Half amplitude / 6 dB drop technique : Half amplitude technique for defining the ends of a discontinuity is used when it is longer

than the crystal size of the probe. This is the most popular technique for discontinuity length measurement. After maximizing the discontinuity indication, set this signal to a convenient height [ ~ 80 % ]. The probe is then moved towards right, parallel to the discontinuity or the weld seam as appropriate, up to the position where the signal drops to half the set amplitude. A point is marked with a marker above the discontinuity location corresponding to the centerline of the probe crystal. A similar point is found by moving the probe towards the left. The distance between these two points is the length of the discontinuity. The discontinuity length measured by this technique always results in an over estimation of the actual size. This is because the half intensity line is located at an angle to the main axis of the beam [ centerline of the crystal ]. The error will depend on the size and frequency of the probe and the beam path distance to the discontinuity. The shape at the ends of the discontinuity will also influence the measurement. Small crystal probes [ 4 MHz, 8 X 9, 10 mm ] should be preferred for the measurements. This measurement error can be minimized by plotting the half amplitude beam boundary in the horizontal plane using the IOW beam profile block and using the graph thus obtained for correcting the length at the applicable flaw depth. Edge approach technique : When the discontinuity size is much smaller than the size of the crystal, half amplitude technique of measurement does not produce satisfactory result. A different method called edge approach technique is used.

In this method the edge of the ultrasound beam is used to find the starting edge of the discontinuity. Once the presence of the discontinuity is confirmed, the scanning starts from a position where the discontinuity signal is not visible on the CRT screen. The probe is now slowly moved towards the discontinuity up to the position where the discontinuity indication just begins to appear on the CRT screen. A point above the discontinuity location is marked which coincides with the line passing through the sidewall of the probe, facing the discontinuity. A similar point is to be found by scanning the discontinuity by probe movement from the other end. The distance between these two points is the length of the discontinuity.

Angle probe DAC with side drilled hole block : Side drilled hole blocks are widely used for plotting the DAC curve for weld testing. This method compares the reflectivity of a flaw with that of the tangential area of the horizontal hole at the relevant test distance and is thus echo amplitude dependent when assessing flaw acceptability. These blocks contain one inch or more deep drilled hole, with the hole axis parallel to the scanning surface and perpendicular to the edge. The side of the hole reflects ultrasound energy incident at any angle. The diameter of the hole normally increases with block thickness. A 1.6 mm diameter reference hole provides good test sensitivity for most of the weld testing applications. Depending on the block thickness T, holes are drilled at 1/4 T, 1/2 T, 3/4 T on the edge of the block. Plotting the DAC curve : A block is selected whose thickness [ T ] most closely matches the part thickness [ equal to or within 10% of test thickness ] and contains the hole, specified in the test procedure in use. The maximized signal from the hole which produces shortest beam path, [ Pos 1 or 2 ] is set to 80 % screen height. The probe should be at least one half inch away from the edge of the block to avoid corner effect. The peak of the signal is marked on the face of the CRT screen. Without changing the gain control, maximized signals from other positions [ Pos 2, 3, 4 ] are marked and a curve is drawn through all these marks to complete the DAC curve. A 50 % curve is also drawn by 6 dB reduction method. Minimum three signal peaks are required to plot the DAC. For a 1/4 T hole, signal from position 2 should be preferred as the first reference point of the DAC curve. If the weld crown is ground flush and the probe can move over the weld surface, signal from position 1 may be used as the first reference point. In angle beam testing of unground welds, the sound beam enters the weld zone after traveling a certain distance in the test material and depends on the location of the exit point on the probe body. The DAC curve level falls sharply for higher frequency miniature [ 4 MHz, 10 mm ] probes. Flaws producing, > 100% DAC signal is normally rejected or a certain length is permitted by the code. A certain length is also permitted, for 50 % or more DAC signals. These signals are to be recorded in the report for future reference. For ASME pressure vessels, > 20 % DAC signals are to be evaluated for crack, lack of fusion and lack of penetration. These defects are not acceptable regardless of echo amplitude. Important : The sound attenuation, surface condition and contact area of the block should be similar to the test part. If possible, the block is to be prepared from the test material itself. Transfer correction of the reference test sensitivity will be required if the block is different from the test material. It is preferable to setup the test sensitivity on a block equal in thickness to the test part. This will produce a DAC curve with sufficient test length and internal reflections similar to the test part. Thickness difference of 10 % is acceptable. The DAC curve [ level ] must be at least 20 % screen height up to the full test distance. If required more than one curve should be plotted for flaw evaluation. Side drilled hole block thickness and hole size in inches for weld testing as per ASME plate block hole thk, T thk size up to 1 T or 3 / 4 3 / 32 >1 to 2 T or 1.5 1/8 >2 to 4 T or 3 3 / 16 >4 to 6 T or 5 1/4 >6 to 8 T or 7 5 / 16 >8 to 10 T or 9 3/8

