Stylistics (N): The study of styles of language.

The study of that variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer. It is the study of the grammatical, phonological and practical aspects of style in language. It is the study or practice of the art of using linguistic devices to make communication more precise, connotative or personal. Although stylistics sometimes includes investigations of spoken language, it usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts. Stylistics is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Stylistician: One who makes a methodical study of the principles of style. Style: (1) The particular identifying characteristic of something, as writing style, acting style, baroque style. (2) A way of living or dressing, etc. as living in style; one's lifestyle.

(3) The particular way in which a person uses language in a given social environment; idiolect. (4) The manner in which something is said or done in contrast to its message. (5) An author's use of language, its effects, and it appropriateness to the author's intent and theme. Style is the dress of thoughts. (6) The characteristic way in which a person conceives and expresses ideas through language. Style usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. A particular style, e.g. formal style or colloquial style, is sometimes referred to as a stylistic variety. 3 (7) Style can also refer to a particular person's use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time, e.g. Dickens' style, the style of Shakespeare, an 18th century style of writing. The element of style exists on the level of all meaningful linguistic units from word to text, and in all kinds of writing whether literary or non-literary. Stylist:

(1) A speaker or writer who cultivates an artful literary style. (2) A designer or consultant on styles in decorating, dress, or beauty. Stylistic variation: Differences in the speech or writing of a person or group of people according to the situation, the topic, the addressee(s) and the location. Stylistic variation can be observed in the use of different speech sounds, different words or expressions, or different sentence structures. Style Marker: It is a linguistic element in the text which signals a feature of style. It is also called style feature or stylistic device. It can be of any size: a single-word phrase, a multi-word phrase, a clause, a sentence, a paragraph, a grammatical category, a particular transformation, a set of verbs, a semantic feature. It is recognized intuitively. Text: A piece of spoken or written language. A text may be considered

from the point of view of its structure and or its functions, e.g..: warning, instructing, carrying out a transaction. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs. A text may consist of just one word, e.g.: DANGER on a warning sign, or it may be of considerable length, e.g.: a sermon, a novel or a debate. 4 Genre: A particular class of speech events (a particular instance when people exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, an inquiry, a conversation) which are considered by the speech community as being of the same type. Examples of genres are: prayers, sermons, conversations, songs, speeches, poems, letters, and novels. They have particular and distinctive characteristics. A group of several genres are called a complex genre. Discourse: A general term for examples of language use, language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.

Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to form grammatical units such as clause, phrase, and sentence, discourse refers to larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews. The study of both written and spoken discourse is known as discourse analysis. Discourse analysis: The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. for example, discourse analysis deals with: (a) how the choice of articles, pronouns, and tenses affects the structure of the discourse . (b) the relationship between utterances in a discourse (adjacency pairs, coherence). (c) The moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or assert a higher role relationship to the other participants. Some Kinds of Texts: - Literary texts: novels, short stories, tales, biographies, essays, diaries, plays, poems, nursery rhymes. - Social letters (invitations, thank-you notes), postcards, telegrams. 5 - Newspapers, magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, classified ads, weather forecasts, radio/TV./ theater programs.

- Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, business letters, summaries, accounts, pamphlets, term papers, research papers, documentaries. - Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks. - Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues. - Recipes, instructions (warnings), directions (how to use...), notices, rules & regulations, posters, (road signs), forms (application forms, landing cards), menus, tickets. - Comic strips, jokes & riddles, cartoons & caricatures. Text Types According to Purpose: Narrative, expository (descriptive, persuasive, informative). Text types According to Register: Journalese, legal, business, military, radio broadcasts, technical, literary, telephone, broadcasting, games, public speaking, commercial, advertisement, recipe, personal letter, business letter. Communication: The exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or more persons. In an act of communication there are 5 elements: A. The sender = speaker or writer. B. A message = What is conveyed in speech or writing from one person to one or more other people. The message may not always be stated in verbal form but can be conveyed by other means, e.g.: a wink, gestures. A distinction can be made between message form and message content. In

spoken requests, for example, the message form is how the request is made (e.g.: type or sentence structure, use or non-use of courtesy words, type of intonation) and the message content is what is actually requested (e.g.: the loan of some money). 6 C. The channels through which the message is transmitted. The channel may be verbal, visual, pictorial, aural. The verbal channel = the code, i.e., a system of symbols involving sounds, letters, words, or other oral or graphic devices used in transmitting the message. D. The receiver = the person or persons for whom the message is intended. E. The situation = the physical setting and social context in which the communication occurs. The sender, receiver, message or code may be dominant in a text in order to fulfill the purpose of communication. Hence, texts can be classified into: (1) A. Sender-dominant texts = expressive function like lyric poems, personal letters, autobiographies, personal explanations B. Receiver-dominant texts = conative function such as public speeches, advertisements, sermons. These try to make an impact on the receiver. C. Message-dominant texts = cognitive function like

technical reports, newspaper reports, textbooks, treatise, scientific discourse. (2) Code-dominant texts = textual function They are texts in which the organization of ideas is coherent and sentences and paragraphs are cohesive. 2. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF STYLE Style can be studied in different ways: - According to the subject-field: literary, sociological social, psychological and linguistic study of style. - According to linguistic levels, i.e. linguistic units. - According to language functions. 7 2.1. Approaches According to Linguistic Levels: 2.1.1 Microstylistics: It is the study of style features at the word, phrase, clause and sentence levels. It is subdivided into: A. Phonostylistics: Study of style features at the phonological level. B. Morphostylistics: Study of style features at the morphological level. C. Lexicostylistics: Study of style features at the lexical level, i.e., lexical items and patterns of vocabulary. D. Syntacticostylistics: Study of style features at the sentence level, i.e., study of sentence structures at the clause, phrase and word level (verbal style, nominal style). 2.1.2 Macrostylistics: It is the study of style features above the sentence level, i.e.,

paragraphs, stanzas, sections, chapters, and whole book. The text may be of any length and any form. 2.2 Approaches According to Language Functions: Function is the purpose for which an utterance or language unit is used. Language functions have been classified in different ways according to the approach and the purpose of the investigation. According to Buhler, language may be used as a symptom, a symbol or a signal. Symptom is selfexpression and is speaker-centered. Symbol is information and is textcentered. Signal is persuasion and is hearer-centered. 8 A. Expressive Stylistics: It investigates texts in which symptom is dominant like lyric poetry, personal letters, diary writing, biographies. In such texts the focus is on the author or speaker's personality. B. Cognitive Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts where symbol is dominant as in technical, technological, scientific, social, historical texts. Here the focus is on information. C. Affective Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts in which signal is dominant as in public speeches, sermons, advertisements. In such

texts the hearer or speaker tries to persuade, affect, appeal to, or exhort the reader or hearer into believing in a certain thing or taking some kind of action. One language function or more (symbol, symptom and signal) may be dominant in the same text. A text may be investigated for symbol, symptom and signal at the same time. 3. DISCURSIVE VS EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE Discursive Language: It is the language of science. It is used to transmit information, and knowledge. It is code-centered. It is cognitive. Texts are concerned with the real world. It is denotative, monodimensional, and unambiguous. Expressive Language: It is the language of literature. It is the language used to express emotions, feelings, and attitudes. It is messagecentered. It is understood through the components of the message. Texts are concerned with the author's inner world (his feelings, 9 emotions and experiences). It is connotative, multidimensional, and ambiguous. 4. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING STYLE English is the common core or nucleus which is realized in the different forms of the language we actually hear of read.

