Additional Maths Revision Notes

First Edition C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.
1
OCR
Addi t i onal
Mat hemat i cs
FSMQ
( 6993)
Revi si on Not es
Ver sion 1.1 Mar ch 2008 Clive Mor r is (E&OE)
2
Index
Index...................................................................................................................................... 2
Syllabus for OCR FSMQ in Additional Mathematics (6993) ...................................... 4
Formulae............................................................................................................................... 7
Algebra.................................................................................................................................. 8
Rationalising Surds ............................................................................................................8
Manipulation of Algebraic Expressions ...........................................................................8
Addition and subtraction of polynomials .....................................................................8
Multiplication of polynomials.......................................................................................9
Division of polynomials ................................................................................................9
Remainder Theorem.........................................................................................................12
Factor Theorem................................................................................................................13
Solution of Equations.......................................................................................................15
Solving Equations Reducing to Quadratics................................................................15
Solving Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations (A Reminder)....................16
Completing the Square ................................................................................................17
Another (shorter) way of Completing the Square......................................................20
Sketching Quadratics using Completing the Square .................................................21
Finding the maximum and minimum point for a Quadratic Curve ..........................21
Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square..........................................23
Solving Cubic Equations Using The Factor Theorem...............................................24
Solving cubic and cubic inequalities ..........................................................................26
Discriminant.................................................................................................................27
The Binomial Expansion.................................................................................................28
Pascals Triangle..........................................................................................................28
Application to Probability Binomial Distribution.......................................................30
Co-ordinate Geometry...................................................................................................... 32
The Straight Line..............................................................................................................32
Gradient of a Straight Line..........................................................................................32
Mid-point of a Line Segment ......................................................................................32
Length of a Line Segment ...........................................................................................33
Finding the Equation of a Straight Line .....................................................................33
Parallel and Perpendicular Gradients..........................................................................35
The Coordinate Geometry of Circles..............................................................................38
Equation of a Circle .....................................................................................................38
Finding the Centre and Radius of a Circle .................................................................39
Useful Properties in Circle Problems .........................................................................41
Finding the Equation of a Tangent to a Circle ...........................................................42
Finding the Equation of a Normal to a Circle............................................................43
Finding the Closest Distance of a Given Point from a Circle...................................43
When do circles meet?.................................................................................................44
Regions .............................................................................................................................45
Applications to Linear Programming .............................................................................47
3
Trigonometry..................................................................................................................... 50
IGCSE Revisited ..............................................................................................................50
Applications......................................................................................................................50
Graphs of Sine, Cosine and Tangent for Any Angle .....................................................51
Trigonometric Identities ..................................................................................................54
Solving simple trigonometric equations.........................................................................55
Trigonometry and Pythagoras in 3 Dimensions.............................................................59
Angle between a line and a plane ...............................................................................59
Line of greatest slope...................................................................................................59
Angle between two planes...........................................................................................60
Calculus............................................................................................................................... 61
Differentiation..................................................................................................................61
Notation........................................................................................................................61
Gradient Function ........................................................................................................61
Differentiation of powers of x and constant multiples, sums and differences. ........62
Equations of tangents and normals .............................................................................63
Location and Nature of Stationary Points ..................................................................64
Sketching Curves .........................................................................................................67
Practical Maximum and Minimum Problems ............................................................68
Integration.........................................................................................................................69
Integration as the Reverse of Differentiation.............................................................69
Indefinite Integration of powers of n, constant multiples, sums and differences ....69
Finding the constant of integration using given conditions ......................................70
Definite Integrals..............................................................................................................71
Area between a curve and the x axis ..........................................................................71
Area between two curves.............................................................................................74
Application to Kinematics ...............................................................................................75
Motion in a Straight Line ............................................................................................75
SUVAT Equations (Constant Acceleration Formulae) .............................................79
Displacement-time and Velocity-time Graphs...........................................................83
These Revision Notes contain the material that is additional to the IGCSE syllabus.
Material already covered in the IGCSE Revision Notes will not be repeated here.
4
Syllabus for OCR FSMQ in Additional Mathematics (6993)
Those statements in bold are in the Additional Mathematics syllabus but are not on the
IGCSE syllabus.
Algebra
Manipulation of algebraic expressions
- Be able to simplify expressions including algebraic
fractions, square roots and polynomials.
The remainder theorem
- Be able to find the remainder of a polynomial up to
order 3 when divided by a linear factor.
The factor theorem
- Be able to find linear factors of a polynomial up to
order 3.
Solution of equations
- Be confident in the use of brackets.
- Be able to solve a linear equation in one unknown.
- Be able to solve quadratic equations by factorisation, the
useof the formula and by completing the square.
- Be able to solve a cubic equation by factorisation.
- Be able to solve two linear simultaneous equations in 2
unknowns.
- Be able to solve two simultaneous equations in2 unknowns
where one equation is linear and the other is quadratic.
- Be able to set up and solve problems leading to linear,
quadratic and cubic equations in one unknown, and to
simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns.
Inequalities
- Be able to manipulate inequalities.
- Be able to solve linear and quadratic inequalities algebraically
and graphically.
The binomial expansion
- Understand and be able to apply the binomial
expansion of (a + b)
n
where n is a positive integer.
Application to probability
- Recognise probability situations which give rise to the
binomial distribution.
- Be able to identify the binomial parameter, p, the
probability of success.
- Be able to calculate probabilities using the binomial
distribution.
5
Co-ordinate Geometry
The straight line
- Know the definition of the gradient of a line.
- Knowthe relationship betweenthe gradients of parallel
and perpendicular lines.
- Be able to calculate the distance between two points.
- Be able to find the mid-point of a line segment.
- Be able to form the equation of a straight line.
- Be able to draw a straight line given its equation.
- Be able to solve simultaneous equations graphically.
The co-ordinate geometry of circles
- Know that the equation of a circle, centre (0,0), radius
r is x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
.
- Know that (x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2
is the equation of a
circle with centre (a, b) and radius r.
Inequalities
- Be able to illustrate linear inequalities in two variables.
- Be able to express real situations in terms of linear
inequalities. Be able to use graphs of linear inequalities to
solve 2-dimensional maximisation and minimisation
problems, know the definition of objective function and
be able to find it in 2-dimensional cases.
Trigonometry
Ratios of any angles and their graphs
- Be able to use the definitions of sinu , cosu and tanu
for any angle (measured in degrees only).
- Be able to apply trigonometry to right angled triangles.
- Know the sine and cosine rules and be able to apply them.
- Be able to apply trigonometry to triangles with any
angles.
- Know and be able to use the identity that
sin
tan
cos
u
u
u

- Know and be able to use the identity
2 2
sin cos 1 u u + .
- Be able to solve simple trigonometrical equations in given
intervals.
- Be able to apply trigonometry to 2 and 3 dimensional
problems.
6
Calculus
Differentiation
- Be able to differentiate kx
n
where n is a positive integer or
0, and the sum of such functions.
- Know that the gradient function
d
d
y
x
gives the gradient
of the curve and measures the rate of change of y with
respect to x.
- Know that the gradient of the function is the gradient of the
tangent at that point.
- Be able to find the equationof a tangent and normal at
any point on a curve.
- Be able to use differentiation to find stationary points on a
curve.
- Be able to determine the nature of a stationary point.
- Be able to sketch a curve with known stationary points.
Integration
- Be aware that integration is the reverse of
differentiation.
- Be able to integrate kx
n
where n is a positive integer or
0, and the sum of such functions.
- Be able to find a constant of integration.
- Be able to find the equationof a curve, given its gradient
function and one point.
Definite integrals
- Know what is meant by an indefinite and a definite
integral.
Be able to evaluate definite integrals.
- Be able to find the area between a curve, two ordinates
and the x-axis. Be able to find the area between two
curves.
Application to kinematics
- Be able to use differentiation and integration with respect
to time to solve simple problems involving variable
acceleration.
- Be able to recognise the special case where the use of
constant acceleration formulae is appropriate.
- Be able to solve problems using these formulae.
7
Formulae
You have been spoilt by not having to learn many mathematical formulae.
In the Additional Mathematics examination you are not given a formula sheet and so
the only formulae you will have with you are the ones that you have taken in there in
your head!
You are advised to make your own list of things to learn from the work covered during
the Additional Mathematics course.
You are also reminded to learn the formulae from the IGCSE formula sheet including
any rearrangements of formulae on it e.g.
2 2 2
cos
2
b c a
A
bc
+
=
8
Algebra
Rationalising Surds
As well as the surds at IGCSE Level you may be asked to simplify more complicated
surds using the difference of two squares as an aid.
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 3
2 2 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3
4 2 3
4 3 1 2 3 2 3 2 3
2 3
+
+ + +
= = = = = +
+

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
3 5 3 5
3 5 9 6 5 5 14 6 5 14 6 5 7 3 5 7 3
5
9 5 4 2 2 2 3 5 3 5 3 5
3 5