Sec V. hole location 1/4, 1/2, 3/4T

Angle beam probe : Angle probes are used for detecting flaws oriented at an angle to the material surface. They will miss flat reflectors, parallel or perpendicular to the scanning surface. The angled beam must hit the 0 reflecting plane of the discontinuity at 90 for maximum reflection. Angle beam reflects well from corners but may undergo wave mode conversion. Usually shear wave probes are used in angle beam testing, because the refracted longitudinal wave probe will have a shear wave component of weaker intensity in the test material. Longitudinal wave angle probes are specially useful for testing austenitic stainless steel welds and inside surface of highly curved hollow parts and welds. Shear wave probes are used for testing welds, material defects in pipes, tubes, plates and sheets and in irregular shapes where full contact testing area is not available. Angle beam probes use the principle of refraction and mode conversion to produce refracted longitudinal and shear waves in the test part. In an angle beam probe, longitudinal wave is converted to refracted longitudinal or shear wave by means of an angled plastic wedge. The wedge is cut at an angle to provide an incident beam angle to produce refracted longitudinal or shear wave at the desired angle in Steel, because steel is tested in most applications. For designing small crystal low frequency probes, incident angle calculation based on snells law fails because of wider beam spread associated with these probes. The refracted angles will change in other materials 0 0 because of velocity difference. A probe of 45 in steel will equal 43 in aluminum. The wedges have serrations cut on the front surface and fitted with absorbing medium to prevent internal reflections from producing unwanted echoes but some spurious echoes are often detectable just after the initial pulse. The wedge can be an integral part or can be detachable. In detachable system, a single transducer can be configured to different angles by changing the wedge and is economical. The detachable wedges are bigger and absorbs more energy. The detachable type requires couplant between the transducer and the wedge to permit transmission of ultrasound into the wedge. 0 0 0 Standard angles are 35, 45, 60, 70 and 80 in steel. 80 and 35 probes have limited applications due to prevalence of surface waves 0 0 from 80 and presence of longitudinal waves from 35 probes. Crystal sizes around 10 mm for miniature and 20 mm for bigger probes are most popular. Probes with 12.5 mm crystal size is normally recommended for standard test applications. Rectangular crystals are often used. Bigger probes have higher sensitivity and sharply focused sound beam and permit flaw detection at higher depth but cannot be placed very close to the weld edge. 4 MHz, 8 X 9 / 10 mm probes are very popular for their small contact area, high resolution and sharp echoes and are used up to a test distance of 200 mm in steel. Larger probes are mostly used for thick welds and for applications where sufficient probe contact area is available and a large area is to be scanned. A 20 X 22 mm, 2 MHz probe can detect a 2 mm reflector up to a distance of 700 mm. Twin crystal angle probes, longitudinal and shear, are available for direct scanning on ground weld surfaces and low thickness materials. These probes are more suitable for testing stainless steel and sound absorbing materials. With use, the beam exit point and the refracted beam angle will change with acrylic wear and should be checked before each use. 0 The beam angle change should be controlled within + / - 2 . New acrylic soles can be pasted with araldite to repair the wear. The front corner of the sole should be shaped to reduce spurious echoes. Performance : A good angle probe with a standard flaw detector, should produce a minimum 75% signal from the 100 mm radius of a standard IIW - V1 block with a minimum of 40 dB gain reserve. The probe should resolve at least three of the five holes [ clearly detectable peaks ] in the IOW beam profile block. Noise from internal reflections should not exceed 5% screen height, at all the working test sensitivity levels. Beam axis abnormality should be checked by maximizing a signal and moving the probe forward and backward and rotating left and right, while monitoring the falling signal. The signal should fall continuously without any sudden rise in signal height.

Pulse echo A- scan test method :

Pulse echo test method uses reflected ultrasound as a means of collecting test information. A single crystal probe is normally used for ultrasound generation as well as reception. The transmitter circuit of the flaw detector supplies short excitation pulses of few hundred volts at regular interval to the probe crystal. The excitation pulse oscillates the crystal to generate short burst of ultrasound such that the arrival of each returning echo may be identifiable as a discrete event. During the interval between two successive pulses, the crystal is at rest and detects any return echo such as from the back wall. A large percentage of the sound is reflected from the front surface of the test part and the remainder is reflected by the back surface or discontinuities. The flaw detectors CRT screen displays the whole operation by producing separated signals of transmission and the time of arrival of defect echo and the back wall echo. The transmission pulse and subsequent echoes appear as peaks rising out of the CRTs base line. The distance between the peaks is a measure of the defects location or the parts thickness. Transmission of high frequency ultrasound cannot takes place in air. It is carried out through an intermediate liquid, in bulk or as a thin layer. Oily substances or water are generally used. They are called couplants. The initial or transmitter pulse appears first in time and represents the electrical zero. This is the exact start time of crystal excitation. The exact point in time when ultrasound enters the test material is called acoustical zero. Acoustical zero is superimposed within the initial pulse and is not distinguishable. The next pulse represents the total elapsed time for sound to travel from the entry surface to the reflector and back to the entry surface again. At the instant the electrical pulse is removed the oscillations of the crystal do not cease immediately but decreases in an exponential manner until they reach zero. A dead zone is produced, starting immediately after entry into the test surface, in which echoes can not be detected. One single test cycle is so fast that it is not physically visible in the detectors screen. Hence the flaw detector repeats the test cycle several times per second by supplying successive excitation pulses to the crystal and make the event appear as constant due to persistence of vision. The number of times, the crystal is electrically pulsed per second is called the pulse repetition rate.

A sufficient amount of time between successive pulses is necessary to allow ultrasound to travel through the material under examination. Higher pulse repetition rate produces brighter screen display. Very high pulse repetition rate produces spurious signals [ ghost echoes ] on the CRT screen. The ultrasonic pulses used by the flaw detector are radio frequency type and have a serrated look. The pulses are filtered and rectified to smooth looking shapes by the flaw detector before display. Pulse echo A-scan method displays distance along the horizontal scale called the baseline and amplitude of the reflection along the vertical scale. Because of similar return path, the screen is calibrated to display one way travel only. A scan test method can accurately locate a discontinuity. The amplitude of the return signal is a relative measure of the amount of reflected energy and depends on the area and orientation of the reflecting surface. Amplitude of the signal can be used for accept / reject decision.

Weld discontinuity evaluation : Ulllll Discontinuity evaluation consists of various steps to assess the type or character, orientation, location, length and width of the reflector. To reach a reasonable conclusion regarding identification of the discontinuity, the technician must be thoroughly familiar with the welding process, degree of perfection in welding fit up and should accurately locate the reflector within the weld cross section. Combining this information with the basic shape of the reflector identified by beam manipulations, the identification of the weld discontinuity may be possible. The basic weld discontinuity shapes which can be identified by ultrasonic beam manipulations are Spherical, Cylindrical and Planar. Discontinuity types : Spherical : single and widely spaced pores [ P ], non elongated slag [ SL ]. Cylindrical : elongated slag, wormholes, aligned pores, hollow bead, unfused slug, concave root [ C]. Planar : cracks, side wall lack of fusion [ LF ], unfused root faces, Lack of penetration [ LP ], fusion line slag, burn through, undercut [ UC ], cold lap, misalignment. Angle beam probes can be used to obtain information about the type of the reflector detected during scanning. Use of all the three angles is recommended. The reflector is to be scanned by lateral, orbital and swivel movement of the probe. Orbital scanning is made around the discontinuity in a circular path with the discontinuity at the center of the circle. Swivel scanning involves rotation of the probe around an axis through the center of the probe body, and perpendicular to the scanning surface. The signal from a spherical reflector remains basically unchanged as the probe is moved around the reflector in orbital fashion. The reflector does not respond to swivel scan and also shows no length with the lateral movement of the probe. The signal from this type of reflector is normally small with narrow base because of only a small area of the discontinuity actually reflects the ultrasonic beam. A single pore produces a sharp indication and a cluster will produce multiple or a broad based indication with many peaks. A planar or a cylindrical reflector will produce weak or no indication if orbital and swivel scanning is performed. With the lateral movement of the probe, a varying or constant signal may result, but the continuity of the signal indicates length of the reflector. To differentiate a cylindrical reflector from the planar, the reflector should be scanned with several different angle probes. A cylindrical reflector will produce equivalent or significant signal at all angles of incidence [ assuming equal sensitivity calibration and adjustment for attenuation ]. A significantly greater amplitude signal from a particular angle probe, indicates a planar reflector. Sound is reflected at its 0 maximum from only one angle of interception, i.e. around 90 . Indications from opened cracks typically shows multiple peaks and of wider shape because of the many discontinuity facets usually present. When the probe is rotated or orbited, an angle of some 20 0 to 30 can be maintained before the echo is totally reflected away. Side wall Lack of Fusion produces sharp indication and usually detectable from one side. The maximum signal remains constant for some distance of the probe movement perpendicular to the weld axis.

