INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT:

SUBMITTED BY:
AMIT VERMA
ROLL NO.: 0603540154
B.TECH {MECHANICAL ENGINEERING}
Babu Banarsi Das Institute of Technology,
GHAZIABAD


[INDRAPRASTHA POWER GENERATION Co. Ltd. &
PRAGATI POWER Co. Ltd.]
Acknowledgement

I express my sincere gratitude to the management of RAJGHAT
POWER HOUSE for providing me with the opportunity to undergo
training in this esteemed organization.
I take the prerogative to express my gratitude Mr. Sanjeev Malik
(Manager BLR) for his valuable suggestion and guidance through my
training period.
I also take the opportunity to thanks Mr. Deepak Batra (A.M.
TG), Mr. Staindera Sharma(A.M. TG), Mr. Ajay Kumar (A.M. AHP), Mr.
Harpal Singh (A.M. BLR) for diligent guidance without which the
project would not have been success.
I special thanks to Mr. Ashok Kumar Jha (Manager Operation
shift) and Swati Upadhyay (Assistant manager HR) for sharing their
experience and provide their support in technical matters.
I also acknowledge the entire staff of RAJGHATPOWER HOUSE
for making brief stay in the power plant a memorable.







Preface
With day to day advantage of new technology the older
machinery are being replaced by new machinery. Now it has not been
the work of semi skilled persons. It has opened a new horizon for
degree holder engineers. But to do the job properly a suitable training
is needed.
The knowledge of entire system is must for an engineer to do the
trouble shooting in the quickest possible way so that the production
does not get effected.
So for engineering the industrial training is playing a vital role in
developing the practical knowledge. The industrial training is not
merely an academic requirement but a professional necessity too.
With the increasing demand and utilization of electricity an
mechanical and electrical engineer should be well versed or at least
must be familiar with the generation of electricity, at the same time
must be capable for fault detection.
It is thus the responsibility of a mechanical engineer to deal with
the sophistication and make the maximum possible utilization.



INTRODUCTION

IPGCL - INDRAPRASTHA POWER
GENERATION CO. LTD.
PPCL PRAGATI POWER CO. LTD.
IPGCL & PPCL are the companies
which produces electricity in Delhi.
Under IPGCL 3 power station are in
operation to supply electricity and
under ppcl one power station is in
operation continuously.
DESCRIPTION
Generation of electricity in Delhi started with a 2 MW
diesel set in 1903. The main function of IPGCL and
PPCL is generation of electricity for Delhi. IPGCL
generates electricity by its 3 power stations and PPCL
having only one power station. IPGCL and PPCL
produce electricity by using coal and gas.
IPGCL - INDRAPRASTHA POWER GENERATION CO. LTD.
THERE ARE 3 POWER STATION ARE IN
OPERATION:
I.P. STATION
RAJGHAT POWER HOUSE
GAS TURBINE POWER STATION
PPCL - PRAGATI POWER CO. LTD.
THERE IS 1 POWER STATION IS IN OPERATION:
PRAGATI POWER STATION

Motto of IPGCL
&
PPCL
TO PRODUCE AND SUPPLY
ELECTRICITY CONTINUOUSLY.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

OF

INDRAPRASTHA POWER
GENERATION Co. Ltd.
&
PRAGATI POWER Co. Ltd.




IPGCL-INDRAPRASTHA POWER
GENERATION Co. Ltd.
IPGCL produces electricity by its 3 power stations.
I.P. STATION
The present available capacity of this Station is 247.5 MW was installed
and commissioned in 1968. Since it is a coal based station, Deshaled
coal having ash contents less then 34% is being procured from NCL,
Bina. New ESPs have been commissioned recently on all the units at a
total cost of Rs.35 crores approx. to restrict the particulate emission
below 50mg/NM3.
RAJGHAT POWER HOUSE
Two Units of 67.5 MW were installed in 1989-90 at Rajghat Power
House as Replacement of old Units and the present generation
capacity of this Station is 135 MW. Both the units are performing well.
Additional ESPs are being fitted to bring down the SPM level from 150
mg/NM3 to 50 mg/NM3.
GAS TURBINE POWER STATION
It has installed capacity of 282 MW. Due to gas restriction only 4 gas
turbines and 2 steam turbines are generally in operation. Two gas
turbines along with one steam turbine are kept on liquid fuel to meet
any emergency.
Six Gas Turbine Units of 30 MW each was commissioned in 1985-86 to
meet the electricity demand in peak hours and were operating on
liquid fuel. In 1990 the Gas Turbines were converted to operate on
natural gas.
POWER KNOWN AS RIVER OF MODERN LIFE



Life depends on energy. Energy is a source that can neither be
destroyed nor negated. It merely changes its form and shape. When
captured, energy generates power. Since the discovery of fire, man, has
constantly been on the run for more and more useful forms of energy.
In todays times, the most commonly used and useful form of energy is
power. Power is the driving force behind life in modern times. From
generating light to electricity, power is the vital fluid that runs in the
stream of our life. Unfortunately this river of the life often runs dry. Not
because nature does not have enough energy to produce power. It
runs dry due to mans negligence in handling and distributing energy.
As a result of the power sector reforms in Delhi, the National
Capital is now being served by two of the best electric utilities in India,
BSES and TATA Power. They will take some time to achieve desired
objectives. However, one thing is certain. With economic viability the
power situation in Delhi will only get better with every passing year,
thus reversing the legacy of deteriorating service that we had seen in
past.


STATUS OF POWER DEMAND AND GROWTH OF
ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN INDIA
The Power demand in the Capital City is increasing with the
growth of population as well as living standard and
commercialization. The main sources of electricity generation in India
are hydro-power plants, thermal power plants based on coal and
nuclear fuels. Diesel generation is also used to feed isolated localities.
Natural gas has been also used in Gujarat and Assam where this
source is available to a limited extent.

The unrestricted power demand in the summer of year 2000
was 3000 MW and increasing every year @ 6 to 7%. In 2005-2006, it is
expected to be 4078 MW and by 2009-10 it will reach 5075 MW.
Erstwhile DVB's own generation from RPH, I.P. Station and Gas
Turbine Power Station had been around 350-400 MW and Badarpur
has been supplying 600-700 MW and the balance was met from the
Northern Grid and other sources. To bridge the gap between demand
and supply and to give reliable supply to the Capital City, Delhi Govt.
had set up 330 MW Pragati Power Project on fast track basis.

As mentioned in the magazine India today the demand rate
of electricity of India is 12.5% per year and our growth rate is 5.5%. so
till 2015 we will face a major problem of shortage of electricity.



