leveling course. Asphalt Soil Stabilization (Soil Treatment :)—Treatment of naturally- occurring non-plastic or moderately plastic soil with cutback or emulsified asphalt at ambient temperatures. Aeration and compaction of the asphalt- soil mixture produces water-resistant base and subbase courses of improved load-bearing qualities. Asphalt Surface Course—The top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called asphalt wearing course.16 Introduction to Asphalt Asphalt Surface Treatments—Asphalt surface treatment is a broad term embracing several types of asphalt or asphalt-aggregate applications. usually less than 25 mm (1 inch) thick, to a road surface. The types range from a light application of emulsified or cutback asphalt to single or multiple surface layers made up of alternating applications of asphalt and aggregate. Asphalt Tack Coat—A very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It is used to ensure a bond between the surface being paved and the overlying course. Base Course—The layer of material immediately beneath the surface or intermediate course. It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed or uncrushed gravel and sand, or combinations of these materials. It also may be bound with asphalt (see Asphalt Base Course). Cold-Laid Plant Mixture—Plant mixes that may be spread and com- pacted at atmospheric temperature. Thick-Lift Asphalt Construction—A construction practice in which the asphalt course is placed in one or more lifts of 100 mm (4 in.) or more compacted thickness. Deep-Strength® Asphalt Pavement—The term Deep-Sirength (regis- tered by the Asphalt Institute with the U.S, Patent Office) certifies that the pavement is constructed of asphalt with an asphalt surface on an asphalt base and in accordance with design concepts established by the Institute. (See latest edition of Thickness Design manual, MS-1). Full-Depth® Asphalt Pavement—The term Full-Depth (registered by the Asphalt Institute with the U.S. Patent Office) certifies that the pavement is one in which asphalt mixtures are employed for a// courses above the . subgrade or improved subgrade. A Full-Depth asphalt pavement is laid directly on the prepared subgrade. (The mathematical symbol T, denotes Full-Depth or Total Asphalt). RENEWABLE, SKID-RESISTANT ASPHALT SURFACE Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA)—Asphalt/aggregate mixture produced at a batch or drum-mixing facility that must be spread and compacted while at an elevated temperature. To dry the aggregate and obtain sufficient fluidity of the asphalt cement, both must be heated prior to mixing—giving origin to the term “hot mix.” Mineral Dust—The portion of the fine aggregate passing the 75 4 m(No. 200) sieve. Mineral Filler—A finely divided mineral product at least 70 percent of which will pass a 75 ym (No. 200) sieve. Pulverized limestone is the most commonly manufactured filler, although other stone dust, hydrated lime, portiand cement, fly ash and certain natural deposits of finely divided mineral matter are also used.MS-4 17 Mixed-In- Place (Road-Mix)—An asphalt course produced. by mixing mineral aggregate and cutback or emulsified asphalt at the road site by means of travel plants, motor graders, or special road-mixing equipment. Multiple Surface Treatment—Two or more surface treatments using asphalt and aggregate placed one on the other. The aggregate maximum size of each successive treatment is usually one-half that of the previous one, and the total thickness is about the same as the nominal maximum size aggregate particles of the first course. Or, a multiple surface treatment may be a series of single treatments that produces a pavement course up to 38 mm (1/4 in.) or more. A multiple surface treatment is a denser wearing and waterproofing course than a single surface treatment, and it adds some strength but is not normally assigned a structural coefficient. Pavement Structure—All courses of selected material placed on the foundation or subgrade soil, other than any layers or courses constructed in grading operations. Pavement Structure Combination- or Composite-Type—When the asphalt pavement is on old portland cement concrete pavement, a portland cement concrete base, or other rigid-type base or on a granular base, the pavement structure is referred to as a combination~ or composite-type pavement structure. Plant Mix—A mixture, produced in an asphalt mixing facility that consists of mineral aggregate uniformly coated with asphalt cement, emulsified asphalt or cutback asphalt. Road-Mix—See Mixed-In- Place. Rock Asphalt Pavements—Pavements constructed of .rock asphalt, natural or processed and treated with asphalt or flux as may be required for construction. Seal Coat—See Asphalt Seal Coat. Single Surface Treatments—A single application of asphalt to any kind of road surface followed immediately by a single layer of aggregate of as uniform size as practicable. The thickness of the treatment is about the same as the nominal maximum size aggregate particles. A single surface treatment is used as a wearing and waterproofing course. Subbase—The course in the asphalt pavement structure immediately below the base course is called the subbase course. If the subgrade