= = = = = =

Manipulation of Algebraic Expressions
A polynomial is an expression that only contains positive integer powers of x and
constants.
A polynomial is therefore of the form
2 3
0 1 2 3
n
n
a a x a x a x a x + + + + + .
The numbers
1 2
, ,... a a are called the coefficients of
2
, x x etc.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of x that occurs.
A polynomial of degree 0 is a constant.
A polynomial of degree 1 is linear
A polynomial of degree 2 is quadratic.
A polynomial of degree 3 is cubic.
Addition and subtraction of polynomials
When adding or subtracting polynomials combine the terms with the same powers.
Examples
2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3
2 3
3 2 2 3
2 3
(3 2 2 3 ) (7 5 3 ) 3 7 2 5 2 3 3
10 3 5 4
(6 2 4 ) (4 4 7 ) 6 4 2 ( 4 ) 7 4
2 6 7 4
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x
+ + + + = + + + +
= +
+ + = +
= +
9
Multiplication of polynomials
This is exactly like expanding linear brackets at GCSE. Multiply each term in the
second bracket by each term in the first bracket and then simplify. Laying your work
out systematically can avoid silly slips being made as shown in the example below.
3 2 3 2 3
2 3 4
3 4 5 6
2 3 4 5 6
(3 4 2 )(1 ) 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2
3 7 5 6 2 2
x x x x x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
+ + =

= +
Division of polynomials
There are 2 principal methods of dividing one polynomial by another.
Example
Find
3 2
(2 2 3) ( 2) x x x x +
Method 1 (Long Division)
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2 2 5
2 2 2 3
2 4
2
2 4
5 3
5 10
7
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+ +
+
+
+
That is to say
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2) (2 2 5) remainder 7 x x x x x x + = + +
Other ways of writing this are
3 2
2
2 2 3 7
2 2 5
2 2
x x x
x x
x x
+
= + + +

or
3 2 2
2 2 3 ( 2)(2 2 5) 7 x x x x x x + = + + +
x into
3
2x goes
2
2x times
2
2x times ( 2) x is
3 2
(2 4 ) x x
x into
3
2x goes
2
2x times
Take
3 2
(2 4 ) x x from
3 2
(2 2 ) x x and bring down the x
2x times ( 2) x is
2
(2 4 ) x x
Take
2
(2 4 ) x x from
2
(2 ) x x + and bring down the 3
( 2) x does not go into 7 so this is your remainder
10
Method 2 (Comparison of Coefficients)
From Method 1 it is clear that when you divide a cubic by a linear term you will obtain
a quadratic plus a constant remainder. Using the last form from above:
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2)( ) x x x x ax bx c d + = + + + where d is a constant.
Expanding on the right hand side gives
3 2 3 2 2
3 2 3 2 2
3
2
(2 2 3) 2 2 2
(2 2 3) 2 2 2
So equating coefficients 2 (comparing coefficients of )
2 2 (comparing coefficients of )
4 2
2
2 1
x x x ax bx cx ax bx c d
x x x ax bx ax cx bx c d
a x
b a x
b
b
c b
+ = + + +
+ = + + +
=
=
=
=
=
3 2 2
(comparing coefficients of )
4 1
5
2 3 (comparing constants)
10 3
7
(2 2 3) ( 2) (2 2 5) remainder 7
x
c
c
c d
d
d
x x x x x x
=
=
+ =
+ =
=
+ = + +
11
Another method (related to Method 2) is to do the following.
Method 3
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2)( ) x x x x ax bx c d + = + + + where d is a constant.
We can work through this is stages
In order to get the
3
2x term a is clearly 2.
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2)(2 ) x x x x x bx c d + = + + +
The next stage is to look at the coefficient of
2
x .
The terms that will have an
2
x in come from x bx and
2
2 2x . These together must
give
2
2x .
4 2
2
b
b
=
=
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2)(2 2 ) x x x x x x c d + = + + +
The terms that will have an x in come from 2 2x and cx . These together must give
x + .
4 1
5
c
c
=
=
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2)(2 2 5) x x x x x x d + = + + +
Equating the constant terms on both sides gives
2 5 3
10 3
7
d
d
d
+ =
+ =
=
So
3 2 2
(2 2 3) ( 2) (2 2 5) remainder 7 x x x x x x + = + +
12
Remainder Theorem
There is a much easier way of finding the remainder when you divide by a linear term.
This is called the remainder theorem.
Example 1
The remainder when
3 2
f ( ) 2 7 8 x x x x = + + is divided by ( 3) x is given by
3 2
f (3) 3 2 3 7 3 8 27 18 21 8 32 = + + = + + = .
Example 2
The remainder when
3 2
f ( ) 3 2 6 8 x x x x = + is divided by ( 2) x + is given by
3 2
f ( 2) 3 ( 2) 2 ( 2) 6 ( 2) 8 24 8 12 8 52 = + = = .
Example 3
The remainder when
3 2
f ( ) 8 4 2 1 x x x x = + + is divided by (2 1) x is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1 1
8 4
f ( ) 8 4 2 1
8 4 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
= + +
= + +
= + +
=
.
The remainder when f ( ) x is divided by ( ) x a is f ( ) a
The remainder when f ( ) x is divided by ( ) bx a is
( )
f
a
b
13
Factor Theorem
This is a special case of the remainder theorem.
That is to say dividing f ( ) x by ( ) x a or ( ) bx a respectively leaves no remainder!
Example 1
Show that 3 x and 2 x + are factors of
3 2
3 10 24 x x x + .
Solution
3 2
3 2
3 2
Let f ( ) 3 10 24
f (3) 3 3 3 10 3 24
27 27 30 24 0
3 is a factor of f ( )
2 ( 2)
f ( 2) ( 2) 3 ( 2) 10 ( 2) 24
8 12 20 24 0
2 is a factor of f ( )
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
= +
= +
= + =
+ =
= +
= + + =
+
If f ( ) 0 a = then ( ) x a is a factor of f ( ) x
If
( )
f 0
a
b
= then ( ) bx a is a factor of f ( ) x
When looking for factors in a polynomial
- Check to seek whether x or powers of x are factors
- Start by looking for smaller values of a a good strategy is check 1, then 1 ,
then 2, then 2 etc.
- If the coefficient of the highest power of x in the polynomial is a 2 or a 3 etc.
then one of the factors will start (2 ...) x or (3 ...) x but it is better to leave this
to naturally appear as example 2 shows rather than looking for it directly.
14
Example 2
Use the factor theorem to factorise the cubic polynomial
3 2
2 9 7 6 x x x + +
Solution
3 2
3 2 2
Let f ( ) 2 9 7 6
f (1) 2 9 7 6 6 0 so ( 1) is not a factor of f ( )
f ( 1) 2 9 7 6 12 0 so ( 1) is not a factor of f ( )
f (2) 16 36 14 6 0 so ( 2) is a factor of f ( )
2 9 7 6 ( 2)(2 3)
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x x x bx
= + +
= + + = =
= + = = +
= + + =
+ + = +
In the quadratic bracket on the right the
2
x coefficient must be 2 to give
3
2x when you
multiply out.
In the quadratic bracket on the right the constant must be 3 to give 6 when you
multiply out.
To find the value of b look at the
2
x term on the right hand side when you multiply out
and compare this with the
2
x term on the left hand side.
2 2 2
2 2 9
4 9
5
x bx x
b
b
+ =
=
=
3 2 2
2 9 7 6 ( 2)(2 5 3) x x x x x x + + =
As a check look at the x term which should be the same on both sides.
On the right hand side this is 2 5 3 7 x x x = which agrees with the left hand side.
If the quadratic factorises we can now complete the factorisation. In this case it does and
leads to
3 2
2 9 7 6 ( 2)( 3)(2 1) x x x x x x + + = +
15
Solution of Equations
Solving Equations Reducing to Quadratics
Example 1
By first making the substitution
2
y x = solve the equation
4 2
5 36 0 x x = .
Solution
4 2
2 2 2
2
2
2
5 36 0
( ) 5( ) 36 0
5 36 0
( 9)( 4) 0
9 0 or 4 0
9 or 4
9 or 4
3 since it is not possible for to be equal to 4
x x
x x
y y
y y
y y
y
x
x x
=
=
=
+ =
= + =
=
=
=
Example 2
Solve the equation
4
2 7 0 x
x
=
Solution
2
1
2
4
2 7 0
2 7 4 0 (multiplying through by )
(2 1)( 4) 0
2 1 0 or 4 0
or 4
x
x
x x x
x x
x x
x
=
=
=
= =
=
16
Solving Simultaneous Linear and Quadratic Equations (A Reminder)
Example 1
Find where the circle
2 2
25 x y + = and the line 7 x y + = meet.
Solution
Where the graphs meet
2 2
2 2
2
2
(7 ) 25 (subtituting for in terms of from 7)
49 14 25 (expanding)
2 14 24 0
7 12 0 (divide through by 2 to make life easier)
( 3)( 4) 0
3 or 4
4 or 3
x x y x x y
x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
y
+ = + =
+ + =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
So the line meets the circle at (3, 4) and (4, 3) .
Note that the x and y values must be paired in the final answer otherwise you may lose
marks.
Example 2
By solving the equations simultaneously find where the line 5 6 y x = and the curve
2
2 y x x = + meet and comment on your answer.
Solution
Where the graphs meet
2
2
2
2 5 6 (equating values)
4 4 0
( 2) 0
2
5 2 6 4
x x x y
x x
x
x
y
+ =
+ =
=
=
= =
So since there is one repeated solution 5 6 y x = is a tangent to
2
2 y x x = + when
2 x = and 4 y = i.e. at the point (2, 4) .
17
Completing the Square
There are quicker methods for those good with mental gymnastics but this basic routine
is always effective. Another way of approaching things is to be found at the end of this
section.
Example 1
Write
2
4 3 x x + in the form
2
( ) x a b + + .
Solution
2 2
2
2 2 2
4 3 ( )
4 3 ( )( )
4 3 2
x x x a b
x x x a x a b
x x x ax a b
+ = + +
+ = + + +
+ = + + +
Then compare the bits on the 2 sides.
2
2
2 4 (comparing the terms)
2
3 (comparing the numbers)
2 3
4 3
3 4 7
a x
a
a b
b
b
b
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
= =
So
2 2
4 3 ( 2) 7 x x x + = +
18
Example 2
Write
2
7 6x x + in the form
2
( ) a x b + .
Solution
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
7 6 ( )
7 6 ( )( )
7 6 ( 2 )
7 6 2
x x a x b
x x a x b x b
x x a x bx b
x x a b bx x
+ = +
+ = + +
+ = + +
+ =
2
2
3
( 3) 7
9 7
16
b x
b
a b
a
a
a
=
=
=
=
=
=
So
2 2
7 6 16 ( 3) x x x + =
19
Example 3
Write
2
2 8 11 x x + + in the form
2
( ) a x b c + + .
Solution
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 8 11 ( )
2 8 11 ( )( )
2 8 11 ( 2 )
2 8 11 2
x x a x b c
x x a x b x b c
x x a x bx b c
x x ax abx ab c
+ + = + +
+ + = + + +
+ + = + + +
+ + = + + +
2
2
2
2 (comparing the terms)
2 2 8
2
2 2 11
8 11
3
a x
ab x
b
b
ab c
c
c
c
=
=
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
So
2 2
2 8 11 2( 2) 3 x x x + + = + +
20
Another (shorter) way of Completing the Square
Since
2 2 2
( ) ( )( ) 2 x a x a x a x ax a + = + + = + +
we can use the fact that
2 2 2
2 ( ) x ax x a a + = +
In the brackets with the x is half the number of xs in the original expression.
Example 1
2 2 2 2
4 3 ( 2) 2 3 ( 2) 7 x x x x = =
Example 2
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 16 7 2( 8 ) 7
2 ( 4) ( 4) 7
2 ( 4) 16 7
2( 4) 25
x x x x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
Example 3
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 3 3
2 2
2 15 3
2 2
3 6 2 3 2( 3 )
3 2 ( )
2( )
x x x x
x
x
=
=
=
21
Sketching Quadratics using Completing the Square
For example the curve
2
4 3 y x x = i.e.
2
( 2) 7 y x = is the curve
2
y x =
translated 2 units in the negative x direction and translated 7 units in the negative y-
direction.
Therefore the vertex of the curve (in this case the lowest point) is at ( 2, 7) .
Finding the maximum and minimum point for a Quadratic Curve
If you have completed the square on a quadratic it is easy to decide where the maximum
(or minimum) point on the curve is.
Example 1
Complete the square on
2
2 8 2 y x x = + and hence find the coordinates of the
maximum point on the curve.
Solution
( )
2
2 2
2
2 4 2
2( 2) 2 2 ( 2)
2( 2) 6
y x x
y x
y x
= +
= +
=
Since the smallest value of
2
2( 2) 6 x will be when 2 x = the minimum value of
2
2 8 2 y x x = + will be 6 y = when 2 x = .
The minimum point will therefore have coordinates (2, 6) .
x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
10
( 2, 7)
y = x
2
+ 4x 3
22
Example 2
Complete the square on
2
3 8 4 y x x = and hence find the coordinates of the
maximum point on the curve.
Solution
( )
2
2 2
2
4 2 3
4( 1) 3 4 1
7 4( 1)
y x x
y x
y x
= + +
= + + +
= +
Since the largest value of
2
7 4( 1) x + will be when 1 x = the maximum value of
2
3 8 4 y x x = will be 7 y = when 1 x = .
The maximum point will therefore have coordinates ( 1, 7) .
23
Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
Example 1
Solve the equation
2
4 3 0 x x + = by first completing the square.
Solution
2
2 2
2
2
4 3 0
( 2) 2 3 0
( 2) 7 0
( 2) 7
2 7
2 7
x x
x
x
x
x
x
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
Sometimes you are asked to give answers in surd form (which will be exact as no
decimal approximation will have taken place) but if you have to give decimal answers
you can obtain them easily from here.
If you needed answers to 3 decimal places they would be 4.646 and 0.646.
Example 2
Solve the equation
2
16 12 2 0 x x + = by completing the square.
Solution
2 2
2 2
2
2
6 8 0 (dividing by 2 to obtain an equation starting ..)
( 3) ( 3) 8 0
( 3) 17 0
( 3) 17
3 17
3 17
1.12 or 7.12 (3 sf)
x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
24
Solving Cubic Equations Using The Factor Theorem
Example 1
Show that 1 x is a factor of
3
1 x and hence factorise
3
1 x .
Solution
3
3
3
Let f ( ) 1
f (1) 1 1 0
1 is a factor of 1
x x
x x
=
= =