discontinuity type relative sensitivity Planar Highest Linear Intermediate Spherical [ cluster ] Intermediate Spherical [ isolated ] Lowest [ assuming favorable orientation ]

Equipment performance check : Ulllllcalibration and performance of manual ultrasonic test The system can be checked using the IIW - V1 block. Normal Probe : S : System Sensitivity check, with the hole signal set to 75% screen height, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required. R : Resolution check [ ability to produce separate indication ] The signals from the 85, 91 and 100 mm distances should be displayed on the screen without overlapping. D2 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates 10 mm or less. D1 : Dead zone, signal from hole indicates, 5 mm or less. P : Checks sound generating ability of the system. With the gain at maximum, 5 full screen signals from the 23 mm Perspex insert, using a 2 MHz probe should be obtained. R1 and R2 : Range calibration and Horizontal Linearity. Angle Probe : E: Beam exit point, when the signal from the radius becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe coincides with the center mark of the scale on the face of the block. S: Sensitivity check. with the signal from the radius set to 100%, minimum 40 dB reserved gain required. R: Range calibration for angle probe. A1: and A2: Angle check, when the signal from the hole becomes maximum, the exit point of the probe may coincide with one of the marks on the face of the block to indicate the refracted beam angle of the probe. Horizontal Linearity : For accurately locating reflectors, a linear distance scale is essential. A 100 mm range is accurately calibrated from location R1. With the probe at position R2, signals should appear exactly at 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50 th division on the screen. A signal position deviation by more than 1% indicates, non linear distance scale. This check should be carried out over the maximum range used for actual testing. The ultrasonic instrument must provide linear vertical presentation within +/- 5% of the full screen height. Screen Height Linearity : Using a viscous couplant, a normal beam probe is positioned at a suitable location of the block to give a 2 : 1 ratio of amplitudes between two steady signals. When the attenuator is changed in 2 dB steps, the smaller amplitude signal must remain 50% of the larger amplitude within +/- 5% of full screen height. Amplitude Control Linearity : The accuracy of the amplitude control of the ultrasonic equipment is also essential. Using a viscous couplant, a normal beam probe is positioned on the block to produce a 80% steady signal. With the attenuator changing by 2 dB steps, the signal amplitude shall change corresponding to the figure given below. A deviation of +/- 5% is considered acceptable. A 50% signal, when reduced by 24 dB, should be clearly detectable. ( Dynamic range ) Signal to Noise ratio : After setting a signal to 20% screen height, the gain is further increased till the base line noise equals 20%. The difference in gain is the signal to noise ratio and indicates the quality of the amplifier.

Beam exit point and effective angle : Exit point is the location which marks the entry of the central ray of the ultrasonic beam into the test specimen. A smaller discontinuity produces maximum indication, when it is on this central ray of the beam. Hence, the exact angle of the axis of the beam can be determined by triangulation after maximizing signals from known small reflectors. During angle probe examination, the probe is moved backward and forward to hit the discontinuity with the axis of the beam so that the location of the reflector can be determined. All measurements for flaw location utilize the exit point. To locate the exit point, move the angle probe over the scale marked on the IIW - V1 block to obtain the maximum signal from the 100 mm radius curved surface. Mark the point on the probe body which coincides with the central line of the scale marked on the face of the block. This is the exit point of the axis of the ultrasonic beam. This check can be performed on the V2 calibration block also. The 50 mm radius side should be used to avoid near zone effect. Refracted beam angle : Place the exit point of the angle probe in the approximate position of the angle marked on the face of the IIW - V1 calibration block, that corresponds to the nominal angle marked on the probe faceplate. Move the probe to maximize the signal obtained from the reflector hole. Correlate the exit point to the corresponding angle marked on the calibration block to determine the angle of refraction of the ultrasonic beam axis, 0 0 i. e. the exit point of a 60 probe should be on the 60 mark when the signal becomes maximum. The angle thus obtained is valid for steel only. Angle can be determined with the V2 block also. Accurate method : Refracted angle of the axis of the beam can be accurately determined by analyzing the maximum reflection signal obtained from a small diameter side drilled hole at known depth in a reference calibration block. Smaller hole size at higher depth provides better accuracy. For deep holes, the maximum signal should be carefully detected. Refracted Beam angle is calculated as, Cos inverse [ hole depth / ( beam path + hole radius )]

Effective beam angle in other materials: Material Velocity mtrs/sec 4340 Steel 347,Aust Stainless Aluminum Inconel Titanium, 105A 3240 3090 3130 3020 3120 45 42 43.5 41 43

-------------------------------------------------------------------60 56 57 54 57 70 64 65 61 65

Effective angles

Hole depth up to center = 30mm Beam path up to hole center = 56 + 0.75 or 56.75 mm. [ Radius of hole, 0.75mm added to beam path ] Probe angle = Inv Cosine [ 30 / 56.75 ] 0 = Inv Cosine 0.5286 or 58

Flaw Calculations : Distance to reflector from The probe exit point : Beam path X Sin A Depth of reflector from the scanning surface level : In Leg 1 [ before reflection from the undersurface ] beam path X Cos A In Leg 2 [ after reflection from the Undersurface ] 2 Thickness - ( Beam path X Cos A ) A is effective Angle of the Probe. Angle 80 70 60 45 ---------------------------------------------Sin A .98 .94 .86 .7 Cos A .17 .34 .5 .7 Tan A 5.67 2.74 1.73 1.0 Sec A 5.88 2.94 2.0 1.4 [ Sec A = 1 / Cos A ]
0 0 0 0

Locating discontinuities : Ultrasound beam is a diverging cone with maximum sensitivity along its axis. Consequently, a flaw will produce a signal even when the beam axis does not pass directly through it. It is therefore necessary to shift the probe till the flaw signal becomes maximum. The flaw is then on the axis of the beam. The angle marked on the probe is the angle of this beam axis for steel testing. The location of the flaw is then calculated by recording the sound travel path displayed on the CRT screen and using trigonometric relations. The CRT screen is to be marked at half skip and full skip beam paths [ Thickness X Sec A, 2 X Thickness X Sec A ] to separate Leg 1 and Leg 2 region. The defects in a test part usually produce a clearly defined echo envelope [ rise and fall of the echo signal ]. Such indications should be analyzed thoroughly. Weld flaw signals : Single Pore : produces low amplitude narrow based sharp echo. When the probe is orbited around the pore, the echo is maintained with small amplitude variations. They can only be detected as points. Porosity cluster : Produces low amplitude broad based indications with many peaks. When the probe is orbited around the cluster, the echoes will be held with amplitude and range variations. Isolated Slag : produces forked and broad based echo. When the probe is orbited, the echo is maintained with some amplitude variation and retains the forked shape. Slag lines : echo falls rapidly when the probe is rotated or orbited and held when moved lateral to the weld. Cracks and bonding flaws along the weld seam : produce a sharply defined large echo when beamed at right angles. Due to multi - faceted nature of an open crack, the echo will have multiple peaks and wide envelope.