IPGCL & PPCL STATIONS AT A GLANCE

I.P. STATION+RAJGHAT POWER STATION+GAS TURBINE POWER STATION
&
PRAGATI POWER STATION



REPORT IS BASED
ON
THERMAL POWER PLANT
OF
RAJGHAT POWER STATION

SINGLE UNIT OF IPGCL



RAJGHAT POWER STATION
Rajghat power station is one of important power house for
producing electricity & supplied electricity continuously. The rajghat
power house is a thermal power station which is located on the eastern
side of Delhi & behind Mahatma Gandhi Samadhi towards Yamuna
River. It is one of single unit of IPGCL. The rajghat power house
produces electricity by its installed capacity of 135 MW. the power
house produces electricity by its two Units of 67.5 MW each were
installed in 1989-90 at Rajghat Power House as Replacement of old
Units and the present generation capacity of this Station is 135 MW. the
units are performing well. Additional ESPs are being fitted to bring
down the SPM level from 150 mg/NM3 to 50 mg/NM3.
As we discussed about the capacity of rajghat power house and
we know its a thermal power plant , it uses coal which is supplied by
the NCL , BINA. The main source of water for the rajghat power house
is Yamuna river and rajghat power station is beneficial for the area
are north and central area of Delhi where It supply the electricity
continuously.


THERMAL POWER PLANT

Some question arises in our mind when we discussing
thermal power plant:
What is thermal power plant?
How does it produce electricity?
Which type of work it need for
producing the electricity?
Is it beneficial power plant or
not?

THERMAL POWER PLANT

Thermal power plant is a coal based power plant which is based on
the RANKINE CYCLE.
Thermal power plant Layout and
Operation:

The above diagram is the lay out of a simplified thermal power
plant. The above diagram shows the simplest arrangement of Coal
fired (Thermal) power plant. Main parts of the plant are:-
1. Coal conveyor 2. Stoker 3. Pulverizer
4. Boiler 5. Coal ash 6. Air preheater
7. Electrostatic precipitator 8. Smoke stack 9. Turbine
10. Condenser 11. Transformers 12. Cooling towers
13. Generator 14. High - voltage power lines


BASIC OPERATION OF THERMAL POWER
PLANT:
A thermal power plant basically works on Rankine cycle.
COAL CONVEYOR: This is a belt type of arrangement. With this coal is
transported from coal storage place in power plant to the place near by
boiler.
STOKER: The coal which is brought near by boiler has to put in boiler
furnace for combustion. This stoker is a mechanical device for feeding coal
to a furnace.
PULVERIZER: The coal is put in the boiler after pulverization. For this
pulverizer is used. A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion
in a furnace in a power plant.
BOILER: Now that pulverized coal is put in boiler furnace. Boiler is an
enclosed vessel in which water is heated and circulated until the water is
turned in to steam at the required pressure.
SUPERHEATER: Most of the modern boilers are having super heater and
reheater arrangement.
REHEATER: Some of the heat of superheated steam is used to rotate the
turbine where it loses some of its energy. Reheater is also steam boiler
component in which heat is added to this intermediate-pressure steam,
which has given up some of its energy in expansion through the high-
pressure turbine.
CONDENSER: Steam after rotating steam turbine comes to condenser.
Condenser refers here to the shell and tube heat exchanger (or surface
condenser) installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in Thermal power
stations of utility companies generally.
COOLING TOWER: The condensate (water) formed in the condense after
condensation is initially at high temperature. This hot water is passed to
cooling towers. It is a tower- or building-like device in which atmospheric
air (the heat receiver) circulates in direct or indirect contact with
warmer water (the heat source) and the water is thereby cooled (see
illustration).
ECONOMISER: Flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat.
Function of economizer is to recover some of the heat from the heat
carried away in the flue gases up the chimney and utilize for heating
the feed water to the boiler. It is placed in the passage of flue gases in
between the exit from the boiler and the entry to the chimney.
AIR PREHEATER: The remaining heat of flue gases is utilized by air
preheater.It is a device used in steam boilers to transfer heat from the
flue gases to the combustion air before the air enters the furnace. Also
known as air heater; air-heating system. It is not shown in the lay out.
But it is kept at a place near by where the air enters in to the boiler.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR: It is a device which removes dust or
other finely divided particles from flue gases by charging the particles
inductively with an electric field, then attracting them to highly
charged collector plates. Also known as precipitator.
SMOKE STACK: A chimney is a system for venting hot flue gases or
smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside
atmosphere. They are typically almost vertical to ensure that the hot
gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion through the
chimney effect (also known as the stack effect).
GENERATOR: An alternator is an electromechanical device that
converts mechanical energy to alternating current electrical energy.
TRANSFORMER: It is a device that transfers electric energy from one
alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either
increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage.

A SYSTEMATIC DIAGRAM OF POWER
PLANT

The above diagram helps us to study the operation of a coal based
power plant also known as thermal power plant. The power plant
operates on rankine cycle which continuously converts heat into work,
in which a working fluid repeatedly performs a succession of processes.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OF THERMAL
POWER PLANT
The thermal power plant is basically based on the simple rankine
cycle.
SIMPLE RANKINE CYCLE:
The theoretical basic cycle for the simple steam turbine power plant is
the rankine cycle which is closed one. The modern power plant uses the
rankine cycle, modified to include superheating, regenerative feed
water heating and reheating.
The rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into
work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually
uses water as the working fluid.
DESCRIPTION OF RANKINE CYCLE:
A simple layout and processes of the rankine cycle.


A rankine cycle needs four main parts for operating the cycle i.e. water
feed pump, boiler, turbine and condenser.
A rankine cycle describes a model of the operation of steam heat
engine is found in power generation plant. Common heat sources for
power plants using the rankine cycle are coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear
energy.
The rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical carnot cycle
when an efficient turbine is used. The main difference is that a pump is
used to pressurize liquid instead of gas. This requires about 100 times
less energy than that compressing a gas in a compressor (as in the
CARNOT CYCLE).
The efficiency of a rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid.
Without the pressure going super critical the temperature range cycle
can operate over is quite small, turbine entry temp are typically 565C
[the creep limit of stainless steel] and condenser temperature are
around 30C. this gives a theoretical carnot efficiency of around 63%
compared with an actual efficiency of 42% for a modern coal-fired
power station. This low turbine entry temperature is why the rankine
cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle in combined cycle gas turbine
power stations.
The working fluid in s rankine cycle follows a closed loop and is re-used
constantly. The water vapour often seen billowing from power station
is generated by the cooling systems and represents the waste heat that
could not be converted to useful work. While many substances could
be used in the rankine cycle, water is usually the fluid of choice due to
its favorable properties such as nontoxic, unreactive chemistry ,
abundance and low cost as well as its thermodynamic properties.


The thermodynamic processes define by the T-S diagrams:
T-S diagram of carnot cycle:


T-S diagram of rankine cycle:



PROCESSES OF RANKINE CYCLE:
T-S diagram of a typical rankine cycle operating between pressure
limit of 0.06 bar to 50 bar.
The rankine cycle is an ideal reversible cycle for steam power plants
corresponding to carnot cycle. There are four processes in the rankine
cycle, each changing the state of the working fluid. These states are
identified by number in the diagram to the right.
PROCESS 1-2 : Pumping of feed water to the boiler from pressure,
Pb to pressure P1. The compression process is reversible adiabatic .
PROCESS 2-3 : Conversion of feed water in to the steam at constant
pressure equal to the boiler pressure P1. The heat supplied by external
heat source to become a dry saturated vapour.
PROCESS 3-4 : Reversible adiabatic expansion of steam in the
turbine from boiler pressure P1 to back pressure Pb. This decrease the
temperature and pressure of the vapour and some condensation may
occur.
PROCESS 4-1 : The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is
cooled at a constant pressure and temperature to become a saturated
liquid. The pressure and temperature of the condenser is fixed by the
temperature of the cooling coils as the fluid is undergoing a phase
change.
In an ideal rankine cycle the pump and turbine work would be
isentropic i.e. the pump and turbine would generate no entropy and
hence maximize the net work output.

