The Thesis Industrial Electronics Applications (Design and Simulation of Coreless Induction Furnace)

ALEXANDRIA UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS

(DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE)
A Thesis
Presented to the Graduate School of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree Of Master of Science In Electrical Engineering
By
Eng. Ahmed Mohamed El-Sharkawy
2008
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS (DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE)
Presented by
Eng. Ahmed Mohamed El-Sharkawy
For The Degree of Master of Science In Electrical Engineering
Examiners' Committee
Prof. Dr.: Mohamed Abdullah Al-Khazendar Head of Electrical Department Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University Prof. Dr.: Mohamed Magdy Ahmed Electrical Department Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University Prof. Dr.: Mohamed Yousry Gamal El-Deen Electrical Department Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University Prof. Dr.: Hossam Mohamed Fahmy Ghanem Vice dean of graduated studies and research Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
Approved
Date: 10/5/2008
Advisors' Committee
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Magdy Ahmed .
Dr. Mahmoud Ibrahim Masaoud
Acknowledgment
First of all, thanks to Allah for giving me the will, the patience and the determination that helped me to finish this thesis. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Mohamed Magdy Ahmed for his much appreciated support, valuable suggestions, constant guidance and patience. Also I would like to thank Dr. Mahmoud Msaoud for his supervision. Finally, I'm greatly indebted to my parents, my wife, and my mother in law for their continuous support and encouragement.
ABSTRACT
Induction heating is widely used in metal industry because of its good heating efficiency, high production rate, and clean working environments. The development of high-frequency power supplies provided means of using induction furnaces for melting metals in continuous casting plants. Conventional induction furnaces are usually of the coreless or channel type. This thesis deals principally with the design of coreless induction furnaces. Both mechanical and electrical requirements for induction furnace have been presented. The mechanical aspect gives consideration to the geometrical parameters while the electrical aspect deals with the furnace power requirement to make it functional. A model for an induction furnace has been introduced. Two power supply systems using series and parallel resonant inverters to feed the coreless induction furnaces have been presented. MATLAB computer programs to simulate the complete systems for both open loop and closed loop systems have been created. To verify the design and the simulation results a comparison between simulation and actual results for both types of inverters has been done. A full investigation has been presented for both types of inverters in order to compromise between them.
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Table of Content
Content
Acknowledgement Abstract Table of Content List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.1 Applications of induction heating 1.2 Induction Furnaces Historical Perspective 1.3 Types of Induction furnaces 1.4 Thesis Objective Thesis Layout 1.5 CHAPTER 2 Induction Heating 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basics of induction heating 2.3 Factors affecting induction heating a) Electromagnetic induction b) Skin effect 2.4 Coreless induction furnace 2.4.1 System components CHAPTER 3 Design of Coreless Induction Furnace 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Selection of furnace size, and power rating 3.3 Selection of induction frequency 3.3.1 Induced current depth 3.3.2 Meniscus height and metal stirring 3.4 Design analysis 3.4.1 Geometrical parameters 3.4.2 Heat energy parameters 3.4.3 Electrical parameters CHAPTER 4 Power Supplies in induction melting systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Solid state power converters 4.2.1 AC to DC rectifier 4.2.1.1 Effect of static converters on power lines
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4.2.2 DC to AC medium frequency inverter 4.2.2.1 Switching losses 4.2.2.2 Resonant pulse converters 4.3 Current fed inverter with parallel capacitor bank 4.3.1 Thyristor's turn-off time 4.4 Voltage fed inverter with series capacitor bank 4.5 DC filter circuit CHAPTER 5 Simulation and Results 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Furnace design 5.2.1 Geometrical parameters 5.2.2 Heat energy parameters 5.2.3 Electrical parameters 5.3 Simulation parameters 5.4 Parallel resonant inverter 5.4.1 Open loop system 5.4.2 Closed loop system 5.4.3 Comparison between simulation and actual results 5.5 Series resonant inverter 5.5.1 Open loop system 5.5.2 Closed loop system 5.5.3 Comparison between simulation and experimental results. Comparison between parallel and series resonant inverter 5.6 systems. CHAPTER 6 Conclusion and Future Work 6.1 Conclusion 6.2 Future Work References Arabic summary
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List of Tables
Table
Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7 Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Power factor of full wave rectifiers Thermal parameters of iron Geometrical parameters of the furnace Heat energy parameters of the furnace Electrical parameters of the furnace Results of open loop system simulation Comparison between simulated and actual parameters Comparison between simulated and actual values of furnace voltage and inverter current for different values of power Results of open loop system simulation Electrical parameter of the prototype furnace Comparison between simulated and experimental values of furnace voltage and inverter current at different frequencies Comparison between parallel and series resonant systems' consumed power, efficiency and THD Comparison between parallel and series resonant systems
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List of Figures
Figure
Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 The direction of the electromagnetic field produced around a wire carrying an alternating current Eddy current distributions in the conductive material The resulting induced circulating current a) Equivalent circuit of transformer b) Secondary short c) Induction heating basis Distribution chart of current density and skin depth Effect of frequency on the current depth. Typical solenoid induction coil used in a coreless induction furnace The electromagnetic field generated by a solenoid induction coil a) with no load in the furnace and b) with a load inside the furnace Plot of the electromagnetic field and the energy transferred to the load. An overview of the typical components of a coreless induction furnace system. Block diagram of induction furnace system. Typical Components of a coreless Induction Furnace Induced current depth do in a cylindrical load with diameter D Typical induced current depth Vs frequencies The ratio D/do Vs the efficiency Meniscus height to the diameter of melt Depth of current penetration Light and heavy stirring Relation between the induction frequency and furnace size for different melting conditions A melted cylindrical load The equivalent circuit of the furnace with load based on transformer concept Principle diagram of line frequency melting furnace Block diagram of a medium frequency melting system Uncontrolled six-pulse rectifier Uncontrolled twelve-pulse rectifier
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Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8
Fig. 2.9 Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.11 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4
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Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13 Fig. 5.14 Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16 Fig. 5.17
Amplitude Spectrum of the Twelve Pulse Rectifier Voltage notch due to phase current switchover in a) full wave rectifier and b) phase controlled bridge Single phase full-bridge inverter. Resonant Circuits a) the series resonant circuit and b) the parallel resonant circuit Frequency Curve of series resonant inverter Frequency Curve of parallel resonant inverter Medium frequency melting system utilizing current-fed converter Parallel resonant inverter with load commutation a) The phasor diagram of the parallel resonant inverter, and b) The equivalent circuit SCR's turn off time Vs the operating frequency, fo = 250 Hz Medium frequency melting system with full bridge voltage fed converter a) DC-voltage filter circuit and b) DC-current filter circuit The Geometric shape of the furnace The dimensions of conducting tube Open Loop Parallel resonant inverter system Inverter current and furnace voltage at different firing angles Inverter current and furnace voltage at =0 The DC voltage (Vdc) at =0 Inverter current, furnace voltage and Vdc at =30 Inverter current, furnace voltage and Vdc at =60 Inverter current, furnace voltage at f=254 Hz Output power at fo and at f=254 Hz Reactive power at fo and at f=254 Hz Configuration of the closed loop system The output power compared with the reference power. The inverter current response for step change in the reference power. The furnace voltage response for step change in the reference power The firing angle response for step change in the reference power The Single line diagram of ABB induction furnace
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Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19 Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Fig. 5.24 Fig. 5.25 Fig. 5.26 Fig. 5.27 Fig. 5.28 Fig. 5.29 Fig. 5.30 Fig. 5.31 Fig. 5.32 Fig. 5.33 Fig. 5.34 Fig. 5.35 Fig. 5.36 Fig. 5.37 Fig. 5.38
Furnace voltage and inverter current a) actual b) simulation Open Loop Series Resonant Inverter System The inverter current and voltage at different operating frequencies (fo =250 Hz). The output power (Po) and total impedance (Z) at different operating frequencies. The inverter current and voltage at f=fo=250 Hz. The inverter current and voltage at f=246 Hz. Output power at fo and at f=246 Hz Reactive power at fo and at f=246 Hz VDC at two different capacitor values Pout at two different capacitor values Configuration of the closed loop system The output power compared with the reference power. Phase shift change with the change in the reference power. The reactive power response to the change in the reference power. The single line diagram of the prototype furnace. Typical setup of the prototype furnace. Inverter voltage and current at resonant frequency a) experimental b) simulation Inverter voltage and current at frequency lower than fo a) experimental b) simulation Supply current and voltage of the parallel resonant system Supply current and voltage of the series resonant system Output power of a) series resonant system and b) parallel resonant system at different values of frequency
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Induction heating is a non-contact heating process which is used to bond, harden or soften metals or other conductive materials. For many modern manufacturing processes, induction heating offers an attractive combination of speed, consistency and control. Induction heating has a good heating efficiency, high production rate and clean working environments. The basic principles of induction heating have been understood and applied to manufacturing since the 1920s. During World War II, the technology developed rapidly to meet urgent wartime requirements for a fast, and reliable process to harden metal engine parts. More recently, the focus on lean manufacturing techniques and emphasis on improved quality control have led to a rediscovery of induction technology, along with the development of precisely controlled solid state induction power supplies. In the most common heating methods, a torch or open flame is directly applied to the metal part, but with induction heating, heat is actually "induced" within the part itself by circulating electrical currents. Since heat is transferred to the product via electromagnetic waves and the part never comes into direct contact with any flame, there is no product contamination and when properly set up, the process becomes very repeatable and controllable [1].
1.1 APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION HEATING

Typical applications of induction heating are melting of metals, heating of metals, brazing and welding and all sorts of surface treatments. However, by using electric conductive recipients (e.g. graphite) also other materials like glass can be heated. Brazing is an assembly technique where two pieces are joined together by means of a third material that is brought to its melting temperature. In the connection zone both pieces are heated up to a temperature higher than the melting temperature of the third material. Induction is frequently applied because of the precise localization of the heating. Moreover the heating happens very quickly which makes that the oxidation or structural or compositional changes can be controlled. Brazing under inert atmosphere is possible. Induction heating is suited for high production speeds in automated production lines.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Surface hardening techniques are suitable for steel with a carbon percentage of at least 0.3 %, where the work piece is heated up to approximately 900C and after that it is chilled. This technique is used for the hardening of gear wheels, crankshafts, valve stems, saw blades, spades, rails, and many other things. The inductive process has the advantage that the treatment can be localized very accurately. Moreover, the chemical composition of the surface layer doesnt change, which is the case for other surface hardening techniques. Because of the selective heating, less energy is required than for a complete heating of the product and distortion can be avoided. Typical values for inductive hardening are high power density (1.5 - 5 kW/cm) and short treatment time (2 seconds). Inductive hardening is especially applied in automated production processes with sufficient production volume. With induction heating, a constant and high production quality can be reached. The energy consumption and the production losses are lower than for conventional techniques. Induction furnaces are used extensively in the metal industry for melting of metals and as holding furnaces. An induction coreless furnace essentially consists of a crucible with refractory lining, that contains the material to be melted and that is surrounded by the water-cooled induction coil. There are applications at 50 Hz as well as mid-frequency applications. The power range (up to 10 MW and more) and the specific power (up to 1200 kW/ton) are extremely high, therefore, the melting can occur very quickly. Low-frequency induction crucible furnaces (50 Hz) are usually applied for big applications (large power and large capacity), while Mid-frequency furnaces are rather used in smaller applications. Mid-frequency furnaces offer more flexibility and are more compact. In general there is a trend towards using mid-frequency furnaces at the expense of low-frequency furnaces [2].
1.2 INDUCTION FURNACES HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

