Indian Geography

-One of the oldest civilizations of the world -it has achieved socio economic progress -it is with heterogeneity in several terms -it became self sufficient in agricultural production, IT, space and biotechnology -it became 10th industrialized country in the world -it is 7th largest country in the world area 3.28 million sq.km -its geographical area is 2.4% of world geographical area -it is 2nd most populous of world -total frontier length is 15200 km -coast length of mainland is 6100km -coast length including islands is 7516km -distance between N most point to S most point is 3214km -distance between W most point to E most point is 2933km -EEZ extend up to 320km -its territorial waters extend up to 12 nautical miles -it lies in eastern part of N hemisphere -it lies between latitudes 8.4 N and 37.6 N -it lies between longitudes 68.7 E and 97.25 E -23 tropic of cancer passes through Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripura and Mizoram -Indian standard time (IST) is based on 82 E longitude & it is Passing through UP, Chattisgarh, MP, Orissa & AP( Kakinada ) -Indian time is 5 hours ahead of GMT Islands -total islands 247 (204 in Bay of Bengal, 43 in Arabian Sea and in Gulf of Mannar) -Andaman and Nicobar islands are of volcanic origin - Lakshadweep and other are of coral origin -Pam ban, Rameshwaram islands lie between India and Sri Lanka -Andaman and Nicobar islands are believed to be extensions of Arakanyoma of Burma -Andaman: Greater Andaman -- North Middle port Blair South Little Andaman 10 degrees channel passing through it *between south and little Andaman Duncan pass exists -Nicobargreater Nicobar largest *kar Nicobar is northern most of all islands. -Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive islands are in Arabian sea Offshore islands piram, Bhaisala Kathiawar -- Diu , vaida, Nora -- Kachh -- Aliabet Narmada Tapi mouth --Elephanta, salsette -- Mumbai --Pam ban, crocodile Gulf of Mannar --Sriharikota Mouth of pulicat --ParikudMouth of chilka --New Moore and Sagar Ganga delta Geological history of India -peninsular India is believed to be a part of the ancient Gondwanaland. -the solid rock mass is thought to have collided with the southern shore of the Asian landmass, causing the uplift of the Himalayas.(Northern part Angara land and Southern Gondwana ) -the great plains of Northern India are a result of the deposition of alluvium by the Himalayan rivers. India is a sub continent because -it stands out distinctly from the rest of the continent. -great geographical extent -it is separated by the Himalayas from the rest of Asia -Himalayas and monsoon winds play a significant role in the geographical condition of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Bangladesh and bind them into a geographical unit. Physiographic divisions of the country: Himalayas: (forming from tertiary period) -In place of present day Himalayas there existed a river Tethys sea (flowing from Tibet ) -due to the collision between Deccan plateau and Tibetan plateau these fold mountains resulted. - Himalayas are one of the youngest mountains in the world comprising sedimentary rocks. -length 5000km, breadth 150 to 400km, average height-2000m -they are parallel ranges *Himadri/ Greater Himalayas average height 6100m -Himadri runs like an arc from Nangaparbhat in West to Namcha Barwa in east. -Peaks areMt everest, Kanchanganga, Makalu , Daulagiri, Nangaparbhat, Nandadevi -Imp passes are Baralapcha and shipkila Himachal pradesh Niti and Lipulekh Uttaranchal Nathula and Zelepla Sikkim Bhurzila and Zorzila Kashmir *Himachal/ Central /Middle/lesser Himalayas -longest range Pirpanjal (Kashmir ) - Kashmir valley lies in between Himadri and Pirpanjal -peak in pirpanjal Titakuri -Krishna Ganga, Jhelum and Chenab cut Pirpanjal and enter Into Kashmir -Dhauldhar range lie on SW of Pirpanjal -Simla, Kulu, Kangra lie in Dhauldhar range -Hill stations are Mussorie, Ranikhet, Nainital etc -passes in pirpanjal are Pirpanjal and Banihal (gate way to Valley of Kashmir) -along the slopes are found a number of small pastures which Are called Merg in Kashmir e.g. Gulmerg, Sonmerg, Tanmerg and Bugyal and payar in uttaranchal *Siwaliks/Sub Himalayas -continuously extend from J & K to Arunachal pradesh -streams cutting Siwaliks are called choz *at the foot of Siwaliks the pebble zone is called Bhabar *Teraia zone of excessive dampness with thick forest found along the foothill of Shivaliks marking the reemergence of the streams to the surface. *New alluvial zone is called Khadar (In Punjab they are called Bets) *Old alluvial zone is called Bhangar *new range which separates plains form alluvium filled basins are called Duns (Dehradun, pattidun and Kotli dun) Himalayas are intersected by numerous valleys like -Kashmir valley Kashmir - Doon valley Dehradun -Kangra & Kullu valley Himachal pradesh -Kathmandu valley Nepal -Bhagirathi valley -- near Gangotri -Mandakini valley near kedarnath *Trans Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas -lie on the North of greater Himalayas -zaskar, Karakoram(kailash mountains in Tibet ), Ladakh, Kunlun , Hindukush, Pamir, Alay, Transalay etc lie -several rivers originated from Manasa sarovaram -other glaciers present are Siachin, Baltora, Hispar, Baifo, -Mt.K2/Krishnagiri/Godwin Austin exist in POK