THE RANKINE CYCLE WITH REGENERATION:
Modification of rankine cycle needed to improve the efficiency
of rankine cycle by using the some additional components. Improving
cycle efficiency almost always involves making a cycle more like a
carnot cycle operating between the high and low temperature limits.
The carnot cycle is maximally efficient in parts, because it receives all of
its heat addition at the same temperature, which is the highest
temperature in the cycle. Similarly, it rejects all of its heat at the same
low temperature. The T-S diagram below details the working of a
carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits as in
rankine cycle. Most cycle dont have all of their heat addition or
rejection at one temperature.


REGENERATION RANKINE CYCLE



HOW REGENERATION WORKS???
The idea behind regeneration is that we split the turbine in to
high pressure and low pressure stages and do the same for the pump.
Then, we can divert some of the heat in the fluid as it leaves the high
pressure turbine and add it to the cool fluid leaving the low pressure
pump, thereby sending fluid with a higher temperature to the heater.
Well look as this in more detail in a minute, but now we know enough
to construct the rankine cycle with regeneration.
T-S diagram of rankine cycle with regeneration:



BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COAL
BASED POWER PLANT:
A coal based power plant is that in which the coal is supplied
from the coal storage to the boiler through the coal handling plant.
The atmosphere air is feed to the boiler through an air preheater
where air is heated by the flue gases coming out as a waste heat. The
heated air enters the boiler and thus increases the efficiency. As a result
of combustion of water supplied in the boiler at desired pressure gets
converted into steam and ash and flue gases are formed. The ash is
removed by ash handling and disposal system whereas the flue gases
passes through the preheater, dust collector and finally chimney to the
atmosphere.
The steam so generated passes through the super heater
tubes and gets converted in to superheated steam. This superheated
steam enters to the turbine through the steam stop valve (SSV) and
governer valve (GV). The stop valve is used for starting and stopping
the turbine whereas the governer valves maintain the speed of the
turbine sensibly constant irrespective of the load. Alternator converts
the mechanical energy produced by the turbine in to electrical energy
produced by the turbine in to electrical energy which is fed to the
transformer, circuit breaker and finally to bus bar.
The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the
condenser. Due to the exchange of heat With cooling water condenser
is equipped with a vaccum pump to extract any air which may be
present due to leakage through joints and gases released upon
condensation. The condensate is extracted by a condensate extraction
pump and lead to L.P. feed heater where feed water is heated with
steam bled in the turbine. The heated feed water is pumped back to
the boiler through H.P. feed heater.
The cooling water is supplied to the condenser by a
circulating water pump through a closed circuit. The heated water is
cooled in a cooling tower. Some quantity of cooling water in the form
of water vapour carried away by the air hence makeup cooling water
to the condenser supplied from the river to a filter. If the source of
cooling water is an ocean, then there is a need of desalination plant. If
the source of cooling water is river then the cooling tower can be
dispensed with and the hot water is led to the river as the case may be
like an open system.
Due to leakage of the steam from the turbine some
quantity of steam gets lost. Hence makeup water well treated through
a water treatment plant is generally added up in the well of
condenser.
The major systems of power plant are:
COAL HANDLING SYSTEM
STEAM GENERATION SYSTEM
POST COMBUSTION CLEANUP SYSTEM
POWER CONVERSION SYSTEM
CIRCULATING COOLING WATER SYSTEM
The subsystems of thermal power plant are:
STEAM CIRCUIT (CLOSED)
COOLING WATER CIRCUIT (CLOSED OR OPEN)
COOLING AIR CIRCUIT (OPEN)
COMBUSTION GAS CIRCUIT (OPEN)


FUNDAMENTALS PARTS
OF
A STEAM POWER PLANT

There is only four fundamental parts of steam power plant but
operating and to get the more efficiency by the power plant we add
some components.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTS:
BOILER
STEAM TURBINE
CONDENSER
FEED PUMP

There are many other elements such as coal handling unit, cooling
tower, feed water heaters, ash handling system etc.






BOILER
Steam generator or a boiler is a closed pressure vessel used for
generation of steam under pressure. A boiler is usually made of steel in
which the chemical energy of fuel is converted by combustion in to
heat and this heat energy of products of combustion is transferred to
water so as to produce steam.
When steam is used in power generation, it is generated at
high pressure and in large quantities due to high efficiency
requirements. The design of such boiler is quite intricate and it depends
upon the type of fuel used and its capacity. In a boiler, the working
fluid i.e. water receives heat due to combustion of fuel and is
converted into steam at constant pressure. Its efficiency is around 90%.


A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two
principal parts: the furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning a
fuel, and the boiler proper , a device in which the heat changes water
into steam. The steam or hot fluid is then recirculated out of the boiler
for use in various processes in heating.

WATER TUBE BOILER
Here in rajghat power house water tube boiler is used for
generating the steam. In these boilers water is inside the tubes and hot
gases are outside the tubes. They consist of drums and tubes. The boiler
receives the feed water, which consists of varying proportion of
recovered condensed water (return water) and fresh water, which has
been purified in varying degrees (make up water). The make-up
water is usually natural water either in its raw state, or treated by
some process before use. Feed-water composition therefore depends
on the quality of the make-up water and the amount of condensate
returned to the boiler. The steam, which escapes from the boiler,
frequently contains liquid droplets and gases. The water remaining in
liquid form at the bottom of the boiler picks up all the foreign matter
from the water that was converted to steam. The impurities must be
blown down by the discharge of some of the water from the boiler to
the drains. The permissible percentage of blown down at a plant is
strictly limited by running costs and initial outlay. The tendency is to
reduce this percentage to a very small figure.
BOILER OPERATION:
The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 ft on a side and 130 ft tall.
Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel pressure tubes about
2.3 inches in diameter.
Pulverized coal is air blown into the furnace from fuel nozzle at
the four corners and it rapidly burns, forming a large fire ball at the
centre. The thermal radiation of the fire ball heats the water that
circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The
water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the
throughput and is typically driven by pumps. As the water in the boiler
circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam at 700F (370C)
and 3200 psi (22.1 Mpa). It is separated from the water inside a drum at
the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into
superheat pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the
combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is
superheated to 1000F (540C) to prepare it for the turbine.
Proper treatment of boiler feed water is an important part
of operating and maintaining a boiler system. As steam is produced,
dissolved solids become concentrated and form deposits inside the
boiler. This leads to poor heat transfer and reduces the efficiency of the
boiler.
STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal
energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its
modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. It
has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine
(invented by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James
Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher
power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion,
it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator
about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much
of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of
multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer
approach to the ideal reversible process.