3 2
3 2
1 ( 1)( )
( ) ( )
x x ax bx c
ax b a x c b x c
= + +
= + +
Comparing coefficients we have
1
1 0 1
1 0 1
a
b a b b
c b c c
=
= = =
= = =
3 2
1 ( 1)( 1) x x x x = + +
This cannot be factorised further as
2
1 x x + + does not factorise.
25
Example 2
Factorise fully
3 2
2 5 6 x x x + .
Solution
3 2
Let f ( ) 2 5 6
f (1) 2 5 1 6 2 0 so ( 1) is not a factor
f ( 1) 2 5 1 6 0 so ( 1) is a factor
x x x x
x
x
= +
= + = =
= + + = +
You can then go through two different routes. Either take out 1 x + as a factor (as in the
example on the next page) or find another factor. Pursuing this route gives
3 2
Let f ( ) 2 5 6
f (2) 16 20 2 6 0 so ( 2) is a factor
x x x x
x
= +
= + =
3 2
2 5 6 ( 1)( 2)(2 3) x x x x x x + = +
This final factor comes from observing that it must start with a 2x to give
3
2x and
must end up with 3 to get 6 + .
26
Solving cubic and cubic inequalities
Example
Solve the equation
3 2
2 7 3 18 0 x x x + = .
Hence solve the inequality
3 2
2 7 3 18 0 x x x + > .
Solution
3 2
2
Let f ( ) 2 7 3 18
f (1) 10 so ( 1) is not a factor of f ( )
f ( 1) 12 so ( 1) is not a factor of f ( )
f (2) 0 so ( 2) is a factor of f ( )
f ( ) ( 2)(2 3 9)
f ( ) ( 2)(2 3)( 3)
f ( ) 0 when 2 o
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x
= +
=
= +
=
=
= +
= =
3
2
r 3 or
3 2
Consider the graph of f ( ) 2 7 3 18. y x x x x = = +
f ( ) 0 x > when the curve is on or above the x axis so f ( ) 0 x > when
3
2
2 or 3. x x s s >
NB See also the inequalities section of the IGCSE Revision Notes.
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
y
-10
-5
5
10
15
y = (x 2)(2x + 3)(x 3)
Either by long division or by
comparing coefficients
27
Discriminant
When solving the quadratic equation
2
0, 0 ax bx c a + + = =
You know that the solutions (if there are any) are given by the quadratic equation
formula
2
4
2
b b ac
x
a

=
The part underneath the square root sign is called the discriminant, often given the
symbol ^. So
2
4 b ac ^ = .
The discriminant gives quite a lot of information about the solutions of a quadratic
equation and whether the quadratic factorises.
Value of Information given
0 Two distinct solutions
0 One (repeated) solution
0 Solutions
0 No solutions
a perfect square The quadratic factorises
^
^
^ =
^_
^<
^ =
Examples
2
3 2 4 0 x x + = has two solutions because
2
2 4 3 4 52 0 ^ = = .
2
4 4 1 0 x x + + = has one (repeated) solution because
2
4 4 4 1 0 ^ = = .
2
3 2 3 0 x x + + = has no solutions because
2
2 4 3 3 32 0 ^ = = < .
2
6 2 x x factorises because
2
( 1) 4 6 2 49 ^= = which is a perfect square.
28
The Binomial Expansion
Pascals Triangle
The coefficients for expanding (1 )
n
x + come from the rows of Pascals Triangle.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
The numbers in Pascals Triangle also come from
!
!( )!
n
r
n
C
r n r
=
using appropriate
values of r and n.
For example the entries in the row beginning 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 come from
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
, , , , , , C C C C C C C respectively.
So we have that for positive integer values of n only.
Binomial Expansions Type 1
Where
!
!( )!
n
r
n
C
r n r
=
.
Note that
n
is sometimes written as
r
n
r
C
| |
|
\ .
(NB no fraction line!)
2 3
1 2 3
(1 ) 1
n n n n n r n
r
x C x C x C x C x x + = + + + + + +
29
Binomial Expansions Type 2
Example 1
Find the first five terms in the expansion of
10
(1 ) x + in ascending powers of x.
Solution
10 10 10 2 10 3 10 4
1 2 3 4
2 3 4
(1 ) 1 ...
1 10 45 120 210 ...
x C x C x C x C x
x x x x
+ = + + + + +
= + + + + +
Example 2
Find the terms in the expansion of
7
(1 2 ) x in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in
3
x .
Solution
7 7 7 2 7 3
1 2 3
2 3
(1 2 ) 1 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 )
1 14 84 280 ...
x C x C x C x
x x x
= + + + +
= + +
Example 3
Find the binomial expansion of
5
(3 2 ) x + and use your expansion to estimate
5
3.002
correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
5 5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 1 4 5
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
5 5
(3 2 ) 3 3 (2 ) 3 (2 ) 3 (2 ) 3 (2 ) (2 )
243 810 1080 720 240 32
3.002 (3 2 0.001)
243 810 0.001 (since higher power terms will not affect first dp)
243.8 (1 decimal plac
x C x C x C x C x x
x x x x x
+ = + + + + +
= + + + + +
= +
~ +
= e)
1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
( )
n n n n n n n n n n r r n
r
a x a C a x C a x C a x C a x x