*Horizontally Himalayas extend as *Punjab Himalayas lie between Indus and Jhelum rivers *Kumaon Himalayaslie between Sutlej and Kali rivers -Nandadevi is the peak -Badrinath, kedarnath, Gangotri, Nandakot exist -Nainital and Bhimtal lakes exist -Bhagirathi, Ganga Yamuna exist in it. *Nepal Himalayas lie between Kali and Tista rivers -Dhaulagiri, Makalu , Mt Everest and Kanchanaganga exist -drained by Karnali, Gandak and Kosi - Kathmandu located in it -Nepal Himalayas in Bhutan are called Bhutan Himalayas -Nepal Himalayas in Sikkim are called Sikkim Himalayas (Lying between Singalila on west and Dondakya on east) -Nepal Himalayas in WB are called Darjeeling Himalayas (Tiger hills lie in it with Tea gardens) *Assam Himalayas lie between Tista and Dihang rivers Significance: -northern boundary -source of perennial rivers -home of glaciers -causing fertile alluvial plains -possessed tourist sites like Nainital -deposits of minerals -unique variety of flora and fauna found. Facts in support of gradual rising of Himalayas -1st phase formed in Oligocene period (150 million yrs ago) -2nd phase uplift of pot war region of Pak -3rd phase folded siwalik in Pliocene time (100 million yrs ago) *Karewastilted lake beds in Kashmir Himalayan geological division -Tibetan zonelies in N of greater Himalayas, composed of sedimentary fossils -central zonecomposed of crystalline metamorphic rocks such as granite -Himalayan Nappezone of over folds -sub Himalayan zonecomposed of sedimentary deposits Purvanchal Himalayas6 sub provinces of it are -Purvanchal hills Mishmi Daphabum is peak on south of Lohit river Potkai covered with dense forest -Nagaland hills Saramati is peak -Manipur Loktak Lake present -North Cachar hills Hilly belt between Meghalaya and NE -Mizo hills -Tripura hills Meghalaya plateau -it is with Khasi, Garo, Jaintia hills -Nokrek is peak of Garo hills -Mikir hills are on east of Meghalaya (extend from Jamuna to Brahmaputra ) -Kaziranga sanctuary is on north of Mikir hills - Assam valley Northern slope is marshy subject to annual flood Western arid plain -uplifted during Pleistocene time -Luni dammed near Bilara with reservoir Jaswant Sagar -Sambhar, Didwana, Panchapadra and Tal are famous lakes -Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers dried up by 1000BC -Western part is sandy and covered with shifting sand dunes called Dharian -Eastern desert and Aravalli is fertile tract called Rohi Ganga plains (uttaranchal, UP, Bihar and WB) Sub regions of it are -Ganga Yamuna doab -Rohilkhand plains drained by Ramganga, Gomati and Sarada -Avadh plains Ghagra is stream - Bihar plains Marshes on these plains is chaurs -- on its outward side occur vast depressions called