Through his use of language such as vocabulary, a person may reveal facts about his age, his sex, his educational level, his occupation, his social class, and his geographical and cultural origin. The following are some factors that affect style: a. Region = dialect Geographical dispersion is a basis for linguistic variation. This dispersion resulted in different dialects. Every one speaks a regional dialect. Regional variations (dialects) are realized predominantly in phonology, i.e., we tend to recognize a different dialect from a speaker's pronunciation before we notice that his vocabulary is also distinctive. Grammatical variation tends to be less distinctive. But all types of linguistic organization can readily enough be involved. - l, r, often, matter, water, box, interstate, territory - Flat/apartment; rent/hire; lift, elevator; post, mail. - I never saw; Ive never seen. b. Education and Social Standing: There is an important polarity of uneducated and educated speech in which the former can be identified with the regional dialect most completely and the latter moves away from dialectical usage. Educated speech tends to be given the additional prestige of government agencies, the learned

professions, the political parties, the press, the law-court. Educated English is referred to as "Standard English". Upper class English has more in common with Standard English than has lower-class English. Forms that are associated with uneducated use are often called "substandard". Here the speech or writing of the person or group does not conform to the 10 standard variety of the language in pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary and is therefore thought to be undesirable. A more neutral term that is used by linguists for forms that do not belong to the standard variety of a language is "non-standard". e.g.:I don't know nothing. (substandard) telly, chocs (chocolate), advert (advertisement), comfty (comfortable), veggy (vegetables) c. Subject-matter = register A speech variety used by a particular group of people , usually sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (e.g. stamp collectors, baseball fans).A particular register often distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases

in a particular way (in tennis: deuce, love, tramlines, van), and sometimes by special grammatical constructions (e.g.: legal language). Most people have a repertoire of registers. The same speaker would switch to the appropriate register as the occasion arises. The switch involves nothing more than turning to the particular set of lexical items habitually used for handling the subject matter in question: law, cookery, engineering, football. d. Medium: Refers to spoken vs. written language. Most of the difference arise from 2 sources: one is situational in which the use of a written medium normally presumes the absence of the person to whom the piece of language is addressed. This imposes the necessity of a careful and precise completion of a sentence rather than the odd word supported by gesture, and terminating when the speaker is assured by word or look that his hearer has understood. The second source of difference is that many of the devices we use to transmit language by speech (stress, rhythm,

intonation, tempo) are impossible to represent in a written text. 11 e. Attitude: The choice of a linguistic form may proceed from our attitude to the hearer or reader, to subject matter, or to the purpose of our communication. The essential aspect of the nonlinguistic component is the gradient between stiff, formal, cold, impersonal and relaxed, informal, warm, friendly styles. We can distinguish sentences containing features that are markedly formal or informal. Formal speech is a style of speaking used to inform an audience in impersonal terms, marked by careful attention to organization of content and to grammatical structure and pronunciation. Professional lectures are delivered in a formal style. 5. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF STYLE EXAMPLES Monosyllabic words: I, one, streets, straight, what, where. Disyllabic words: problems, classrooms, subjects, passage Trisyllabic words: proportion, beautiful, frequently, separate. Imperative verbs: Come here!.

Open the window, please! Finite verbs = All forms of verbs except infinitives and participles (-ing and -ed forms), are called finite verbs. Main clauses contain finite verb phrases. Non-finite verb phrases are generally found only in subordinate clauses: Kicking the ball, he injured his foot. (non-finite, finite) e kicked the ball, he injured his foot. (finite, finite) Finite verbs can normally be changed from Present Tense to Past Tense, or from Past Tense to Present Tense: 12 e kicked the ball === He kicks the ball. In a finite verb phrase, the first verb is the only one which is finite. The other words cannot change: He (may / might ) have kicked the ball. True Adjectives: can be rendered in the comparative degree and can be used attributively and predicatively, e.g.: tall , taller; interesting, more interesting. An interesting book The book is interesting. Untrue Adjectives = noun adjunct constructions (a noun that premodifies another noun in a noun compound). They cannot be rendered in the comparative degree and cannot be used predicatively. income tax, water bird, gold watch, silver spoon, water bottle,

home economics, window shade, police car, kitchen sink, kitchen table. Adjectives modified by Adverbs: very quickly, completely full, definitely right 6. LEXICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE 1. General: - Is the vocabulary simple or complex? - Is the vocabulary formal or informal? - Is the vocabulary descriptive or evaluative? - Is the vocabulary general or specific? - How far does the author make use of emotive and other associations of words as opposed to their referential meaning? - Does the text contain idiomatic phrases? - With what kind of dialect or register are these idioms associated 13 - Is there any use of rare or specialized vocabulary? - Are any particular morphological categories noteworthy (compound words, words with particular suffixes)? - To what semantic fields do words belong? 2. Nouns: - Are the nouns abstract or concrete? - What kind of abstract nouns occur (nouns referring to events, perceptions, processes, moral qualities, social qualities)? - What use is made of proper nouns? - what use is made of collective nouns? 3. Adjectives: - Are the adjectives frequent? - To what kind of attributes do adjectives refer (physical,

psychological, visual, auditory, color, referential, emotive, evaluative)? - Are adjectives restrictive or non-restrictive? - Are adjectives gradable or non-gradable? - Are adjectives attributive or predicative? 4. Verbs: - Do verbs carry an important part of the meaning? - Are they stative or dynamic? - Do they refer to movements, physical acts, speech acts, psychological states or activities, perceptions? - Are they transitive, intransitive, linking - Are they factive or non-factive? 5. Adverbs: - Are adverbs frequent? - What semantic functions do they perform (manner, place, direction, time, degree? - Is there any significant use of sentence adverbs (conjuncts and disjuncts)? 14 EXAMPLES Simple vs. complex =number of morphemes in the word, e.g.: un-friend-li-ness, sleep-less, un-pro-duct-ive Formal: pray (please); beget (produce) ; behind hand (late) Informal: get (receive) ; beggar (fellow) Descriptive & Evaluative: thin, slim, skinny, slender, round, boring. General: animal, food, sports, vehicles, country. Specific: mammal, fast food, water sports, lorry, Egypt. Very specific: cow, hamburger, French fries, swimming.