In the early nineteenth century, the phenomenon of induction heating was applied to the experimental melting of metals. The early furnace consisted of circular hearth or trough, which contained the molten metal of an annular ring. This formed a short circuited single turn secondary winding of a transformer which was energized by a supply of alternating current at normal line frequency. This design has inherent defects, such as mechanical force set up by the current flowing in the molten metal which tended to cause contraction and could result in the interruption of the current, thereby posing operational difficulties. This effect was called pinch effect [3], and a lot of attempts to solve it were not successful until the early of 1900s, when Ajax Wyatt removed the difficulty by
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
placing the secondary channel in the vertical plane. The weight of the metal in the bath was then sufficient to overcome the mechanical forces, which caused the pinch effect. It was later that a new approach was made by E. F. Northrup, who substituted a crucible containing the metal charge in place of the channel surrounded with a multi-turn coil through which current was passed at high frequency [4]. The developments of these types of furnaces were extremely rapid, and many hundreds of thousands of kilowatts of capacity are installed throughout the world today.
1.3 TYPES OF INDUCTION FURNACES

There are two types of Induction furnaces; coreless induction furnace and channel induction furnace. Coreless induction furnace is the concern of this thesis and was briefed in section (1.1). Channel induction furnace is mainly used as holding furnace which is used as reservoir for melted metals, keeping and controlling the temperature of the melted metals [5]. An investigation was done on a novel configuration for an induction melting furnace which is a combination of conventional channel and coreless induction furnaces [6].
1.4 THESIS OBJECTIVE

This thesis discusses the induction heating principles and applications. Coreless induction furnace is considered to be one of induction heating important applications in industry. The main objective of this thesis is to design and simulate a complete system of a coreless induction furnace which consists of the furnace and its power supply (rectifier, dclink and inverter). Both series and parallel resonant inverters are used to supply the electric power to the induction furnace. The thesis studies both inverters in order to compromise between them.
1.5 THESIS LAYOUT

The thesis consists of six chapters that describe the design of a coreless induction furnace and simulate the complete system using a MATLAB program. The organization is as follows: Chapter 1, Introduction.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2, Induction heating. This chapter presents a detailed discussion of induction heating, its basics, and the factors affecting it. Later, an introduction about coreless induction furnace is introduced, and then the components of the induction furnace system are presented. Chapter 3, Design of coreless induction furnace. In this chapter factors that affecting the design of the furnace are discussed. These factors include induced current depth, metal stirring, meniscus height and the operating frequency. After this discussion, the design analysis of the furnace is explained where the geometrical, energy and electrical parameters of the furnace are determined. Chapter 4, Power supplies in induction melting systems. This chapter discusses the types of power supplies of the coreless induction furnace system, and then solid state converters are discussed in details. The current fed inverter and the voltage fed inverter are presented as they are the most common configurations used in industry. Chapter 5, Simulation and results. In this chapter the design procedure that was introduced in the previous chapters is implemented. MATLAB programs are introduced to simulate the complete system. The simulation results of the current fed inverter are verified by comparing them with those of an actual system manufactured by ABB Company and the simulation results of the voltage fed inverter are verified by comparing them with those of a prototype furnace that exists in the laboratory of the faculty of engineering. The simulation results of the parallel resonant inverter are discussed first, then the results of the series resonant inverter. Finally a comparison between both types is introduced. Chapter 6, Conclusion and future work. In this chapter a conclusion of the work is presented with some recommendations for the future work.
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
CHAPTER 2 INDUCTION HEATING

2.1 INTRODUCTION
All induction heating applied systems are developed using electromagnetic induction which was first discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Electromagnetic induction refers to the phenomenon by which electric current is generated in a closed circuit by the fluctuation of current in another circuit placed next to it. The basic principle of induction heating, which is an applied form of Faradays discovery, is the fact that AC current flowing through a circuit affects the magnetic movement of a secondary circuit located near it. The fluctuation of current inside the primary circuit provided the answer as to how the mysterious current is generated in the neighboring secondary circuit. Faradays discovery led to the development of electric motors, generators, transformers, and wireless communications devices. Its application, however, has not been flawless. Heat loss, which occurs during the induction heating process, was a major headache undermining the overall functionality of a system. Researchers sought to minimize heat loss by laminating the magnetic frames placed inside the motor or transformer. Faradays Law was followed by a series of more advanced discoveries such as Lentzs Law. This law explains the fact that inductive current flows inverse to the direction of changes in induction magnetic movement. Heat loss, occurring in the process of electromagnetic induction, could be turned into productive heat energy in an electric heating system by applying this law. Many industries have benefited from this new breakthrough by implementing induction heating for furnacing, and welding. In these applications, induction heating has made it easier to set the heating parameters without the need of an additional external power source. This substantially reduces heat loss while maintaining a more convenient working environment. Absence of any physical contact to heating devices precludes unpleasant electrical accidents. High energy density is achieved by generating sufficient heat energy within a relatively short period of time. The demand for better quality, safe and less energy consuming products is rising. Products using induction heating include induction furnaces, surface hardening apparatus and bonding of metals devices [7].
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
2.2 BASICS OF INDUCTION HEATING

An understanding of the operating principals of induction furnaces, as one of the important applications of induction heating, must begin with a basic understanding of induction heating and how it works. In the most basic sense, consider a wire traveling through space with an alternating current (I) flowing through it at some frequency (f). An electromagnetic field is produced around the wire in a direction determined by the right hand rule as shown in Fig. 2.1. Since the current is alternating, it will continuously reverse directions in the wire, thus the electromagnetic field will alternate with the direction of the current. When the generated changing electromagnetic field tries to pass through an electrically conductive material, each line of flux produces a circulating eddy current in the material as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.1 The direction of the electromagnetic field produced around a wire carrying an alternating current
Fig. 2.2 Eddy current distributions in the conductive material
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
The induced eddy currents generate an equal opposing field that cancels out the field trying to pass through it. The result is no net field through the material. With the amplitude and direction of each individual eddy current, the circulating currents within the electrically conductive medium internally cancel each other out, and the net effect is an induced current that flows around the perimeter of the material as shown in Fig. 2.3. The induced current flows around the material results in the watt generation that heats the material. The amount of watts generated in the material is equal to the actual current flows, in amps, squared times the resistance of the path, in ohms, through which the current is flowing. This is referred to as ( I 2 R ) heating [8].
Resulting induced circulating current
Fig. 2.3 The resulting induced circulating current
2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCTION HEATING

Induction heating is comprised of two basic factors: the electromagnetic induction, and the skin effect. The fundamental theory of Induction heating, however, is similar to that of a transformer. Figure 2.4 illustrates a very basic system, consisting of inductive heating coil and current, to explain the electromagnetic induction and the skin effect. Figure 2.4.a shows the simplest form of a transformer, where the secondary current is in direct proportion to the primary current according to the turns ratio. The primary and secondary losses are caused mainly by the resistance of windings and the link coefficient between the two circuits is 1. When the coil of the secondary is turned only once and short-circuited, there is a substantial heat loss due to the increased load current (secondary current), this is demonstrated in Fig. 2.4.b. Figure 2.4.c shows a system where the energy supplied from the source is of the same amount as the combined loss of the primary and secondary. In these figures, the inductive coil of the primary has many turns while the secondary is
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
turned only once and short-circuited. The inductive heating coil and the load are insulated from each other by a small aperture. As the primary purpose of induction heating is to maximize the heat energy generated in the secondary, the aperture of the inductive heating coil is designed to be as small as possible and the secondary is made with a substance featuring low resistance and high permeability. Nonferrous metals undermine energy efficiency because of their properties of high resistance and low permeability [7].
Fig. 2.4.a Equivalent circuit of transformer
Fig. 2.4.b Secondary short
Fig. 2.4.c Induction heating basis a) Electromagnetic Induction As shown in Fig. 2.4.c, when the AC current (i) enters a coil with specific number of turns (N), a magnetic field is formed around the coil according to Amperes Law.
Hdl = Ni
Where, H is the magnetic flux intensity.
(2.1)
An object put into the magnetic field causes a change in the velocity of the magnetic movement. The density of the magnetic field wanes as the object gets closer to the center from the surface. According to Lentzs Law, the current generated on the surface of a conductive object has an opposite relationship with the current on the inducting circuit
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
as described in equation (2.2). The current on the surface of the object generates an eddy current.
E = N
d dt
(2.2)
Where, E is the induced e.m.f and is the magnetic flux. As a result, the electric energy caused by the induced current and eddy current is converted to heat energy as shown in equation (2.3).
P = I 2R =
E2 R
(2.3)
It should be noted that additional heat energy due to hysteresis will be generated in ferromagnetic objects. In this thesis, this additional energy is ignored because it is far small (less than 10%) than the energy generated by induction current [7]. b) Skin Effect The higher the frequency of the current administered to the coil, the more intensive is the induced current flowing around the surface of the load. The density of the induced current diminishes when flowing closer to the center as shown in equations (2.4) and (2.5). This is called the skin effect or Kelvin effect. From this effect, one can easily infer that the heat energy converted from electric energy is concentrated on the skin depth (surface of the object).
i x = io e x / d o
Where, x : Distance from the skin (surface) of the object,
(2.4)
i x : Current density at x. io : Current density on skin depth (x=0) d o : A constant determined by the frequency (current depth or skin depth)
do =
(2.5)
Where, : Resistivity of charge material
: Permeability of charge material

f : Frequency of supply Equation (2.5) states that the skin depth is determined by the resistivity and permeability of the object and the frequency of the supply. Figure 2.5 shows the
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
distribution chart of current density in relation to skin depth. The effect of frequency on the current depth is shown in Fig. 2.6 [9].
Fig. 2.5 Distribution chart of current density and skin depth
do
do
a) High Frequency
b) Low Frequency
Fig. 2.6 Effect of frequency on the current depth.
2.4 CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

In most cases, when people think of furnaces it is typical to envision a device that utilizes a heat source such as gas or electrical elements that radiate energy to the surface of a part to be heated. The energy will then conduct through the part based upon its surface temperature and thermal conductivity. This limits the rate at which the part can be raised in temperature. The temperature of the heat source also limits the final temperature that the part can be heated to. With these limitations in mind, Coreless induction furnaces have proven to be a valuable tool for reliably producing molten metal that is consistent, homogenous, and uniform in temperature for the investment casting industry. Rather than just a furnace, a coreless induction furnace is actually an energy transfer device. In the coreless induction furnace, energy is transferred directly from an induction coil into the material to be melted through the electromagnetic field produced by the induction coil. In this type of devices, the maximum process temperature can be virtually unlimited, since
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CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
there is no external heat source and the energy is generated within the material being heated. With electric induction, fast melt turn around times can be achieved, providing in very high system production capabilities. This being the case, it is very important to gain an understanding of the coreless induction furnace and the principals of its operation [8]. In a coreless induction furnace, the electromagnetic field is generated by a solenoid induction coil. This coil is typically manufactured with a copper tube wound with a carefully selected tubing profile and number of turns on the coil. Figure 2.7 shows an assembly of a typical coreless induction furnace coil. It is manufactured from high electrical conductivity copper tubing for low power transmission resistance within the coil to minimize ( I 2 R ) losses. The tube profile has a hollow center for passing lowconductivity water. This water is used to remove both the generated ( I 2 R ) losses in the winding as well as the thermal energy conducted from the hot metal through the refractory system back to the winding.
Fig. 2.7 Typical solenoid induction coil used in a coreless induction furnace
When an AC voltage is applied to the coil terminals, an alternating current passes through the coil winding. The current in each turn generates an electromagnetic field around it as shown previously in Fig. 2.1. With the turns stacked the solenoid coil produces an electromagnetic field as shown in Figs 2.8 (a) and (b).
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CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.8 The electromagnetic field generated by a solenoid induction coil a) with no load in the furnace and b) with a load inside the furnace
When a load (electrically conductive material) is placed inside the coil, the field that tries to pass through it induces eddy currents within it that cancel out the field as shown in Fig. 2.8.b. This is accomplished through the same principle as previously discussed and shown in Figs. 2.2 and 2.3. The result is an induced current flowing around the outer perimeter of the load. The amount of energy transferred to the load is proportional to the induced current squared times the resistance of the path through which the current is flowing ( I 2 R ). Figure 2.9 shows the transferred energy density in a typical coreless induction furnace. The load in this case is a molten metal within the furnace crucible [8].
Fig. 2.9 Plot of the electromagnetic field and the energy transferred to the load.
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CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION HEATING
2.4.1 System components