Graphical plot of discontinuity : Plotting a discontinuity on the actual image of the weld not only gives information about the possible type of the discontinuity but also reduces error of misinterpretation. Indications caused by misalignment, excess penetration and from the surfaces of the weld can be easily identified. When the scanning cross section is an irregular curve, such as scanning a nozzle from the shell body, graphical plotting is the most appropriate method. When a suspected discontinuity signal appears on the CRT screen, the indication is to be maximized by probe manipulation. The distance between the probe exit point and the centerline of the weld or any other selected reference point is recorded. The sound beam path displayed on the CRT screen at maximum amplitude is also recorded. Drawing the weld cross-section : An accurate cross section of the weld is to be drawn on a paper, at 1 : 1 scale, with the help of a profile gauge, mound of modeling clay or a soft soldering wire. The weld drawing must reproduce, the root face, root gap and the fusion lines. Accuracy of flaw locating depends on the ability to reproduce the weld cross section as accurate as possible. It is essential to know, the weld process used, how it was fabricated and with which type of weld preparation and materials. It is the responsibility of the UT operator to physically see all complicated weld joint preparations [ fit up ] before welding. This will help him to estimate the root gap and locate the fusion lines during flaw plotting. Plotting : The plotting card is positioned on the weld image such that the scale point representing the distance, which is equal to the distance between the exit point and the weld centerline, coincides with the centerline of the weld image. [ see fig ] The horizontal line in the card shall overlay the scanning surface line. The reflector is then marked on the probe scanning line, at the beam path distance indicated on the CRT screen. The reflector position is then considered for possible existence of a discontinuity.

Flaw detection by diverging sound beam of lower frequency probe. Root bead echoes : For a flat root bead, 60 and 0 70 probes will hardly pick up any contour echoes. When the root bead penetration is 1 mm 0 0 or more, both the 45 and 60 probes will receive root bead response. The response from the bead 0 0 is more for a 45 probe and less when a 60 0 probe is used and no response when a 70 probe is used at normal test sensitivity. The root bead echoes are broad based echoes. The echoes will plot slightly below the plate level. Misalignment : large echoes detected from one side only at the root usually indicate misalignment. Backing bar : Where the backing bar is welded to the parent material, the inherent gap known as the nose tends to give a reflected echo which is not classified as a defect. Weld cap echoes : The irregular surface contour of the weld cap produces lower amplitude broad based indications when the probe is located near the full skip distance. The response is maximum 0 with a 45 probe. The echoes will plot outside the top level of the plate. The signal may be strong if 0 the capping is excessive and a 45 probe is in use. The echoes will respond well to finger damping techniques.
0

Graphical plotting card : Graphical plotting card is used for locating an ultrasound reflector within a test specimen. It shows the sound beam path in the specimen and provide all details required for a triangulation solution of reflector location. The card is extremely useful during the weld examination with as welded condition and welds with curved surfaces. The graphical plotting card together with the drawing of the weld cross section helps to identify the possible type of the discontinuity. By showing actual reflection location within the weld volume, signal indications from misalignment of members and weld surfaces are correctly indicated. Drawing a graphical plotting card : Draw two lines perpendicular to each other as shown in the picture above. The horizontal line represents the scanning surface and shows the distance from exit point to the reflector. The vertical line shows depth of the reflector from the scanning surface. The intersection point represents the probe exit point. Draw a line parallel to and at a depth of 20 mm from the horizontal line Draw another line starting from the intersection of the perpendicular lines such that it meets the 20 mm deep line 0 at a distance of 59 mm. [ 20 X probe factor of 70 ] 0 This line represents the scanning line of a 70 probe.

Draw two more lines starting from the intersection of the perpendicular lines, such that they meet the 20 mm line at a distance of 40 mm and 28 mm respectively. The former line represents the scanning line 0 of a 60 probe and the later line represents 0 that of a 45 probe. Now draw linear scale with 5 mm interval on each of the lines on the card. Mark all necessary identification numbers. The graphical plotting card is now ready for use. If the 20 dB beam profile is available for the probe, then the same can be plotted on the card. In this case, prepare individual plotting card for each angle probe.

DAC curve with normal beam Probe : As sound energy propagates through a medium, energy conversion takes place and the sound pressure decreases with distance from the source. In addition, sound spreads out from a true parallel beam and the intensity per unit area also decreases. Ultrasound energy also gets scattered by grain boundaries. All these causes the signal amplitude from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore, to evaluate reflected signals from discontinuities, Distance Amplitude Correction [ DAC ] curve is used. DAC is plotted from signals from reflectors of equal area at different distances in the same material. Flat bottomed hole blocks or side drilled hole blocks are used to plot the DAC curve. Procedure : At least three flat bottom hole blocks or three scanning locations in a side drilled hole block are chosen, such that the length of the curve is sufficient to evaluate discontinuities at any depth in the material thickness to be tested. The size of the reference hole in the DAC blocks must be as per the requirements of the test procedure in use. Maximum signal from the hole nearest to the scanning surface is picked up [ pos 1 ] and amplitude of this signal is set to 80 % screen height. The tip of this signal is marked on the face of the CRT screen with a marker pen. The gain used in this condition is the reference gain setting. Without changing the gain control, the maximum signals from the hole ( s ) at position 2, 3 etc are picked up and marked on the CRT screen. The marked points are then joined with a smooth curve to complete the DAC curve. To draw a 50 % reference level, the gain setting is reduced by 6 dB from the reference gain setting at each maximized signal location and the peaks of these reduced signals are marked and joined to obtain the 50 % reference level. Transfer correction for the reference gain setting should be made if the sound attenuation in the block [s] are different from the test material. Compare back wall signals from the test part and the block which is nearest to the part thickness and correct the gain difference as necessary. When a flaw signal equals the DAC curve, the flaw is generally considered to be larger than the reference reflectors active reflection area. ASTM Flat Bottom Hole set of 10 / 19 blocks are used for distance amplitude correction and ultrasonic flaw detectors amplitude linearity check. Flat bottom and Side drilled hole reference reflectors : The flat bottom hole [ FBH ] is drilled to have a flat reflecting surface at the bottom of the hole. The hole bottom is parallel to the scanning surface for normal probe and at a desired angle for an angle probe. These holes are useful for comparing equivalent reflecting area of small unknown reflectors. FBH bears no relationship to the actual size of a welded flaw. These blocks are used for evaluating Cast, Rolled and Forged materials. Side drilled hole [ SDH ] is a drilled hole, the side wall of which is used as the reflecting surface. The hole bottom is not used. Side drilled hole reflects equally to ultrasound energy incident at any angle. Side drilled hole reflection is comparable to many natural flaws in the weld and these blocks are generally used for weld evaluation.