Referential: The relationship between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for. Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external world. for example, the word tree refers to the object "tree" (the referent). Reference in its narrower sense is the relationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, e.g.: a particular tree or a particular animal. e.g., Peter's horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some way associated with Peter. Denotative = Conceptual = Cognitive meaning It is the part of the meaning of the word that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world, e.g.: the denotation of the English word bird is a twolegged , winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the "central" meaning or 'core" meaning of a lexical item. - dog chair tree car train 15 Emotive = Affective meaning = Connotation

The additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning. These meanings show people's emotions and attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. e.g.: child could be defined as a young being but there are many other characteristics which different people associate with child , e.g., affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating. Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or several individuals and depend on their personal experience, i.e., connotations vary from age to age, from society to society, from individual to individual within the same speech community. e.g.: candy - swing - dress - football - money - English Idiomatic = an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts. She washed her hands of the matter. (means She refused to have anything more to do with the matter) make up one's mind

Dialectical: lift (elevator), hire (rent), Register: lambent (lit ... having soft light) scapula (med ...shoulder blade) larceny (law... stealing) quark (tech... the smallest possible piece of material) Specialized: river bed , river mouth (Geography) base (math, architecture, tech, chem, pol, geometry) system (medicine, astronomy, education) wing (bio, politics, hotel, house, air force, aircraft, sport) Compounds: two words used as one unit. 16 separate: United Stated, Post office, Atlantic Ocean hyphenated: swimming-pool, self-confidence. agglutinated: flashback, manpower, sunflower Concrete Nouns = refer to something that you can see & touch, & which has a position in time and space. They refer to things, animals, places, gases, liquids, substances, e.g.:house, car, table, man, Spain, Henry, water, sugar, oxygen, iron. Abstract Noun = stand for general feelings, ideas or concepts. happiness, beauty, health, honesty, whiteness, unity, education, manhood, childhood, difference, weakness. events (actions): act, answer, change, fight, laugh, shout, victory, start, examination. perception: smell, taste, vision, touch,

process: changes of state that happen to people or things, such as: change, aging, growing, deterioration, weakening, dehydration, recovery, moral quality: honesty, truth, goodness, social quality: helpfulness, friendliness, sociable, loneliness, selfishness, Proper Nouns: Names of specific people, places, countries, lakes, mountains, rivers, universities, months, days, holidays, magazines, festivals such as: Shakespeare, Chicago, Australia, Ontario, Amazon, University of London, January, Sunday, Christmas, Time, Thanksgiving. Collective Nouns = group nouns team, crowd, people, committee, staff, class, Adjectives referring to attributes: physical attributes: tall, short, slim, round, blonde, psychological: excited, aggressive, depressed, upset visual attribute: rough sea, windy, auditory attribute: noisy, loud, soft. 17 color: red, brown, greenish , dark. referential: thin, fat, big emotive : sad, excited, aggressive, depressed, angry. evaluative: difficult, careless, interesting, bad, beautiful. Gradable Adjectives: can be modified by an adverb which convey the degree of intensity of the adjectives:

very tall; so young, extremely interesting taller, younger, more interesting Non-gradable Adjectives: Technical adjs are not gradable, e.g: atomic, hydrochloric, enormous, American, annual, mental, physical, final, various, electric, unemployed, particular. Attributive Adjectives: An interesting book The tall boy Predicative Adj.: The book is interesting. The boy is tall. Transitive Verbs = take a direct object and sometimes an indirect object, e.g.: write, play, give, show, take. Intransitive Verbs = do not take an object: walk, come, run, sleep, stand, sit, Linking Verbs = expresses condition or status. It takes no object. e.g.: be, seem, become, appear, feel. Stative Verbs= V of inert perception and cognition. believe, desire, dislike, doubt, feel, forgive, guess, hate, hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, like, love, mean, mind, prefer, perceive, realize, recall, recognize, regard, 18 remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste, think, want, wish, understand. Dynamic Verbs: can form the progressive. ask, beg, call, drink, eat, help, learn, listen, look at , play, rain, say, throw, work, write, change, grow, mature, slow down, widen, ache, feel, hurt, itch, arrive, die, fall, land,

lose, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap. Movement: walk, run, enter, leave, fly, land, move, go. Physical act: cut, dig, eat, drink, wrap, bend, stand, sit, work. Speech act: say, state, announce, report, declare, request, refuse, Psychological state: annoy, amuse, astonish, calm, concern, disgust, excite, frighten, horrify, humiliate, hurt, impress, grieve, impress, satisfy, offend, relax, scare, satisfy, sadden, Perception Verbs: feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch. Factive Verbs: believe, admit, agree, answer, declare, deny, expect, hope, insist, know, report, say, see, suggest, suppose, think, understand, ascertain, discover, realize, regret. Semantic function of Advs: manner: actively, calmly, carefully, gladly, quickly, sincerely, late, anyhow, together, still, how. direction: towards, out, inside, up, along, across, by. 19 time: always, never, often, seldom, sometimes, already, before, immediately, lately, once, presently, shortly, soon, still, today, tomorrow, tonight, when, yet. degree: absolutely, thoroughly, extremely, greatly, deeply, completely, much, entirely. Sentence Adverbs: Adjuncts = part of the clause

They are waiting outside. I can now understand it. He spoke to me about it briefly. Disjuncts: certainly, obviously, frankly. Fortunately, I remembered in time who he was. Indeed, I won't do it. conjuncts: so, therefore, however, yet, though. We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothing about it. 6. Use of Slang: Casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. for some people, slang is equivalent to "colloquial speech" but for others, it means "undesirable speech". Usually, 'colloquial speech' refers to a speech variety used in informal situations with colleagues, friends or relatives, and 'slang' is used for a very informal speech variety which often serves as an 'in-group' language for a particular group of people such as teenagers, army recruits, pop-groups etc. Most slang is rather unstable as its words and expressions can change quite rapidly: Beat it! Scram! Rack off! (for leave) fag (cigarette) fed up (bored with) 20 7. Use of Euphemisms: The use of a word that is thought to be less offensive or pleasant than another word. e.g.:

indisposed instead of sick to pass away instead of to die senior citizen instead of old person laid to rest instead of buried sanitary engineer instead of janitor 8. Use of clichs: A word or expression that has lost its originality or offensiveness because it has been used too often. Soon they become trite and lose their force. e.g.: impacted on; viable, upbeat, be into (I'm into dieting) 9. Use of Standard vs non-standard Words knowhow (nonstandard) don't (nonstandard) 10. Use of rare words: wireless (means of sending messages in sound) 11. Use of obsolete & archaic words = words that are no longer used verily (bibl, old use ....truly) thine (bibl, old use & poetic ....yours) thou art (bibl, old use ....you are) to thee (bibl, old use .... to you) beget (bibl, old use ....become the father of) behold (lit & old use ... to havee in sight) ort (fragment of food) yestreen (last evening) 12. Tautology = wordiness use of different words to say the same thing: - Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools. (wordy) 21

Commuters formed carpools. (concise) - Each writer has a distinctive style, and he or she uses this in his or her own works. (wordy) Each writer has his own style. (concise) Needless repetition: This interesting instructor knows how to make a uninteresting subject interesting. Using unnecessary words: - In the event that the grading system is changed, expect complaints on the part of the students. - The reason why we honor Lincoln in these various ways is because he saved the Union. 13. High, Middle and Low Styles: High style aims at loftiness and grandeur. It was used more freely in the past, but nowadays it is considered too ornate and ceremonious. It is characterized by its solemnity, its resounding rhythms and its elaborate sentence structures. It uses unfamiliar words and is thus difficult for the general reader. Middle style aims at clarity and simplicity. It sounds like conversation. It relies on familiar wording. It is the style in which most of the world's writing gets done. Sometimes it is characterized by use of foreign expressions or vogue words (one that becomes popular that it is used too freely and with too little

regard for its meaning), use of jargon which specialists use to write for other specialists more clearly and concisely. However, the writer must keep the jargon to a minimum, replacing it with everyday English. If he must use a jargon term he should define it. Low style is plain and ordinary like the wording of casual conversation. It is appropriate for notes to the milkman or baby22 sitter, letters to friends, and letters or articles for a campus newspaper. It sounds like casual talk. The characteristics of low style are: use of colloquial or informal diction, use of slang words, use of first and second-person pronouns, use of contractions. GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE Grammatical Analysis and Description 1. Sentence types: - Does the author use statements, questions, commands, exclamations? 2. Sentence complexity: - Are sentences simple or complex? - What is the average sentence length? - Ratio of independent to dependent clauses? - Are their any anticipatory structures (subjects preceding verbs, dependent clauses preceding subject of main clause)? 3. Clause types:

- What type of dependent clauses are used (relative clauses, adverbial clauses, nominal clauses) - Are reduced or non-finite clauses commonly used? 4. Clause structure: - Frequency of objects, complements, adverbials. - Frequency of transitive and intransitive verbs. - Are there any initial adverbials, fronting of object or complement? - Use of preparatory it or there? 5. Noun phrases: - Are they simple or complex? 23 - Is premodification by adjective or postmodification by prepositional phrases complex? - Are there any listings (sequences of adjectives), coordination, or apposition. 6. Verb phrases: Is there any special uses of the progressive aspect, perfective aspect, modal auxiliaries. 7. Other phrase types: Is there any special uses of prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases. 8. Word classes: - Which function words like prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections are used? - Are any function words used for particular effect? 9. General: - Are any general types of grammatical constructions used to special effect (comparative or superlative, coordinative or listing, appended or interpolated structures (putting in additional words).

EXAMPLES Parts of speech: nouns: London, Peter, sugar, people, team, tree. verbs: go, come, give, stay, seem, like. be, can, will, shall, may, might, have, do, ought . adjectives: small, beautiful, circular, polite. adverbs: quickly, slowly, definitely. pronouns: I, we, you, he, she, it, they. prepositions: in, on, to, up, into. articles: the (definite), a, an (indefinite). conjunctions: and, but, or, although, yet, however. interjections: Oh! Oh dear! Oops, Hooray! Wow! 24 Sentence types: statements: I bought a grammar book at the book store. questions: What did I buy? Where did I buy the book? Who bought the book? Did I buy a book? commands Close the window, please! exclamatory: What an exciting movie! How interesting the trip was! She is such a good friend! Clause Structure: clause = any group of words that has a subject and a predicate.

There 2 kinds of clauses: independent or main clauses and dependent and subordinate clauses. The officer blew his whistle and the cars stopped. independent independent The cars stopped when the officer blew his whistle. main subordinate objects: I read a book. (direct obj) I gave her a present. (indirect obj) Don't chop down that old tree! (clause) I want to feed the dog. (obj of infinitive) I gave the book to Sally. (obj of prep) I heard of the story. (obj of prep) 25 Complements: The girl is happy. She is a teacher. The cat appears confused. We are pleased that you could come. They elected him president. Initial adverbials = adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts. Sentence complexity: simple = it has one subject and one predicate. I spent my summer holiday in Alaska. John and Fred played football. Mary cooked and ate dinner. John and Mary cooked and ate dinner. compound: contains 2 or more independent clauses. The independent clauses are joined by a coordinate conjunction

or a semicolon to indicate that the independent clauses form one sentence. It must be the equivalent of 2 complete simple sentences: I went to Alaska and Ivisited an Eskimo village. John joined the navey; Harry joined the marines. I went to Alaska, but I could not swim. I came; I saw; I conquered. I know it; you know it; she knows it; but does anybody care? complex: consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. The dependent clause is introduced by a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun. This is the book that I bought yesterday. The boy who won the prize is my younger brother 26 Australia, a country of great distances and widely separated centers of population, has a very important network of internal air lines. Clause types: a. Relative (adjective) clause: functions as an adjective. The man whom we all met last week lost all his money in the stock market crash. keeping up a house that you really love is no real problem. b. Adverbial clause: functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Although he is alone, he's never lonely. I will buy your ticket, unless you want to use it.

We always stop working when the bell rings. We listened to the radio because we wanted to hear the news. c. Nominal clause: functions as a noun. We know how he did it. That Fred kept pigeons is well-known. I believe that the boy is honest. What the chairman proposed was not practical. Reduced Clauses: - The bus we were waiting for never arrived. - The bus (which) we were waiting for never arrived. - Do you remember the day we first met. - Do you remember the day (when) we first met. - When angry, she blushed. When (she is) angry, she blushed. - Although horribly embarrassed, he somehow got through the speech. 27 Although (she was) horribly embarrassed, he somehow got through the speech. Sentence constituents: noun phrase (NP),verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP). The Hausas wear flowing white garments. Iron is the most important industrial metal. Many large cities depend on lakes for their water supply. In the less dense forest the people combine primitive agriculture with their hunting activities. Most of the capital cities of Europe have become the centers of networks that connect them with other key towns.

Simple & complex NP John bought the house. An old man bought the house The boy on the bicycle is my brother. The thin, tall , blonde boy is my brother. an old man, a woman and their son bought the house. That the French revolted in 1789 was news to Eric. We want everything you can possibly get. The belief that volcanoes have their origin in a hot liquid interior of the earth is now considered to be wrong. Anticipatory structures: The form it used to displace the real or original subject of a sentence (subjects preceding verbs, dependent clauses preceding subject of main clause)? Running a railroad can be troublesome. it can be troublesome running a railroad. Having a day off from work is nice. It is nice having a day off from work. Mary saved the baby's life. 28 It was Mary who saved the baby's life. Preparatory it or there = (used as a dummy or filler subject) There is nothing left for us to do. There were twenty of them all together. It looks as if it will rain today. It is going to rain. Apposition The guests angry at their hosts' rude behavior, left without saying good-bye. Too ill to get out of bed, he asked his wife to call a doctor.

The man, aware that he made a mistake, tried to correct it. Ellipsis: We do not know whether to go (or not). We desire the work (to be) done immediately. I bought some books and a computer. Although (she was) in a hurry, she stopped to help the old lady. Most people don't work hard but a person who does gets ahead. Ellipsis exercise: Fronting of object = thematic fronting His name is Joe. Joe, his name is. I like coffee Coffee, I like it I was born in London and I'll die in London. In London I was born and in London I'll die. Ten further items of importance may be added to this list. To this list may be added ten further items of importance 29 Sam can solve most of these problems in a second. Most of these problems Sam can solve in a second. Focus and theme: He did walk, I tell you. (emph. aux) He really did sell his house. (emph. aux) Do please sit down. (emph. aux) I myself will see that it is done on time. (emph. appos.) You yourself are responsible. (emph. appos.) What a time we've had today! (exclamation) a certain winner (intensifier) a great mistake (intensifier)