A coreless induction furnace consists of a complete system of components necessary for proper, reliable, and safe furnace operation. The main components required are a furnace, power supply, power transmission system (bus and/or water-cooled cables), and a water cooling system. Optional equipment may be required such as a hydraulic system for hydraulic tilt furnaces, and possibly a computer control system for automated pouring, control system and monitoring, as well as data acquisition and storage. Figure 2.10 shows an overview of the typical components of a coreless induction furnace system [8], and Fig. 2.11 shows the block diagram of induction furnace system [10]; the details of this system will be discussed in chapters 4 and 5.
Fig. 2.10 An overview of the typical components of a coreless induction furnace system.
Fig. 2.11 Block diagram of induction furnace system.
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CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The coreless induction furnace consists basically of a crucible, inductor coil, shell, cooling system and tilting mechanism. The crucible is formed from refractory material, which the furnace coil is lined with. This crucible holds the charge material and subsequently the melt. The choice of refractory material depends on the type of charge, i.e. acidic, basic or neutral. The durability of the crucible depends on the grain size, ramming technique, charge analysis and rate of heating and cooling the furnace [11]. Figure 3.1 shows typical components of a coreless induction furnace [8].
Fig. 3.1 Typical Components of a coreless Induction Furnace The inductor coil is a tubular copper coil with specific number of turns. An alternating current (AC) passes through it and magnetic flux is generated within the conductor. The generated magnetic flux induces eddy currents that enable the heating and subsequently the melting process in the crucible. In order to eliminate electrical breakdown, the turns are insulated by wrapping with mica tape, this serve as a good insulator. The shell is the outer part of the furnace. This houses the crucible and the inductor coil, and has higher thermal capacity. It is made of rectangular parallelepiped with low
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CHAPTER 3
carbon steel plate and joined at the corners by edge carriers from angular pieces and strips of non-magnetic metal. The cooling system is a through-one-way- flow system with the tubular copper coil connected to water source through flexible rubber hoses. The inlet is from the top while the outlet is at the bottom. The cooling process is important because the circuit of the furnace appears resistive, and the real power is not only consumed in the charged material but also in the resistance of the coil. This coil loss as well as the loss of heat conducted from the charge through the refractory crucible requires the coil to be cooled with water as the cooling medium to prevent undue temperature rise of the copper coil. Tilting of the furnace is to effect pouring of the molten metal as a last operational activity before casting. The tilting operation is achieved by a hydraulic circuit using hydraulic pump and pistons. The furnace is tilted to achieve a maximum angle of 90 degrees for complete pouring of the molten metal [11].
3.2 SELECTION OF FURNACE SIZE, AND POWER RATING

The capacity of the furnace is usually determined by the size of the pour required, but some times a furnace capacity may need to be larger than the pour size. The size and shape of the charge material to be melted can require a larger opening in the furnace. If borings, turnings or chips are to be melted, the furnace may require an adequate residual molten heel left in the furnace in order to efficiently melt. Another factor that can influence furnace size is power density. If the required melt rate requires a power level that can result in excessive molten metal meniscus and stirring, the furnace capacity may need to be increased. It is important to select the proper power rating for the system. There are many factors that influence the selection of furnace power. The first is the capacity to be melted, the type of the material to be melted (Iron, Aluminum, Tin ...) and the desired melt cycle time. To raise the temperature of a solid material to the pouring temperature, energy must be put into it based upon the characteristics of its solid specific heat, latent heat of fusion, and liquid specific heat. The latent heat of fusion is the energy required to push the material through its phase change from the solid to liquid state [8]. An improperly designed system that has an undersized power supply will reduce the efficiency of the overall system and reduce the weight of metal that can be melted per kWh applied. This could, in extreme cases, result in the inability for the system to reach
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the required pour temperature. It should be noted that, the larger the furnace, the higher the thermal losses [8].
3.3 SELECTION OF INDUCTION FREQUENCY

The frequency affects both the coupling efficiency of the electromagnetic field to the charge and the stirring characteristics of the molten metal in the furnace. For optimal furnace performance, the selection of the system operating induction frequency is very important. There are several factors that weigh heavily in selecting the proper frequency for the application. These are as follows: 1. The physical size of the pieces of material to be melted. 2. The electrical resistivity of the material to be melted. 3. Whether the furnace will be operated to melt from an empty crucible or with a molten heel left in the furnace. 4. The geometry of the crucible used in the furnace to contain the molten metal. 5. The desired molten metal stirring characteristics.
3.3.1 Induced Current Depth

The depth at which induced current flows in an electrically conductive material, as shown in Fig. 3.2, is a function of the resistivity of the material and the induction frequency [8]. Equation (2.5) can be used to approximate the depth of the induced current (do) in a material with a resistivity of ( ), a permeability of () and operating at a frequency (f).
Induced current around the outside perimeter of a cylindrical load
do
D
Fig. 3.2 induced current depth do in a cylindrical load with diameter D
16
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.3 shows a graph of the approximate induced current depth in ferrous alloy at various induction frequencies for a molten condition.
Frequency Vs Current Depth
70
60
50
do (mm)
40
30
20
10
0 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250
F (Hz)
Fig. 3.3 Typical induced current depth Vs frequency The induced current depth is extremely important in frequency selection because the electrical efficiency of the system is a direct result of how well the charge material couples with the electromagnetic field. The better it couples with the field, the more efficient it will be. The optimal coupling efficiency of a furnace can be determined by calculating its D/do ratio. This ratio is the diameter of the part to be melted divided by the calculated induced current depth. The higher this ratio is, the better the coupling efficiency of the furnace. Figure 3.4 is a graph showing the coupling efficiency for an induction furnace versus its D/do ratio. It is evident that the D/do ratio should always be greater than 5 on a system and preferably not less than 10, if possible, to keep the efficiency high, as shown in Fig. 3.4. It is impossible to directly melt chips, borings, or turnings using induction, as the D/do ratio will be close to zero with no coupling efficiency. Therefore chips, turnings, and borings must be melted with the assistance of a molten heel. In the case of a molten heel, the melt
17
CHAPTER 3
diameter in the crucible can be used as the load diameter (D) when calculating the D/do ratio, thus increasing the coupling efficiency for a reasonable chip melting [8].
Efficiency
D/do ratio
Fig. 3.4 The ratio D/do Vs the efficiency
3.3.2 Meniscus Height and Metal Stirring

Figure 3.5 shows the meniscus height (MH) of the metal which represents the potential energy of the melt. Meniscus height is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field from the induction coil and the current that flowing in the molten metal. This force is equal to the vector product of the magnetic flux density multiplied by the current density of the melt (BJ). This force is acting on the surface of the metal at the top of the melt opposes gravity and causes the formation of the meniscus. As both B and J are proportional to the current flowing through the coil, the meniscus height is proportional to the current flowing through the coil squared. As kW = I2R, where R is the resistance of the coil and the melt, the meniscus height is proportional to the kilowatts applied to the furnace and inversely proportional to the resistance of the furnace coil and the melt.
dm Fig. 3.5 Meniscus height to diameter of melt
18
CHAPTER 3
In the furnace, the flow of metal is accelerated only when current is flowing in the melt. Thus, the accelerated flow only occurs in the region defined as the depth of current penetration. This depth of penetration is equal to the size of a pipe connected to a reservoir. A large depth of current penetration would be a large pipe and a very small depth of current penetration is a very small pipe as shown in Fig. 3.6. Obviously, for the same meniscus height (pressure of water available), the larger the depth of current penetration (the larger the diameter of pipe), the greater the flow (of water).
Fig. 3.6 Depth of current penetration To carry this analogy further, if these pipes are considered as hoses feeding into a swimming pool, the size of the swimming pool would be related to the size of the furnace. Thus a very small hose being placed into the pool, like a small depth of penetration with a given furnace size, would result in very light stirring. However, a large fire hose being placed inside the pool, like a large depth of penetration for a given furnace size, would obviously result in very high stirring as shown in Fig. 3.7. When the math is done on this process, it is found that the stirring is not linearly proportional to the meniscus height, but is much more dependent on the frequency itself. Equation (3.1) gives the level of stirring in a given factors that include power, frequency, furnace size and alloy being melted.
19
CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3.7 Light and heavy stirring
60000 SI = Where SI kW dm SG
kW d m SG f A = Stirring index (from 40 to 55 for iron) = kilowatts = Diameter of melt in inches = Specific gravity of the bath = metal resistivity (-cm) = ( dm2) / 4 = frequency
(3.1)
A f
The easier way to determine the proper induction frequency is to use the chart shown in Fig. 3.8, which describes the relation between the induction frequency and the furnace size for different melting conditions [12]. An ideal melting (ideal stirring) can be determined when the frequency and the furnace size is interacted on the center line in the green zone.
20
CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3.8 Relation between the induction frequency and furnace size for different melting conditions
3.4 DESIGN ANALYSIS

The analysis is based on 4 tons capacity of molten iron. Referring to Fig. 3.8, for the 4 ton capacity, the proper induction frequency is around 250 Hz.
3.4.1 Geometrical Parameters [11]

The shape of the crucible is cylindrical. The internal diameter of the crucible (the diameter of melt) and the height of melt are determined by the furnace capacity with considerations that the ratio:
Hm = (1.6 2.0) Dc
(3.2)
Where H m = height of molten metal (m) Dc = diameter of crucible (m) Volume of metal charge is given by: Vm =
2 dmHm
4
M
(3.3)
Where dm = diameter of molten metal (m) = Dc Also, Vm =
(3.4)
Where M = the mass of charge in kg
V = the density of charge material in kg/m3
21
CHAPTER 3
The thickness of the refractory lining of the crucible can be determined from the relation:
Br = 0.084 T Where T = furnace capacity in tones The internal diameter of the inductor can be calculated from the equation: Din = Dc + 2( Br + Bins ) Where Bins = thickness of insulation layer (5.5Bins6 mm) Height of inductor coil is given by: H in = (1.1 1.2) H m The height of furnace from bottom of the bath to the pouring spout is:
H f = H m + hs + bt
(3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
Where hs = height of slag formed

bt = thickness of bottom refractory lining = 20 cm for 4 ton capacity
The slag height is calculated thus:

hs = 4Vs 2 dm
(3.9)
Where Vs = volume of slag in one heat, taken (practically) as 4% of total charge m3.
3.4.2 Heat Energy Parameters

The required theoretical heat energy, Qth, consumed during the first period of melt is given by [11]:
Qth = Qm + Q sh + Q s + Qen Qex
( Joule)
(3.10)
Where, Qm = amount of heat energy to melt 4 tons of charge material.

Qsh = amount of heat energy to superheat the melt to temperature of superheat. Qs = heat required to melt slag forming materials. Qen = energy required for endothermic process. Qex = amount of heat energy liberated to the surroundings as a result of exothermic
reactions. Theoretically Q Q .
en ex
Therefore,
22
CHAPTER 3
Qth = Qm + Qsh + Qs
( Joule)
(3.11)
and,
Qm = MC (1 0 ) + L pt
(3.12)
where, M = mass of charge, kg.