ASTM FBH blocks.

Mat Dist 1 / 8 1/4 1/2 3/4 1.5 3.0 6.0

FBH dia 5 X 1 / 64 5 5 5 5 3, 5 , 8 5,8

DAC Plot.

Normal beam probe for contact testing : Normal beam probes are useful for detecting discontinuities with reflecting plane parallel to the scanning surface. These probes are used on relatively flat and smooth surfaces to introduce longitudinal wave into the test material. The common applications are ; testing of plates, forged and rolled products, castings, thickness and velocity measurements. Frequencies between 0.5 to 6 MHz is normally used in contact testing, because the high frequency crystals are thin and fragile. High frequency contact probes in smaller crystal sizes are available with some additional protection. Standard test frequency is 2 - 2.25 MHz. Crystal size of 6.4, 10, 12.7, 19 and 24 mm are most common. Lower frequencies and larger crystals, are used on long parts and coarse grained materials. High frequencies and smaller crystals, are used on thin or fine grained materials. Smaller, high frequency probes are highly sensitive for short range flaw detection. A single crystal probe has a dead zone [ ringing time of the active element / width of the initial echo on the CRT screen ] and can not detect discontinuities located within this distance. Scanning from the opposite parallel surface overcomes this problem. The main components in the probe are, Active element : The active element [ or the crystal ] is a piezo electric ceramic which converts electrical energy received from the flaw detectors pulser to mechanical vibrations for generating ultrasound in the test material. It also converts mechanical vibrations to electrical charge for detecting ultrasound reflections. Silver conductive coating on the active faces serve as electrodes. Backing medium : Backing medium is a highly attenuative, high density material, attached to the back of the crystal to control the vibration by absorbing the energy radiated from the back surface. Tungsten powder / Epoxy mixture is often used. The purpose is to eliminate unwanted and prolong vibration of the crystal. This is called damping. Careful consideration of the characteristics [ acoustic impedance ] of this backing material enable the designer to produce either a very wide band, but lower sensitivity or a narrow band, but higher sensitivity probe. High damping reduces dead zone, improves resolution but reduces the overall sensitivity and thickness penetrating power of the probe. Wear plate : The wear plate protects the soft silver coated surface of the crystal from corrosion and wear by friction during contact testing. A permanently attached ceramic disc or a coating of abrasive material on the front face is used as the rubbing face. This offers only limited protection. Replaceable plastic membrane or nylon wear cap is most popular. Delay line attachments are also used to reduce dead zone and improve the ability to measure thin materials and small flaws. Delay line can be contoured to match curved test surfaces to improve sound transmission. Dry coupling and short duration testing at high temperature [ 10 sec scan / 60 sec 0 off, 900 F ] delay line options are available. When using a delay line, there will be multiple back reflections from the end of it. Performance : The probe should produce a 75 % signal indication Crystal Size mm : from the 1.5 mm diameter drilled hole in a standard IIW -V1 block 3 / 5 [ HF ] applications on small contact area. with a reserve gain of 40 dB or more, when used with a standard 6.4 [ HF ] curves, corrosion, de-lamination, thk, tubing flaw detector. [ sensitivity ] [ with delay line applications ] The probe, with a standard flaw detector, should produce clearly 10 mm complex shapes, small parts, flat / round separated 75% height indications from the three distances bars, tubing, thickness, flaw sizing. [ 85, 91, 100 mm ] in the IIW-V1 block. [ resolution ] 19 / 24 mm plate, ingot, slab, billet, axels, rolls, big The probe should have low dead zone and low noise. wheels and gears, large forgings and Probe applications [ in metals ] : castings etc. .5 / 1 MHz cast Iron, brass, mill rolls, copper, stainless steel, Paint brush [ multiple element ] for plate testing. [ 24 dia ] sound scattering materials, long parts. Wheel type probe mounted in liquid filled rubber 2 / 2.5 MHz standard test applications. Tire with adjustment for normal, angular 4 MHz thinner parts, aluminium, thk chk, flaw measurements. and surface wave scanning of large 5 / 10 MHz fine grained materials, inclusions, thin matetrials, bonding parts such as plates, billets etc. thickness measurement. Note : For curved surface, it is recommended to use High frequency probe will completely miss a disoriented reflector a suitably designed contoured acrylic adapter. This because the reflected beam is highly directional. will improve transmission of energy, reduce dead zone. Length of the adapter to be used such that the parts back reflection appear before the adapters back reflection.

Notches : For evaluating incomplete penetration in welds or discontinuities forming a corner, such as a surface crack or weld undercut, machined surface notches may be employed for sensitivity calibration and size comparison, since they more nearly represent the actual discontinuity. A Vee shaped notch is an useful reference for evaluating side wall lack of fusion in vee welds. Square notches are useful for evaluating Lack of penetration. Reflection amplitude from Vee, square and U shaped notches of comparable dimensions may vary widely depending on the angle, frequency and vibrational mode of the interrogating sound beam. These notches are best produced by Electric Discharge Machining [ spark eroded ] process.