She is so pretty. (intensifier) She is highly intelligent. (intensifier) Red was my face as I explained the embarrassing situation. (extraposition) To keep good time is what I expect from my clocks. It is the girl that I was complaining about. It was because he was ill that we decided to return. What you need most is a good rest. Who was it who interviewed you? A good rest is what you need most. It is a good rest what you need most. intensifiers: actually, definitely, indeed, certainly, clearly, obviously, really, surely, honestly. certain, complete, extreme, entire, great. Emphasis Some ideas vary in importance, expression of them should vary in emphasis. Ideas may be emphasized through the following: A. By placing important words at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. 30 - Total deafness however is, in many ways, worse than total blindness. - An underground blast rocked the whole area. The colon and the dash often precede an emphatic ending. - We have developed something new in politics: the professional amateur. - Most commercial television stations talk about helping

their communities, but it is in the main just like that - talk. Since the semicolon, sometimes called a weak period, is a strong punctuation mark when used between main clauses, words placed before and after a semicolon have an important position. A penny saved used to be a penny earned; now, after five years, it is only half a penny. B. By using loose sentences instead of periodic ones. In loose sentences, the main idea comes first; less important ideas or details follow. In a periodic sentence, the main idea comes last, just before the period. - Such sticky labels do not accurately describe any generation - for example, labels like lost, beat, now, silent, unlucky, or found. Loose - Such sticky labels as lost, beat, now, silent, unlucky, or found do not accurately describe any generation . periodic C. By arranging ideas in the order of climax (order of importance with the strongest idea last) - Summing up for the defense of the small diesel, one can say that it offers excellent fuel consumption, it is longlasting, it has no ignition system to cause trouble, and its level of pollution is low. 31 Anticlimax - an unexpected shift from the dignified to the trivial or from the serious to the comic - is sometimes used

for special effect. - But I still fear it will all end badly, this Protective Syndrome. I see a future in which the government has stripped us of all worldly goods worth having; clothes hangers, toothpaste, Alka-Seltzer, toasters, pencil sharpeners, and maybe even thumb tacks. D. By using active voice instead of passive voice. - Little attention is being paid to cheap, nutritious foods by the average shopper - The average shopper is paying little attention to cheap, nutritious foods. E. By repeating important words: It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolution in energy, a revolution in technology, a revolution in family life, a revolution in sexual roles, and a worldwide revolution in recommendations without also facing -sooner or later- a potentially explosive political revolution. It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolution in energy, in technology, in family life, in sexual roles, and in world recommendations without also facing -sooner or later- a potentially explosive political insurrection. F. By putting a word or phrase out of its usual order. Only recently has this human deficiency been turned into law. Basic to all achievement was freedom. G. By using balanced sentence structure.

A sentence is balanced when grammatically equal structures are used to express contrasted or similar ideas. It emphasizes the contrast or similarity between parts of equal length and movement. 32 - To be French is to be like no one else; to be American is to be like everyone else. - Love is positive; tolerance negative. Love involves passion; tolerance is humdrum and dull. H. By abruptly changing sentence length. In the last two decades there has occurred a series of changes in American life, the extent, durability, and significance of which no one has yet measured. No one can. Success We can learn by doing - by doing anything. Even if we fail repeatedly- there's something to be learned from the failures. Of course, one of the lessons we can learn is, "I want to learn some new ways of doing things so I don't have to fail so much". Perhaps you already are a successful doer and, like all successful doers, you know there is always more to learn about successfully doing. You will notice, however, that most tools can be used for either inner or outer learning. The same commitment

that allows you to make a million dollars can be used for achieving happiness. The same discipline that allows you to focus on your self-worth can also be used to master scuba diving. The inner mirrors the outer. The outer mirrors the inner. Health Health is more than just the lack of illness - health is aliveness, energy, joy. By always focusing on eliminating illness, few of us learn how to enhance health - or even that enhancing health is possible. It is. You don't have to be sick to get better. Health is not just for the body. Health includes the mind, the emotions, the whole person. Health is the amount of vibrant, peaceful, loving energy flowing through your being. The more energy, the greater the health. Let that energy flow in you, through you. health is not heavy. Health is light work. Wealth 33 Unlike money, wealth is not just what you have. Wealth is what you can do without. who is wealthier, the person who is addicted to something and has plenty of money to buy it, or the person

who doesnt desire the addictive substance at all? Wealthy people carry their riches within. The less they need of this physical world, the wealthier they are. They may or may not have large sums of money. It matters not. Whatever they have is fine. Wealth is health, happiness, loving, caring, sharing, learning, knowing what we want, opportunity, enjoying, and balance. Wealth is enjoying one's own company. Wealth is being able to love oneself fully. Sentence Variety: Too many sentences of the same size and structure can lead to boring prose, even when the message is far from boring. The power of style comes from its emphatic variations. Good style is characterized by using a variety of sentence structures, sentence types, sentence length, sentence beginnings, by avoiding loose sentences, a. Varying sentence length = avoiding choppy sentences (a series of short sentences): Douglas wrote a quick note. It was to Nora. She is his former employer. (choppy) Douglas wrote a quick note to Nora, his former employer.

(better) Two days passed. Then helicopters headed for the mountain top. The blizzard had stranded several climbers. (choppy) After two days, helicopters headed for the mountain top, because the blizzard had stranded several climbers. (better) b. Varying the beginning of the sentences: c. avoiding loose stringy sentences: d. varying subject-verb sequences: e. using questions, commands and exclamatory sentences instead of statements. 34 ASPECTS OF STYLE: FIGURES OF SPEECH A figure of speech (figure of speech or imagery) is a word or words in an imaginative rather than literal sense. The two chief figures of speech are the simile and metaphor. A simile is an explicit comparison between two things of a different kind or quality, usually introduced by like or as. A metaphor is an implied comparison of dissimilar things. In a metaphor, words of comparison, such as like or as, are not used. Single words are often used metaphorically. Similes and metaphors are especially valuable when they are concrete and tend to point up essential

relationships that cannot otherwise be communicated. Sometimes writers extend a metaphor beyond a sentence. The first thing that people remember about failing at math is that it felt like sudden death. (a simile) The Bowie knife is as American as a half-ton pickup truck. (a simile) Successful living is a journey toward simplicity and a triumph over confusion. (a metaphor) The wolf pups make a frothy ribbon of sound like fat bubbling. (a metaphor & a simile) A man's feet must be planted in his country, but his eyes should survey the world. (a single word metaphor) Some women have managed to shape up and ship out into the mainstream of life, handling the currents and the rapids and the quiet pools with gracious, confident ease. Others are trapped in one eddy after another, going nowhere at all, hung up in swirling pockets of confusion. Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration. Personification is the attribution to the non-human (objects, animals, ideas) of characteristics possessed only by humans. 35 I, for one, don't expect till I die to be so good a man as I am at this minute, for just now I'm fifty thousand feet high-a tower with all the trumpets. (hyperbole) Time talks. It speaks more plainly than words... It can

shout the truth where words lie. ( personification) Clichs: A word or expression that has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has been used too often. e.g.: It' s a crying shame. I'm here to tell you... In this day and age... from the frying pan into the fire to the bitter end get it all together clean as a hound's tooth ASPECTS OF STYLE: COHESION AND COHERENCE COHESION: - relationship between meanings. - ties between sentences. - it is independent of sentence or grammatical boundaries. - it is achieved through relationships in which the interpretation of one idea in the text depends on successful interpretation of another. cohesive ties: links that establish cohesion. Types of Cohesion: 1. Cohesion by conjunction: it supplies the logical connection between parts of the text. It marks the way one sentence follows the other and how the text as a whole is moving forward. 2. Lexical cohesion: 36 an individual word that refers back to another word in the