C = specific heat capacity of charge material, J/kg.k L = latent heat of fusion, J/kg
pt
= melting temperature of charge, k

1 0
= ambient temperature, 25C (298 k)
Similarly,
Qsh = MC m sh
(3.13)
where, Cm = average heat capacity of molten metal, J/kg.k

= amount of superheat temperature, taken as 330
sh
and,
Qs = K s G s
(3.14)
Where, K = quantity of slag formed in (kg), taken as 4% of furnace capacity;

s
G = heat energy for slag = 300 kJ/kg.

s
3.4.3 Electrical Parameters

Figure 3.9 shows a melted cylindrical load put inside the furnace, the total heat energy induced in it, can be calculated as follows [13]: Assume an element path of thickness dx at distance x from the vertical axis, and a sinusoidal flux = m sin t , where
m = Bm A
and, A = x 2 Then
(3.15)
= x 2 Bm sin t
The induced e.m.f (e)
e= d = x 2 Bm cos t dt
(3.16)
(3.17)
The effective value of this e.m.f (E) in the element path is
23
CHAPTER 3
E= E=
emax 2
2 2 f x 2 Bm 2 (3.18)
dm
Hm
Fig. 3.9 A melted cylindrical load
If is the resistivity of the material, the resistance of each elemental path is,
R=
l
A
2 x
H m dx
(3.19)
The eddy current flows in the metal can be calculated from the equation:
Im = Im =
E R
x f H m Bm dx 2
(3.20)
Since the current flows on the outer layer of the metal (skin depth), equations (3.19) and (3.20) can be rewritten as:
R=
dm
H m do
, and
24
CHAPTER 3
Im =
d m f H m Bm do 8
f
Where d o = Therefore,
R=
dm Hm f
d m f H m Bm 8 f
(3.21)
Im =
(3.22)
The total eddy current loss in the charge is

2 P = ImR
(3.23)
Substituting from (3.21) and (3.22) in (3.23) the eddy current loss can be written in a form:
3 2 3 f 2 H m d m Bm P= 8 f
(3.24)
Where, is the permeability of charge material which is equal to o r, where o is the permeability of free space = 410-7 and r is the relative permeability. Since at about 1100 C temperature, the permeability of the iron is equal to that of air, i.e.,
= 410-7 [10], so in equations (3.21) through (3.24), =o.

Bm = maximum flux density (Tesla) R = Resistance of charge material (load) = RL Im = current flowing in metal (A)
From equation (3.24)

Bm = 8 P 3 f H m dm do
3 2
(3.25)
The power (P) can be calculated from the theoretical heat energy Qth calculated from equation (3.11) as:
P= Qth [11] t
(3.26)
Where t = the total time of melting in seconds
25
CHAPTER 3
As mentioned in chapter 2, the induction furnace can be considered as a transformer with single turn short circuited secondary. Figure 3.10 shows the equivalent circuit of the furnace coil with load based on the transformer concept [10], from which
I coil I = m + (I o ) 2 N
2
(3.27)
Multiplying both sides by N, equation (3.27) can be written as

NI coil = ( I m ) 2 + ( NI o ) 2
Since NI o = Hl ,
Rc
Icoil
LM
Im
L1 N:1
L2
RL
Rc
Icoil
Ll
Im/N
NLM
Io
N2RL
Leq Req
Fig. 3.10 The equivalent circuit of the furnace with load based on transformer concept
Then N =
1
I coil
( I m ) 2 + ( Hl ) 2 , and H =
26
CHAPTER 3
N=
1 I coil
B l (I m ) + m 2
2
(3.28)
Since the self inductance of the coil is L1 = Ll + NLM Therefore, Ll = L1 NLM Where L1 = (3.29) l , A=
2 Din
o r N 2 A
and l = Hin
The voltage across the load is equal to

Im 2 N R L = I o NLM N
The referred load resistance Rch = N2 RL , therefore, NLM =

NLM =
I m N 2 RL NI o
I m Rch H l
and H = NLM =
o r
, so = l 2 I m Rch o r Bm l
I m Rch Bm 2 o r
Substituting in equation (3.29) Ll =
o r N 2 A
l
2 I m Rch o r Bm l
(3.30)
Due to the construction of the furnace, large air gaps are present. Thus, no saturation takes place [14]. In other words, Since all magnetic energy is stored in air gaps, insulation between conductors, and within the conductor as shown in Figs 2.8 and 2.9, where r is essentially 1.0 and constant, therefore =o [15]. So,
2 o N 2 Din
Ll =
4 H in
2 I m Rch o Bm H in 2 f
(3.31)
27
CHAPTER 3
The resistance of copper coil inductor at ambient temperature is given by

Rc =
c lc
At
(3.32)
Where c = resistivity of copper = 1.72 10-7 m at 25 C
lc = total length of copper tube = Din N At = cross sectional area of conducting tube
Also,
I coil = J A t
(3.33)
Where J = current density (ranges from 20 to 40 A/mm2 for water cooled tubing conductor) Since Io is very small compared with Im/N, NLM can be neglected with respect to
Rch. Therefore, the equivalent resistance Req = Rc + Rch and the equivalent inductance Leq = Ll
Coil loss due to resistance is
2 Pc = I coil Rc
(3.34)
Furnace efficiency can be represented by the following equation

Eff = = Rch Rch + Rc
(3.35)
28
CHAPTER 4
POWER SUPPLIES IN INDUCTION MELTING SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 4 POWER SUPPLIES IN INDUCTION MELTING SYSTEMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The simplest way to construct an induction melting system is to supply the current into the induction coil directly from the electrical source. Most large induction furnaces until the end of the 1970's operated on fixed industrial frequencies of 60 or 50 Hz. A bank of capacitors compensated for the low power factor of the induction coil as shown in Fig 4.1. The power factor could be adjusted by switching the capacitors and, therefore, varying the impedance of the electrical load. Power regulation is carried out by switching the transformer taps and capacitors thereby changing the coil current. The highest power level is achieved when the resonance frequency of the coil and capacitor network is equal to the frequency of the feeding line. Switching is usually performed using electromechanical contactors and transformer tap-changers.
Fig. 4.1 Principle diagram of line frequency melting furnace Line frequency power supplies limit the generation of high melting power density in several ways. The frequency is fixed and therefore, the depth of penetration is relatively high resulting in low resistance of the molten bath. Because the current at low frequency penetrates deep into the molten bath, the electromagnetic forces push a large amount of metal causing severe stirring. The magnitude of coil current is also limited because the line frequency induction furnace is essentially a single phase device causing a severe imbalance on the feeding power. Electromechanical devices such as contactors for capacitors
29
CHAPTER 4
switching and transformer tap-changers for power control require regular maintenance and decrease system reliability, and finally the regulation of power in steps limits the ability of power control [16].
4.2 SOLID STATE POWER CONVERTERS

The solution to the problems limiting the application of line frequency power supplies in large melting installations became available relatively recently with the development of large silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) capable of commutating high currents. Using these SCR's, it becomes possible to construct inverters with an equivalent output power of 10,000 kW operating on output frequencies of several hundred Hertz. Operating at medium frequencies allows limiting stirring to values required by metallurgy while significantly increased the melting power density and, therefore, reducing melt time. The solid state power converter also resolves the phase balancing problem. Input 3-, 6- or 12-phase line voltages are rectified before being inverted into single phase medium frequency electric current. The power converter consists of three major sections as shown in Fig. 4.2 [16]: 1- AC to DC rectifier and DC filter. 2- DC to AC medium frequency inverter. 3- Bank of tuning capacitors.
Fig. 4.2 Block diagram of a medium frequency melting system
30
CHAPTER 4
4.2.1 AC to DC rectifier
Solid state rectifier converts three-phase line AC voltage into six-pulse DC voltage. The basis of all rectifiers is a typical three-phase, six-semiconductor bridge. The semiconductors may be diodes, SCRs, IGBTs, or GTOs. Rectifiers may be implemented using 6-pulse or 12-pulse rectification scheme. A 6pulse rectifier consists of one six-semiconductor bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 4. 3. A 12-pulse rectifier contains two rectifiers, where the line voltages feeding each rectifier are shifted 30. This phase shift is achieved by connecting one rectifier to a (delta) secondary winding and another rectifier to a (wye) secondary winding as shown in Fig. 4.4 [17].
ud(t) U12
1
U13
U23
U21
U31
U32
U12
U13
U23
Ud
0.5
Ld
1:1
Id
0 90 180 270 360 90 t
V1
U10 IL1
V2
V3
L1 L2
I'L1
U'10 U'20 U'30
0.5
1 2 ud(t) 3
1
U20 U30
U12 U31 U23 V4 V5 V6 Switch
L3 0 0
SV1 SV5
0 90
SV2 SV6
180
SV3 SV4
270
SV1 SV5
360
90
U10
+Id
0 90
IL1
180
270
360
90
-Id
Fig. 4.3 Uncontrolled six-pulse rectifier SCR rectifiers may operate in full rectification or phase control mode. In full rectification mode, the SCRs are permanently gated "fired", therefore, they act very much as diodes, where the switching between conducting phases happens naturally as the voltage across the SCR becomes positive. In the phase control mode, the gating of SCRs is delayed, therefore, the switching between phases is forced by the delay angle ().
31
CHAPTER 4
Ld V1 1: 3
I U'
10
Id
ud(t) U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 23 54 21 64 31 65 32 45 12 46 13 56 23 54 12 64 13 Ud1
V2 1 2
V3
0.5
10
L1,1
I' L1,1
U'20 U'
20
U12 U31 U23 3 V4 +30 V5 V6
udI(t)
90
180
270
360
90
30
30
0.5
L1 L2 L3
L1
Id V7 1:1
I U'
10
ud(t) +Id
0
U10
V8 4 5
V9
IL1,2 IL1,1
90 180 270 360 90
L1,2
10
I'
L1,2
U'
20
20
U45 U64 U56 6 V10 V11 V12
udII(t)
-Id +Id
0
U10
U'
30
30
IL1
90
90
180
270
360
Ld
Id
-Id
Fig. 4.4 Uncontrolled twelve-pulse rectifier 4.2.1.1 Effect of static converters on power lines. 1) Power factor of the static converters If during one cycle, a part of the energy is negative and returned from the load back to the line, the power factor is less than unity. The power factor is represented as the product of two components; distortion power factor and displacement power factor. Distortion power factor depends on the amount of harmonic distortions introduced into the line defined by value of the total harmonic distortion (THD) which is a percentage ratio of the geometrical sum of all higher harmonic currents to the fundamental current [17].
THD =
I
I1
2 n
(4.1)
The distortion power factor (DPF) can be defined as:

DPF = 1 1 + THD 2
(4.2)
The displacement power factor of full wave rectifiers is unity. In phase control rectifiers, the output DC voltage is reduced by delayed firing of the SCRs. Such a delay in firing results not only in lower average DC voltage but also greater ripples on the DC bus
32
CHAPTER 4
and phase displacement between current and voltage of the line. Table 4.1 shows the power factor of full wave rectifiers [17]. Table 4.1 Power factor of full wave rectifiers Number of pluses Power factor 6 12 24 48 95.49 % 98.86 % 99.71 % 99.85 %
2) Current harmonics generated by static power converters As previously shown in Figs 4.3 and 4.4, the waveforms of the line current feeding the power converters are represented by step functions. Increasing the number of rectified pulses makes the steps smaller and the curve smoother. When two 6-pulse rectifiers are connected to the same transformer with two secondary sets of windings, one with a "delta" connection and one with a "wye" connection, opposite polarity of some harmonics in these two sets of windings will cause them to eliminate each other and will not propagate into the AC line. Theoretically, the 12-pulse rectifier does not have 5th, 7th, 17th, and 19th harmonics. This concept is shown in Fig. 4.5.
In/I1
1/5
IL1,1
20% 1/7
In/I1
10% 1/11 1/13 1/17 1/19
T/2
IL1
1/23 1/25 n
20%
a) YD-Connection
+
IL1,2
9% 7,6%
5 7
11 13
17 19
23 25
In/I1
1/11 1/13 1/23 1/25 5 7 17 19 n 11 13 1/19 1/17 23 25
=
T/2 T
10% 1/11 1/13
1/23 1/25 n
T/2
c) YD + YY-Connection
5 7
11 13
17
19
23 25
b) YY-Connection
-14% 1/7 -20% 1/5
Fig. 4.5 Amplitude Spectrum of the Twelve Pulse Rectifier
33
CHAPTER 4
3) Line voltage notching As described previously, rectification is achieved by current switching between AC line phases via rectifying devices (diodes or SCRs). The switching may happen naturally when the voltage difference becomes positive for full wave rectification or delayed by gating the rectifier SCR after the phase transition. The line current cannot be switched over instantaneously because the electrical energy stored in the line and transformer inductances needs time to dissipate. While, one-phase current tapers down, the current in the second phase ramps up. The time of this overlap depends on the inductance of the line and transformer connected to the rectifier. During such an overlap, the rectifier actually shorts one phase to another, therefore, the voltage on the two phases equalizes for the duration of the semiconductor switchover, creating a notch in voltage waveforms. In case of full wave rectification, the switchover initiates when voltages between phases are equal, therefore, notches on line voltage are shallow but wide as shown in Fig. 4.6 (a). In a phase control situation, the switchover initiates with a delay and voltages between phases are different, therefore, equalizing the phase voltage produces severe notching: one positive and one negative as shown in Fig. 4.6 (b) [17]. (a) (b)
Fig. 4.6 Voltage notch due to phase current switchover in a) full wave rectifier b) phase controlled bridge
34
CHAPTER 4
4.2.2 DC to AC medium frequency inverter