History of steam turbine
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam
turbine was little more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the
1st century by Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt. More than a
thousand years later, the first impact steam turbine with practical
applications was invented in 1551 by Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt,
who described it as a prime mover for rotating a spit. Similar smoke
jacks were later described by John Wilkins in 1648 and Samuel Pepys in
1660. Another steam turbine device was created by Italian Giovanni
Branca in 1629.The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the
Englishman Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a
dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of electricity.
Types of steam turbine
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp
(0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps,
compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp
(1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several
classifications for modern steam turbines like impulse or reaction type
turbine.
Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow
into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which
the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation as the
steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the
stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the
stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from
steam chest pressure to condenser pressure (or atmosphere pressure).
Due to this relatively higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle
the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam
leaving the moving blades is a large portion of the maximum velocity
of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this
higher exit velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or
"leaving loss".
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to
form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction
force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed
by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the
stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both
the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator
and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam
velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and
temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions

These types include condensing, noncondensing, reheat,
extraction and induction. Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are
most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure
is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process
steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district
heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where
large amounts of low pressure process steam are available. Condensing
turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a
quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a
condenser. Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical
power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high
pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where
additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an
intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its
expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an
extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the
turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler
feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows
may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled. Induction turbines
introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce
additional power.
Casing or Shaft Arrangements
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound
and cross compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic
style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator.
Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly
coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound
turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line driving
two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross
compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.

Principle of Operation and Design
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process,
or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering
the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine.
No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical isentropic
efficiencies ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the
turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or
buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of
stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating
blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain
minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to
efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
Turbine Efficiency
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded,
generating work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized
by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as impulse
or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a combination of
the reaction and impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are
impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
Operation and Maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam
stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated
steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in
the system along with the steam turbine. Also a turning gear is
engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the
turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After
first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the
rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is
disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern
blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15
RPM to slowly warm the turbine.
Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance
requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead
to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and
punching straight through the casing. It is, however, essential that the
turbine be turned with dry steam. If water gets into the steam and is
blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover) rapid impingement and
erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and
catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will likely result in
the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent
this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality
steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to
the turbine.
Speed regulation
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as
turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage while some type
applications (such as the generation of alternating current electricity)
require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine
rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves
that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then
the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often
spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision
manufacture and special quality materials.
Direct drive
Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving
electric generators to produce most (about 80%) of the world's
electricity. Most of these centralised stations are of two types: fossil fuel
power plants and nuclear power plants. The turbines used for electric
power generation are most often directly coupled to their generators.
As the generators must rotate at constant synchronous speeds
according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most
common speeds are 3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and 3600 r/min for
60 Hz systems. In installations with high steam output, as may be
found in nuclear power stations, the generator sets may be arranged
to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators.
CONDENSER
A condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance
from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing,
the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which
have various designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather
small (hand-held) to very large industrial-scale units used in plant
processes. For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of
heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air.
Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes
such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange
systems.


The function of the condenser is to condense exhaust steam from
the steam turbine by rejecting the heat of vaporisation to the cooling
water passing through the condenser. The temperature of the
condensate determines the pressure in the steam/condensate side of
the condenser. This pressure is called the turbine backpressure and is
usually a vacuum. Decreasing the condensate temperature will result
in a lowering of the turbine backpressure. Note: Within limits,
decreasing the turbine backpressure will increase the thermal efficiency
of the turbine.
Condenser and cooling system
The condensers and cooling systems involved in condensing the
exhaust steam from a steam turbine and transferring the waste heat
away from the power station.





Types of Cooling Systems
The type of cooling system used is therefore heavily influenced by the
location of the plant and on the availability of water suitable for
cooling purposes. The selection process is also influenced by the cooling
system's environmental impacts.
Open Cycle Cooling Systems
Open cycle cooling systems may be used for plants sited beside
large water bodies such as the sea, lakes or large rivers that have the
ability to dissipate the waste heat from the steam cycle. In the open
system, water pumped from intakes on one side of the power plant
passes through the condensers and is discharged at a point remote
from the intake (to prevent recycling of the warm water discharge).

Open systems typically have high flow rates and relatively low
temperature rises to limit the rise in temperature in the receiving
waters. A typical 350 MW unit would have a flow of some 15000 to
20000 L/s.


Open Cycle with Helper Cooling Tower

In this system, cooling towers are installed on the discharge from
open systems in order to remove part of the waste heat, so that the
load on the receiving waters is contained within pre set limits. Systems
with helper cooling towers are common in Germany and France
where cooling supplies are drawn from the large rivers. The helper
towers are used in the warmer summer periods to limit the
temperature of the discharged cooling water, usually to less than
30C.

Closed Cycle Wet Cooling Systems
In closed cycle wet cooling systems, the waste energy that is
rejected by the turbine is transferred to the cooling water system via
the condenser. The waste heat in the cooling water is then discharged
to the atmosphere by the cooling tower.
In the cooling tower, heat is removed from the falling water and
transferred to the rising air by the evaporative cooling process. The
falling water is broken up into droplets or films by the extended
surfaces of the tower 'fill'. This 'fill' in the later Queensland towers is
manufactured from plastic. Some of the warm water, typically 1 to
1.5% of the cooling water flow, is transferred to the rising air, and this
is visible in the plume of water vapour above towers in times of high
humidity. The evaporation rates of the Queensland 350 MW cooling
systems are typically 1.8 liters of water per kWh of power generated.


Closed Cycle Dry Cooling Systems

Dry cooling systems are used where there is insufficient water,
or where the water is too expensive to be used in an evaporative
system. Dry cooling systems are the least used systems as they have a
much higher capital cost, higher operating temperatures, and lower
efficiency than wet cooling systems. In the dry cooling system, heat
transfer is by air to finned tubes. The minimum temperature that can
be theoretically provided is that of the dry air, which can be regularly
over 30 C and up to 40 C on typical summer afternoons in
Queensland. Compare this to wet cooling towers, which cool towards
the wet bulb temperature, which is typically 20 C on summer
afternoons. The steam condensing pressures and temperatures of a
dry cooled unit are significantly higher than a wet cooled unit, due to
the low transfer rates of dry cooling and operation at the dry bulb
temperature.
There are two basic types of dry cooling systems:
The direct dry cooling system.
The indirect dry cooling system.

Environmental Effects of Cooling Systems:

All the heat transferred from the exhaust steam to the cooling system
eventually finds its way into the earth's atmosphere.
In the once-through cooling water system, heat is removed from the
steam turbine and transferred to the source body of water. The heat is
then gradually transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation,
convection and radiation. However, this waste heat transfer process
may negatively affect the body of water buy increasing the
temperature of the water. In a re-circulating cooling system, the
cooling water carries waste heat removed from the steam turbine
exhaust to the cooling tower, which rejects the heat directly to the
atmosphere. Because of this direct path to the atmosphere,
surrounding water bodies typically do not suffer adverse thermal
effects. Some water is discharged from the cooling water system to
maintain the concentration of chemicals in the cooling water below
licensed limits. This water is often discharged to surrounding
watercourses.