development of the text. Lexical set: words of similar meaning that form a stitch work through the text and can be set out as a set. general commanding operations, Indians killing ,war, Indians, negotiate, General Cook, command, escort, ammunition train, command, escort, dangerous, Camp Bowie 3. Reference = anaphora The way in which speakers refer back to another part of the text. It is achieved through pronouns & demonstratives. 4. Ellipsis: part of the utterance is left unsaid. EXAMPLE Lieutenant Blueberry Adventure (1) BLUEBERRY: So I have to see the General commanding operations against the Indians and tell him the truth about the Stanton Ranch, sir... (2) COLONEL: Hm... I reckon you're over optimistic, Blueberry. We're too far in to stop the killing now! (3) BLUEBERRY: We must try, sir. (4) COLONEL: There's a lot of people in favor of this war ... and the Indians themselves won't negotiate with anyone. (5) BLUEBERRY: Let me try. (6) COLONEL: Obstinate, eh? Well. General Cook is in command. He's at Camp Bowie. (7) BLUEBERRY: And you're in luck! I have to provide an escort for an ammunition train going there from Dallas. (8) COLONEL: I'm short of officers ... so I'll give you

command of the escort. You take charge of the convoy from Pecos onward. (9) BLUEBERRY: Thanks, sir! (10) COLONEL: Don't thank me ... this'll be no picnic! It's a long dangerous way from Pecos to Camp Bowie , and I 37 can't give you many men. You leave for Pecos in two days' time. May be you don't know the area, but you'll have an Apache guide . Now, get some rest. (11) BLUEBERRY: Thanks again, sir... COHERENCE: - Factors which help us see the text as a whole. - It relates to general knowledge as to what goes with what, e.g.: knowledge of historical events in which the events are taking place, the relationship between Indians and whites, how armies worked then, what a "wagon train" is, what "operations" stand for. - cohesion is a text related phenomenon, coherence is a text and a reader related phenomenon. - cohesion is one component of coherence. - to be coherent, a text should have organization. - Parallel structure is an aid to coherence. - Parallel sentence elements appear in lists, series, and compound structures. Connectives like and, or, but, yet link and relate balanced sentence elements. Parallel words and phrases: - People began to feel bad, faceless and insignificant.

- She had no time to be human, no time to be happy. - The two most powerful words in the world are not guns and money, but wheat and oil. - The reward rests not in the task but in the pay. - We judge our friends both by their words and by their actions. - It's easier to love humanity as a whole than to love one's neighbor. - It is the things that we think we know - because they are so elementary or because they surround us that often present the greatest difficulties. Parallel clauses: - What to say and what to do seem out of joint. - Top soil, once blown away, can never be returned; virgin prairie, once ploughed, can never be reclaimed. Parallel sentences: The danger of the past was that men became slaves. The danger of the future is that men may become robots. STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS - The aim of advertisements is to persuade. - The overall effect of press advertisements depends as much on the design layout, including graphics, different printing fonts, as on the text. - The ad will be fitted with the practical texts which identify a subject and with which the viewer identified as a matter of everyday life.

- The ad is not realistic. The context is imaginary. The voice of the narrator, the faces and the gestures, the choice of the names for the characters are all caricatures. - The narrator speaks in the third person, i.e., from the position of an observer. - TV. Commercials have greatly increased the use of the spoken word in advertising. - Minor actors in a commercial overact in order to make their point in the very short space of time. The chief results of this overacting are that changes in intonation are too sudden and facial expressions are too predictable. There is always a "feed" who has the task of expressing astonishment at the low price of the product or who registers instant conviction of being assured of its virtues. Speakers are liable to extol their product with emotion dripping from every syllable. Affectation in pronunciation is very common. - The names of the characters are partial descriptions of their work and personalities. 39 - Practical setting of the viewer: the viewer's house, class, party, kitchen. - Advertisements use inflated language to make commonplace products seem glamorous. rich golden-brown sea-food with superfine French fried potatoes as a side dish. a dwelling house of character. - Advertisements seek to impress the reader by the use of long words whose meaning he is not likely understood.

They give an air of glamour by using long words to describe properties of the product that are either commonplace or disadvantageous. A farmer bought a field on being assured that "it was richly megalithic is no doubt untrue". - We should distinguish between what is actually said and what is merely suggested. - Words are often misused in advertisements. But the motive for their misuse is not necessarily an attempt to deceive. More often a word that has become a glamour-word is adopted without any clear idea of its meaning: An advertisement described a car polish by saying: "comes in genuine simulated alligator grain case for compact storage". - Advertisers choose a name that is easy to pronounce in many languages like: nylon, Kodak, Canon. - Reduction in price for quantities is a generally accepted commercial principle which the advertiser uses to persuade customers to buy larger packets of the goods offered. "buy one, get one free! buy one get one 50% off. "large economy size" 40 - The words of an advertisement need to be chosen with care if a ludicrous effect is to be avoided. no dissatisfied customer is ever allowed to leave these premises. - Love of euphemism is an advertisement feature. The fuller figure is no longer a problem.

- There is an appeal to the English love of animals in advertisements (pets seeking new homes): Dear little Jack Russell dog, 3.5, having lost devoted lady owner, seeks another. - Use of vogue words. One of the vogue words in advertisements for secretaries seems is "top": top secretary / top typist / top shorthand top flight secretary / top people - The text as a whole is one clause complex or one long written sentence. Grammar and cohesion are coextensive. - Free structures are composed in such a way as to avoid this kind of complexity. They are economically worded. The ad as a whole is limited in length. Economy is achieved through ellipsis, which allows the writer to avoid repetition. Ellipsis is a form of cohesion. - The text is divided into written sentences marked with capitals and full stops, but some sentences do not contain a full complement of elements which make up a "complete sentence". They can be corrected by changing the punctuation or by adding some deleted words. There are several paragraphs marked by indentation, but some of them contain only two or three words. The stylistic effect of this deviant method of punctuating and paragraphing is to convey the impression of 41

spoken rather than written language, because the sentences in fact correspond to the tone units of a spoken reading of the text. - You will notice parallelism in the text. - The vocabulary belongs to the ordinary informal talk of car enthusiasts. One thing Europe seems to agree about From Strasbourg to Brussels, London to Paris, Madrid to Rome, it was all smiles, hand-shakes, pleasantries all round. The reason for this communal chumminess? Our new golf. Fifty-nine top motoring writers from eighteen European countries had just voted it Car of the Year. a welcome win, for sure. though to be frank, not entirely unexpected. It just goes to show that everything comes to he who improves. and improves. And anticipates. Already, our new Golf is designed to meet ever-tougher safety standards set for 1994. Already, over 80% of its parts are re-cyclable. all good stuff. But what about performance? any torquier? Mais oui. The drag factor. Any lower? Naturlich. The handling. Any sharper? Certo. And the fuel consumption. Still generous? What, more generous? Claro que si.