DC to AC converters are known as inverters. The function of an inverter is to change a DC input voltage to a symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency. A variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the input DC voltage and maintaining the gain of the inverter constant. On other hand, if the DC input voltage is fixed and uncontrollable, a variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter which is accomplished by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control within the inverter. The inverter gain is the ratio of the AC output voltage to the DC input voltage. Inverters can be broadly classified into two types; single phase inverters and three phase inverters. Inverters can be built in using different types of semiconductor devices (SCRs, IGBTs, or GTOs). Figure 4.7 shows a single phase full-bridge inverter.
Id Iinverter
Q1
Q3 Load
VDC
Vinverter
Q2
Q4
Id
Fig. 4.7 Single phase full-bridge inverter An inverter is called a voltage fed inverter if the input voltage remains constant, a current fed inverter if the input current is maintained constant, and a variable DC-linked inverter if the input voltage is controllable [18]. 4.2.2.1 Switching losses
The switching devices in converters with a PWM control can be gated to synthesize the desired shape of the output voltage and/or current. However, the devices are turned "on" and "off" at the load current with a high di/dt value. The switches are subjected to a high-voltage stress, and the switching power loss of a device increases linearly with switching frequency. The turn-on and turn-off loss could be a significant portion of the total power loss [18].
35
CHAPTER 4
Raising the switching frequency helps to build a smaller and lighter converter, but as presented earlier, switching loss undermines the efficiency of the entire power system in converting energy, as more losses are generated at a higher frequency. Switching loss can be partly avoided by connecting a simple snubber circuit parallel to the switching circuit. However, the total amount of switching loss generated in the system remains the same. The loss avoided, has in fact, just moved to the snubber circuit [7]. The disadvantages of PWM control can be eliminated or minimized if the switching devices are turned on and off when the voltage across a device and /or its current becomes zero. The voltage and current are forced to pass through zero crossing by creating an LCresonant circuit, thereby calling a resonant pulse converter [18]. 4.2.2.2 Resonant Pulse Converters
The resonant circuit of a resonant converter consists of a capacitor, an inductor, and a resistor. Two types of resonant converters are generally used: a parallel resonant circuit (current fed inverter with parallel capacitor bank) and a series resonant circuit (voltage fed inverter with series capacitor bank). Figure 4.8 shows these two common types. When power is connected, electric energy is stored in the inductor as illustrated in equation (4.5), and transferred to the capacitor. Equation (4.6) simplifies the calculation of the amount of energy stored in the capacitor to be sent to the inductor. Resonance occurs while the inductor and the capacitor exchange the energy.
Fig. 4.8 Resonant Circuits a) the series resonant circuit and b) the parallel resonant circuit The total amount of energy stored in the circuit during resonance remains unchanged. This total amount is the same as the amount of energy stored at peak in the inductor or capacitor. For series resonant circuits:
36
CHAPTER 4
i = 2 I sin(t )
Vc = 1 2I i dt = C cos(t ) C
(4.3)
(4.4)
EL = EC =
1 2 Li = LI 2 sin 2 (t ) 2 1 I2 CVC2 = 2 cos 2 (t ) = LI 2 cos 2 (t ) 2 C I2 2C
(4.5) (4.6) (4.7)
E L + EC = LI 2 (sin 2 (t ) + cos 2 (t )) = LI 2 =
As some energy is lost due to resistance in the resonance process, the total amount of energy stored in the inductor decrements in each resonant exchange. The resonance frequency, which is the speed of energy transfer, is determined by capacitance (C) and inductance (L) as shown in equation (4.11). The inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are given by equations (4.8), and (4.9), respectively. The magnitude of impedance in a series resonant circuit is given by equation (4.10).
X L = jL = j 2 f L ()
(4.8)
(4.9)
XC =
1 1 = ( ) jC j 2 f C
2 2
1 Z = R + L C
( )
(4.10)
At the resonance frequency, the inductive reactance of equation (4.8) and the capacitive reactance of equation (4.9) become the same, i.e. the voltage of the power source and the current in the circuit stay at the same level. The resonance frequency can be summarized as shown in equation (4.11). The current in the circuit reaches its peak when the source frequency becomes equal to the resonance frequency. It decreases when the source frequency gets higher or lower than the resonance frequency. 2 f L = 1 1 fo = 2 f C 2 L C (4.11)
And the selection ratio (the quality factor) of a series resonant circuit is given by equation (4.12). Q=
o L
R
1 1 L = o CR R C
(4.12)
37
CHAPTER 4
Equation (4.12) shows that the smaller the resistance than the inductance, when the source frequency gets closer to the resonance frequency, the sharper the frequency curve of Fig. 4.9 and the bigger the value of Q. The numerator is proportional to the energy accumulated in the inductor during resonance and the denominator is proportional to the average amount of energy consumed in resistance in each cycle. The frequency curve of Fig 4.9 demonstrates the relationship between current/output energy and source frequency when the source voltage of the resonant circuit is constant. The current and output energy reaches its maximum value at resonance frequency. In the area where the switching frequency is lower than the resonance frequency, the inductive reactance has a direct relationship with the switching frequency. In other words, the lower the frequency, the smaller the inductive reactance, and according to equation (4.9), the capacitive reactance is in inverse relationship with the frequency. As the reactance becomes more capacitive, the current becomes more leading to the voltage. When the switching frequency increases, impedance gets smaller, increasing the amount of output energy. In the opposite situation, a lower switching frequency leads to higher impedance, causing the output energy to decrease. In the area where the switching frequency is higher than the resonance frequency, the higher the switching frequency, the bigger the inductive reactance. Here, the value of the capacitive reactance becomes smaller according to equation (4.9). The higher inductive reactance causes the current to be more lagging to the voltage. In this situation, a higher switching frequency is accompanied by an increase of impedance causing the output energy to be lower. When the switching frequency goes down towards the resonance, the impedance is decreased, raising the output energy [7].
Fig. 4.9 Frequency curve of series resonant inverter
38
CHAPTER 4
The parallel resonant circuit of Fig. 4.8 (b) is considered to be the dual of the series resonant circuit. The magnitude of impedance in a parallel resonant circuit is given by equation (4.13). Z =
LR
( LCR R) + L
2 2 2 2
( )
(4.13)
It should be noted that a parallel resonant circuit has the highest impedance at resonance, whereas the series resonant circuit has the lowest impedance at resonance. The selection ratio (the quality factor) of a parallel resonant circuit is given by equation (4.14). V2 Q= V
2
XL R
R = o CR o L
(4.14)
The numerator of equation (4.14) is proportional the average amount of energy consumed in resistance and the denominator is proportional to the energy accumulated in the inductor during resonance in each cycle. The frequency curve appears the same as that of series resonance, but voltage replaces current. Figure 4.10 demonstrates the relationship between voltage/output energy and source frequency when the source current of the resonant circuit is constant. The voltage and output energy reaches its maximum value at resonance frequency. In the area where the switching frequency is lower than the resonance frequency, the lower the frequency, the higher the inductive reactance. As the reactance becomes more inductive, the voltage becomes more leading to the current. In the area where the switching frequency is higher than the resonance frequency, the higher the switching frequency, the higher the capacitive reactance. The higher capacitive reactance causes the voltage to be more lagging to the current [7].
Fig. 4.10 Frequency curve of parallel resonant inverter
39
CHAPTER 4
4.3 CURRENT FED INVERTER WITH PARALLEL CAPACITOR BANK.

In the current fed inverter, the power factor correction capacitor bank is connected in parallel to the furnace coil as shown in Fig. 4.11. Both the capacitor bank and the coil are placed into the diagonal of a full bridge inverter. This connection allows the reactive component of the coil current to bypass the inverter SCR's, and to have load commutation of the thyristors. However, the inverter is exposed to the full furnace voltage. The values of inverter voltage may be higher or lower than the DC voltage on the rectifier. Therefore, DC rectifier and inverter sections must be decoupled by reactors. The reactors supply the inverter with constant DC current. They are acting as a filter and reservoir of energy. The inverter converts DC current into square wave current injected into parallel resonant circuit.
Fig. 4.11 Medium frequency melting system utilizing current-fed converter
The furnace power in current-fed inverter system is controlled by varying both inverter switching frequency and DC voltage. When inverter voltage falls below DC rectifier potential, the output power cannot be controlled by variation in inverter commutation frequency alone. Additional control of the injected DC current is carried out by regulating the conduction phase angle of the rectifier SCR's. Such regulation will introduce distortion into the feeding electrical line unless filters are provided. The main advantage of the parallel resonant inverter is that only part of the coil current is passed via SCR's, therefore, saving the number of semiconductor devices. The inverter controls only part of the coil current. This, however, limits the controllability of
40
CHAPTER 4
the inverter. Using smoothing DC reactors as temporary energy accumulators causes difficulties in starting the inverter. The energy in the reactors is kinetic energy exists only when the DC current flows from the rectifier to the inverter. To accumulate the necessary energy in the smoothing DC reactor, a special starter network is used. The advantage of lower current in the inverter SCR's is offset by a high voltage to which these SCR's are exposed. This often requires number of SCR's in series [16]. For a given output power the volt ampere rating of the inverter SCR's and the rating of the compensating capacitor increases as the operating frequency increases, therefore, the inverter should be operated as close to resonance as possible in order to deliver the rated output power and minimize the total kVA of the system [20].
4.3.1 Thyristor's Turn-off Time

There are several techniques for SCR's commutation, one of which is the load commutating technique, which is common in use in induction heating application. As shown previously, the capacitor is connected in parallel to the furnace coil and one of the purposes of the capacitor is to have load commutation of the thyristors. The thyristors pairs Q1Q2 and Q3Q4, shown in Fig. 4.12, are switched alternately for angle to impress a square current wave at the output. The fundamental component of load current leads the nearly sinusoidal load voltage wave by angle, causing load commutation. Since = tq, the minimum value of should be sufficient to turn off the thyristors during time tq [19], therefore, the operating frequency should always reside above the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit [20].
Fig. 4.12 Parallel resonant inverter with load commutation
41
CHAPTER 4
Circuit Analysis
Figure 4.13 shows the phasor diagram of the parallel resonant inverter and the equivalent circuit.
IC I IQ I
IR V
R IR
L IL
C IC
(a) (b) Fig. 4.13 a) The phasor diagram of the parallel resonant inverter, and b) The equivalent circuit
IL
The general equations of the inverter can be given as [19]:
IR = IL =
V R V jL
(4.15) (4.16) (4.17) (4.18)
I C = Vjc
tan = tan =
IQ IR IC I L IR
VC V V R R L R =0 2 f L
tan =
tan = CR
tan (2 f t q ) 2 f CR + Where f f o
(4.19)
42
CHAPTER 4
Equation (4.19) shows that the turn off time for the inverter SCR's decreases as the operating frequency decreases towards the resonant frequency, and as previously stipulated the inverter should always operate above resonance such that the minimum turn off time requirement for the devices is satisfied [19]. Figure 4.14 illustrates equation (4.19) for furnace coil of 0.1915 mH inductance and 0.0267 resistance and parallel capacitor of 2118.2 f, which gives resonance frequency of 250 Hz.
SCR's Turn off time
60 55 50 45 40 35
tq (us)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 250 250.2 250.4 250.6 250.8 251 251.2 251.4 251.6 251.8 252
Frequency (Hz)
Fig 4.14 SCR's turn off time Vs the operating frequency, fo = 250 Hz
4.4 VOLTAGE FED INVERTER WITH SERIES CAPACITOR BANK