Jala and Tala -North Bengal plain ideal home of tea cultivation - Bengal plain -Rarh plain Central high lands -Aravallis oldest fold mountains(belong to Precambrian period, Borat plateau is lying between Aravallis -Guru sikhar peak found on Abu hills -on E of Aravallis Mewar plateau exist -on E of Mewar Malwa plateau exists -Vindhya hills exist on south of Malwa (this plateau is called chotanagpur in Jharkhand) -Damodar and suvarnarekha rivers flowing through Chotanagpur plateau -Rajmahal hills lie on E of Chotanagpur plateau (Rur of India) -Vindhyas and Satpura hills divide the country into North and South -MP high land Chambal Main River of this region -Bundelkhand upland lying between Yamuna and vindhya -Malwa plateau lava plateau on N of Vindhyas -Vindhyan lands Kaimur hills locate in it on east -Narmada valley Narmada River rises from a spring on Amarkantak plateau (Amarkantak is peak in Maikal ranges) and at Bheraghat it forms Dhuandhara water falls or Marble falls Peninsular plateau -Extended from Northern Panchamarhi to Southern Capecamorin Western Sahyadris to Eastern Rajmahal hills Western Ghats-peaks in Northern Western Ghats are Kalehsubai, Salher, Harischandragarh, Mahabaleswar -Peaks in Southern western Ghats --Vavulmala -passes connecting Deccan plateau and konkan plain are Thalghat and Bhorghat -Palghat is rift valley Ponnani river flows through it. -At Gudalur Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats join to form Nilagiri hills -on South of Nilagiri hills Western Ghats are separated by Palghat - Western Ghats on south of Palghat are called Annamalai hills -the peak in Annamalai hills is Anaimudi -Annamalai hills on NE are called Palani hills (Kodaikanal lies in it) and in south they are called Cardamom hills (Kambam valley present in it) - Maharashtra coast is called Konkan -Karnataka coast is called Canara coast -Kerala coast is called Malabar -Tamilnadu coast is called Coramandel -AP coast is called Circar -Orissa coast is called Utkal Eastern Ghatslie in Orissa and AP -southern section of Eastern Ghats is with Biligiri and Melagiri ranges -on East of Eastern Ghats rise shevaroy and Javadi hills North Deccan Plateau-Satpura ranges and Maharashtra plateau Satpura ranges -extending between western Rajpipla hills and Eastern Maikal ranges -on central part Mahadeo hills exist(belong to Gondwana period) -Gawilgarh hills lie on south of Mahadeo hills with peak Dhupgarh near panchamarhi hills station Maharashtra plateau It is with Ajanta and Ellora hills South Deccan plateau-Telangana plateau and Karnataka plateau Telangana plateau Godavari divides it into North forest and Southern settlement Karnataka plateau

-Northern section is drained by Krishna and Godavari -It is subdivided into Malnad (Babu Budan hills lie in it) and Maidan (Rolling plains lie in it) Chotanagpur plateau -largest part of it is Ranchi plateau -Rajmahal hills mark end of Chotanagpur plateau -central part of Mahanadi basin is Chattisgarh -On south of Chattisgarh basin there is Dandakaranya -Indravati river flowing in middle of Dandakaranya -southern part of plateau is drained by Sabari river Doab -it is the area between 2 rivers -flood plains of Khadar, locally in Punjab are called Dhaya e.g. : -Bist Doab Sutlej and Beas - Bari Doab Beas and Ravi -Rachna Doab chenab and Ravi -Chaj Doab Jhelum and Chenab Boundaries -Palk strait separates India from Srilanka -Radcliff line separates India from Pakistan -Macmohan line separates India from China -Durand line separates India from Afghanistan -southern most point of India Indira point/ Pygmallion point/La Henching at south of Nicobar (6.45 N latitude) -Northern most point of India Kilik Dhawan pass. (J & K) -present largest state of India Rajasthan (MP, Maharashtra, AP) -smallest state in terms of area Goa -largest state in terms of population UP -smallest state in terms of population Sikkim -land locked states MP, Haryana, chattisgarh and Jharkhand - Gujarat has longest coast length *the time difference between eastern most and westernmost point is 2 hrs. *Western most point is Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. *Eastern most point is Purvanchal of Arunachal pradesh *state with small coast length Goa *Barren and Narcondum islands are volcanic islands *9 degrees channel is passing through Suheli Island and Minicoy *8 degrees channel is passing through Minicoy Island *Coco channel is passing between Coco Island and Andaman Island. (it is lying between Myanmar and India *Indian had given Teinbeiga area to Bangladesh for rent * India has longest boundary with China *J and K has longest boundary with China * Gujarat has longest boundary with Pak *UP has longest boundary with Nepal *Chilka lake is popular for Ridley tortoises *Lagoon lakes on Kerala coast Vembanad and Ashtamudi *JOG/JERSOPPA water falls are on river Saravati in KN *Vaitarani river is flowing in Konkan plains *Kosi is sorrow of Bihar *Majuli in Brahmaputra plains is the largest river island in the world * Narmada river divides the peninsula into central highlands and Deccan plateau Indian Climate: Monsoon -derived from the Arabic word Mausam it means season -the word monsoon implies the seasonal reversal in the wind pattern over the year. -the monsoon winds move six months from sea to land and six months from land to sea. Factors which influence the mechanism of Indian weather -surface distribution of pressure and winds -upper air circulation or jet stream -inflow of western disturbances during winter and tropical depressions during the SW monsoon period into India .