soil is of adequate quality it may serve as the subbase. Subgrade—The soil prepared to support a structure or a pavement system. It is the foundation for the pavement structure. The subgrade soil sometimes is called “basement soil” or “foundation soil.” Subgrade, Improved—Subgrade, improved as a working platform (1) by the incorporation of granular materials or stabilizers such as asphalt cement, emulsion or cutback, lime, or portland cement, prepared to support a structure or a pavement system, or (2) any course or courses of select or improved material placed on the subgrade soil below the pavement structure. Surface Treatment—See Asphalt Surface Treatment.18 Introduction to Asphalt 1.3 Asphalt Pavements for Vehicular Traffic Basic Concepts Introduction The basic idea in building a road or parking area for all-weather use by vehicles is to prepare a suitable subgrade or foundation, provide necessary drainage, and construct a pavement that will: 1. Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads, 2. Have adequate compaction to prevent the penetration or internal accumulation of moisture, and 3. Have a top surface that is smooth, skid resistant, and resistant to wear, distortion, and deterioration by weather and deicing chemicals. The subgrade ultimately carries all traffic loads. Therefore, the structural function of a pavement is to support a wheel load on the pavement surface and transfer and spread that load to the subgrade without exceeding either the strength of the subgrade or the internal strength of the pavement itself (Figure 1.4). LOAD. W NOT DRAWN TO SCALE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE Po (b} SS ma SUBGRADE A Figure 1.4 Spread of Wheel-Load Through Pavement Structure.MS-4 19 Figure 1.4 shows wheel load, W, being transmitted to the pavement surface through the tire at an approximately uniform vertical pressure, P,. The pavement then spreads the wheel load to the subgrade so that the maximum pressure on the subgrade is only P|. By proper selection of pavement materials and with adequate pavement thickness, P, will be small enough to be easily supported by the subgrade. Descriptions and Definitions Asphalt pavement is a general term applied to any pavement that has a surface constructed with asphalt (Figure 1.5). Normally, it consists of a surface course (layer) of mineral aggregate coated and cemented with asphalt; and one or more supporting courses, which may be: 1. Asphalt base, consisting of asphalt-aggregate mixtures; 2. Crushed stone (rock), slag, or gravel; and 3. Portland cement concrete. An asphalt pavement structure consists of all courses or layers above the prepared subgrade or foundation. The upper or top layer is the asphalt wearing surface. It may range from less than 25 mm (I in.) to more than 75 mm (3 in.) in thickness, depending on a variety of factors and circumstances explained in detail in the chapters on design, construction, and maintenance. and maintenance. While a variety of bases and subbases may be used in asphalt pavement structures, often they consist of compacted granular materials (such as crushed rock, slag, gravel, sand, or a combination of such) or stabilized soil. One of the main advantages of asphalt pavements is the economy achieved by using locally available materials. Generally, it is preferable to treat the granular material used in bases. The most common treatment is to mix asphalt with the granular material, thus producing an asphalt base. Treatment with asphalt is particularly advan- tageous, as proven at the AASHO Road Test in Illinois (1958-1960), sponsored by the American Association of State Highway Officials (now called American Association of State Highway and Transportation Offi- cials), and administered by the Highway Research Board (now the Transportation Research Board) of the National Academy of Sciences. It. was found that a 25 mm (1 in.) thickness of asphalt base was equal in load carrying performance to at least 50 mm (2in.) or more thickness of granular base materials not treated with asphalt. Bri toad tests also demonstrated this advantage. Untreated bases and subbases have been widely used in the past. However, as modern traffic increases in weight and volume, these bases show performance limitations. Consequently, it is becoming common to limit use of untreated bases to pavements designed for lower volumes of lighter traffic.20 Introduction to Asphait When the entire pavement structure above the subgrade consists of asphalt mixtures, it is called a Full-Depth® asphalt pavement. This is generally considered the most cost effective, dependable type of pavement for present-day traffic. Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement Asphalt-aggregate mixture Asphalt-aggregate mixture, or granular material treated with asphalt. i-*- Prepared Subgrade oy pe 1g! Asphalt Pavement With Untreated Base (and Subbase) Asphalt Surface (asphalt- aggregate mixture) 729-—- Base, Granular material— % normally untreated but i sometimes treated with something other than asphalt. Subbase, Granular material or selected soil. Normally not treated. i Prepared Subgrade eae ed aS cunraaCay IS aly Asphalt Pavement With Portland Cement Concrete or Combined Porttand Cement Concrete and Asphalt Base Asphalt Surface, asphait- ‘aggregate mixture. Base—portiand cement concrete. ‘Asphalt-aggregate mixture. Prepared subgrade, Figure 1.5 Asphalt Pavement Cross-Sections Showing Some Common and Typicat Asphalt Pavement Structures. Other materials sometimes used to treat or stabilize granular base and subbase materials or selected soils are portland cement, lime, lime/ fly ash mixture, coal tar, calcium chloride or salt (sodium chloride).MS-4 21 Essential Properties of Asphalt Wearing Surtace ‘The surface of an asphalt pavement exposed to vehicular traffic must be . tough to resist distortion and provide a smooth, skid resistant riding surface. It must be waterproof and sloped to shed surface water to the roadside, and thus protect the entire asphalt pavement structure and the subgrade from the weakening effects of moisture. It must resist wear, caused by traffic, and still retain necessary anti-skid properties. It must also be bonded to the layer or course beneath it. Function of Base and Subbase Base and subbase are structural elements of the pavement. In conjunction with the overlying asphalt surface, their purpose is to distribute traffic wheel loads over the subgrade or foundation (Figure 1.4). To perform this function, bases and subbases must be built with necessary internal strength properties. In this respect, Full-Depth asphalt pavements have a special advantage over pavements with granular bases. Figure 1.6 for example, shows how wheel load, W, slightly deflects the pavement structure, causing both tensile and compressive stresses within the pavement. Asphalt pavement layers have both tensile and compressive strength to resist these internal stresses. Untreated granular bases have no tensile strength. Therefore, asphalt bases spread the wheel load over broader areas than untreated granular bases. Asa result, less total pavement structure thickness is required for an asphalt base. This applies to all loading conditions. Load, W Not Drawn to Scale Pavement Structure ” Subgrade —>0-—- Compression ~—-0-> Tension Figure 1.6 Pavement Deflection Results in Tensile and Compressive Stresses in Pavement Structure.22 Introduction to Asphalt Determining Required Pavement Thickness A significant advance in highway engineering is the realization and demonstration that structural design of asphalt pavements is similar to the problem of designing any other complex engineering structure. When asphalt pavement was first being introduced, determining the proper thickness was a matter of empiricism and opinion based on experience. Similarly, the same situation once prevailed in determining the dimensions of masonry arches and iron and steel structures. However, these early techniques have long since yielded to engineering analysis. Based on comprehensive analysis of vast volumes of accumulated data, the structural design of asphalt pavement has now been developed into a reliable engincering procedure. Research, aimed at further refinements and a fully rational design procedure, is continuing, There is no standard thickness for a pavement. Required total thickness is determined by engineering design procedures. Factors considered in the procedures are: 1. Traffic to be served initially and over the design service life of the pavement; 2. Strength and other pertinent properties of the prepared subgrade; 3. Strength and other influencing characteristics of the materials available or chosen for the layers or courses in the total asphalt pavement structure; and 4. Any special factors peculiar to the road being designed, such as environmental factors. Stage Construction Because weight and traffic volume normally increase each year, pavement originally built thick enough to handle immediate traffic volumes may not be thick enough and strong enough to handle future needs. With asphalt pavement this problem can be economically met by first building the thickness required, then adding, when needed, layers of asphalt to increase total pavement thickness. This procedure is called stage construction. It avoids excessive investment in the beginning; and when a new asphalt pavement layer is added, the wearing surface is equal to or better than the original. When road-building funds are limited, a strong all-weather asphalt base can be placed and opened to traffic for a year or more. When additional construction funds are available, the asphalt surface course can be added. Similarly, in new housing developments, asphalt base can be placed on all new streets to serve until the development is finished and heavy construction traffic ceases. The asphalt surface is then added after first repairing any damage or settlement suffered by the base. The streets are then at full strength and in an attractive condition appropriate to a new living area.MS-4 23 In building Interstate highways, there have been many examples of planned state construction. Asphalt pavements have been built with sufficient thickness to serve for the first few years, with funds programmed to add strengthening thickness when required by traffic buildup. Asphalt Usage Guide Table 1.2 is a suggested guide for the types and grades of asphalt to be used in various pavement