%10&'05'42'4(14/#0%'/10+614+0)

FEED WATER PUMP

The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into the
hydraulic energy are called as PUMP. The hydraulic energy is in the
form of pressure energy. The pumps are classified in two parts:
1. RECIPROCATING PUMPS
2. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The feed water is also of centrifugal type pumps. The main functions of
these type pumps are to feed the water coming out from the
condenser to the boiler at the desired pressure. It is either motor or
turbine driven. It consumes about 2-2.5% of the power output.





FEED WATER HEATERS
A feed water heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat
water delivered to a steam generating boiler. Preheating the feed
water reduces the irreversibility involved in steam generation and
therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system.[4] This
reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to
the boiler metal when the feed water is introduced back into the
steam cycle.

In a steam power plant (usually modeled as a modified
Rankine cycle), feed water heaters allow the feedwater to be brought
up to the saturation temperature very gradually. This minimizes the
inevitable irreversibilities associated with heat transfer to the working
fluid (water).

Cycle discussion and explanation
It should be noted that the energy used to heat the feed water
is usually derived from steam extracted between the stages of the
steam turbine. Therefore, the steam that would be used to perform
expansion work in the turbine (and therefore generate power) is not
utilized for that purpose. The percentage of the total cycle steam mass
flow used for the feed water heater is termed the extraction fraction
and must be carefully optimized for maximum power plant thermal
efficiency since increasing this fraction causes a decrease in turbine
power output.
Feed water heaters can also be open and closed heat
exchangers. An open feed water heater is merely a direct-contact heat
exchanger in which extracted steam is allowed to mix with the feed
water. This kind of heater will normally require a feed pump at both
the feed inlet and outlet since the pressure in the heater is between the
boiler pressure and the condenser pressure. A deaerator is a special
case of the open feed water heater which is specifically designed to
remove non-condensable gases from the feed water.
Closed feed water heaters are typically shell and tube heat
exchangers where the feed water passes throughout the tubes and is
heated by turbine extraction steam. These do not require separate
pumps before and after the heater to boost the feed water to the
pressure of the extracted steam as with an open heater. However, the
extracted steam (which is most likely almost fully condensed after
heating the feed water) must then be throttled to the condenser
pressure, an isenthalpic process that results in some entropy gain with a
slight penalty on overall cycle efficiency.
Many power plants incorporate a number of feed water
heaters and may use both open and closed components.
Feed water heaters are used in both fossil- and nuclear-fueled
power plants. Smaller versions have also been installed on steam
locomotives, portable engines and stationary engines. An economiser
serves a similar purpose to a feed water heater, but is technically
different. Instead of using actual cycle steam for heating, it uses the
lowest-temperature flue gas from the furnace (and therefore does not
apply to nuclear plants) to heat the water before it enters the boiler
proper. This allows for the heat transfer between the furnace and the
feed water to occur across a smaller average temperature gradient
(for the steam generator as a whole). System efficiency is therefore
further increased when viewed with respect to actual energy content
of the fuel.












COAL HANDLING
PLANT
Coal handing plant is the one most important part of the boiler plant.
The handling problem of coal in the boiler plant is major problem
because for the generation of boiler there are only two raw materials
required. One is water and the second is coal. To handle the large
amount of handle in a very small and continuing time, we required a
plant which is suit according to our need.
In the coal handling plant coal from the coal wagons is
unloaded in coal handling plant and this coal is send to the raw coal
bunkers with the help of belt conveyers.



COAL MILL
The coal is conveying by the help of coal conveyers. The large
amount or large sized storage container situated at the top of the
main plant building. The main part of the coal mill is pulverization.
COAL PUVERIZING AND FIRING SYSTEM
Raw coal is fed through a central coal inlet at the top of the
pulverizer and falls by gravity to the rotating grinding table, mixing
with classifier rejects returned for re-grinding. Centrifugal action forces
the coal outward to the grinding ring where it is pulverized between
the ring and three grinding rollers. Grinding load, transmitted from the
tension rods through the loading frame to the roller assemblies, holds
the rollers in contact with the grinding ring. The rollers adjust vertically
as the depth of the coal load increases or decreases. A nozzle ring on
the outside perimeter of the grinding ring feeds primary air to the
pulverizer. Pyrites and tramp metal fall through the nozzle ring
openings to be scraped into a rejects hopper.
A stream of low-velocity air carries the particles of pulverized
coal upward where they enter the classifier inlet vanes. Fine particles
travel to the burners in the primary air stream, but the larger, heavier
particles are returned to the grinding zone for further pulverization.
Most efficient way to utilizing coal for steam generation is to
burn it in the pulverized form. Pulverized coal fire is a method where
the crushed coal generally reduced to a fineness such that 70 80%
passes through a 200 mesh sieve is carried forward by air through
pipes directly to burners or storage bus from where it is passed to
burners and discharge into combustion chamber. The mixture of coal
and air ignites and burns in suspension condition for pulverizing the
coal equipments and system would be required with highly
availability.



The major equipments in a pulverizing plant are:
- PULVERIZER
- FEEDER
PULVERIZER


LOW SPEED MEDIUM SPEED HIGH SPEED
MILLS 10-20rpm MILLS 30-120rpm MILLS >700rpm



PULVERIZER COAL FIRING SYSTEM
There are basically two system of pulverized coal firing in use:
1. In direct firing system
2. Direct firing system
RAW COAL FEEDER
Feeders can be divided in two types:
1. Volumetric feeder
2. Gravimetric feeder
BOWL MILL
Bowl mill is provide to crush the coal from sized clinkers to
powdered from for better ignition of the coal inside the furnace. Coal is
transported to the bowl mills by coal feeder. The coal is pulverized in
the bowl mill where it is ground to a powder form of the order of 200
meshes. The mill consists of a round metallic table on which coal
particles fall. This table is rotated with the help of a motor. These are
three large rollers, which are spaced 120 apart.
When there is no coal, these rollers do not rotate but when coal is
fed to the table it packs up between roller and the table and this force
the roller to rotate. Coal is crushed by the crushing action between
rollers and the rotating table.




