Observational Studies

 

Behavioral: Nonbehavioral:

Observational Studies


Behavioral:
 

Non-verbal (expressions & body movements) Linguistic (words of annoyance, surprise; conversation recordings) Extralinguistic (includes vocal pitch, loudness; interaction-interruption; pronunciation, accent; temporal-rate of speaking) Spatial (how persons relate physically to others)

Observational Studies


Nonbehavioral:


Record analysis (written, photographed, videographed) Physical condition analysis (safety features, store upkeeps, merchandise availability, cleanliness) Physical process or activity analysis (time/motion studies, traffic flows, paper-workflow in offices)

Observational Studies


Observer
  

Participant Relationship:

Direct / Indirect observation Participant is aware / unaware Observer s role Unstructured / structured Natural setting / laboratory

Classification of Observational Studies:

 

Observer Training
  

Concentration Detail oriented Unobtrusive



Ability to blend with the situation

Experience level

Data Collection
 

Who to be observed Sampling:

 

Event sampling (what to observe) Time sampling (when to observe) One or two observers

How to observe


Where to observe - location

Unobtrusive Measures


Physical traces
 

Erosion (measures of wear) Accretion (measures of deposit) Wear & tear on book pages of library books Frequency of replacement of floor tiles in museums

Examples:


Experimentation


Are studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement There is at least one dependent and one independent variable

Experimentation


Advantages:
   

Ability to manipulate independent variable Extraneous can be controlled Convenient and cost effective Replication: experiments producing similar results

Experimentation


Disadvantages:
 

Artificiality of the laboratory Generalization based on experiments is open to question There could cost over-runs There are limits to types of manipulation and controls that are ethical

 

Experimental Designs


Laboratory Experiments:


Ability to control certain variables but limitation in respect of realism in research setting Respondents are likely to be influenced, because they are aware of the expected study Benefit is the reality of the setting Provides a high level of external validity

Field experiments
 

Lab & Field Settings for Experimentation

Characteristics Internal validity External validity Expense Time involved Realism Laboratory High Low Could be low Could be low Low Field Low High High High High

Experimental Designs


Definitions:
 

R = Random assignment of subjects O = Observation or measurement of dependent variable. If there are more than one observation then subscripts O1, O2 etc will be used X = the exposure of a test group to an experimental treatment (independent variable)

Experimental Designs
  

Pre-Experimental Designs True Experimental Designs Field Experiments



Quasi- or Semi-Experiments

Pre-Experimental Designs


One-Shot Case Study



X O1 X

One-Group Pretest


Posttest Design
O2

True Experimental Designs

  

Pretest

Posttest Control Group Design

Posttest only Control Group Design Extensions of True Experimental Designs:

   

Completely Randomized Design Randomized Block Design Latin Square Design Factorial Design

Pretest Design

  

Posttest Control Group

Symbolical presentation of the design:

Experimental group R O1 X O2 Control group R O3 O4 Treatment effect = (O2 O1) (O4 O3)

Posttest only Control Group Design



Presented symbolically as:

  

  

Experimental group R X O1 Control group R O2 O1 is composed of treatment effect and extraneous factors O2 is composed of extraneous factors only Treatment effect = O1 O2 This design is less expensive & less time consuming

Extended Experimental Designs

High price

Completely Randomized Design

Store#5 Store#1 Store#8

Av sales for treatment 1

Medium price Store#3 Store#4 Store#2

Av sales for treatment 2

Low price Store#9 Store#7 Store#6

Av sales for treatment 3

Extended Experimental Designs



Randomised Block design:

BLOCK
Discount Departmental Specialty

High price
Store#5 Store#1 Store#8

Medium price
Store#3 Store#4 Store#2

Low price Block means

Store#9 Store#7 Store#6
Av sales for treatment 3

Xb1 Xb2 xb3

Av sales for Av sales for treatment 1 treatment 2

Extended Experimental Design



Latin-Square design: an example of rotation of experimental treatments

Stores A B C D Jan 1 to Jan 15 1 4 3 2 Jan 22 to Feb 12 to Mar 5 to Feb 26 Mar 19 Feb 5 3 4 2 3 4 1 1 2 4 2 1 3

Factorial Design


Another use of rotated test units as factorial design

Ad expense as % of sales Discount

0.5% A E I M

1% B F J N

1.5% C G K O

2% D H L P

2% 5% 7% 10%