+ = + + + + + +
30
Example 4
Use the answer to example 2 to find the expansion in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in
3
x of
7
(2 3 )(1 2 ) x x + .
Solution
7 2 3
2 3 2 3
2 3
(2 3 )(1 2 ) (2 3 )(1 14 84 280 ...)
2 28 168 560 3 42 252 ...
2 25 126 308 ...
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x
+ = + + +
= + + + +
= + +
Application to Probability Binomial Distribution
If X is the number of successes in n independent trials each of which has probability p
of success and probability ( 1 ) q p = of failure then X is said to have a Binomial
Distribution with parameters n and p and we write B( , ) X n p .
Conditions for use of a Binomial Distribution
A binomial distribution can be used to model a situation if
- Each trial has two possible outcomes (usually referred to as success or failure)
- There is a fixed number of trials
- The probability of success in each trial is constant
- The outcome of each trial is independent of the outcomes of all the other trials
In the formula P( ) (1 )
n r n r
r
X r C p p

= = there must be
r successes giving rise to the
r
p part of the formula
n r failures giving rise to the (1 )
n r
p

part of the formula
The r success can occur in any of
n
r
C ways.
Note that the powers of p and 1 p always add up to n.
P( )
P( ) (1 )
Mean of
n r n r
r
n r n r
r
X r C p q
X r C p p
X np
= =
= =
=
31
Example 1
It is known that in a certain population 15% are left handed,
Find the probability that in a sample of 9 people
(a) exactly 5 are left handed
(b) at most 3 are left handed
(c) at least 1 is left handed
Find also
(d) the mean number of people who are left handed
Solution
(9, 0.15) X B
(a)
9 5 4
5
P( 5) 0.15 0.85 0.00499 (3 sf) X C = = =
(b)
9 9 1 8 9 2 7 9 3 6
1 2 3
P( 3) P( 0 or 1 or 2 or 3)
P( 3) 0.85 0.15 0.85 0.15 0.85 0.15 0.85 0.966 (3 sf)
X X
X C C C
s = =
s = + + + =
(c)
9
P( 1) 1 P( 0)
P( 1) 1 0.85 0.768 (3 sf)
X X
X
> = =
> = =
(d) Mean 9 0.15 1.35 = =
Example 2
How many fair cubical dice must be rolled for there to be a 99% chance of obtaining at
least one six?
Solution
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
5
6
5
6
5
6
25
5
6
26
5
6
P(at least one six) 1 P(no sixes)
1 0.99
1 0.99
0.01
0.01048... 0.01
0.008735... 0.01 (using trial and improvement)
n
n
n
=
= >
<
<
= >
= <
At least 26 dice must be rolled for there to be a probability of at least one six
32
Co-ordinate Geometry
The Straight Line
Gradient of a Straight Line
Example
Find the gradient of the line joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 13) .
13 7 20
Gradient 4
2 ( 3) 5

= = =

Mid-point of a Line Segment
Example
Find the midpoint of the line joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 13) .
The midpoint is ( )
1
2
3 2 7 ( 13)
, , 3
2 2
+ + | |
=
|
\ .
x
y
1 1
( , ) x y
M
2 2
( , ) x y
y
x
2 2
( , ) x y
1 1
( , ) x y
2 1
2 1
Gradient
y y
x x
1 2 1 2
Mid point M is ,
2 2
x x y y 1

( )
33
Length of a Line Segment
Example
Find the length of the line segment joining the points ( 3, 7) and (2, 8) .
2 2
2 2
Distance (2 ( 3)) ( 8 7)
5 ( 15)
250
25 10
5 10
= +
= +
=
=
=
Finding the Equation of a Straight Line
The equation of a straight line is of the form y mx c = where m is the gradient and c
is the y-intercept.
Remember that the equation must be in this form before you can read off the gradient. If
it is not you must rearrange the equation first.
Be careful that you give the answer in the required form. Sometimes a question will ask
you to give your answer a specific way e.g. in the form 0 ax by c + + = where a, b and c
are integers.
There are several approaches each of which needs you to have a gradient and a point
that the line goes through. If you are given 2 points you can obviously find the gradient
from this.
y
x
1 1
( , ) x y
2 2
( , ) x y
2 2
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1
Distance between ( , ) and ( , ) ( ) ( ) x y x y x x y y =
34
Example 1
The gradient of the line 3 4 7 0 x y + + = is
3
4
since rearranging the equation gives
3 4 7 0
4 3 7
3 7
4 4
x y
y x
y x
+ + =
=
=
Example 2
Find an equation of the straight line with gradient 3 going through the point with
coordinates ( 3, 7) .
Approach 1
3
Line goes through ( 3, 7) so 7 when 3
7 3 ( 3)
2
3 2
y x c
y x
c
c
y x
=
= =
=
=
=
Approach 2 (preferred)
7
Gradient is 3
( 3)
7 3( 3)
7 3 9
3 2
y
x
y x
y x
y x
=

=
=
=
35
Example 3
Find an equation of the straight line through the points with coordinates
(2, 5) and ( 3,15) .
( 5) 15 ( 5)
2 3 2
5 20
4
2 5
5 4( 2)
5 4 8
4 3
y
x
y
x
y x
y x
y x

=

= =

=
=
=
Parallel and Perpendicular Gradients
- Two lines are parallel if and only if they have the same gradient.
- Two lines with gradients
1
m and
2
m are perpendicular if and only if
Example
The equations of 5 lines are given below. Which lines are parallel to L and which lines
are perpendicular to L.
: 2 5
: 4 2 8
: 2 4
: 2 4 5
: 4 2 3 0
L y x
M x y
N y x
P x y
R x y
=
=
+ =
=
+ =
Rearranging the lines give
1
2
5 1
2 2
3
2
: 2 5
: 2 4
: 2
:
: 2
L y x
M y x
N y x
P y x
R y x
=
=
= +
=
= +
This shows that M and R are parallel to L and N are perpendicular to L.
2
1
1
m
m
= i.e.
1 2
1 mm = .
Gradient
NB If in an exam you are asked to show that
two lines are perpendicular, show that when
you multiply their gradients you get 1 .
36
Example
Find the equation of the line that is parallel to 2 7 y x = + and goes through the point
( 3, 3) .
Solution
The gradient of 2 7 y x = + is 2 so the equation of the required line is given by
3
2
( 3)
3 2( 3)
3 2 6
2 9
y
x
y x
y x
y x
=

= +
= +
= +
Example
Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular 3 2 2 0 x y + = and goes through the
point (2, 5) giving your answer in the form 0 ax by c + + = where a, b and c are
integers.
Solution
3 2 2 0 x y + = can be rearranged to give
3
2
1 y x = + and therefore has gradient
3
2
.
The gradient of the line perpendicular to 3 2 2 0 x y + = is therefore given by
2
3
3
2
1
=
The equation of the perpendicular line is therefore
( 5) 2
2 3
3( 5) 2( 2)
3 15 2 4
2 3 11 0
y
x
y x
y x
x y