The notches are usually at least one inch long [ min two times the probe crystal width is recommended ], with a depth [ d ] of 2 to 10 % of thickness of the part for weld inspection. The width [ w ] of the cut is usually 1/16". For base material examination of tubular products, axial and circumferential notches of the required dimensions on the outside and the inside surfaces, in a calibration block made from the product being examined is used. For plates, 3% of thickness depth notch is recommended. [ always refer applicable test procedure for notch details ] Sound beam path in curved part : While testing curved parts, increase in beam path due to part curvature must be considered. Two similar angle probes can be used to find the beam path to hit the undersurface of a curved part. Using a calibrated range, the equipment is set to dual probe mode. The probes are positioned on the part, facing each other, and at approximately one skip distance apart. Keeping one probe fixed, the other probe is moved to produce a maximized signal. The distance indicated on the CRT is the effective beam path for the angle probe in use to hit the under surface of the part. The maximum incident sound beam angle, [ grazing incidence ] which can still hit the undersurface [ irradiation depth ] of a curved part can be found from the relation ; Probe angle A = Inv Sin [1- ( 2 t / D )] where, t is wall thickness and D is outside diameter of pipe. Depth of irradiation can be calculated from ; Irradiation depth = Irradiation factor X Diameter Irradiation factor : .5 [ 1 - sin A ] 35 0.213
0

45 0.146

60 0.067

70 0.030

Piezo-electric effect : Piezo electric effect is a phenomenon, whereby electric charges appear on the surfaces of certain solid materials, when it is subjected to mechanical stress or pressure. Conversely, when a piezoelectric crystal is placed in an electric field, the crystal exhibits deformation, i.e. the dimensions of the crystal change. When the direction of the applied electric field is reversed, the direction of the deformation is also reversed. This is called the reverse piezoelectric effect. If, instead of DC field, an alternating field is applied, the crystal will vibrate at the frequency of the AC field. If this driving frequency corresponds with the frequency where the thickness of the crystal represents half a wavelength, [ Crystal thk = / 2, wave length in crystal ] the amplitude of the vibration will be much greater. This is the crystals fundamental resonance frequency. The crystal will also have frequencies of large amplitude whenever the thickness of the crystal is equal to an odd multiple of half a wavelength. The largest amplitude occurs only at fundamental frequency and as the harmonic number increases the amplitude of vibration decreases. The ability of a material to exhibit piezoelectric effect is due to its atomic structure. An unstressed piezoelectric crystal will have equal distances between its positive and negative charges. As stress is applied, deformation occurs which changes this distance relationship. This change in distance between atoms results in polarization of the crystal. Detectable electrical charges appear on the surfaces. As the applied stress is relived, the positive and negative charges attract each other and the crystal comes back to its unstressed condition. In some crystalline materials piezoelectricity occurs naturally, such as crystals of quartz or tourmaline. In some ceramic materials, piezoelectricity can be induced artificially by reorienting their crystal domains. This is performed by slowly cooling the material from curie temperature under intense electric field. This is known as polling. These materials are known as polarized ceramics and are widely used for the construction of ultrasonic probes for their good efficiency of ultrasound generation with lower voltage. Polarized ceramic crystals of Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate Titanate [ PZT ] are most common for the construction of standard probes. Barium Titanates are produced by baking together barium 0 carbonate and titanium dioxide at 1250 C. The crystals are 0 subjected to an intense 2kV / mm electric field at 140 C [ the curie point ] and allowed to cool. The crystals become polarized, and after loosing 50% activity in 24 hours become fairly constant. These crystals suffer from aging and are not suitable for testing at high temperature. Solid solution of lead zirconate and lead titanate [ or PZT ] offers good overall performance. This has a much higher curie point [ 320 0 to 350 C ] and its piezoelectric properties can be tailored to out perform barium titanate. Lead zirconate titanate is commercially available with many added minor constituents, which are not disclosed by the manufactures. Lithium Niobate, Lithium Sulphate, Lead Meta Niobate, Lead Titanate, Quartz are some of the other active elements in probes and are utilized for their specific properties.

Newly developed 1 : 3 composite materials offer improved performance. These are materials in which parallel orientated piezo rods [ active ] are embedded into a polymer matrix [ passive ] to lower the overall acoustic impedance of the crystal. This improves transmission of energy into the test material. Composite probes have superior combination of mechanical flexibility, scan width, sensitivity, resolution, and good penetration in highly attenuative materials. They are specially useful for applications where low signal to noise ratio is required. These probes are costly. Ultrasonic Probes : Probe uses a piezoelectric crystal to generate and receive ultrasonic signals. It is the most critical component in any ultrasonic test system. Instrument characteristics, settings, material properties and coupling conditions also play a major role in overall system performance. Selection of an ultrasonic probe depends on the requirements of good sensitivity or high resolution [ depends on probe bandwidth ] and desired thickness penetration. A system with high sensitivity [ with narrow bandwidth probe ] has the ability to produce detectable signals from small reflectors at a given depth. Such system has low resolution. A system with high resolution [ with broad bandwidth probe ] has the ability to produce clearly detectable separate signals from reflectors lying at nearly the same depth and position with respect to the sound beam. A highly damped probe is selected for such applications. This system will have lesser flaw detection sensitivity. Larger crystals produces less beam spread and more sound pressure. With good surface and fine grained material, a 2 MHz probe can penetrate more than 10 meters. Lower test frequencies allow inspection of long test parts and sound scattering materials because of less attenuation but has low sensitivity to small discontinuities. High frequency waves are heavily scattered in coarse grained materials. They do not penetrate far and produce strong interference echoes. High frequency probes are suitable for fine grained materials. High frequency, miniature crystal probes can detect very small flaws within its usable short range and have good resolution because of sharper echoes. High frequency is highly sensitive to flaw orientation. When using lower frequencies, probes with larger crystal diameters are to be used to reduce the effect of beam spread. Use of higher test frequencies require good surface finish for better energy transmission. On rough surfaces, lower frequencies with a viscous couplant must be used.

Reflection and Refraction of Ultrasound at Interface : In some ways, the behavior of ultrasound at an interface of two mediums is similar to that of light. Snell's law is applicable. When ultrasound strikes an interface of two different mediums, depending on the ratio of the specific acoustic impedances, some of the energy will be transmitted through the interface and the remaining energy will be reflected back with an angle equal to the angle of incidence. This property of ultrasound is utilized for detecting reflectors or defects in materials. 0 % of energy reflection [ for 0 angle of incidence ] at an interface is, ]