As many a European knows, such things are common currency with every new Volkswagon. - punctuation. - what is actually said - paragraphing. - what is suggested - capitalization - misused words - sentence length. - adjectives used - sentence type. - intensifiers - clauses - vogue words - parallelism. - emphasis. - imagery - ellipsis - euphemism - word length 42 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF NEWSPAPER ENGLISH - The chief characteristic of newspaper English is that it is both written and read by people who are in a hurry. - The wording of a headline is affected by: the ideas to be expressed, the technology of printing and the kind of reader associated with a particular reader. - There are 3 criteria for good headline writing: simplicity, informality and impact. It should be a clear signal, swiftly readable, economical in reading in time and space. - Newspaper headlines have a familiar and conventional linguistic structure like telegrams in their brevity. - All good headlines follow certain rules in what they say and how they say it. - Sometimes there is a combination of main headline and overline (strapline): Police at Longbridge as anger mounts over 500 layoffs

Trouble flares as BL workers demonstrate - Headlines use nouns not verbs for actions. Edwardes tells BL unions that strike would bring closure - Two linguistic conventions that have grown up in headlines are: the use of the infinitive in place of the future and the use of the comma when there is no room for the conjunction "and": film star to wed . Netanyahu, Arafat to meet in Washington. - Use of surname only is usual in headlines: 43 - Newspaper headlines use block language i.e., a language of their own: bid = attempt trek = journey ban = to forbid rap = to rebuke probe = investigation pact = treaty Tory = Conservative - Headlines can be ambiguous, having two possible meanings. A word can have more than one meaning and can function as more than one part of speech. Students Plan Grants Cuts Protest March. $1,900,000 paid to attack victims. Blind man expected to leave goal. - Initials are used in headlines to describe companies: U.M.B. = United Builders Merchants. M.E.P.C. = Metropolitan Estate and Property Co. - Use of passive clauses with no agent: Imports influx feared as Post Office profits are creamed off - Use of words with emotive associations (connotations of important lexical items): mounting anger at silence.

tight-lipped a bespectacled figure (if a man on trial wears spectacles - Much of the subject matter of newspapers is repetitive material in which the journalist takes little interest. He has described similar events a hundred times before, and he therefore uses the phrases he has used a hundred times. - Journalists often have to be vague because they are not free to specify the exact source of information or because they have very little real news with which to fill up the space. 44 a spokesman says ..... well-informed sources in Paris ... - Journalists are fond of irrelevant detail, such as the ages of minor participants in an incident or the tonnage of large steamships. said 50-year old ex-army captain - The most excessive features of journalese are: excessive use of clichs, fondness for short paragraphs, inversion of normal word-order, fondness of irrelevant detail, sometimes expressed by the piling-up of adjectives and adjectival phrases, and occasional bad grammar. - The article is usually deleted in openings: Newsagent John Smith ... - Certain parts of the newspaper such as the Sports page use a special language: bulls bears stags

- The idiomatic use of words and phrases: the stock went firmly ex-growth the same year. - There is a certain monotony about the events described in sport journalism which the journalist is tempted to disguise by finding new synonyms for such words: football = the leather cricket-bat = the willow goal-posts = uprights 45 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TECHNICAL TEXTS - Some types of technical texts are: scientific papers, reports, instruction sheets, advertisement, patents. - Technical language is used to describe objects, qualities of materials, appearance, apparatus, phenomena, processes, experiment; to classify; to give instructions; to give cause and reason; to report actions, observations and results; to state conclusions. - Scientific terms have associations with other scientific roots, and the use of Greek and Latin roots has the advantage that they are internationally understood. - Scientific terms are often long. A long scientific word is made up of familiar elements which compress into one word facts that might have been expressed in several sentences: fibrosis leukemia electrocardiogram tonsillitis - Names of sciences tend to end in -ology, -ics: biology, technology, pediatrics, aeronautics , genetics - The main distinguishing feature of technical language is its vocabulary. The vocabulary is characterized by use of:

nominal phrases, compounds, derivatives, new application of words: (bed, mouth, force, word, current). - Technical texts are characterized by a rigorously defined use of words and a high frequency of passive forms with no byphrase to specify the actor. - Technical language tends to be more logical and lucid than everyday language. The style is formal and impersonal. Technical prose is written in terse sentences. 46 TECHNICAL TEXTS 1. Time order: Process The first man to produce a practical steam engine as Thomas Savery, an English engineer (1650-1715), who obtained a patent in 1698 for a machine designed to drain water from mines. The machine contained no moving parts except handoperated steam valves and automatic check valves, and in principle it worked as follows: Steam was generated in a spherical boiler and then admitted to a separated vessel where it expelled much of the air. The steam valve was then closed and cold water allowed to flow over the vessel, causing the steam to

condense and thus creating a partial vacuum. This vacuum pulled water from the area to be drained into the vessel. Then by a further operation of the valves, steam was readmitted to the vessel to force water through a vertical pipe to the discharge elevation. 2. Time Order: Process Carriage and Assembly Removal: 1. Remove the snap rings from the chain anchors and pull the chain anchors out of the carriage. 2. Secure the carriage with an overhead crane. Remove the carriage by pulling it out the bottom of the mast channels. 3. Remove the two middle and two lower assemblies. 4. Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing the cap-screws that connect the retaining plats to the stub shafts. pull the roller assemblies off the stub shafts. 3. Time Order: Chronology Since the Middle ages the output and consumption of pit coal had been greater in English than in any other country of Europe. Already during the 13th century, domestic coal consumption in London is said to have been so great that restrictive bylaws

became necessary to check the increasing smoke nuisance. During the 17th century, English coal was already shipped to the 47 continent in considerable quantities. The actual 'coal age', however, set in during the second half of the 18th century when it became possible to use steam power for the drainage of collieries, thus permitting the working of deeper galleries under conditions of greater safety. 4. Space order: The test section was constructed of a pure copper cylinder 2 ft 6 in long, 6 in id and 6.25 in od. Both ends of the cylinder were closed with removable Pyrex-glass plates 1/4 in. thick. A fluid port was located at each end of the cylinder. 5. Comparison contrast Many types of mathematical problems are similar in one way or another as are their methods of solution. However, there are also distinct differences in both types of problems and their methods of solution. For example, many interesting problems in maxima and minima can be solved by elementary methods: that

is, by the methods of algebra and plane geometry. But there are many more maxima and minima problems that require the techniques of differential calculus for their solutions. Finally, there are many other problems of a more complicated nature in which quantities are to be maximized or minimized that cannot be handled by the methods of the differential calculus: These require treatment by methods of the calculus of variation. 6. Analogy Sound waves are created by the compression of the molecules of air, this compression generated by the origin of the sound. The resulting wave motion is analogous to that created in water when a rock is thrown in a pond. By studying the properties exhibited by water waves, we can become familiar with the properties of all wave motion. First, we note that the waves produced on the water by a rock striking it move away at a constant speed: This speed is called the velocity of propagation. Second, we note that the waves have crests and troughs. The distance between successive crests or troughs is called wave 48

length. Third, as the waves move past a given point, they cause up and down motion of the water at this point. This motion is the frequency of the wave. 7. Classification: All crystalline solids can be classified as members of one of fourteen crystal systems. The number of ways in which atomic arrangements can be repeated to form a solid is limited to fourteen by the geometries of space division. Any one of these arrangements, when repeated in space, forms the lattice structure characteristic of a crystalline material. These fourteen systems are ... For example, cadmium sulphide has a lattice formed of hexagonal units... We can classify the planets of our solar system by one or more of the following characteristics: average distance from the sun, Earth = 1; solar radiation received, Earth = 1; orbital period; eccentricity; equatorial diameter in miles; mass, Earth = 1' gravity, Earth = 1; escape velocity in mi/sec.; rotation period; inclination in degrees; and albedo. 8. Definitions