=
+ =
+ = +
+ + =
37
Reminder
Remember that lines parallel to the x-axis are of the form y k = where k is a constant
and lines parallel to the y-axis are of the form x k = where k is a constant.
All lines perpendicular to a line of the form
1
y k = will therefore be of the form
2
x k =
where
1
k and
2
k are constants and vice versa.
Example
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 4 x = and going through the point (2, 3) .
Solution
The line must be of the form y k = and since it goes through a point with y-coordinate 3
it must be 3 y = .
38
The Coordinate Geometry of Circles
Equation of a Circle
The equation of a circle centre the origin and with radius r is given by
The equation of a circle centre ( , ) a b and with radius r is given by
Notes
- For a circle the x and y coefficients must be the same.
- There can never be an xy term in the equation of a circle.
- The value of
2
r must be positive
Examples
2 2
121 x y + = is a circle centre the origin and radius 11.
2 2
3 3 147 x y + = is a circle centre the origin and radius 7 since it can be rewritten as
2 2
49 x y + = by dividing throughout by 3.
2 2
( 2) ( 3) 36 x y + = is a circle with centre (2, 3) and radius 6.
2 2
( 3) ( 1) 16 x y + + = is a circle with centre ( 3,1) and radius 4.
2 2 2
x y r + =
2 2 2
( ) ( ) x a y b r + =
39
Finding the Centre and Radius of a Circle
The recommended approach to determine whether a given equation is a circle and to
determine its centre and radius is simply to complete the square from first principles on
the x and y terms.
Example 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
8 6 5 0
8 6 5 0
( 4) 4 ( 3) ( 3) 5 0
( 4) ( 3) 20 0
( 4) ( 3) 20
x y x y
x y x y
x y
x y
x y
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + =
+ + =
This is a circle centre ( 4, 3) and radius 20 4 5 2 5 = = .
40
Example 2
Which of the following are equations of circles and why
(i)
2 2
2 6 8 36 x y x y + + + =
(ii)
2 2
2 6 12 11 0 x y xy x y + + + + =
(iii)
2 2
( ) ( ) 50 x y x y + + =
(iv)
2 2
4 6 12 y x x y = + +
(v)
2 2
10 2 50 0 x y x y + + + + =
Solutions
(i) This is not a circle because the coefficients of
2
x and
2
y are not the same.
(ii) This is not a circle because there is a term in xy .
(iii) When this is expanded you get
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 50
25
x xy y x xy y
x y
+ + + + =
+ =
This is a circle centre the origin and radius 5.
(iv) When rearranged this gives
2 2
2 2 2 2
4 6 12
( 2) ( 3) 12 2 3 25
x x y y
x y
+ + =
+ + = + + =
This is a circle centre (2, 3) and radius 5.
(v) When rearranged this gives
2 2
2 2 2 2
10 2 50 0
( 5) ( 1) 50 5 1 24
x y x y
x y
+ + + + =
+ + + = + + =
This is not a circle because the right hand cant be a radius squared since it is
negative.
41
Useful Properties in Circle Problems
- The diameter is twice the length of the radius.
- The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
- The tangent to a circle at a point is perpendicular to the radius at that point.
- The perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord.
- Do not forget Pythagoras Theorem!
Example
Find the equation of the circle that has a diameter with endpoints (2, 4) and ( 4,8)
Solution
The centre of the circle is at ( )
2 ( 4) 4 8
, 1, 2
2 2
+ + | |
=
|
\ .
The diameter of the circle is given by
2 2 2 2
( 4 2) (8 ( 4) ( 6) 12 180 36 5 6 5 + = + = = =
The radius of the circle is therefore
6 5
3 5
2
=
The equation of the circle is therefore
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
( 1) 2 (3 5)
1 2 45
x y
x y
+ =
+ + =
42
Finding the Equation of a Tangent to a Circle
This can be found by using the fact that the tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the
radius of the circle.
Example
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle
2 2
6 8 0 x y x y + + = at the point with
coordinates (6, 8) .
2 2
2 2 2 2
6 8 0
( 3) ( 4) ( 3) 4 25
Centre is (3, 4), Radius is 5
4 ( 8) 4
Gradient of radius to (6, 8)
3 6 3
1 3
Gradient of tangent at (6, 8)
4
4
3
x y x y
x y
+ + =
+ + = + =

= =
= =
The equation of the tangent is therefore as before

( 8) 3
6 4
4( 8) 3( 6)
3 4 50
y
x
y x
x y

=
+ =
=
43
Finding the Equation of a Normal to a Circle
The equation of a normal to a circle can be tackled in a similar fashion to the equation
of the tangent. Remember that the equation of a normal to a circle at a particular point,
P say, has the same gradient as the gradient of the line joining P to the centre of the
circle.
Example
In the scenario outlined above, the equation of the normal at the point with coordinates
(6, 8) on the circle with equation
2 2
6 8 0 x y x y + + = is given by
( 8) 4
6 3
3( 8) 4( 6)
4 3 0
y
x
y x
x y

=
+ =
+ =
Finding the Closest Distance of a Given Point from a Circle
Essentially this reduces to finding the coordinates of the point, P, where a line through
the given point, A and the centre of the circle, C, meet the circle and use this point to
calculate the required distance.
y
x
2 4
2
4
C
A
P
- Find the centre of the circle
- Find the distance AC.
- Find radius AP AC = .
44
Example
Find the point on the circle with equation
2 2
( 2) ( 7) 5 x y + = that is closest to the
point with coordinates (8,19) .
Solution
The circle has centre (2, 7) and radius 5 .
The distance from to the centre (2, 7) to (8,19) is given by
2 2 2 2
(8 2) (19 7) 6 12 180 36 5 6 5 + = + = = =
The distance from (8,19) to the circle is therefore given by
6 5 5 5 5 =
When do circles meet?
If
1
r and
2
r are the radii of two circles,
1 2
r r < and d is the distance between their
centres then
(i) Circles touch externally (ii) Circles touch internally
(iii) Circles do not intersect (iii) Circles intersect at two distinct points
2 1
d r r =
1 2
d r r = +
1 2
d r r > +
2 1 1 2
r r d r r < < +
45
Regions
Solid lines are used for inequalities that include = and dashed lines otherwise.
You are usually expected to shade the regions that are excluded e.g. when representing
the inequality 3 x > you would shade the region that is NOT 3 x >
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
x > 3
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
x s 2
y > 2
y s 1
x 2y > 2
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
y < x + 2
46
If you are not sure which way to shade, just pick a test point off the line and see whether
it satisfies the inequality. You will know which way to go then.
In the last diagram, for example, if you use the point (3, 2) you get
2 3 2 2 7 2 x y = = > so (3, 2) does satisfy the inequality.
Questions often require you to shade regions that satisfy a number of inequalities.
Example
Use shading to show the region (often called the feasible region) that satisfies the
following inequalities. You should shade the region that is not required.
2
2
3
x
y
x y
s
s
+ >
Solution
When drawing a graph such as 3 2 24 x y + = a very quick way is to find out where it
meets the axes by putting 0 x = to get 12 y = and by putting 0 y = to get 8 x = .
2
4
-2
-4
2 4 6 -2 -4 -6 0
x
y
x = 2
y = 2
x + y = 3
47
Applications to Linear Programming
Work on regions can be extended to encompass problems involving linear
programming.
This is where an objective function is maximised or minimised subject to certain
constraints that are usually able to be expressed as inequalities.
Consider the feasible region defined by the inequalities
2 6
2 8
2
3
x y
x y
x
y
+ s
+ s
>
>
Suppose we wish to maximise the objective function x y + .
Such maximum points usually occur at a vertex (corner) of the region. The slope of
lines of the form x y k + = indicates that in this case this would be where 2 6 x y + =
and 2 8 x y + = meet. By solving simultaneously this pair of equations it can be shown
that these meet at
( )
1 1
3 3
3 ,1 . The maximum value of x y + is therefore
1 1 2
3 3 3
3 1 4 + = .
2
4
-2
-4
2 4 -2 -4 0
x
y
x + 2y = 6
2x + y = 8
x = 2
y = 3
48
Example
Grizelda is going to make some small cakes to sell at school and raise money for
charity. She has decided to make some chocolate muffins and some yummy munchies.
She would like to make as many cakes as possible but discovers that she only has 2 kg
of flour and 750 g of butter. She has more than enough of the other ingredients.
The cakes must be made in batches:
For 12 muffins she needs 300 g of flour and 50 g of butter
For 16 yummy munchies she needs 200 g of flour and 125 g of butter.
(i) Using x to represent the number of batches of muffins and y to represent the
number of batches of yummy munchies, write down and simplify two
inequalities relating to the available ingredients.
(ii) Illustrate the region satisfied by these inequalities, using the horizontal axis
for x and the vertical axis for y, and shading the unwanted region.
(iii) Write down the objective function for the total number of cakes and find the
greatest number of cakes that Grizelda can make.
49
Solution
(i) 300 200 2000 (restriction on flour)
3 2 20
50 125 750 (restriction on butter)
2 5 30
x y
x y
x y
x y
+ s
+ s
+ s
+ s
Using m to represent the number
(ii)
(iii) The objective function is 12 16 N x y = + .
Remember that lines of the form 12 16 x y k + = are all parallel to each other.
Look for the largest value of N that satisfies the conditions from (i) and (ii)
with both x and y whole numbers (this is required from the context since the
number of batches of each must be a whole number). Remember that this
will usually be at or near a corner of the region formed by the constraints.
The largest value of the objective function is 112 when 4, 4 x y = = so 112
cakes is the largest number that can be made.
The coordinates (4, 4)
give the largest value of
12 16 x y + in the feasible
region i.e. 112 cakes.
5
10
15
20
5 10 15 20 0
x
y
3x + 2y = 20
2x + 5y = 30
N = 12x + 16y
50
Trigonometry
IGCSE Revisited
You obviously need to be familiar with all the work from IGCSE to do with
- Trigonometry and Pythagoras in right angled triangles.
This includes finding sides and angles.
- Sine and cosine rule.
This includes finding sides and angles and may include the ambiguous case for use
of the sine rule to find an angle.
- Finding areas of triangles including use of the formula
1
sin
2
ab C
Remember that you will not have any of the formulae and will have to have learnt
them!
Applications
You are much more likely to be asked application of trigonometry. Likely contexts
include the use of terms such as
Angle of elevation
x
Horizontal
Angle of elevation
Angle of depression
x
Horizontal
Angle of depression
Problems involving bearings and other real life situations are also very likely so
make sure that you revise this.
51
Graphs of Sine, Cosine and Tangent for Any Angle
Observe that
sin0 sin180 sin360 0 = = =
sin90 1 =
sin 270 1 =
sin30 sin150 0.5 = =
sin(180 ) sin x x =
sin( ) sin x x =
The sine graph repeats itself every 360 .
Be prepared to sketch this graph to help
you solve trigonometric equations.
0.5
1
-0.5
-1
90 180 270 360 -90 -180 -270 -360 0
x
y
y = sin x
52
0.5
1
-0.5
-1
90 180 270 360 -90 -180 -270 -360 0
x
y
y = cos x
Observe that
cos 0 cos360 1 = =
cos180 1 =
cos90 cos 270 0 = =
cos 60 cos300 0.5 = =
cos120 cos 60 0.5 = =
cos(180 ) cos x x =
cos( ) cos x x =
The cosine graph repeats itself every 360 .
The cosine graph is the sine graph moved
90 to the right.
Be prepared to sketch this graph to help you
solve trigonometric equations.
53
Observe that
tan 0 tan180 tan360 0 = = =
tan 45 1 =
tan135 tan 45 1 = =
tan90 =
tan 270 =
tan(180 ) tan x x =
tan( ) tan x x =
The tangent graph repeats itself every 180 .
2
4
6
8
10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
90 180 270 360 -90 -180 -270 -360 0
x
y
y = tan x
54
Trigonometric Identities
The following results are true for all values of u .
It is also worth remembering that in a right angled triangle
2 2
sin cos 1 u u +
sin
tan
cos
=
u
x
y
z
90 u
sin cos(90 )
cos sin(90 )
1 1
tan
tan(90 )
x
z
y
z
x
y y
x
u u
u u
u
u
= =
= =
= = =
| |
|
\ .
55
Solving simple trigonometric equations
Example 1
Solve the equation sin 0.4 u = for 0 360 u s s .
Solution
One value can be found from
1
sin (0.4) 23.6 (1 dp) u