construction, maintenance, rehabilitation and recycling procedures, Types of Asphalt Pavement Construction Plant Mix Asphalt paving mixtures prepared in a central mixing facility are traditionally known as plant mixes. Asphalt concrete is considered the highest-quality type of plant mix. It consists of well-graded, high-quality aggregate and asphalt cement. The asphalt and aggregate are heated separately from 121 to 163°C (250 to 325°F), carefully measured and proportioned, then mixed until the aggregate particles are coated with » - asphalt. The hot mixture, kept hot during transit, is hauled to the *~. construction site, where it is spread on the roadway by an asphalt paving ‘machine. The smooth layer placed by the paver is compacted by rollers to proper density before the asphalt cools. Asphalt concrete is but one of a variety of hot-mix asphalt (HMA). Other mixes, such as sand asphalt, sheet asphalt, and coarse-graded, mixes, are prepared and placed in a similar manner, However, each has one common ingredient—asphalt cement. Asphalt mixes containing emulsified or cutback asphalt also may be prepared in central mixing facilities. The aggregate may be partially dried and heated or mixed as it is withdrawn from the stockpile. Asphalt mixtures made with emulsified asphalt and some cutback asphalts can be spread and compacted on the roadway while quite cool. Such mixtures are called cold-laid asphalt plant mixes. They are hauled and placed in normal warm-weather temperatures. To hasten evaporation of emulsification water or cutback solvents, these mixtures, after being placed on the roadway, are sometimes processed or worked back and forth laterally with a motor grader before being spread and compacted. Mixed-in-Place (Road Mix) Emulsified asphalt and many cutback asphalts (although the use of cutbacks is declining) are fluid enough to be sprayed onto and mixed into aggregate at moderate- to warm-weather temperatures, When this is done on the area to be paved, it is called mixed-in-place construction. AlthoughTable 1.2 Guide for Uses of Asphalt Type of ‘Construction AC-20 AC-10 AC-5 Viscosity Graded -Originat AC-25 ‘Asphalt Cements Viscosity Graded -Riesidue Penetration Graded AR-16000 1-80 ‘AR-4000 ‘AR-2000 ‘AR-1000 120-150 300 85-100 40. 60-70 Asphalt-Aggregate Mixtures: Asphalt Concrete and Hot Laid Plant Mix AC-40 — Pavement Base and Surfaces Highways ™ Airports Parking Areas, x a Driveways fpf Curbs Industrial Floors x] xtx]x[x[* xxl bl] = x=] [f x D> Blocks Groins Dam Facings x Canal and Reservoir Linings g | x] x |< Cold-Laid Plant Mix?® Pavement Base and Surfaces ‘Open-Graded Aggregate Well-Graded Aggregate Patching, Immediate Use Patching, Stockpile Mixed-in-Place (Road Mix)'? Pavement Base and Surfaces ‘Open-Graded Aggregate Well-Graded Aggregate Sand Sandy Soil Patching, Immediate Use Patching, Stockpile Recycling Hot-Mix % Cold-Mix!9 Asphalt-Aggregate Applications ‘Surface Treatments Single Surface Treatment Multiple Surface Treatment Aggregate Seal ‘Sand Seal Slurry Seal x Asphalt Applications ‘Surface Treatment Fog Seat Prime Coat Tack Coat Dust Laying Mulch Membrane Canal and Reservoir Linings [_* Embankment Envelopes: x Tx Crack Filling ‘Asphalt Pavement ts Portland Cement Concrete Pan ETH "Mixed-in Prime Only Diluted with water Surry mix “Rubber asphett compounds “Diluted with water by the manvfactarer *N48-2 only For use in cold climatesEmulsified Asphalts® I Cutback-Asphalts Medium Curing ‘Slow Curing Anionic | Cationic | Moye | ‘SC) . 543 aoa t2ie Erté aé le ~ apg G2 222233 2 5 oy eos 28 2 222etae | 883288 |e e888 [ees 8 a x xx] xx x] |x 4 fe x x Te [x] px x] ef x |x x x Tale fx] xx be x x] [x xP | «|| epee fe ]= x fe Dx xp pe xe cd ze Pe ia met Spe ™ x De % pe e me pt mee xT see “Before using MC's for spray applications (ather than prime coats) check with local pollution conol agency *Emubsiied ssphalts shown are AASHTO and ASTM grades and may not inciude all grades produced in all geographical areas ‘Evaluation of emulsified asphalt-aggregate system required lo determine the aroper grade of emulsiied asphalt to use26 Introduction to Asphalt mixed-in-place is the more general term, and is applicable whether the construction is on a roadway, parking area, or airfield, the term. road mix is often used when construction is on a roadway. Mixed-in-place construction can be used for surface, base, or subbase courses. Asa surface or wearing course, it usually is satisfactory for light and medium traffic rather than heavy traffic. However, mixed-in-place layers covered by a high-quality asphalt plant-mix surface course make a pavement suitable for heavy traffic service. Advantages of mixing-in-place include: © Utilization of aggregate already on the roadbed or available from nearby sources and usable without extensive processing. © Elimination of the need for a central mixing plant. Construction can be accomplished with a variety of machinery often more readily available, such as motor graders, rotary mixer with revolving tines, and traveling mixing plants. Asphalt Spray Applications Many necessary and useful purposes are served when paving grade asphalts—temporarily in a fluid condition —can be sprayed in uniform and controlled amounts onto a