Jet streams -They are high velocity winds blown in the upper troposphere -it blows with a steady velocity across the Asian continent at latitude north of Himalayas roughly parallel to Tibetan highlands. These highlands act as the barrier in its path. So it is bifurcated in to 2 branches namely Westerly Jet stream Easterly jet stream The westerly jet stream brings the western disturbances into North West part of Indian plain and cause widespread winter rain which benefits the Rabi crops. The Easterly jet stream brings the tropical depressions which control the distribution pattern of SW monsoon rainfall in the country. Western disturbances Originate near the Mediterranean sea in the winter. They move eastward over Iran and Pakistan. Prevail over northern plain of India in winter. These disturbances come under the influence of the Westerly jet stream. ITCZ Inter tropical convergence zone, it is equatorial low pressure zone. Dominant characteristics of Indian monsoon -seasonal reversal of direction in wind system. -seasonal heavy rainfall and drought -monsoon climate as a single thread unites the entire country Four seasons of India according to Meteorological department--cold weather season -hot weather season -SW monsoon season -retreating monsoon season Southern part enjoys tropical weather conditions throughout the year because of its location near the equator and nearness to sea This part experiences only two seasons dry and wet The northern part experiences 4 seasons due to distance from the sea and equator. LOO Hot and dry wind that blows from west in the month of May and June in Northern part of India. Characteristics of summer monsoon rainfall -Monsoon burst sudden on set of rain -Breaks tendency of breaks or spells of dry weather (fluctuate) -declining trend with the increase in distance form the sea Chirapunji & Mawsynram receives highest rainfall because -it is located in funnel shaped valley surrounded by the hills of Khasi, Garo and Jaintia in Meghalaya plateau. -the SW monsoon gets enclosed in this funnel shaped valley resulting heavy rainfall. Tamil Nadu coastal region receives of its rain in winter due to -it lies on eastern side of Western Ghats. -During winter the NE dry monsoon blows form the central Asia towards Bay of Bengal. As they blow across the Bay of Bengal they pick up the moisture and bring rain to the Tamil Nadu coastal region as now it is under the effect of on shore winds. Jaisalmer experience rarely rainfall of 12 cm because -it lies in Sub tropical high pressure belt -it lies in anticyclone zone (diverging winds) -it lies in extreme west of Rajasthan -the Bay of Bengal branch of SW monsoon is weakened and it becomes almost dry by the time it reaches Jaisalmer. Factors that control distribution of temperature over the Indian sub continent -Tropic of cancer divides India into tropical and temperate climate. -the latitudinal distance of the country. -the distance from the sea or nearness to the sea -the prevailing winds -Jet streams *Coldest part of India Dras and Kargil due to high altitude *Hottest part of India Barmer away from sea lies on extreme west of desert where sand gets heated intensely.