= = .
From the symmetry of the sine graph there will also be a solution at
180 23.6 156.4 (1 dp) u = =
Example 2
Solve the equation tan 1.2 u = for 180 180 u s s .
Solution
1
tan ( 1.2) 50.2 (1 dp) u

= = .
Since the tangent graph repeats itself every 180 there will also be a solution at
180 ( 50.2) 129.8 (1 dp) u = + =
Example 3
Solve the equation cos 0.2 u = for 180 360 u s s .
Solution
1
cos ( 0.2) 101.5 (1 dp) u

= = .
Another can be found from the symmetry of the cosine graph about 0 u = i.e.
101.5 (1 dp) u =
There is a third that can be found using the symmetry of the cosine graph about
180 u = .
360 101.5 258.5 (1 dp) u = =
56
Example 4
Solve sin 2cos where 0 360 u u u = s s .
Solution
sin
2
cos
tan 2
63.4 or (63.4 180) (using periodicity of tan graph)
63.4 or 243.4
u
u
u
u
u
=
=
= +
=
Example 5
Solve sin 2cos 0 where 0 360 u u u = s s .
Solution
After a simple rearrangement this is the same as Example 4!
Example 5
Solve
2
2sin 1 where 0 360 . u u = s s
Solution
2
1
sin
2
1
sin
2
1
When sin
2
45 or 135
1
When sin
2
225 or 315
u
u
u
u
u
u
=
=
=
=
=
=
57
Example 6
Solve
2
3cos 5sin 5 0 u u + = for 0 360 u s s .
Solution
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
3
3cos 5sin 5 0
3 1 sin 5sin 5 0
3 3sin 5sin 5 0
3sin 5sin 2 0
Let sin
3 5 2 0
3 2 ( 1) 0
3 2 0 or 1 0
or 1
sin or sin 1
sin leads to
41.8 or 180 41.8 138.2
sin 1 leads to
y
y y
y y
y y
y y
u u
u u
u u
u u
u
u u
u
u
u
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
+ =
=
= =
= =
= =
=
= =
=
90 u =
Example 7
Solve the equation tan cos 1 u u = for 0 360 u s s .
Solution
tan cos 1
sin
cos
u u
u
u
=
cosu 1
sin 1
270
u
u
=
=
=
58
Example 8
Solve the equation tan 2sin u u = for 0 360 u s s .
Solution
tan 2sin
sin
2sin
cos
sin 2sin cos
sin 2sin cos 0
sin (1 2cos ) 0
sin 0
0 or 180 or 360
or 1 2cos 0
1
cos
2
60 or 300
u u
u
u
u
u u u
u u u
u u
u
u
u
u
u
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Example 9
Solve the equation cos 2 0.3 u = for 0 360 u s s .
Solution
If 0 360
0 2 720
cos 2 0.3
2 72.5423.. or 360 72.5423.. or 360 72.5423.. or 360 (360 72.5423..)
2 72.5423.. or 287.4576.. or 432.5423.. or 647.4576..)
36.3 or 143.7 or 216.3 or 323.7
u
u
u
u
u
u
s s
s s
=
= + +
=
=
59
Trigonometry and Pythagoras in 3 Dimensions
There are likely to be problems involving trigonometry and Pythagoras Theorem in 3
Dimensions and these may well be more involved and be more demanding that at
IGCSE. You are more likely to find situations where the use of the sine or cosine rules
will be more efficient.
Remember the key skills of identifying which angles you are working with and
extracting suitable triangles to work with.
You also need to be familiar with some additional terms that you might not have met
before just in case they come up.
Angle between a line and a plane
You should drop a perpendicular line down from the line to the plane to form a right-
angled triangle.
Plane
Line
Angle between line and plane
Line of greatest slope
This is the steepest line down a slope. It is essentially the path a ball would take if
released on the slope!
Line of Greatest Slope
60
Angle between two planes
This is the angle between lines in the two planes that meet at right angles to where the
two planes meet.
Angle Between the Planes
61
Calculus
Differentiation
Notation
d
d
y
x
is the (first) derivative of y with respect to x.
It is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
2
2
d
d
y
x
is the second derivative of y with respect to x.
This is the derivative of
d
d
y
x
with respect to x.
The first derivative of f ( ) x is written as f ' ( ) x and the second derivative is written as
f '' ( ) x
When differentiating something you will often see it written as ( )
d
something
dx
.
For example if you are differentiating
3 2
3 3 2 x x x + + you will often see this written as
3 2
d
( 3 3 2)
d
x x x
x
+ + .
Gradient Function
d
d
y
x
is also called the gradient function as it gives the gradient of a curve at the point
( , ) x y when the x-coordinate of the point is substituted into it.
62
Differentiation of powers of x and constant multiples, sums and differences.
( )
1
d
d
n n
ax nax
x

= where a is a constant.
1 1
d
d
n m n m
ax bx nax mbx
x

l
=
l
l
where a and b are constants,
Remember to write functions as powers of x before you differentiate and make sure that
you simplify expressions first.
Examples
( )
3 2 2
d
4 3 4 7 12 6 4
d
x x x x x
x
+ = +
( ) ( )
2 3 2
2
d d
(2 1)(3 2) 6 3 4 2
d d
18 6 4
x x x x x
x x
x x
+ + = + + +
= + +
( )
7 11
4 8
3
3 7
d d
d d
4 8
x x
x x
x x x
x x
| | +
= +
|
\ .
= +
The gradient function of something
of the form mx c + is simply m from
the work covered on the gradient of
a straight line.
The gradient function of a number
(e.g. 5) is 0 because we know that
5 y = is a straight line horizontal to
the x-axis and hence has gradient 0.
You must write anything to be
differentiated as powers of x before
you begin, multiplying or dividing
out before you begin.
Multiply by the power and reduce the
power by 1.
63
Equations of tangents and normals
The normal to a curve at a point is the line perpendicular to the tangent at that point as
shown by the diagram below.
x
y
Normal
Tangent
Example
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curve
2
3 2 y x x = at the point
where 2 x = .
2
2
d
6 2
d
When 2, 3 2 2 2 16
d
6 2 2 14
d
16
Equation of the tangent is 14
2
16 14 28
14 12
16 1
Equation of the normal is
2 14
14( 16) ( 2)
14 226
x
y
x
x
x y
y
x
y
x
y x
y x
y
x
y x
y x
=
=
= = =
= =
=
=
=
=
This simply means
put the value 2 x =
into the gradient
function.
The gradient of the
normal is 1 divided by
the gradient of the
tangent.
64
Location and Nature of Stationary Points
A stationary point is a point on a curve for which
d
0
d
y
x
= .
Stationary points can be maximum points, minimum points (these are both called
turning points) or points of inflexion (sometimes spelt inflection).
x
y
Maximum
Point
Minimum
Point
Point of
Inflexion
In order to determine the nature of a stationary point (i.e. to find out what sort of
stationary point it is) you can either
(a) find the gradient
d
d
y
x
1