From the standpoint of electric circuit theory, voltage-fed series resonant inverters represent a duality circuit of the current-fed parallel resonant inverters. The current smoothing reactors in DC line are replaced by DC voltage filter capacitors and the output parallel resonant circuit is replaced by a series resonant circuit as shown in Fig. 4.15. The voltage on the inverter is constant and equal to the output voltage of the AC to DC rectifier and the full coil current flows though the inverter SCR's and tuning capacitor bank. Such a configuration provides excellent controllability of the system. By controlling the switching frequency of the inverter SCR's, it is possible to rapidly change the amount of energy circulating in the resonant circuit. The potential electrical energy in DC filter capacitor bank may be indefinitely maintained regardless of inverter status. During each cycle, the reactive power is flowing
43
CHAPTER 4
either from the filter to the furnace via the SCR's or from the furnace to the filter via antiparallel diodes. Due to good controllability of the inverter section, there is no need to control DC voltage. Since phase control is not applied to the rectifier, minimum harmonic distortion is injected into the feeding line, also no AC line filters are required. The series voltage-fed inverter can be easily started. The DC filter capacitor is charged to the operation without the need to start the inverter and, likewise, upon stopping the inverter, energy is maintained in the filter capacitor, ready for immediate use [16].
Fig. 4.15 Medium frequency melting system with full bridge voltage fed converter
The output power of the series inverter increases as the operating frequency is increased towards the resonance frequency. Therefore the output power of the inverter can be controlled by controlling the operating frequency. The turn off time available for the inverter SCR's decreases as the operating frequency increased and becomes zero at the resonant frequency, therefore the series resonant inverter should always be operated below the resonant frequency such that the minimum turn off time for the SCR's is satisfied [20].
4.5 DC FILTER CIRCUIT

There are two types of DC filter circuits; the DC voltage filter and the DC current filter. The DC-voltage filter circuit delivers a constant voltage at its output terminals that can be a variable DC when the filter circuit is supplied by a controlled rectifier. The DCcurrent filter circuit delivers a constant current at its output terminals that can also be variable, when the filter circuit is supplied by a controlled rectifier. The Inductor in the DC-voltage filter is considerably smaller (about 1%) than the inductor in a DC-current filter circuit. However the DC-voltage filter also requires a
44
CHAPTER 4
massive additional capacitor bank in addition to the inductor to achieve the required filtering action. Figure 4.16 shows the DC-voltage and DC-current filter circuits for both voltage fed inverters and current fed inverters respectively.
VDC
(a)
+ VDC + VDC
L<<Ld
+ Vo -
Vo
t VDC
t Id
(b)
Ld
Id
Id t t
Fig. 4.16 a) DC-voltage filter circuit and b) DC-current filter circuit
45
CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION AND RESULTS
CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION AND RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the induction furnace's design analysis which was discussed in chapter 3 will be applied for an induction furnace with 4 ton capacity of iron as a charge material to be melted. This design includes the geometrical, thermal and electrical parameters of the furnace. To verify the design results, a digital simulation programs using MATLAB will be presented for parallel resonant inverter as well as for series resonant inverter. The simulation results will be compared with actual and experimental results for the parallel resonant inverter and the series resonant inverter respectively. A comparison between parallel resonant inverter and series resonant inverter will be discussed on the aspects of consumed power, efficiency, harmonics produced in the system, and other aspects.
5.2 FURNACE DESIGN

The thermal parameters of iron, which is considered as a charge material is shown in table 5.1 [21], [22], [23], [24], [25] and [26]. Table 5.1 Thermal parameters of iron item 1 2 3 4 5 6 Melting Temperature Latent Heat Electrical resistivity Temperature coefficient Density Parameter Specific Heat Capacity Value 460 1573
267 0.1
unit kJ/kg.k k kJ/kg -m -kg/m3
0.005671 7000
5.2.1 Geometrical Parameters

The geometrical parameters, shown in Fig. 5.1, were determined by applying equations (3.2) through (3.9). The results are tabled in table 5.2.
46
CHAPTER 5
Table 5.2 Geometrical parameters of the furnace item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Diameter of melt (dm) Height of melt (Hm) Thickness of the refractory lining (Br) Internal diameter of the inductor (Din) Height of inductor coil (Hin) Height of furnace from bottom of the bath to the pouring spout (Hf) Pouring Spout Hin Parameter Volume of the charge (Vm) Value 0.5714 76.90 123 16.8 111.5 135.3 147.96 unit m3 cm cm cm cm cm cm
Br Coil segments
Din dm Hf Hm
Fig. 5.1 the Geometric shape of the furnace
47
CHAPTER 5
5.2.2 Heat Energy Parameters

By applying equations (3.10) through (3.14), the results shown in table 5.3 were determined. Table 5.3 Heat Energy parameters of the furnace item 1 2 3 4 superheat (Qsh) Heat required to melt slag forming materials (Qs) Total energy (Qth) Parameter Amount of heat energy to melt 4 ton of charge material (Qm) Amount of heat energy to superheat the melt to temperature of 1109.5 48 3319.8 MJ MJ MJ Value 2162.3 unit MJ
5.2.3 Electrical Parameters

The coil was assumed to be a rectangular hollow tube with dimensions shown in Fig. 5.2. By using chart shown in Fig. 3.8 and equations (3.15) through (3.35), the results shown in table 5.4 were determined.
40 mm
29 mm
45 mm
Fig. 5.2 The dimensions of conducting tube
34 mm
48
CHAPTER 5
Table 5.4 Electrical parameters of the furnace Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Operating frequency (f) Resistance of charge material (RL) Induced current depth (do) Current flowing in metal (Im) Flux density (Bm) Coil tube cross sectional area (a) Power required to melt the charge in 20 minutes (P) Coil current (Icoil) Number of turns of the coil (N) Coil resistance (RC) Equivalent resistance (Req) Equivalent inductance (Leq) Parallel Capacitance (Cp) for parallel resonant inverter Series Capacitance (Cs) for series resonant inverter Parameter value 250 0.05115 2.64 232.57 0.0231 814 2.766 11.803 20 1.5 21.90 0.19014 2120 2131.5 unit Hz m cm kA Tesla mm2 MW kA turns m m mH f f
5.3 SIMULATION PARAMETERS

The furnace coil is represented by a series inductance and resistance, which are Leq and Req respectively. Req is the sum of the coil resistance RC and the charge resistance referred to coil side Rch. The capacitor is connected either in parallel or in series with the previous combination according to the inverter type. The value of the parallel connected capacitor of the parallel resonant inverter is Cp and the value of the series connected capacitor of the series resonant inverter is Cs. The furnace was assumed to be totally filled by a molten metal; therefore Leq and Req are assumed to be constants.
5.4 PARALLEL RESONANT INVERTER

In this section a detailed discussion of the results of the parallel resonant inverter is presented. First the open loop system will be presented, followed by the closed loop system and finally a comparison between simulation and actual results will be discussed. For simplicity, the thyristors used in the simulation are GTO type, therefore the turn off time of the thyristors was neglected, and also the start circuit was not included.
49
CHAPTER 5
5.4.1 Open Loop System

Figure 5.3 shows the arrangements of the open loop parallel resonant inverter system, which consists of a power supply, six pulse converter with six pulse generator, DC link reactor, inverter and furnace coil with parallel capacitor. There is no control on the firing angle of the converter, i.e. there is no feed back from the output voltage and/or power to control the firing angle value.
0 alpha deg
+ v alpha_deg AB BC CA Block pulses
Vab
+ v -
Vbc
+ v -
Vca 0
6-Pulse Generator
g + A + V
Iinverter
reactor
Leq
Va
Vfurnace
B
Cp Req
Vb
C
GTO Converter Inverter
Vc
Fig 5.3 Open Loop Parallel resonant inverter system The simulation was run for different firing angles with input voltage Vm = 2400 volt and 10.8 mH reactor. Table 5.5 shows a summary of simulation results (inverter current, furnace current, furnace voltage, furnace power and total harmonic distortion "THD") for different firing angles. Table 5.5 Results of Open Loop system simulation i 1 2 3 4 5 Firing angle
()
Iinverter
(A)
Ifurance
(kA)
Vfurnace
(volt)
Pfurnace
(kW)
THD 0.3120 0.3160 0.3199 0.8002 0.9784
0 30 45 60 90
968.8 835.3 696.0 526.1 71.12
11.78 10.21 8.32 7.84 1.11
3530 3057 2492 2350 333.3
3078 2295 1562 1099.8 17.92
50
CHAPTER 5
Figures 5.4 through 5.8 show the simulation results at resonant frequency f=250 Hz. Table 5.5 shows that inverter current and furnace voltage decrease as the firing angle increases as shown in Fig. 5.4.
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 Iinverter (A) Vf urnace (V)
Firing angle
Fig. 5.4 Inverter current and furnace voltage at different firing angles Figure 5.5 shows the waveforms of the inverter current (Iinverter) and the furnace voltage(Vfurnace) at firing angle () =0. It is clear that Iinverter and Vfurnace are in phase.
Vfurnace
Iinverter
Fig. 5.5 Inverter current and furnace voltage at =0
51
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.6 shows the DC voltgae (Vdc) at =0, while Fig. 5.7 shows Iinverter,, Vfurnace, and Vdc at=30, and those at =60 are shown in Fig. 5.8.
Fig. 5.6 The DC voltage (Vdc) at =0
Vdc
Vfurnace
Iinverter
Fig. 5.7 Inverter current, furnace voltage and Vdc at =30
Vdc
Vfurnace
Iinverter
Fig. 5.8 Inverter current, furnace voltage and Vdc at =60
52
CHAPTER 5
Figures 5.9 through 5.11 show the simulation results at a frequency higher than the resonance frequency f=254 Hz. It is clear that the inverter current and furnace voltage are not in phase at f>fo (the voltage is lagging the current) as shown in Fig. 5.9.
Fig. 5.9 Inverter current, furnace voltage at f=254 Hz It should be noticed that the power at f> fo is higher than the power at fo as shown in Fig. 5.10. At frequencies above (or below) the resonant frequency, the load voltage decreases, consequently the supply current increases due to the increase of the voltage difference between rectifier and inverter voltages. The increase of the supply current increases the output power.
Pout in (Watt) at f= 254 Hz Pout in (Watt) at fo= 250 Hz
Fig. 5.10 Output power at fo and at f=254 Hz Figure 5.11 shows the reactive power of the system at f=254 Hz and at fo. It is clear that the reactive power at fo is almost zero, and it gets higher as f is getting higher.
53
CHAPTER 5
Q in (VAR) at fo= 250 Hz
Q in (VAR) at f= 254 Hz
Fig. 5.11 Reactive power at fo and at f=254 Hz
5.4.2 Closed Loop System

Figure 5.12 shows the configuration of the closed loop system where the firing angle of the converter is controlled using a PI controller. The input to this controller is the difference between the output power (furnace power) and a reference power (required power). The operating frequency of the inverter is constant (250 Hz).
Furnace Power Alf a Ref erence Power + v alpha_deg AB BC CA Block pulses PQ I V
PI Controller
Output Power
Vab
+ v -
Vbc
+ v -
Reference Power Ct1
Vca 0
6-Pulse Generator
+ g + A + V
i -
reactor
Leq
v2
+
Va Cp
B
v -
Req Vb
C U
GTO Converter Inverter
Vc
Fig. 5.12 Configuration of the closed loop system
54
CHAPTER 5
Figures 5.13 through 5.16 show the simulation results of a closed loop system at different reference output power. Figure 5.13 shows the output power response when the reference power was suddenly changed from 1 MW to 2.5 MW at a time of 0.15 ms. The controller parameters were adjusted to allow the output power follows the reference power with minimum settling time, minimum overshoot and zero steady state error. The corresponding inverter current, furnace voltage and firing angle responses are shown in Figs. 5.14, 5.15, and 5.16 respectively.
Preference
Fig. 5.16 Closed Loop Parallel resonant inverter system
Poutput
Fig. 5.13 The output power compared with the reference power
Iinverter
Fig. 5.14 The inverter current response for step change in the reference power.
55
CHAPTER 5
V furnace
Fig. 5.15 The furnace voltage response for step change in the reference power
Firing angle
Fig. 5.16 The firing angle response for step change in the reference power
5.4.3 Comparison Between Simulation and Actual Results