Z 1 and Z 2 are the acoustic impedances of the two mediums. Acoustic impedance of a material is the opposition to displacement of its particles by sound energy. Acoustic impedance for, longitudinal wave = material density X long wave velocity. During ultrasonic testing of steel using oil as couplant, only 10% energy enters steel and on its return journey again only 10% is transmitted to the probe. Hence, only 1% of the generated energy is available for amplification and display on the CRT. When the incidence of a longitudinal wave is perpendicular to the interface, the transmitted wave mode does not change. However, If the longitudinal wave hits the interface at an angle, then mode conversion takes place and both the longitudinal and the shear wave modes will be produced in the second medium. The refracted wave is predominantly longitudinal. The refracted angle of the longitudinal wave is always more than the refracted shear wave because of higher velocity. With increase in incident angle, the refracted angle of the waves also increases. When the first medium is Perspex and the second medium is 0 steel, at 27.6 angle of incidence, the refracted angle of the 0 longitudinal wave becomes 90 [ along the interface ] and only 0 shear wave will be present inside steel at 33 . This is the first Critical angle for Perspex to Steel transmission. 0 With further increase in incident angle, at 57.2 , the angle of 0 refraction of the shear wave also becomes 90 and the shear waves converts to surface waves which propagates along the interface, [ provided a gas or only a very thin layer of Couplant is present above the second medium ] otherwise shear waves will be reflected back into the first medium [ total reflection ]. This angle 0 when the shear wave is refracted at 90 is known as the second Critical angle of the mediums. The value of these critical angles are different for different combination of mediums. If the first medium is a liquid, then there would be no reflected shear wave in the liquid. In common shear wave probes, which are designed for testing steel and eliminates the refracted longitudinal wave in steel, the 0 0 incident angles usable are between 27.5 and 57 for refracted 0 0 shear wave angles between 33.3 and below 90 in steel. The incident, reflected and refracted angles are related as,

Sin 1 is incident angle, C 1 velocity in first medium, Sin 2 is angle of reflection / refraction. C 2 velocity in second medium. Calculate the angle of refraction of longitudinal and shear waves in steel when a longitudinal wave hits the interface of acrylic 0 and steel at an angle of 20 ; Long wave velocity in acrylic = 2730 mtrs / sec Long wave velocity in steel = 5900 mtrs / sec Shear wave velocity in steel = 3230 mtrs / sec 0 Sin 20 = .3420 refracted Longitudinal, = Inv Sin ( V2 / V1 X Sin 20 ) = Inv Sin ( 5900 / 2730 X .3420 ) 0 = Inv Sin .7391 or 47.65 refracted Shear, = Inv Sin ( 3230 / 2730 X .3420 ) 0 = Inv Sin .4046 or 23.86

Sound reflection at water / steel interface, 2 Z1 steel = 4.5, Z2 water = .15 in gms / cm / sec. % of reflection ; 2 [(4.5 - .15) / ( 4.5 + .15)] X 100 = 87.5 i.e. only 12.5 % ultrasound energy will enter steel. At water / aluminium interface, 30 % of incident energy will enter aluminium. at metal / gas interface, reflection is ~ 100%.

Sound field : The ultrasound intensity along the beam is not uniform but varies due to the size of the source that gives rise to interference effects. The face of the crystal does not vibrate uniformly under the influence of the triggering electrical pulse. The crystal acts as a mosaic of large number of tiny individual crystals, each vibrating in the same direction but slightly out of phase with its neighbors. Each element in the mosaic acts like a point source and radiates a spherical wave, outward from the plane of the crystal face. As these spherical waves with different phases encounter one another in the region near the crystal face, interference effect sets up a series of maximum and minimum intensity locations. This interference zone ends at the last maximum, at a distance N from the crystal and is known as the near field [ Fresnel zone ] of the sound beam. The location of the last maximum is the natural focus of the transducer and the sound field converges to half the source size at this location. Because of this intensity variations, echo amplitude from a constant reflector in the near zone will vary and it can be extremely difficult to accurately evaluate the size of the reflector. Testing in the near zone is limited to : Thickness measurements, Detection of defects and Sizing of large defects only. Intensity variations [ interference ] in the near zone is lesser for rectangular shaped crystals. The near field distance depends on the size and frequency of the transducer and the effective wave length in the test material. Near field for a circular element with a single operating frequency in a single medium is, 2 N = D / 4 D is element size and is effective wavelength. At distance greater than N, known as the far field of the ultrasonic beam [ Fraunhoper zone ], there are no interference effects. In this zone the sound field diverge in the shape of a cone and the sound pressure is inversely proportional to distance and follows an exponential decay curve. Half angle of divergence [ to the boundary of sound field ], - / 2 = Sin 1.22 / D In the far zone the signal from a large reflector [ larger than the beam cross section at that distance ] follows the inverse proportional law. After a distance of three near zones from the crystal, a double distant echo from a large reflector will cause the echo intensity to reduce by 6 dB. The signal from a small reflector causes greater directional change and a smaller amount of the reflected energy reaches the probe. The signal amplitude decreases to one fourth when the distance is doubled [ - 12 dB ] Beam spread decreases with increase in frequency and Crystal size. Consideration of beam spread is important when measuring the size of a discontinuity and inspecting for flaws near a sidewall or corner or small round parts, where the diverging beam may produce spurious echoes. The near field and far field effects also occur when ultrasonic waves are reflected from an interface.

Calculation for the near field length and the beam spread for a 2 MHz, 24 mm , longitudinal wave probe in steel and in water; wavelength in steel [ ] is 5.9 / 2 or 2.95 mm. wavelength in water [ ] is 1.5 / 2 or .75 mm. crystal size [ D ] is 24 mm. in steel 2 near field length, 24 / ( 4 X 2.95 ) or 48.81 mm Half 0 beam spread, Inv Sin ( 1.22 X 2.95 ) / 24 or 8.62 0 full spread, 2 X 8.62 ~ 17 . In water 2 near field length, 24 / ( 4 X .75 ) or 192 mm. Half 0 beam spread, Inv Sin ( 1.22 X .75 ) / 24 or 2.15 0 0 full spread, 2 X 2.15 or 4.30 .

Transfer Correction : If the reference block used for setting up the test sensitivity is not fabricated from the material to be tested, the sound attenuation characteristic of the block material may be different from that of the test material. The differences in surface conditions will also change sound attenuation. A correction for test sensitivity is required to compensate for the differences between the reference blocks and the test specimen for surface roughness, contact area and internal sound attenuation. This is known as transfer correction and must be considered while using a DAC curve for flaw evaluation.