An arachnid is an invertebrate animal having eight legs extending at equal intervals from a central body. An anemometer is a meteorological instrument that registers the speed of the wind on a dial or gage. An arachnid has eight legs extending at equal intervals from a central body. An anemometer is used to measure the speed of the wind. Agronomy is a science which seeks improved methods of soil management and crop production. By crop production we mean new techniques that will increase the yield of field crops. By 49 improved soil management we men the use of fertilizers which contain the necessary nutrients needed for the crops. 9. Description of properties: When substances are mixed without a chemical reaction, they do not change their properties. Thus a mixture of sand and salt is yellowish-white in color. It tastes both salty and gritty. If we put the mixture in water, the salt will dissolve, because it is soluble. But the sand will not dissolve. 10. Cause-effect: Heat causes substance to expand. This is because heat

causes the atoms and molecules in the substance to move more quickly. As a consequence, they take up more space than liquids, and liquids much more than solids. When a substance is cooled, the molecules slow down and as a result the substance contract. 11. Function: The endocrine system consists of various glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands. The function of these glands is to secrete chemicals, known as hormones, into the blood. These hormones control various processes in the body, such as growth, and digestion. The nervous system controls the other systems and enables human beings to think. 12. Structure: Matter consists of organic substances and inorganic substances. Organic substances include coal and oil. Inorganic substances include iron and sulfur. Organic substances contain carbon. Inorganic substances do not contain carbon. 13. Measurement: In Calcutta in January the temperature ranges from 27 C to

13C; that is, the maximum temperature is 27C and the minimum temperature is 13 C. These are the two extremes of temperature. 50 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS - Some kinds of legal documents are: insurance policies, wills, drawing up of statutes, contracting of agreements between individuals, leases, petitions, investigations...etc. - Lawyers have been doing the same thing for a long time, and for each species of transaction there has developed a linguistic formula (established formula). They rely on forms which were established in the past. - Pronoun reference is extremely scarce. - Legal English contains complete major sentences. Most of them are statements, with no questions and only occasional command. Statements are of a characteristic type which is reflected in equally characteristic sentence structure. - Legal sentences are long and complex. They use conditional clauses. - Legal sentences have an underlying logical structure which says: 'if X, then Z shall be Y'. Every action or requirement, from a legal point of view, is hedged around with, and even depends upon, a set of conditions which must be satisfied before anything at all can happen.

- Adverbials tend to cluster at the beginning of the sentence. They are used as a means of clarifying meaning and avoiding ambiguity. Adverbial elements are often coordinated: on the expiration ... or on the previous death subject to any authorized endorsement ... and to the production... on credit or without such payment - Adverbials are put in positions which seem unusual by normal standards: a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance.. - Legal English is highly nominal (it uses long complicated nominal groups). 51 - Adjectives like splendid, wise, disgusting, and happy are much less frequent and intensifying adverbs like very and rather are completely absent. - The use of the modal auxiliary shall + be + past participle. Shall is not used as a marker of future tense; it is used to express what is to be the obligatory consequence of a legal decision. - Verbs are selected from a small number of lexical sets: deem, accept, require, agree, issue, state, specify, constitute, perform, observe, exercise. - Legal English is studded with archaic words and phrases of a kind that could be used by no one but lawyers: witnesseth - The prefixing and suffixing of prepositions is a common feature of legal English:

hereby hereof hereunder hereinafter aforesaid - A legal characteristic is the coordination of a number of synonyms or near-synonyms: altered & modified transformed & altered able and willing made an signed terms and conditions - A good deal of legal language is of French and Latin origin: Law French: puisine judge puis ne estoppel fee simple laches quash Law Latin: alias amicus curiae nolle peosequi res judicata Their French origin has affected the word-order of a number of legal phrases: malice prepense malice aforethought court martial heir apparent Secretary General - The most obvious feature of legal documents is their prolixity. They are prolix because its author is trying to secure complete coverage of a given area of meaning. 52 EXAMPLE Whereas a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance on the Life Insured named in the Schedule hereto has been duly made and signed as a basis of such assurance and a declaration has been made agreeing that this policy shall be subject to the

Society's Registered Rules (which shall be deemed to form part of this policy) to the Table of Insurance printed hereon and to the terms and conditions of the said Table and that the date of entrance stated hereon shall be deemed to be the date of this contract AND such proposal has been accepted by the society on the conditions as set forth in the proposal. NOW this policy issued by the Society on payment of the first premium stated in the Schedule hereto subject to the Registered Rules of the Society. WITNESSETH that if the Life Insured shall pay or cause to be paid to the Society or to the duly authorized agent or Collector thereof every subsequent premium at the due date thereof the funds of the Society shall on the expiration of the term of years specified in the Schedule hereto.... IF UPON THE DEATH OF THE LIFE INSURED there shall be no duly constituted personal representative or nominee or assignee of the Life Insured able and willing to give valid receipt for the

sum payable such sum may in the discretion of the Committee of Management be paid to one or more of the next-of-kin of the life insured whose receipt shall effectually discharge the Society from all liability under this policy. IN WITNESS WHEREOF we the Secretary and two of the Committee of Management of the Society have hereunto attached or signatures. 53 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL TEXTS - Business letters may be fully-blocked (all lines begin at the same point) or semi-blocked (paragraphs are indented). - Parts of a business letter are : the letterhead, the reference (the sender of the letter), the date, the name and address of the addressee, the attention line (when all correspondences must be addressed to the firm and not individuals), the salutation or greeting (dear..), the subject heading (indicated what the letter is about, the body (it is made of several paragraphs, the complimentary close (yours faithfully), the name of the company sending the letter, the signatory, the designation or the position held by the signatory. - Use of many conventional phrases: your esteemed favor = a letter your esteemed favor to hand and contents noted = he has not only received the letter but also read its contents and wishes to make it clear that he is not

only courteous but also brisk and efficient. best attention at all times = used to conclude a letter assuring his correspondence. enclosed please find = I enclose ult. = the last month instant = the current month prox. = the next month replace "you" by "your goodself" - some words and phrases that were once in general use have survived as features of commercial English after becoming obsolete elsewhere: 54 - Some words serve a useful purpose in that they are technical terms to describe commercial practices, but they are liable to be misused: Pro forma = done for form's sake. = used with courteous difference in commercial English to describe an invoice which the sender expects to be paid before the goods are sent. EXAMPLES Dear Sir Messrs. Willing and Co., of Market Place, Norwich, have given your bank as reference and we should consider it great favor, if you would kindly state what you know about the standing and financial position of this firm, especially in regard to the amount of credit which might safely be extended to them. thanking you in anticipation.

we are, Yours Faithfully Dear Sirs Further to my telephone conversation with Mr Simpson this morning I enclose the copy of Invoice NO 4635 sent to me for checking and the Credit Note received from Crossley Ltd. I confirm that the original delivery was returned to Crossley Ltd and that replacements for the damaged goods were listed on Invoice No 47869. Yours Faithfully Robert Tibbitts Buying Officer ENCS 55 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LITERARY TEXTS - One defining feature of literature is its special use of language. I foregrounded, or made strange. Its style is different from that of other everyday uses. It deviates from ordinary language. - Use of figurative language. - words have a connotative meaning. - A number of clichs tend to occur: lofty flights of imagination heights of majesty organic unity - Use of vague adjectives of approval: fascinating profound exciting stimulating lively

impressive