To verify the design and simulation results, a comparison between these results and those of an actual induction furnace will be carried out. The actual furnace is manufactured by ABB Company in Germany. It is 4 ton capacity working at resonance frequency of 250 Hz, with 3 MW maximum power, 3000 volt maximum voltage and 1500 A maximum current. The power supply is 12-pulse converter fed from step down transformer Y/Y/, 11000/900/900 voltage, which provides two outputs shifted by 30. Figure 5.17 shows the single line diagram of the actual furnace. A comparison between electrical and geometrical parameters of the designed furnace and the actual one is shown in tables 5.6. From this table, it can be seen that the design parameters are close to the actual ones.
56
CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5.17 The Single line diagram of ABB induction furnace
Table 5.6 Comparison between simulated and actual parameters Parameter Simulated value Actual value 20 turns 0.1901 mH 2120 f 0.5714 m3 76.90 cm 123 cm 16.8 cm 111.5 cm 135.3 cm 20 turns 0.192 mH 2118.2 f 0.5714 m3 85 cm 107 cm 10.5 cm 107 cm 131.5 cm
1 Number of turns of the coil (N) 2 Equivalent inductance (Leq) 3 Capacitance (Cp) 4 The volume of the charge (Vm) 5 The diameter of melt (dm) 6 The height of melt (Hm) 7 The thickness of the refractory lining (Br) 8 The internal diameter of the inductor (Din) 9 The height of inductor coil (Hin)
Figure 5.18 (a) and (b) show the actual and simulation furnace voltage and inverter current respectively. From which it is clear that the voltage is lagging the current with an
57
CHAPTER 5
angle enough to sustain the thyristors turn off time. When the simulation was run with operating frequency higher than the resonant frequency, the same result was obtained.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.18 Furnace voltage and inverter current a) actual b) simulation Table 5.7 shows a comparison between the values of the furnace voltage and the inverter current of the actual application and the simulated one for different values of reference power assuming that the furnace is totally filled with molten metal. Table 5.7 Comparison between simulated and actual values of furnace voltage and inverter current for different values of power Power Actual Simulation Percentage of error (E) (MW) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Vfurnace (V) 1191 1678 2045 2367 2643 Iinverter (A) 493 702 861 995 1076 Vfurnace (V) 1198 1692 2062 2387 2668 Iinverter (A) 474.5 662.5 824.1 941.9 1043 Evolt % 0.59 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.95 Ecurrent % 3.75 5.63 4.29 5.63 3.16
5.5 SERIES RESONANT INVERTER

In this section, detailed discussion of the series resonant inverter results is presented. First the open loop system, then the closed loop system and finally a comparison between simulation and experimental results will be discussed. As in parallel resonant inverter, the thyristors used in simulation are GTO type.
58
CHAPTER 5
5.5.1 Open Loop System

Figure 5.19 shows the arrangements of the open loop series resonant inverter system, which consists of power supply, Diode rectifier, DC link parallel capacitor with series small value reactor (1 % of the parallel resonant system reactor), inverter and furnace coil with series capacitor. There is no control on the inverter operating frequency, i.e. there is no feed back from the output power to control the value of the operating frequency of the inverter.
DC Link Reactor f
Inverter
Va
Freq + V
Va
DC Link Capacitor
Vb +
Vinverter
Req
Vb Cs
Vc -
Vc Diode Rectifier inverter
Fig. 5.19 Open Loop Series Resonant Inverter System The simulation was run for different frequencies with input voltage Vm = 179.6 volt. The reactor value is 0.108 mH, and the capacitor (c) value is 1.2 farad. The value of capacitor was selected, to minimize the ripples in the DC voltage. Table 5.8 shows a summary of results (inverter current, furnace voltage, furnace power and total harmonic distortion "THD") for different operating frequencies. Table 5.8 Results of open loop system simulation i 1 2 3 4 5 Operating frequency (f) 242 244 246 248 250 Iinverter
(kA)
Vinverter
(volt)
Vfurnace
(volt)
Poutput
(kW)
THD 0.3007 0.2984 0.2963 0.2938 0.2935
8.34 9.15 9.89 10.39 10.65
274.1 270.6 266.1 263.4 262.0
2415 2671 2912 3082 3184
1535 1851 2155 2385 2500
59
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.20 shows inverter current and voltage at different operating frequencies (fo =250 Hz).
300 250 200 Vinverter 150 100 9 50 0 240 8 252 10 Iinverter 12 V (volt) I (kA) 11
242
244
246
248
250
f o pe ra ting (Hz)
Fig. 5.20 The inverter current and voltage at different operating frequencies (fo =250 Hz) Figure 5.21 shows the output power (Po) and total impedance (Z) at different operating frequencies (fo =250 Hz). It is clear that, the output power decreases and the impedance increases as the frequency decreases compared with the resonant frequency.
0.034 0.032 0.03 0.028 0.026 0.024 1500 0.022 0.02 240 1200 252 2100 2700 Z(o hm ) P o2400 ) (kW
1800
242
244
246 f operatin g (Hz)
248
250
Fig. 5.21 The output power (Po) and total impedance (Z) at different operating frequencies Figure 5.22 shows the inverter current and voltage at f=fo=250 Hz. It is clear that the voltage and the current are in phase, while the voltage is lagging the current when the operating frequency is lower than fo as shown in Fig. 5.23. The current waveform in Figs. 5.22 and 5.23 was multiplied by a reduction factor of 0.05 so that the two waveforms are comparable.
60
output power
Impedance
CHAPTER 5
Vinverter
Iinverter
Fig. 5.22 The inverter current and voltage at f=fo=250 Hz.
Vinverter
Iinverter
Fig. 5.23 The inverter current and voltage at f=246 Hz. The output power of the system decreases when the operating frequency decreases compared with the resonant frequency, while the reactive power increases "becomes more capacitive" when the operating frequency is lower than the resonance frequency. These two results are shown in Figs. 5.24 and 5.25 respectively. The value of the capacitor filter was selected to minimize the ripples in the DC voltage as possible. Figure 5.26 shows the DC voltage at two different values of capacitor 0.2 farad and 1.2 farad. It can be seen that the ripples in the DC voltage decrease as the capacitor value increases. Figure 5.27 shows the output power response at two different values of capacitor 0.2 farad and 1.2 farad. It is clear that the oscillations decreases as the capacitor value increases.
61
CHAPTER 5
Pout at f=fo=250 Hz Pout at f=246 Hz
Fig. 5.24 Output power at fo and at f=246 Hz
Q at f=fo=250 Hz
Q at f =246 Hz Fig. 5.25 Reactive power at fo and at f=246 Hz
VDC at C=0.2 Farad VDC at C=1.2 Farad
Fig. 5.26 VDC at two different capacitor values
62
CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5.27 Pout at two different capacitor values
5.5.2 Closed Loop System

Figure 5.28 shows the configuration of the closed loop system where the operating frequency is controlled using a PI controller. The input to this controller is the difference between the output power (furnace power) and the reference power (required power).
Act_Power Freq1 Ref erence_Power
PI_Controller
P
PQ
V I
DC Link Reactor Ct1

i + Va Freq + V -
P Reference
P&Q
Va
v2
+ v
DC Link Capacitor
Vb +
Req
Vb Cs
Vc -
Vc Diode Rectifier inverter
Fig. 5.28 Configuration of the closed loop system Figures 5.29 through 5.31 show the simulation results of a closed loop system at different reference output power. The simulation was run for time of 1 ms. At a time of 0.5 ms the reference power was suddenly increased from 1.5 MW to 2.5 MW. The controller
63
CHAPTER 5
parameters were adjusted to allow the output power follows the reference power with minimum settling time, minimum overshoot and zero steady state error as shown in Fig. 5.29.
Reference Power Output Power
Fig. 5.29 The output power compared with the reference power. When the reference power changes, the controller tries to adjust the frequency to make the output power follows the reference power; this operation has an influence on the phase shift between the voltage and the current of the inverter as shown in Fig. 5.30.
Vinverter Iinverter
Fig. 5.30 Phase shift change with the change in the reference power. As the phase shift changes with the change of reference power, the reactive power, which depends on the phase shift between the voltage and the current, will change dramatically. The corresponding change of the reactive power is shown in Fig. 5.31 when the reference power changes.
64
CHAPTER 5
Reactive Power
Fig. 5.31 The reactive power response to the change in the reference power.
5.5.3 Comparison between Simulation and Experimental results

To verify the design and simulation results, a comparison between these results and those of a prototype induction furnace will be carried out. The prototype furnace is manufactured locally. It is 4 kg capacity working at resonance frequency of 3.623 kHz. The power supply is full converter fed from step down single phase transformer 220/27 voltage. Figures 5.32 and 5.33 show the single line diagram of the prototype furnace and the typical setup respectively.
Fig. 5.32 The single line diagram of the prototype furnace.
65
CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5.33 Typical setup of the prototype furnace. The parameters of the prototype furnace are shown in table 5.9. Table 5.9 Electrical parameter of the prototype furnace item 1 2 3 4 Frequency kHz 3.623 3.200 2.800
Vinverter (V)
Parameter The operating frequency (f) Equivalent resistance (Req) Equivalent inductance (Leq) Series Capacitance (Cs)
value 3623 0.245 64.325 30
unit Hz
H
f
Table 5.10 shows a comparison between the inverter voltage and current for both simulation and prototype results. Table 5.10 Comparison between simulated and experimental values of furnace voltage and inverter current at different frequencies Experimental
Iinverter (A)
Simulation
Vinverter (V) Iinverter (A)
Percentage of error (E)

Evolt % Ecurrent %
09.80 14.50 16.78
40.0 32.64 20.5
10.66 15.32 17.50
39.18 31.82 19.94
8.7 5.6 4.3
2.05 2.51 2.73
66
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.34 (a) and (b) shows the experimental and the simulated furnace voltage and inverter current at resonant frequency. Figure 5.35 (a) and (b) shows the experimental and the simulated inverter voltage and current at frequency lower than the resonant frequency (f=3546 Hz). It is clear that the voltage and the current are in phase at the resonant frequency while the voltage is lagging the current when the operating frequency is lower than the resonant frequency.
Iinverter Vinverter
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.34 Inverter voltage and current at resonant frequency a) experimental b) simulation
(a)
(b) (b)
Fig. 5.35 Inverter voltage and current at frequency lower than fo a) experimental b) simulation
5.6 COMPARISON
BETWEEN
PARALLEL
AND
SERIES
RESONANT INVERTER SYSTEMS.