*wettest part of India Cherapunji due to the existence of funnel shaped valleys and nearness to Bay of Bengal *Dreiest part of India Barmer because it lies in west of desert, lie in Sub tropical high pressure belt, Aravallis lie parallel to monsoon winds of Arabian sea branch Western part of Rajasthan is arid because -SW monsoon get weakened by the time it reaches this location -Aravallis lying parallel to Arabian Sea branch of SW monsoon -lie in high pressure belt The range of temperature on coastal areas is less because -of maritime influence -- sea waters get heated and cooled down slowly due to convectional processes of heating and cooling. Temperature distribution in India -coasts are with moderate temperature throughout the year -the region lying south of Tropic of cancer is with average temperature of 20 degrees in winter -region lying north of Tropic of cancer is with average temp of 10-15 degrees during winter -interior parts of country are coldest -Lowest temperature recorded in Ladakh region -Temperature increases form S to N in east coast -average temp in NW 42.5, North 37, South 32.5 -mean minimum temperature does not go below 20 deg. in NorwestersThe shallow cyclonic disturbances from the Mediterranean sea and Persian Gulf that brings rainfall in Assam , Orissa and WB during winter season is known as Norwesters. Norwesters in UP are called Andhi Norwesters in WB are called -- Kalvaisakhi Tea shower The cyclonic disturbances from Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf that brings rain in Assam. Mango showers -occur in April and May -caused due to meeting of humid wind of sea with hot dry local wind -they are called mango showers in TN and AP as they are beneficial to mango crops Cherry blossoms -occur in April and May -caused due to meeting of humid winds of sea and hot dry local wind -occur in KN -name is due to salutary effect on coffee plantations October heat -SW monsoons in Sept-Oct retreat from North India due to this temperatures increase in North India this is called October heat. Indian Drainage River systems -Antecedent river course is same e.g. Indus and Brahmaputra -Consequent river passes from high land to low land e.g. Ganga Indian rivers are broadly divided into Himalayan rivers *Pre Himalayan River e.g. Arun, Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra *Great Himalayan rivers e.g. Ganga, Gaghra, Kali, Gandak, Tista *Lesser Himalayan riverse.g. Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas Indus -Origin Manasa sarovar of Tibet, flows in Ladakh -tributaries are Jhelum,(flowing through Ular lake) chenab(biggest), Ravi (called Lahore river), Beas , sutlej -it forms delta in Karachi -joins Arabian Sea - Indus water treaty was signed between India & Pak in 1960 -land of five rivers is -- Punjab Ganga -Gangotri is source of river -Bhagirathi and alakananda join at Devprayag and acquires the name Ganga

- Left bank tributaries Ramganga, Gaghra, Gandak, Kosi - Right bank tributaries are Yamuna(biggest tributary), Son -Ganga divides into Hooghly and Padma before it enters into Bangladesh -Padma river joins with Brahmaputra and form into Meghna in Bangladesh Yamuna -origin is at Yamunotri glacier -passes through Agra -Joins Ganga on left bank at Allahabad & forms Trivenisangamam. -its tributaries are Chambal, sind, Ken and Betwa Son -Origin Amarkantak plateau Ramganga -rise in Kumaon hills Gaghra -Origin east of Gangotri Gandak -Origin Nepal Kosi -rises form peaks of Nepal , Tibet and Sikkim -called sorrow of Bihar Damodar -rises in chotanagpur plateau near Tori in palmau district of Jharkhand -tributaries are Garhi, konar, Jamunia -Joins Hooghly near Calcutta -it is called sorrow of Bengal Brahmaputra -Origin shamyongdang near Manasa sarovar in Tibet -it is called Tsangpo in Tibet and Dihang in Himalayas -left bank tributaries are Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas -right bank tributaries are Dihang, Disang and Kopali -Lohit is also important tributary of it. -it is called Jamuna in Bangladesh -it is called red river Peninsular rivers Classified into -- West flowing rivers and east flowing rivers West flowing rivers --West flowing rivers form narrow catchment areas -high velocity and high gradient make delta formation impossible. Narmada -rises in west of Amarkantak plateau in MP -it forms Dhuandhara or Marble falls -flows between Vindhyas and Satpuras -it also forms Kapildhara falls Tapi -rises in Multai , Betul dt of MP Luni -origin Anasagar (SW of Rajasthan) in Aravallis -ends on sahni marshes, North of Rann of Kutch -Tributaries are Sarsuti, rises from Pushkar lake at Ajmer Sabarmati -Originate from lake Jaisamudra in Udaipur dt -Tributaries Sabar and Hathmathi form Hidar and Mahikanta regions respectively Mahi -rise in Gwalior -passes through Rajasthan, Gujarat East flowing rivers Mahanadi -rises in Raipur dt of chattisgarh -Tributaries Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonk and Tel -passes through MP, Chattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand Brahmani and Subarnarekha -rises in Chotanagpur plateau Baitarani -rises in Keonjhar plateau in Orissa