ASH HANDLING PLANT
Ash handling system is always designed to handle bottom
ash from steam generating units and fly ash from ESP, economizer, air
peheater and stack hopper for disposal to ash disposal area and
storing to fly ash storage silo. A steam generating unit [for Rajghat
power house] of 67.5 MW set would require about 60.2 tonnes of coal
per hour at MCR with worst coal and the ash handling system is
designed for the same.
Ash collected in bottom ash hopper in a shift of 8 hours will
be emptied through clinker grinder and jet pump.
The fly ash collected at various fly ash hoppers will be
extracted sequentially by creating vaccum in fly ash lines. Alternatively
provision has been made to collect 100% dry fly ash of both the units in
storage silos for commercial use.
BOTTOM ASH REMOVAL SYSTEM
The bottom ash removal system of each unit consists of a water
impounded single V type ash hopper with the following major
accessories.
1. Seal trough to allow the boiler expands downward while
maintaining a gas seal.
2. Poke hole
3. Sluice hole
4. Sluice gate
5. Sluice gate enclosure fitted with access door
6. Normal water level overflow weir.
FLY ASH REMOVAL SYSTEM
Two types of fly ash removal system has been envisaged out of which
one type will be working for wet disposal system and alternatively
other type will be working for dry disposal system.
A. fly ash disposal system

B. fly ash dry disposal system

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
The principal components of an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
are two sets of electrodes insulated from each other. The first set is
composed of rows of electrically grounded vertical parallel plates
called the collection electrodes, between which the dust-laden gas
flows. The second set of electrodes consists of wires called discharge or
emitting electrodes that are centrally located between each pair of
parallel plates. The wires carry a unidirectional negatively charged
high-voltage (between 20-100KV) current from an external DC source.
The applied high voltage generates a unidirectional, non uniform
electrical field whose magnitude is greatest near the discharge
electrodes. When that voltage is high enough, a blue luminous glow
called a corona, is produced around them. Electrical forces in the
corona accelerate the free electrons present in the gas so that they
ionize the gas molecules, thus forming more electrons and positive gas
ions. The new electrons create again more free electrons and ions
which results in a chain reaction.

The positive ions travel to the negatively charged wire
electrodes. The electrons follow the electrical field towards the
grounded electrodes. But their velocity decreases as they move away
from the corona region around the wire electrodes towards the
grounded plates. Gas molecules capture the low velocity electrons and
become negative ions. As these ions move to the collecting electrodes,
they collide with fly ash particles in the gas stream and give them
negative charge and the strength of the electric field.
When the particles collect on the grounded plates, they lose their
charge on the ground. The electrical resistivity of the particles however,
causes only partial discharging and the retained charge tends to hold
the particles to the plates. High resistivity causes retention of most of
the charge, which increases the forces holding the particles to the plate
and makes removal more difficult. This can be rectified either by
operating at high gas temperature or by super imposing during
operation under high-resistivity conditions.

Collected particulates matter must be removed from the
collecting plates on a regular schedule to ensure efficient collector
operation. Removal is usually accomplished by a mechanical hammer
scarping system. The vibration knocks the particulate matter off the
collect in plates and into a hopper at the bottom of the precipitator.


BOILER DRAUGHT
Draught means the force needed to draw. With regard to the
boilers the requirements is to provide an adequate supply of air to the
furnace grate to maintain the proper combustion of fuel, to the
resulting gases from the system and to discharge these flue gases from
the chimney to the surroundings.
It is of two types:
1. NATURAL OR CHIMNEY DRAUGHT
2. ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draught equipment
rather than natural draught. This is because natural draught is
subjected to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases
leaving the furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors
make proper draught hard to attain and therefore make mechanical
draught much more economical.
There are three types of mechanical draught:
I. INDUCED DRAUGHT
II. FORCED DRAUGHT
III. BALANCED DRAUGHT









ECONOMIZER
An economizer is a heat transfer device used for heating the feed
water with the help of hot flue gases before leaving the chimney. It
helps in improving the efficiency of the power plants.
Economizer is consisting of large number of vertical tubes, made of cast
iron, joined with horizontal pipes. The cold feed water is pumped into
horizontal pipe through a stop valve.
The hot flue gases from boiler pass over the vertical tubes and
these gases transfer the heat to cold water rising in these tubes. Finally
the hot feed water is supplied to the boiler from stop valve. At the
other end of pipe, a safety valve is mounted to guard by the system
against the increased pressure.
A blow-off-cock is mounted at the end of horizontal pipe to
remove any mud or sediments of feed water.
Any soot formation on the tubes will effect greatly the coefficient
of thermal conductivity, consequently the rate of heat transfer is
reduced. This reduced the efficiency of the economizer. In to remove
the deposits of the soot from vertical pipes each pipe is provide with a
scrapper.
In boiler, economizer are heat exchange devices that heat fluids,
usually water up to bur=t not normally beyond the boiling point of
that fluid. Economizers are so named because they can make use of
the enthalpy in fluid stream that are hot but not hot enough to b used
in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy ang=d improving
the boilers efficiency.
They are a device fitted to the boiler which saves energy by using
the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used the
fill the feed water.


AIR PREHEATER
An air preheater or air heater is a general term to describe any
device designed to heat air before another process with the primary
objective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may
be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a
steam coil.The combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in
thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels,
biomasses or waste.
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the
boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by
reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue
gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas
stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the
stack types.
There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam
generators in thermal power stations: One is a tubular type built into
the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other is a regenerative air
preheater. These may be arranged so the gas flows horizontally or
vertically across the axis of rotation
TABULAR TYPE
Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through
the outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the
ducting. Inside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the
preheater tubes, transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the air
inside the preheater. Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at
one end of the preheater tubes and at other end the heated air from
inside of the tubes emerges into another set of ducting, which carries it
to the boiler furnace for combustion.

REGENERATIVE AIR PREHEATER TYPE
There are two types of regenerative air preheaters: the
rotating-plate regenerative air preheaters (RAPH) and the stationary-
plate regenerative air preheaters (Rothemuhle).
Rotating-plate regenerative air preheater
Typical Rotating-plate Regenerative Air Preheater (Bi-sector
type)
The rotating-plate design (RAPH) consists of a central rotating-
plate element installed within a casing that is divided into two (bi-
sector type), three (tri-sector type) or four (quad-sector type) sectors
containing seals around the element. The seals allow the element to
rotate through all the sectors, but keep gas leakage between sectors to
a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas paths
through each sector.


SUPER HEATERS
The function of super heater is to increase the temperature of
steam above its saturation temperature. Basically, a super heater is a
heat transfer device using a set of tubes in which the wet steam flows
and takes up the heat from the hot flow flue gases passing over the
steam pipe and during the process the wet steam is converted in to
super heated steam.
The super heated tubes are made of steel tubes in the U shape
which are connected to two main headers. The action of super heater
is as follows:
The one stop valve is closed and the other two stop valves are in
open position. The wet steam from boiler flows in to right and header
via a stop valve. After super heating of steam in the tubes it flows into
the left hand header, from where it is withdrawn through the stop
valve.
If super heated steam is not needed, the stop valves are closed
and the wet steam is directly taken out by the other valve.
The superheating of steam can be controlled by controlling the
quantity of flow of flue gases by operating the dampers manually.
As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the
drum, It is piped from on the upper drum area in to an elaborate set
up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The areas are known a
super heater and reheater. The steam vapour picks up energy and its
temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature.
The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to
the valves of the high pressure turbine.



DEAERATOR
The presence of dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in
water makes the water corrosive, as they react with the metal to from
iron oxide. The solubility of these gases in water decreases with increase
in temperature and becomes zero at the boiling or saturation
temperature. These gases are removed in the deaerator where feed
water is heated to saturation temperature by the steam extracted
from the turbine. Feed water, after passing through a heat exchanger
called vent condenser, is sprayed from top so as to expose large surface
area, and the bled steam from the turbine is fed from bottom. By
contact the steam condenses and the feed water is heated to the
saturation temperature. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide gases
get released from water and leave along with some vapour, which is
condensed back in the vent condense r and the gases are vented out.