( )
either side of the point, or
(b) use the second derivative
2
2
d
d
y
x
1

( )
If you use the first approach dont go too far away from the stationary point or you
might move past another stationary point and draw an incorrect conclusion.
Value of
2
2
d
d
y
x
Conclusion
d
d
y
x
to the left
d
d
y
x
at the point
d
d
y
x
to the right
0 < Maximum point + ve / 0 \ ve
0 Minimum point ve \ 0 / + ve
Point of inflection + ve / 0 / + ve
Point of inflection ve \ 0 \ ve
0 = Check
d
d
y
x
either side
65
Note: The examples here are harder than you will meet in the examination but they
illustrate the principles well.
Example 1
Find the coordinates and nature of the stationary points on the curve
3 2
2 4 y x x x = .
Solution
( )
( )
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
40 2
3 27
2
2
2
2
40 2
3 27 2
d
3 4 4 (3 2)( 2)
d
d
6 4
d
d
0 when 2 or
d
When 2, 8; when ,
d
8 0, so there is a minimum at 2, 8
d
d
8 0, so there is a maximum at ,
d
x
x
y
x x x x
x
y
x
x
y
x x
x
x y x y
y
x
y
x
=
=
= = +
=
= = =
= = = =
= >
= <
66
Example 2
Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve
3 2
( 1) y x x = and determine
their nature.
Solution
3 2 3
3 2
5 4 3
4 3 2
2
3 2 3 2
2
4 3 2
2 2
2
3
5
2
2
0
( 1) ( 1)( 1)
( 2 1)
2
d
5 8 3
d
d
20 24 6 2(10 12 3 )
d
d
When 5 8 3 0
d
(5 8 3) 0
(5 3)( 1) 0
0 or or 1
d
0 (no information gained)
d
d
d
x
y x x x x x
x x x
x x x
y
x x x
x
y
x x x x x x
x
y
x x x
x
x x x
x x x
x
y
x
y
=
= =
= +
= +
= +
= + = +
= + =
+ =
=
=
=
0.1
0.1
2
2
0.6
2
2
1
0.0385 0
d
0.0225 0 so a point of inflexion at (0,0) (same sign on both sides of st pt)
d
d
0.72 0 so a maximum at (0.6, 0.03456)
d
d
2 0 so a minimum at (1, 0)
d
x
x
x
x
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
=
=
=
=
= >
= >
= <
= >
67
Sketching Curves
You may be expected to sketch simple curves using any of the mathematics included in
the syllabus. Useful things to bear in mind (although not all would be required on any
particular sketch, nor should you work them all out unless you are asked to) are
- Where the curve meets the x-axis (i.e. when 0 y = )
- Where the curve meets the y-axis (i.e. when 0 x = )
- The coordinates of any stationary points that you might know
- The general shapes of particular types of curves that you might know such as
2
y x =
3
y x =
1
y
x
=
2
1
y
x
=
68
Practical Maximum and Minimum Problems
Example
A cylindrical tin has a volume of 128t cm
3
. Find the dimensions necessary for the tin to
have the minimum possible surface area, and find the minimum possible surface area.
Let the base radius be and the height be . r h

2
Circular ends Curved surface
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 3
3
2
2
Surface area, 2 2
Volume, 128
128
128
2 2
256
2
d 256
4
d
d 512
4
d
d 256
0 when 4 0 i.e. when 64 i.e. when 4
d
d
S r rh
V r h
h
r
S r r
r
r
r
S
r
r r
S
r r
S
r r r
r r
S
t t
t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
= +
= =
=
= +
= +
=
= +
= = = =
2
4
2
2 2
min
4 8 12 0 i.e. S is a minimum value when 4 cm
d
128
So the radius, 4 cm and the height, 8 cm
4
256
S 2 4 96 cm
4
r
r
r
r h
t t t
t
t t
=
= + = > =
= = =
= + =
r
h
69
Integration
Integration as the Reverse of Differentiation
d
d
d
y
x y c
x
=
]
where c is an arbitrary constant of integration.
Indefinite Integration of powers of n, constant multiples, sums and differences
Examples
7 8
3
3 d
8
x x x c = +
}
2 3 5 3 2
6 4 3
( 2)( 1)d ( 2)d
2
6 4 3
x x x x x x x
x x x
x c
+ + = + + +
= + + + +
} }
10 8
6 4
4
7 5
7
5
5
d ( 5 )d
5
7 5
7
x x
x x x x
x
x x
c
x
x c
+
= +
= + +
= + +
} }
Remember c once you have integrated.
Make sure that you have written things
as powers of x before you integrate.
1
d 1
1
n
n
ax
ax x c n
n
= =
]
.
f ( ) d f ( ) d a x x a x x =
] ]
[f ( ) g( )]d f ( ) d g( ) d x x x x x x x =
] ] ]
70
Finding the constant of integration using given conditions
Example 1
Suppose that a curve f ( ) y x = is such that
d
2 1
d
y
x
x
= + and the curve passes through the
point (1, 2) .
Solution
2
2
2
(2 1) d
2 1 1 since the curve passes through (1, 2)
4
so 4
y x x x x c
c
c
y x x
= + = + +
= + +
=
= +
}
Example 2
Suppose that
2
d
3 4
d
y
x x b
x
= + + where b is a constant.
Given that 7 y = when 1 x = and that 12 y = when 2 x = , find y in terms of x.
Solution
2
2
2
3
3 2
3 2
3 2
3 2
d
3 4
d
(3 4 )d
4
2
2
7 1 2 1 1
4 (1)
12 2 2 2 2
2 4 (2)
8 (2) (1)
12 substituting for in (1)
2 8 12
y
x x b
x
y x x b x
x
x bx c
y x x bx c
b c
b c
b c
b c
b
c b
y x x x
= + +
= + +
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
+ =
= + + +
+ =
=
=
= + +
}
71
Definite Integrals
If f ( ) d F( ) x x x c = +
}
then f ( ) d F( ) F( )
b
a
x x b a =
}
.
Area between a curve and the x axis
To find the area between the curve f ( ) y x = the x-axis and the lines x a = and x b = we
calculate
For example the area between the x-axis, the curve
2
2 y x x = + and the lines 1 x =
and 3 x = is given by
( ) ( )
3
2
1
3
3 2
1
3 2 3 2
9 1 1
2 3 2
2
3
Area ( 2) d
2
3 2
3 3 1 1
2 3 2 1
3 2 3 2
9 6 2
8
x x x
x x
x
= +
(
= +
(

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
= + +
=
}
b
y
x
a
y = f(x)
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
y = x
2
x + 2
d f ( ) d F( ) F( )
b b
a a
y x x x b a = =
} }
72
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
y
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
10
y = x
3
y = 4x
Note that sometimes areas can be calculated using more straightforward methods. For
example, when working out the area under a straight line you can use the area of a
triangle or trapezium.
Note also that using symmetry can occasionally make calculations quicker.
Example
Find the shaded area between the curve
3
y x = and the line 4 y x = .
Solution
The curve and line meet when
3
3
2
4
4 0
( 4) 0
0, 2
x x
x x
x x
x
=
=
=
=
There are two ways of proceeding. The first is completely by integration.
( )
2 2 2
3 3
0 0 0
2
4
2
0
Area 2 4 d 2 d 2 (4 ) d
16
2 2 2 8 0 0 8 square units
4 4
x x x x x x x
x
x
= =
( ( | |
= = =
| ( (
\ .
} } }
The second uses the fact that the area under the line is the area of a triangle.
When 2 x = , 8 y = .
2
3
1
2
0
2
4
0
Area 2 2 8 2 d
16
16 2 16 2 0 8 square units
4 4
x x
x
=
(
(
= = =
(
(

}
The area between 2 and 0 is clearly the
same as the area between 0 and 2 so we
require twice the area under the line take
away the area under the curve.
73
A warning!
You are strongly advised to draw a sketch of any curve before you find the area.
This is because areas below curves are negative.
If a curve has part above the x-axis and part below the x-axis you need to consider the
two parts separately and combine the sizes of the areas.
Example
For example consider the area between the curve
2
9 y x = , the x-axis and the lines
2 x = and 5 x = .
A sketch shows that part of the area is below the x-axis and part is above.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3
3 3
2
8 2
3 3
2 2
2
3
5
5 3
2
125 2
3 3
3 3
2 2 1
3 3 3
( 9) d 9 9 27 18 2
3
The sign is because the area is below the axis.
The actual area is 2 .
( 9) d 9 45 9 27 14
3
Area required 2 14 17
NB Had we done
x
x x x
x
x x x
(
= = =
(

(
= = =
(

= + =
}
}
5
2
2
2 2
3 3
( 9) d then we would have obtained that the (incorrect) answer 12!
This is because the integral would have given 2 14 12.
x x
+ =
}
x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y
-8
-4
4
8
12
y = x
2
9
74
Area between two curves
To find the area between two curves f ( ) y x = and g( ) y x = which meet at x a = and
x b = which are such that f ( ) g( ) x x > between these values find
| | f ( ) g( ) d
b
a
x x x
}
Example
To find the area between the curves
2
2 y x = and
2
6 y x = + .
First find where the curves meet.
2 2
2
2 6
2 8
2
x x
x
x
= +
=
=
We therefore need to evaluate the integral of the top curve take away the bottom one.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
16 16
3 3
1
3
Area 6 2 d
2 8 d
2
8
3
16 16
21
x x x
x x
x x
(
= +