Godavari -called Vridha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga -rises in Nasik Triambak in W.Ghats (Maharashtra) -Tributaries Manjira, Penganga, Pranhita, Wardha, Wainganga, Indravati, Tal, Sabari, Mula and Pravara Krishna -2nd largest east flowing river -rises in Mahabaleswar in W.Ghats -Tributaries Koyna, Malaprabha, GhataPrabha, Bhima, Yerla Varna, Musi, Panchaganga, Dudhganga, Tungabadra Kaveri -rises in Brahmagiri hills of Coorg dt of KN -Tributaries Bhavani, Hemavati, Noyil, Shimsa, Amaravati, Arkavati, Lakshmanatirtha, Kabbani and Lokpavani -at Srirangam it divides into North coleroon and south Kaveri -Kaveripatnam located at mouth of the river. Penner -rise in Kolar dt of KN -Tributaries Chitravati, Papaghni -flows through Gandikota of Cuddapah and enters sea near Nellore Tamrapani -originate in Agasthyamalai slopes of W.Ghats -drains into Gulf of Mannar -Korkai (capital of Pandyas) is near mouth of this river. *Delta triangular tract of alluvium at the mouth of the river West flowing rivers do not form Deltas because -intense tides exist on west coast -the west coastal plains had been subsided at the time of the Himalayan upliftment and hence the rivers flowing on the western coast form deep valleys near their mouth. *Himalayan rivers are perennial as they are snow fed as well as rain fed. *peninsular rivers are seasonal as they are controlled by monsoon *vaigai river is in Tamilnadu *Idukki river is in Kerala. Lakes of India On the basis of their origin -Tectonic lake Wular Lake J & K -Volcanic lake Lonar Maharashtra -Lagoon lake Chilka Orissa Pulicat TN Kolleru AP -Glacial lake Samtaal, Punataal, Malwataal, Nainitaal, Saataal, Bhimtaal -Aeolean lake Sambhar, Panchapadra, Didwana -other lakes -- Dal -- Kashmir Udaisagar, Pichola, Anasagar -- Rajasthan Loktak Manipur Vembanad Kerala *study of lakes and their origin is Limnology *Biggest salt lake in India Sambhar *Longest salt lake in India Chilka *City of lakes Udaipur *Largest fresh water lake Ular Lake in Kashmir *fresh water lake in Kashmir Dal *Pong Kong Lake is in Ladakh *Tarans small lakes in J &K *Nal lake is in Gujarat *Sultanpur lake is in Haryana *Tsomori lake in J & K, breeding ground outside china for naked crane Wet landinundated area with hydrophytic vegetation -They are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually or near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water. Advantages

-Control flood -good for waste water treatment (remove toxins, chemicals and heavy metals through absorption by plants) -retain sediment which reduce siltation of water -recharging of aquifers -acts as a buffer against cyclones -act as bulwark against the encroachment by sea -provide suitable habitat for endangered species -useful for nutrient recovery and cycling releasing Nitrogen and deactivating phosphates -reduce surface runoff and erosion *wetland conservation program is being implemented by government since -1987 Action plan -soil and forest conservation -proper survey and mapping of the existing areas -making the people aware of the advantages of wetland. -control of silt load -development of fisheries -pollution monitoring -emphasis on catchment area treatment -monitoring mechanism Wet lands cold arid zones of Ladakh, Humid climate of Imphal, Tropical monsoonic central India and wet Humid zone of S.India. -Kolleru AP -Wular J&K -Chilka Orissa -Loktak Manipur -Bhuj MP -Astamudi, Vembanad Kerala -Sambhar, Pichola - Rajasthan -Kanjali Punjab -Ujni Maharashtra -Reuna UP -Kabar Bihar -Sukhna Chandigarh -Nabrovar Gujarat Ramsar convention (Iran) international convention on conservation of wetlands. Biosphere reserves of India Objectives -conservation of biodiversity -to promote research on ecological conservation and other environmental aspects. -to provide for education, awareness and training -Nandadevi UP -Nokrek Meghalaya -Manas Assam -Sunderbans WB - Gulf of Mannar TN -Nilgiri TN -Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar -Simlipal Orissa -Rann of Kutch Gujarat -Dehang Debang Arunachal pradesh -Kanchenaganga Sikkim -Dibru Saikhowa Assam -Pachmarhi MP -Agasthyamalai Kerala Mangroves -constitute a heterogeneous group of plants with similar adaptations to a particular environment. -they colonize tidal shores and brackish waters in the tropics and subtropics and in doing so not only stabilize shorelines but also create new land by trapping debris, silt and mud among their interlacing roots.