FIG: DEAERATOR

To neutralize the effect of residual dissolved carbon dioxide and
oxygen gases in water, hydrazine [N2H4] is injected in suitable
calculated does into the feed water at the suction of the boiler feed
pump.
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and
other dissolved gases from the feed water to steam generating boilers.
In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious
corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal
piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). It also
combines with any dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid that
causes further corrosion. Most deaerators are designed to remove
oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight (0.0005 cm/L) or less.

There are two basic types of deaerators, the tray-type and the spray-
type:
The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed
deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel
which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.
The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical
vessel which serves as both the deaeration section and the boiler feed
water storage tank.

Mode of operation of steam turbine:
Since it is a steam jet and no more a water jet who meets the
turbine now, the laws of thermodynamics are to be observed now. The
modern steam turbine is an action turbine (no reaction turbine), i.e.
the steam jet meets from a being certain nozzle the freely turning
impeller. There's a high pressure in front of the turbine, while behind it
a low pressure is maintained, so there's a pressure gradient: Steam
shoots through the turbine to the rear end. It delivers kinetic energy to
the impeller and cools down thereby: The pressure sinks. "Steam"
Steam turbines are operated today of course no longer with
normal water vapour only, but depending on the field of application
also with other materials, e.g. with freons). Steam is produced in a
steam boiler, which is heated in power stations by the burn of coal or
gas or by atomic energy. Steam doesn't escape then, but after the
passage through the turbine it is condensed in a condensor and then
pushed back into the steam boiler again by a pump. This has the
advantage that for example in nuclear power stations work- and
cooling water is clearly separated.
Multi-Level steam turbines:
In modern steam turbines not only one impeller is propelled, but
several being in a series. Between them idlers are situated, which don't
turn. The gas changes its direction passing an idler, in order to perform
optimally work again in the next impeller. Turbines with several
impellers are called multi-level. The principle was developed 1883 by
Parsons. As you know, with the cooling gas expands. Therefore it is to
be paid attention when building steam turbines to a further problem:
With the number of passed impellers also the volume increases, which
leads to a larger diameter of the impellers. Because of that, multi-level
turbines are always conical.
Coupling of several turbines:
In power stations today, different types of turbines are used in a
series, e.g. one high pressure -, two medium- and four low pressure
turbines. This coupling leads to an excellent efficiency (over 40%),
which is even better than the efficiency of large diesel engines. This
characteristic and the relatively favorable production make the steam
turbine competitionless in power stations. Coupled with a generator
and fired by an atomic reactor, they produce enormously much
electric current. The strongest steam turbines achieve today
performances of more than 1000 megawatts.




TURBINE PROTECTIVE DEVICES:
These devices are those which protect the turbine from getting
damage during an abnormal working condition or malfunctioning.
POSSIBLE HAZARDS:
During the operation of the steam turbine, many damage are
likely to be encountered are as follows:
l OVERSPEEDING
2 OILFAILURE
1 THRUST BEARING FAILURE
4 VACCUM FAILURE
BOILER PRIMING
o EXCESSIVE VIBRATION
7 EXCESSIVE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIALS
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
It is the one of the most important system of steam turbine. It is
the life line of the bearing. Two purposes are saved by the lubricating
oil. These are as follows:
KEEP MOVING PARTS APART
REDUCE FRICTION
TRANSFER HEAT
CARRY AWAY CONTAMINANTS & DEBRIS
TRANSMIT POWER
PROTECT AGAINST WEAR
PREVENT CORROSION
STOP THE RISK OF SMOKE AND FIRE OF OBJECTS
The main elements of lubrication system are:
i. OIL PUMPS
ii. OIL RELIEF VALVE
iii. OIL COOLERS
iv. OIL TANKS, STAINERS AND FILTER
v. OIL
TURBO GENERATOR
The turbine generator consists of a series of steam turbines
interconnected to each other and a generator on a common shaft.
There is a high pressure turbine at one end, followed by an
intermediate pressure turbine, two low pressure turbines and the
generator. As the steam moves through the system and loses
pressure and temperature energy it expands in volume, requiring
increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to
extract the remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over
200 tons and 100 ft (30 m) long. It is so heavy that it must be kept
turning slowly even when shutdown (at 3 rpm) so that the shaft will
not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This is so important
that it is one of four functions of blackout emergency power
batteries on site. There are emergency lighting, communication,
station alarms and turbo generator lube oil.
Super heated steam from the boiler is delivered through 14-
16 inch (350-400 mm) diameter piping to the high pressure turbine
where it falls in pressure to 600 psi (4 MPa) and to 600F (315C)
through the stage. It exits via 24-26 inch (600-650 mm) diameter
cold reheat lines and passes back into the boiler where the steam is
reheated in special reheat pendant tubes back to 1000F (540C).
The hot reheat steam is conducted to the intermediate pressure
turbine where it falls in both temperature and pressure and exits
directly to the long bladed low pressure turbine and finally exits to
the condenser.
The generator 30 ft (9 m) long and 12 ft (3.7 m) diameter,
contains a stationary stator and a spinning rotor, each containing
miles of heavy copper conductor- no permanent magnets here. In
operation it generates up to 21000 amps at 24000 volts AC (504
MW) as it spins at either 3000 or 3600 rpm, synchronized to the
power grid. The rotor spins in a sealed chamber cooled with
hydrogen gas, selected because it has the highest known heat
transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces
wind age losses. This system requires special handling during startup,
with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before
filling with hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air.


TURBO GENERATOR

The power grid frequency is 60 Hz across north America and
50 Hz in Europe, Oceania, Asia and some parts of Africa.
The electricity flows to a distribution yard where transformer
step the voltage up to 115,230,500 or 765 KV AC as needed for
transmission to its destination.
The turbine shaft usually rotates at 3000rpm. This speed is
determined by the frequency of the electrical system used in this
country and is the speed at which a 2 pole generator must be
driven to generate alternating current at a frequency of 50
cycles/sec. when as much as energy as possible have been extracted
from the steam it is exhausted directly to the condenser. This runs
the length of the low pressure part of the turbine and may be
beneath on either side of it. The condenser consist of a large vessel
containing 20000 tubes each about 25 mm in diameter cold water
from the river, estuary, sea or cooling tower is circulated through
these tubes and as the steam from the turbine passes round them it
is rapidly condensed in to water condensate. Because water has a
much smaller comparative volume than steam, a vaccum is created
in the condenser. This allows the steam to reduce down to pressure
below that of the normal atmosphere and more energy can be
utilized.
















WATER TREATMENT PLANT
INTRODUCTION
In the power plant, the objective of water treatment plant is to
produce boiler feed water so that there shall be
a. No scale formation causing resistance to passage of heat and
burning of tube,
b. No corrosion and
c. No priming or foaming problems.
This will ensure that the steam generated shall be clean and
the boiler plant will provide trouble free uninterrupted service. This
chapter details the system for production of such water in a power
plant.
As the types of boiler are not alike their working pressure and
operating conditions vary and so do the types and methods of
water treatment. Water treatment plants used in thermal power
plants are designed to process the raw water to water with vary low
in dissolved solids known as demineralized water. No doubt, this
plant has to be engineered very carefully keeping in view the type
of raw water to the thermal plant, its treatment costs and overall
economics.
Actually, the type of demineralization process chosen for a
power station depends on three main factors:
1. The quality of the raw water
2. The degree of deionization i.e. treated water quality
3. Selectivity of resins.