= +
(
= +
(

= +
=
}
}
x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
y
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
10
y = x
2
+ 6
y = x
2
2
Note that if you had subtracted the integrals the
wrong way round you would have obtained the
answer
1
3
21 .
Note also that because of the symmetry of both
curves we could have found instead
( ) ( )
2
2 2
0
2 6 2 d x x x
(
+
}
75
Application to Kinematics
Motion in a Straight Line
You need to be able to apply your knowledge of differentiation to motion in a straight
line.
The standard notation is
t time
s distance
d
d
s
v
t
= velocity
d
d
v
a
t
= acceleration
Maximum/minimum velocity occurs when maximum of graph i.e.
d
0
d
v
t
= i.e. when
0 a = .
Remember also that
d
d
s v t
v a t
=
=
}
}
Dont forget the constant of integration when integrating an indefinite integral
you will often need to use information you are given in the question to find its
value.
76
Example 1
The distance of a particle, s metres, from a fixed point O after time t seconds is given by
the formula
3 2
5 2 s t t t = + .
Find formulae, in terms of t, for
(i) the velocity
(ii) the acceleration
Use your answers to find
(iii) the velocity after 2 seconds
(iv) the acceleration after 2 seconds
(v) the time at which the velocity is 0
Solution
(i)
2
d
3 2 5
d
s
v t t
t
= = (ii)
d
6 2
d
v
a t
t
= =
(iii) When 2 t = ,
2
3 2 2 2 5 12 4 5 3 m/s v = = =
(iv) When 2 t = ,
2
6 2 2 10 m/s a = =
(v)
2
2
3
3 2 5 0
(3 5)( 1) 0
3 5 0 since 1 0 gives a negative time which is impossible
1 seconds
v t t
t t
t t
t
= =
+ =
= + =
=
77
Example 2
A particle moves such that its displacement s metres after time t seconds is given by
3 2
1 s t t t = + + .
(a) Determine the value of t for which the velocity is 0.
(b) Show that its acceleration is never 0.
Solution
(a)
2
d
3 2 1 (3 1)( 1)
d
s
v t t t t
t
= = + = +
When 0 v = ,
1
3
t = since t must be positive.
(b)
d
6 2
d
v
a t
t
= = +
The only value of t that gives 0 a = is
1
3
t = and since time is always positive
the acceleration can never be 0.
Example 3
A particle has acceleration given by
2
9 1 a t = where t is the time since the particle
started moving. Find the velocity in terms of t given that its initial velocity is 7 ms
-1
.
Solution
2
2 3
2
3
9 1
(9 1) d 3
When 0, 7 so 7 3 0 0
7
3 7
a t
v t t t t c
t v c
c
v t t
=
= = +
= = = +
=
= +
}
78
Example 4
The velocity of a particle is given by
2
v t t = + at time t seconds. Find the distance
moved in the 3
rd
second (i.e. between 2 and 3 seconds).
Solution
( )
2
3 2
5
6
d
3 2
8 4 14
When 2,
3 2 3
27 9 27
When 3,
3 2 2
27 14
Distance travelled 8 metres
2 3
s t t t
t t
s c
t s c c
t s c c
c c
= +
= + +
= = + + = +
= = + + = +
| | | |
= + + =
| |
\ . \ .
}
Another alternative approach is to use a definite integral.
( )
3
2
2
3
3 2
2
5
6
d
3 2
27 9 8 4
3 2 3 2
Distance travelled 8 metres
s t t t
t t
s
s
= +
(
= +
(

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
=
}
79
SUVAT Equations (Constant Acceleration Formulae)
These are for motion with constant acceleration in a straight line (horizontal or vertical)
only.
2 2
2 1
2
2
1
2
displacement
2 initial velocity
final velocity
acceleration
2
time
v u at s
v u as u
s ut at v
u v
s t a
s vt at t
= + =
= + =
= + =
+
= =
= =
Remember:
- As these are vector quantities they have both magnitude and direction, so the signs
of the quantities in these equations can be positive or negative. Choose a direction to
be positive and then quantities in the opposite direction are negative. Slowing down,
retardation and deceleration are all terms for negative acceleration.
- Usually g, the acceleration due to gravity is taken as 9.8 ms
-2
(positive ).
In order to use these equations successfully keep in mind:
- You should choose the equation that fits the information you know and the quantity
that you are trying to calculate.
- If there are two unknowns to find it may be that you need to form and solve a pair of
simultaneous equations.
- If a particle is projected up and then falls down again you can look at the motion in
two stages, but this is not required, as long as you are careful with directions.
Other useful results are
Total Distance
Average Speed
Total Time
=
Total Displacement
Average Velocity
Total Time
=
When projecting a particle vertically, at maximum height the velocity will be zero.
80
Example 1
A car begins to accelerate at 0.5 ms
-2
for a distance of 500 m. At the end of this the car
is travelling at 30 ms
-1
, calculate the initial speed of the car.
Solution
We know: a = 0.5
s = 500
v = 30
u = ?
so use: v
2
= u
2
+ 2as
2 2
2 2
2
-1
30 2 0.5 500
30 2 0.5 500
400
20 ms
u
u
u
u
= +
=
=
=
Example 2
A particle is projected upwards with a velocity of 30 ms
-1
. What is the maximum height
it will reach?
Solution
Because the particle is only acting under its own weight, its acceleration will be due to
gravity.
Because it reaches maximum height the final velocity at that height will be zero.
We therefore know: s = ?
u = 30
v = 0
a = - 9.8
so use: v
2
= u
2
+ 2as
2
0 30 2 ( 9.8)
19.6 900
45.9 m (3 sf)
s
s
s
= +
=
=
81
Example 3
Daisy is cycling at a steady speed of
1
6 ms
when she comes to a hill which causes her

to slow down at a rate of
2
0.5 ms
.
(a) How far up the hill does she travel before coming to a rest?
(b) How long does it take her speed to be reduced to
1
2 ms
.
Solution
(a)
2 2
2 2
6
0
0.5
Using 2
0 6 2 0.5
0 3
36
She travels 36 metres up the hill
u
v
a
v u as
s
s
s
=
=
=
= +
= +
=
=
(b)
2
6
2
0.5
Using
2 6 0.5
0.5 4
4
8
0.5
She takes 8 seconds to slow down to 2 ms
u
v
a
v u at
t
t
t
=
=
=
= +
= +
=
= =
82
Example 4
A particle is projected with a velocity of 20 ms
-1
. For how long will it be above a height
of 16m?
Solution
We know: u = 20
a = 9.8
s = 16 i.e. from the floor
t = ?
so use: s = ut + at
2
16 = 20t 4.9t
2
0 = 4.9t
2
20t + 16 use the quadratic formula
t = 1.09 s
t = 2.99 s (3 s.f.)
Two answers were expected because the particle will reach 16m both on the way up and
on the way down during its motion.
The time above 16m will be 2.99 1.09 1.9 seconds = .
83
Displacement-time and Velocity-time Graphs
These are often useful as tools in your armoury to tackle problems involving constant
(straight lined velocity-time graphs) or variable acceleration (curved velocity-time
graphs).
(t, s) [Displacement-time]
- The gradient of this graph represents velocity.
(t, v) [Velocity-time]
- The gradient of this graph represents acceleration.
- The area under this graph represents displacement when taking direction into
account and distance if only the total of the magnitudes of the areas are
considered.
Example 1
Between points A and B on the graph the particle is travelling with a constant velocity
of 2 ms
-1
away from its starting point. Between B and C the particle is stationary.
Between C and D the particle travels back towards its starting point with constant
velocity 4 ms
-1
i.e. in the opposite direction to its initial motion. Between D and E the
particle travels 6 m away from its starting point in the opposite direction, still with
constant velocity 4 ms
-1
. For the final part of the journey between E and F the particle
travels with constant velocity 3 ms
-1
in its original direction until it returns to its starting
point.
time
(seconds)
Displacement
(metres)
A
B C
D
E
F
4
-6
5 2 8.5 4 6.5
84
time
(seconds)
Velocity
A
B C
D
E
F
4
-6
5 2
8.5 4 6.5
(ms
-1
)
The displacement from its
original position needs to
take into account the
direction of the motion i.e.
you need the area of
ABCD the area of DEF
14 10.5 2.5 metres = =
Example 2
At the point on the graph marked A, the particle starts at rest. Between points A and B
on the graph the particle is travelling with a constant acceleration of 2 ms
-2
away from
its starting point. Between B and C the particle is travelling with constant velocity
1
4 ms
away from its starting point.

Between C and D the particle decelerates with deceleration 4 ms
-2
until at D it is
instantaneously stationary. It continues to decelerate with deceleration 4 ms
-2
(and travel
away from its starting point in the opposite direction) until at E it is instantaneously
travelling at 6 ms
-1
away from its starting point. It then accelerates with acceleration 3
ms
-2
(N.B. an object travelling with negative velocity and positive acceleration is
slowing down) until at F it is stationary again.
The total distance travelled can be calculated by evaluating areas ABCD and DEF.
(5 2)
Area ABCD 4 14 (This is a trapezium)
2
3.5 6
Area DEF 10.5
2
Total distance travelled 14 10.5 24.5 metres
+
= =
= =
= + =
Notice that Examples 1 and 2 are quite different even though the graphs look the same!!!
The total of areas ABCD and
DEF represents the distance
travelled.

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First Edition C Morris. Only authorised for use by students at Reading School.

The equation of the tangent is therefore as before

when she comes to a hill which causes her

away from its starting point.

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