-distinctive feature of mangroves is their large fruits, the seeds of which germinate and grow into sturdy seedlings before they leave the parent plant. -under humid conditions the seedlings grow rapidly, sending roots down along the trunk of the host tree. -they are salt tolerant ecosystem -act as bulwark against encroachment by the sea Mangroves in India -N.Andaman -Sunderbans WB -Bhitarkanika Orissa - Godavari delta AP - Mahanadi Orissa -Coondapur KN -Ratnagiri Maharashtra -Vembanad Kerala Corals -calcium carbonate substance secreted by calcareous algae and coelenterates. Types of coral reefs -Fringing reef near the coast -Barrier reef large -Atoll circular away from the coast. Major coral reef zones are - Gulf of Mannar - fringing - Rann of Kutch - fringing -Andaman and Nicobar fringing - Lakshadweep - Atolls coral reefs are destroyed by -siltation from erosion -mining activity for cement industry -global warming coral bleaching consequence -algae abandon coral -destruction of coral reefs will destroy entire ecosystem Tribal groups in India Most of the Indian tribals belong to Negrito, Australoid and Mongoloid races -Abhors NE -Adivasis In Bastar dt of Chattisgarh -Angami Maniur and Nagaland -Bhils MP, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan -Khasis Meghalaya , Assam -Garo Meghalaya, Assam -Gond MP, Chattisgarh -Jaintia Meghalaya -Lushai Tripura and Mizoram -Naga Nagaland -Moplahs Kerala -Santhals WB, Jharkhand, Orissa -Lepcha Sikkim -Kol MP, Chattisgarh -Apatamis Arunachal pradesh -Khonds Orissa -Baiga TN -Bhotia Uttaranchal -Gaddis Himachal Pradesh -Warlis Maharashtra -Uralis Kerala -Schompens A Nicobar -Sentanelese A Nicobar -Kotas TN -Kuki Manipur -Oraons Jharkhand -Jarwas little Andaman -Muria Bastar of Chattisgarh -Mikir Assam

-Mundas Jharkhand -Khas Jounsar Bewar of Uttaranchal Racial groups in India -Negrito believed to be oldest inhabitants Found presently in Andaman and Nicobar -Proto Australoid central and south Indian tribals -Mongoloid inhabitants of NE -Mediterranean Paleo Dravidian south India True European North and West -Western Brachycephals WB, Orissa, Gujarat, Parts of Maharashtra, KN and TN -Nordic/ Indo Aryan Kashmir, Western Rajasthan, upper gangetic valley. Major Ports of India: -Kandla Gujarat -Mumbai Maharashtra -Navaseva Maharashtra -Marmagoa KN -New Mangalore KN - Cochin Kerala -Tuticorin TN -Chennai TN -Visakha AP -Paradeep Orissa - Calcutta WB -Haldia WB SCs and STs -SC population 15.75% -SCs are numerically large in UP, WB and BIHAR -there are no SCs in Nagaland, A and Nicobar, Lakshadweep -Largest proportion of SC of total popul. Is in Punjab (26.8 %) -ST population 7.76% -STs are numerically large in Chattisgarh, Jharkhand -there are no STs in Punjab, Delhi and Haryana -largest proportion of ST of total population Lakshadweep, Mizoram and Nagaland Linguistic groups of India -Aryan languages (Indo European) spoken by 73% It is divided into Dardic Kashmiri Indo Aryan West and Eastern languages -Dravidian spoken by 20% Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu -Sino Tibetan Kirata spoken by 0.85% Tibet, Lepcha, Bhutiya, Naga and Manipuri -Austro Asiatic languages it is divided into Munda/Kol language spoken by tribals of Bihar, Orissa, MP Mon-Khmer language NE and Andaman and Nicobar Dry land Agriculture -Dry land is -the region with RF of 75 100 cm, less humid for 8 months -the region with RF of 30 75 cm , humidity is less though out the year. -dry land agriculture area in India is 99 million hectares -dry land is the result of low RF, delayed on set of rains, less duration of rainy season Objectives of dry land agriculture -to provide food security to millions -employment in rural areas -to rectify inter regional and interpersonal disparities -to provide nutritious diet to people -to realize ecological balance -to prevent migration of rural people -for stable and efficient use of land Generally pulses, oil seeds, coarse cereals are grown in dry land Measures to promote it -surface tilling to favour Rabi, Deep tilling to favour Kharif -During Kharif season, rice is grown with less gap -During Rabi season, rice is grown with more gap

-removal of weeds -preventing soil erosion -opting to alternative land use pattern -Soil conservation and soil moisture conservation (contour bunding, checkdam construction, growing plants on margins of agricultural plots, watershed development) -reducing misuse of water by opting to Drip irrigation, sprinklers, water turbines.

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