surface. For example: Surface Treatments—A sprayed-on application of asphalt to a wearing surface, with or without a thin layer of covering aggregate, is called an asphalt surface treatment. By definition such surface treatments are 25 mm (1 in.) or Sess in thickness. Sometimes these surface treatments are included in original construction, particularly for light duty, farm to market type roads. They are sometimes applied to old pavements after a period of service and before surface deterioration from traffic wear and weathering proceeds too far. The sprayed-on asphalt serves to improve or restore the waterproof condition of the old pavement surface. Also, it serves to arrest any scuffing or raveling of the wearing surface. The addition of a cover of aggregate over the sprayed-on asphalt restores and improves the skid resistance of the wearing surface. Multiple surface treatments consist of two or more alternate layers of sprayed-on asphalt and aggregate cover. Surface treatments that have waterproofing or texture improvement, or both, as their main purposes are called seal coats. Single or multiple surface treatments with aggregate cover also may be placed on granular-surfaced roads to upgrade them for traffic. The treatment eliminates dust, protects the road by shedding water, and provides asmoother riding surface. It is a useful, low-cost, all-weather improvement of a granular-surfaced road, but it has limited traffic capacity and should be used only where traffic is light or where the period of expected service is limited.MS-4 27 Tack Coats and Prime Coats—It is emphasized that each layer in an asphalt pavement should be bonded to the layer beneath. This is accom- plished by spraying onto the surface of the underlying layer a thin coating of asphalt (usually emulsified asphalt) to bind the layers together. This thin spread of asphalt is called a tack coat. Tack coats are used to bond asphalt layers to a portland cement concrete base or old asphalt pavements. When anasphalt pavement or asphalt surface treatment is to be placed on a granular base, it is desirable first to spray on an asphalt (usually cutback asphalt) that will seep into or penetrate the base. This is called priming, and the treatment is called prime coat. Its purpose is to bind the granular material to the asphalt layer. A prime coat is different from a tack coat as to type and quantity of asphalt used. However, both are spray applications. There are two other widely used asphalt surface treatments that do not employ spray application procedures. One use is plant mix and the otheris a slurry of emulsified asphalt and fine aggregate. Penetration Macadam—This is an older type of asphalt pavement construction, While many miles of asphalt penetration macadam pavement are still in service, relatively little is used in new construction. Briefly, an asphalt penetration macadam pavement consists of one or more layers of large-sized broken stone and rock chips interlocked by rolling. Fluid asphalt is sprayed onto each layer, and it penetrates the layer to bind the stones together. ‘An asphalt surface treatment or asphalt mixture of some kind is usually put on the top of a penetration macadam pavement to serve as a wearing surface. Summary Proper use of asphalt materials and mixtures is the most cost effective system known for pavement construction. It is important that the enginecr- designer have a clear understanding of the different types of asphalt and the purposes of each. Similarly, the engineer should understand the different pavement types—hot mix, cold mix, and surface treatments—and know their specific applications and limitations. An in-depth understanding of these subjects may require additional studies beyonds the scope of this publication. The Asphalt Institute produces numerous other publications that provide more detailed analysis of individual subjects. Many of these publications are cited at the beginning of each chapter of this manual. In addition, the Institute maintains an engineering staff who can provide assistance on all aspects of design, construction, and maintenance.MS-4 29 Chapter 2 Petroleum Asphalt his chapter concentrates on asphalt as a material. Properties, charac- teristics, specifications, and tests are discussed. All of the test details and procedures are not given. Instead, the properties of asphalt, how they are measured, descriptions of the tests and test limits, and specifications for asphalts are discussed. SECTION 2.1 Refining and Properties of Asphalt Cement O Introduction C Refining Crude Petroleum O Desired Properties / Characteristics of Asphalt Cement O Specifications and Tests for Asphalt Cement SECTION 2.2 Emulsified and Cutback Asphalt C Introduction D Specifications and Tests for Emulsified Asphalts O Specifications and Tests for Cutback Asphalts SECTION 2.3 Air-Blown Asphalt O Introduction O Properties and Tests SECTION 2.4 Control of Asphalt Mixture and Spraying Temperatures O Mixing Temperature O Spraying Temperatures O Precautions SECTION 2.5 Sampling and Temperature-Volume Relationships, Measurements and Calculations O Sampling O Temperature-Volume Relationships/ Measurements and Calculations SECTION 2.6 Safety Procedures for Hot Asphalt