The fig. shows a schematic diagram of water treatment process which
is generally made up of two sections:
Pretreatment section
Demineralization section

PRETREATMENT PLANT:
Pretreatment plant removes the suspended solids such as clay,
slit, organic, and inorganic matter, plants and other microscopic
organism. The turbidity may be taken as of two types of suspended
solids in water. Firstly, the separable solids and secondly, the non-
separable solids (colloids). The coarse components such as sand, silt etc.
can be removed from water by the simple sedimentation. Finer
particles however, will not settle in any reasonable time and must be
flocculated to produce the large particles which are settling able. Long
term ability to remain suspended in water basically a function of both
size and specific gravity. The settling rate of the colloidal and finely
divided suspended matter is so slow that removing them from water
by plain sedimentation is tanks having ordinary dimensions are
impossible. Settling velocity of finely divided and colloidal particles
under gravity also is so small that ordinary sedimentation is not
possible. It is necessary, therefore, to use procedure which agglomerates
the small particles in to larger aggregates, which have practical settling
velocities.
The term coagulation and flocculation have been used
indiscriminately to describe process of turbidity removal. Coagulation
means to bring together the suspended particles. The process describes
the effect produced by the addition of a chemical ALg (
SP^)g to a colloidal dispersion resulting in particle destabilization by a
reduction of force tending to keep particles apart. Rapid mixing is
important at this stage to obtain uniform dispersion of the chemical
and to increase opportunity for particles to particle contact. This
operation is done by flash mixer in the clariflocculator. Second stage of
formation of settle able particles from destabilized colloidal sized
particles is termed a flocculation. Here coagulated particles grow in
size by attaching to each other. In contrast to coagulation where thr
primary force is electrostatic or inter-ionic. Flocculation occurs by
chemical bridging. Flocculation is obtained by gentle and prolonged
mixing which converts the submicroscopic coagulated particle in to
discete, visible and suspended particles. At this stage particles are large
enough to settle rapidly under the influence of gravity and may be
removed. If pretreatment of the water is not done efficiently then
consequences are as follows:
SiOg may escape with water which will increase the anion
loading.
Organic matter may escape which may cause organic fouling in
the anion exchanger beds. In the pre-treatment plant chlorine
addition provision is normally made to combat organic
contamination.
Cation loading may unnecessary increase due to addition of
Ca(OH)g in excess of calculated amount for raising the pH of
water for maximum floe formation and also AKOrDg may
precipitate out. If less than calculated amount of Ca(OH), is
added ,proper pH flocculation will not be obtained and silica
escape to demineralization section will occur, thereby increasing
load on anion bed.

DEMINERALISATION:
This filter water is now used for demineralising purpose and is fed to
cation exchanger bed, but enroute being first dechlorinated, which is
either done by passing through activated carbon filter or injecting
along the flow of water, an equivalent amount of sodium sulphite
through some stroke pumps. The residual chlorine which is maintained
in clarification plant to remove organic matter from raw water is now
detrimental to cation resin and must be eliminated before its entry to
this bed.
Normally, the typical scheme of demineralization upto the mark
against average surface water is three bed systems with a provision of
removing gaseous carbon dioxide from water before feeding to anion
exchanger. Now, let us see, what happens actually in each bed when
water is passed from one to another.
Resins, which are built on synthetic matrix of a styrene divinely
benzene copolymer, are manufactured in such a way that these have
the ability to exchange one ion for another, hold it temporarily in
chemical combination and give it to a strong electrolytic solution.
Suitable treatment is given to them in such a way that a particular
resin absorbs only a particular group of ions. Resins when absorbing
and releasing cationic portion of dissolved salts, is called cation
exchanger resin and when removing anionic portion is called anion
exchanger resin.
The present trend is of employing strongly acidic exchanger resin and
strongly basic anion exchanger resin in a DM plant of modern thermal
power plant. We may see that the chemically active group in a
cationic resin Sox-H (normally represented by RH) and in an anionic
resin the active group is either tertiary amine or quaternary
ammonium group (normally the resin is represented by ROH). The
reaction of exchange may be further represented as below:
CATION RESIN:
RH + Na R Na + H2SO4
K K HCl
Ca Ca HNO3
Mg Mg
ANION RESIN:
ROH + H2SO4 RSO4 + H2O
HCl Cl
HNO3 NO3
Recharging the exhausted form of resins i.e. regeneration employing
5% of acid / alkali as below:

CATION RESIN:
R K + H Cl R H + NaCl
K K Cl2
Ca Ca Cl2
Mg Cl2
ANION RESIN:
R SO4 + NaOH ROH + Na2SO4
Cl NaCl
NO3 Na NO3
As seen above the water from the ex-cation contains carbonic acid
also sufficiently, which is very weak acid difficult to be removed by
strongly basic anion resin and causing hindrance to remove silicate ions
from the bed. It is therefore a usual practice to remove carbonic acid
before it is led to anion exchanger bed. The ex-cation water is trickled
in fine streams from top of a tall tower packed with ranching rings and
compressed air is passed from the bottom. Carbonic acid break into
CO^ and water mechanically (Henrys law) with the carbon dioxide
escaping in to the atmosphere. The water is accumulated in suitable
storage tank below the tower, called degassed water dump, from
where the same is led to anion exchanger bed, using acid resistant
pump.
The ex-anion water is fed to the mixed bed exchanger containing both
cationic resin and anionic resin. This bed not only takes care of sodium
slip from cation but also silica slip from anion exchanger very
effectively. The final output from the mixed bed is extra- ordinarily
pure water having less than 0.2 /mho conductivity, H 7.0 and silica
contest less than 0.02 ppm. Any deviation from the above quality
means that the resins in mixed bed are exhausted and need
regeneration, regeneration of mixed bed first calls for suitable back
washing and settling, so that the two types of resins are separated
from each other. Lighter anion resin rises to the top and the heavier
cation resin settles to the bottom. Both the resins are then regenerated
separately with alkali and acid, rinsed to the desired value and air
mixed, to mix the resin again thoroughly. It is then put to final rinsing
till the desired quality is obtained.
It may be mentioned here that there are two types of strongly basic
anion exchanger. Type ll resins are slightly less basic than Type l, but
have higher regeneration efficiency than Type l. again as Type ll resins
are unable to remove silica effectively, Type l resins also have to be
used for the purpose. As such, the general condition so far prevailing in
India is to employ Type ll resin in anion exchangers bed and Type l
resin in mixed bed. It is also a general convention to regenerate the
above two resins under through fare system i.e. the caustic soda
entering in to mixed bed for regeneration, of Type l anion resin, is
utilized to regenerate Type ll resin in cation exchanger bed. The
concept of utilizing the above resin and mode of regeneration is now a
days being switched over from the economy to a more higher cost so
as to have more stringent quqlity control of the final demineralized
water.