On the previous sections, the parallel and series resonant inverter systems were demonstrated and discussed in details. In this section a comparison between both systems will be carried out. As shown previously, the supply voltage of the series resonant system is lower than that of the parallel one, while the inverter current of the series system is higher than that of
67
CHAPTER 5
the parallel one. It should be noted that, all the system components are subjected to the high current in the series resonant system while only the furnace is subjected to the high current in the parallel resonant system. The actual parallel resonant system has a starting circuit in order to accumulate the necessary energy in the DC link reactor, while in series system, the starting is simple and does not need a starting circuit as discussed previously in chapter 4. Table 5.11 shows a comparison between the consumed power, overall efficiency and the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the supply current for the two systems at three different levels of reference power. It is clear that the consumed power of the parallel resonant inverter system is higher than the one of the series resonant inverter system, and the efficiency of the series resonant inverter system is higher than that of the parallel resonant inverter system. On other hand, as the series resonant inverter system uses a full rectification converter, it produces lower harmonics to the supply and the supply voltage is notching free. It should be noted that, the difference between the THD of the two systems is not significant at low firing angles, but the THD of the parallel system increases dramatically as the firing angle increases as shown previously in table 5.5. Table 5.11 Comparison between parallel and series resonant systems' consumed power, efficiency and THD Ref Power
(MW)
Consumed Power (MW)

Parallel Series
Efficiency %
Parallel Series
THD
Parallel Series
2.00 2.25 2.50
2.508 2.813 3.125
2.235 2.787 3.013
79.40 80.14 80.70
88.46 82.67 83.01
0.3132 0.3110 0.3095
0.2995 0.2960 0.2944
Figure 5.36 and 5.37 show the supply voltage and current waveforms for parallel and series resonant inverter systems respectively. It can be seen that the supply voltage has a severe notching in the parallel resonant inverter system which doesn't exist in the supply voltage of the series resonant inverter system. It is also clear that the parallel resonant inverter system produces higher harmonics than that of the series resonant inverter system. The series resonant system gives its maximum power at the resonant frequency, while the minimum power of the parallel resonant system is given at resonant frequency as shown in Fig. 5.38 (a) and (b) respectively.
68
CHAPTER 5
Vsupply
Isupply
Time
Fig. 5.36 Supply current and voltage of the parallel resonant system
Vsupply
Isupply
Time
Fig. 5.37 Supply current and voltage of the series resonant system
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.38 Output power of a) Series resonant system and b) Parallel resonant system at different values of frequency In order to sustain the thyristors turn off time, the operating frequency should be higher than the resonant frequency in the parallel resonant system while it should be lower than the resonant frequency in the series resonant system.
69
CHAPTER 5
The control technique of the series resonant system depends only on the control of operating frequency of the inverter; while both; the controlled rectifier's firing angle and the operating frequency are controlled in the parallel resonant inverter. As previously shown the THD of the parallel system increases as the firing angle increases, therefore, the power factor of the system is getting worse as the firing angle increases. The power factor of the series resonant system is about 0.95 as the THD is ranging around 0.3 as shown in table 5.11, while it varies from 0.7 to 0.95 depending on the controlled rectifier's firing angle of the parallel resonant system. Series resonant system is simple in design than the parallel resonant system, which means lower cost in terms of money. Table 5.12 summaries all the previous points as a comparison between series and parallel resonant systems. Table 5.12 Comparison between parallel and series resonant systems Feature THD Voltage Current Starting technique Operating frequency System power factor Setup Line rectifier Control technique Voltage notching Parallel Resonant Inverter Depends on the firing angle High Low Complicated Higher than fo (to sustain thyristor toff ) 0.7-0.95 (depends on the firing angle) Complicated Phase control Phase control and frequency control Exists Series Resonant Inverter Low Low High Simple Lower than fo (to sustain thyristor toff ) 0.95 Simple Full rectification Frequency control Notching free
As a conclusion from previous comparison, it is clear that the series resonant system is better than the parallel resonant system. The only restriction on the series resonant inverter system is the high furnace current that passes through the whole system components.
70
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 CONCLUSION
In the production of mineral resources, the melting of metals has become one of the tremendous industrial practices in the forefront. Induction furnaces are used extensively in the metal industry for melting metals and as holding furnaces. A coreless induction furnace system consists of a complete system of components necessary for proper, reliable, and safe furnace operation. The main components required are a furnace, power supply, power transmission system, and a water cooling system. An understanding of the operating principals of induction furnaces must begin with a basic understanding of induction heating and how it works. It was found that all induction heating applied systems are developed using electromagnetic induction. The basic principle of induction heating is the fact that AC current flowing through a circuit affects the magnetic movement of a secondary circuit located near it. Rather than just a furnace, a coreless induction furnace is actually an energy transfer device where energy is transferred directly from an induction coil into the material to be melted through the electromagnetic field produced by the induction coil. The capacity of the furnace is determined by the size of the pour required, the size and shape of the charge material to be melted, and the power density. There are many factors that influence the selection of furnace power, the first is the capacity to be melted, the type of the material to be melted (Iron, Aluminum, Tin ...) and the desired melt cycle time. For optimal furnace performance, the selection of the system operating induction frequency is very important, as it affects both the coupling efficiency of the electromagnetic field to the charge and the stirring characteristics of the molten metal in the furnace. The geometrical parameters of the furnace such as diameter of melt, the height of melt, and diameter of coil are determined directly by the furnace capacity. The heat energy required to melt the charge material depends on the solid specific heat, latent heat of fusion, and liquid specific heat of the charge material. From which, the power required to melt the material can be determined. The electrical parameters of the furnace such as number of turns of coil, inductance of the coil, resistance of the coil and the maximum flux
71
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
density are determined based on transformer concept, where the furnace is represented by a transformer with (N) turns primary and one tune secondary that is short circuited. The possible power supplies of the coreless induction furnace are current fed inverter with parallel capacitor bank, which depends on the concept of parallel resonant circuit, and voltage fed inverter with series capacitor bank, which depends on the concept of series resonant circuit. Both systems are the most common types of power supplies used in industry as they produce minimum switching losses. Compromising between series and parallel resonant inverter systems shows that series resonant inverter system is better than parallel resonant inverter system in the aspects of efficiency, power factor, harmonics introduced to the supply current, control technique, and cost. The only restriction on the series resonant inverter system is the high current of the furnace which passes through the whole system components therefore high current rating thyristors and circuit breakers must be used in this system.
6.2 FUTURE WORK

Fault diagnosis can be considered as an extension to this work. Fault diagnosis is to specify the faulty thyristor/thyristors directly from the shape of the current/voltage waveforms at the time of fault. This will help in quick removal of faults in real applications. The furnace acoustic noise could be studied as a point of comparison between series and parallel inverter resonant systems.
72
References
REFERENCES
[1] Unbiased Induction Heating Expertise, http://www.inductionatmospheres.com/induction_heating.html#Anchor-HO-52727 [2] J. Callebaut and Laborelec "Power Quality and Utilization Guide", Section 7: Energy Efficiency, February 2007, www.leonardo-energy.org. [3] Shrets, I.; Tolubinsky, V.; Kirakovsky, N.; Neduzhy, I.; and Sheludko, I. 1987. Heat Engineering. Mir Publ., Moscow, Russia. [4] Hammond, P. 1978. Electromagnetism for Engineers - An Introductory Course. Pergamon, Oxford, London, UK. [5] A. J. Mestel, On the flow in a channel induction furnace, Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1984), 147: 431-447 Cambridge University Press [6] P. Dorland. J. D. Van Wyk and Fellow, "On the Influence of Coil Design and Electromagnetic Configuration on the Efficiency of an Induction Melting Furnace", IEEE Transactions on industry applications, vol. 36, no. 4, July/August 2000. [7] Induction Heating System Topology Review, www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/AN9012.pdf , July 2000. [8] D. A. Lazor, "Induction Related Considerations in Investment Casting", Modern Investment Casting Technical Seminar March 27-29, 2001. www.lectrothermprocesssystems.com/en/pdf/techdocs05.pdf [9] Basics of Induction Heating " Induction Heating Guide" www.inductoheat.co.uk/Downloads/lnduction_Heating_Guide.pdf [10] J. Lee, S. K. Lim, K. Nam and D. Choi, "Design Method of an Optimal Induction Heater Capacitance for Maximum Power Dissipation and Minimum Power Loss Caused by ESR", www.postech.ac.kr/ee/cmd/publications/designmethod.pdf [11] K.C. Bala, "Design Analysis of an Electric Induction Furnace for Melting Aluminum Scrap", Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, Oct. 2005, www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2005/oct05/vol9num2_article04.pdf [12] J. H. Mortimer "Batch Induction Melting the Science and Technology", Aug. 2003, www.inductotherm.com. [13] A. K. Sawheny, A Course in Electrical Machine Design, J.C. Kapoor, 1981.
73
References
[14] D. V. Riesen and K. Hameyer, "Coupled Electromagnetic, Structural-Dynamic, and Acoustic Simulation of an Induction Furnace", IEEE Transaction on magnetics, vol. 42, no. 4, April 2006 [15] Lloyed H. Dixon, Jr. "Eddy Current Losses in Transformer Winding and Circuit Wiring" http://focus.ti.com/lit/ml/slup197/slup197.pdf [16] O.S. Fishman, "Power Supplies in Induction Melting systems", May 2001, www.inductotherm.com. [17] O.S. Fishman, "AC line distortion for static power converters used in induction melting", September 2001, www.inductotherm.com. [18] M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics circuits, devices and applications, Prentice Hall PTR, June 1994. [19] B. K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drivers, Prentice Hall PTR, 2001. [20] F.P. Dawson, "A Comparison of Load Commutated Inverter Systems for Induction Heating and Melting Applications", IEEE Transactions on power electronics, vol. 6, no. 3, July 1991. [21] Cast iron, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron [22] Metals - Specific Heat Capacities http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-heat-metals-d_152.html [23] Physics Lab: Specific and Latent Heat http://phoenix.phys.clemson.edu/labs/223/spheat/index.html [24] Iron, http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/iron.htm [25] Resistivity of Iron http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/JonathanRuditser.shtml [26] Temperature coefficient of resistance http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_12/6.html
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The Thesis Industrial Electronics Applications (Design and Simulation of Coreless Induction Furnace)

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ALEXANDRIA UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS

Eng. Ahmed Mohamed El-Sharkawy

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS (DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE)

Eng. Ahmed Mohamed El-Sharkawy

For The Degree of Master of Science In Electrical Engineering

Dr. Mahmoud Ibrahim Masaoud

Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

1.1 APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION HEATING

1.2 INDUCTION FURNACES HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.3 TYPES OF INDUCTION FURNACES

1.4 THESIS OBJECTIVE

1.5 THESIS LAYOUT

CHAPTER 2 INDUCTION HEATING

2.2 BASICS OF INDUCTION HEATING

Fig. 2.2 Eddy current distributions in the conductive material

Resulting induced circulating current

Fig. 2.3 The resulting induced circulating current

2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCTION HEATING

Fig. 2.4.a Equivalent circuit of transformer

Fig. 2.4.b Secondary short

Where, : Resistivity of charge material

: Permeability of charge material

Fig. 2.5 Distribution chart of current density and skin depth

Fig. 2.6 Effect of frequency on the current depth.

2.4 CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

2.4.1 System components

Fig. 2.11 Block diagram of induction furnace system.

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

3.2 SELECTION OF FURNACE SIZE, AND POWER RATING

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

3.3 SELECTION OF INDUCTION FREQUENCY

3.3.1 Induced Current Depth

Fig. 3.2 induced current depth do in a cylindrical load with diameter D

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

Fig. 3.4 The ratio D/do Vs the efficiency

3.3.2 Meniscus Height and Metal Stirring

dm Fig. 3.5 Meniscus height to diameter of melt

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

Fig. 3.7 Light and heavy stirring

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

3.4 DESIGN ANALYSIS

3.4.1 Geometrical Parameters [11]

Where dm = diameter of molten metal (m) = Dc Also, Vm =

Where M = the mass of charge in kg

V = the density of charge material in kg/m3

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

Where hs = height of slag formed

The slag height is calculated thus:

3.4.2 Heat Energy Parameters

Where, Qm = amount of heat energy to melt 4 tons of charge material.

DESIGN OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

where, M = mass of charge, kg.

= melting temperature of charge, k

= ambient temperature, 25C (298 k)

where, Cm = average heat capacity of molten metal, J/kg.k

Where, K = quantity of slag formed in (kg), taken as 4% of furnace capacity;

G = heat energy for slag = 300 kJ/kg.

3.4.3 Electrical Parameters

The effective value of this e.m.f (E) in the element path is