Correction for normal beam testing : Transfer correction with normal probe can be determined by comparing the instrument gain required to produce equal amplitude back reflections at same material distance from the reference block and the test part. Select a region on the test part that has parallel walls and the surface condition similar to most of the remaining scanning area as a transfer correction measurement point. Select the reference block, being used for DAC set up or from the same set of blocks whose overall material distance most closely matches the thickness of the part at the measurement point. Set the back reflection through the block thickness to 80 % screen height and record the gain setting. Place the probe at the measurement point of the part, and produce a back reflection of 80 % screen height and record any change in the gain setting. The difference between the new and the old gain setting [ for the block signal ] is the transfer correction. Correction for angle beam testing : Plot the DAC curve from the recommended reference block. Using the probe to be used for testing as a transmitter and a similar angle probe as a receiver, position both on the reference block, facing each other at one full skip distance apart. Set the flaw detector in dual probe mode. Keep the transmitter probe still and move the receiver probe to maximize the received signal. Adjust the gain control to peak this signal on the line of the DAC curve. Record the gain used for this condition. Repeat the same technique as mentioned above on the component to be tested. The probe position should be in the same direction as to be used for the actual examination. Record the new gain setting. The difference in gain value is the transfer correction. Transfer correction may be positive or negative and the adjustments in the DAC gain setting will be made accordingly. This corrected gain setting will be used as the discontinuity evaluation sensitivity for the examination. The transfer correction value should not be more than 6 dB. The value of transfer correction increases with probe angle. For reliability, the transfer correction value should be determined in at least three different locations of the test part. To ensure that useful transfer correction factor is obtained, signal comparison should be made in the far zone of the ultrasonic beam.

Twin Crystal Probe : The twin crystal probe is designed to eliminate the dead zone problem of a single crystal probe. But actually, a twin crystal probe also has a dead zone of few millimeters. Twin crystal probe contains two independent crystals in a single housing. The crystals are mounted on plastic delay lines that are usually cut at an angle to the horizontal plane [ forms the roof angle ], so that the transmitting and receiving beam paths cross beneath the surface of the test piece. The dead zone is where the transmitting and receiving beams have not converged. In this arrangement, one of the crystals transmits ultrasound and the other receives the reflected signal. The crystal assemblies are separated by some form of acoustic barrier [ usually Cork ] to prevent cross talk noise. A highly penetrating couplant should not be used, otherwise damage to this cross talk barrier may take place. Dual crystal configuration almost eliminates dead zone, improves near surface and lateral resolution and performs well on corroded back walls and rough entry surfaces. The crossed beam design acts as pseudo focus and increases sensitivity for short range flaw detection. In general, a decrease in the roof angle or an increase in the crystal size will result in a longer pseudo -focal distance and an increase in the useful test range of the probe. Range calibration : Angled crystal arrangement in dual probe produces a V-path in the test specimen and hence the sound travel path is more than the actual thickness of the part. Because of this condition, multiple back reflections are not used for range calibration when accuracy of calibration is desired. For accurate range calibration two independent thickness sections, one near the start and the other near the end of the required test range are used. The lower thickness echo is set by the delay control and the higher thickness echo by the fine range control. Echo positioning requires many repetitions. Calibrated range will be accurate between the two selected calibration block thickness. The calibrated screen does not contain the initial echo because of the long delay path in the plastic delay line and permits flaw detection and measurement near the surface. Multiple reflections in the transmitter delay line is not detected because the transmitter crystal does not have any reception function. A small cross-talk echo may appear on the screen and its height will decrease when the probe is coupled to the test material. Accuracy of calibration may be checked on a step wedge block for thickness measurement applications. Dual crystal probes are useful for detecting discontinuities closer to the scanning surface. The probe exhibits high sensitivity and produces good signal amplitude from small discontinuities located within short distance. After the pseudo focus, the sensitivity drops rapidly and the useful range for detecting smaller flaws is around 50 mm. [ - 6 dB sensitivity ] Dual crystal probes are excellent for thickness measurements in thinner sections, inspection of cladding and bonding, lamination testing in thinner plates, evaluation of castings and other sound scattering materials and for measuring corrosion in low thickness plates and tubing. When measuring very thin sections with larger probes, sound may bounce twice within the part before reaching the receiving crystal and record twice the actual thickness.

Ultrasonic wave : Ultrasound is transmission of energy through an elastic medium, by means of vibrations of the particles. The vibrating particles transfers some of the vibrational [ mechanical ] energy on to neighboring particles and force them to vibrate. The energy thus propagates through particles. Because of this, sound cannot propagate in vacuum. Sound generated above 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound. Ultrasound propagates more easily through solids than through liquids or gasses. Ultrasound with frequencies of 1 MHz and above is directional, has short wavelength, and gets reflected from small discontinuities in materials. This property makes ultrasound useful for detecting and locating defects in materials. Wave length : Ultrasonic vibrations travel in the form of waves. The distance, measured along the line of propagation, between two wave surfaces in which the phase differs by one complete period is wavelength. It is not the material's particles that moves through the thickness, it is the vibrational [ mechanical ] energy that is transferred from one particle to another. Frequency : The number of wave lengths [ vibration cycles of a particle ] completed in one second is frequency. Unit of frequency is Hertz [ Hz ] 1000 Hz is equal to 1 KHz, 1000 KHz is 1 MHz. If a 2 megahertz probe is used for an inspection, that means the parts particles will vibrate 2000000 times per second. Ultrasound travels in Steel, 5960000 mm in 1 second, i. e. 2000000 waves will occupy 5960000 mm. So wave length in this case is 2.98 mm. Frequency depends on the probe and does not change with test material. Cycle : The particles are displaced, first in the forward direction and then in the opposite direction. These two displacements equal one cycle. Period : The time required to complete a full cycle of vibration of a particle is period. Period is one second divided by frequency. [ T = 1 / F ] Velocity : Velocity is the speed of energy transfer between two points. The distance of propagation of the wave [ energy ] in one second is the velocity of the wave. Velocity of ultrasound in a perfectly elastic material at a given temperature and pressure is constant. Velocity depends on the density, elasticity and rigidity of the test material.

Velocity, Frequency and Wavelength are related as, Velocity = Frequency X Wavelength. Acoustic pressure [ P ] is the amplitude of alternating stresses on the material by a propagating ultrasonic wave. P = acoustic impedance X amplitude of particle vibration. Ultrasonic Intensity [ I ] is the transmission of mechanical energy, through an unit cross- section area, which is perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation. I = [ acoustic pressure X amplitude of particle vibration ] Important : The minimum size of a detectable reflector is generally considered to be half of the test wavelength. Smaller than this, reflectors scatter sound energy [ reflects energy in random fashion ] without producing flaw indications. Discontinuity, with thickness of quarter wavelength or more reflects ultrasound very well. In addition to the reflection ultrasonic waves get deflected [ spreads out ] from the edges of a discontinuity. [ known as tip Diffraction and is useful for measuring the size of cracks ] For satisfactory transmission and reception of ultrasound between the probe and the part, the part surface should be sufficiently smooth. The roughness of the surface should be less than 1/10 of the wavelength being used for the examination.

Ultrasound velocity in meters / sec and acoustic 2 impedance in gms / cm / sec : Material Longitudinal Shear Impd Steel 5900 3230 4.54 Cast Iron 5600 3220 4.0 Inconel 5820 3020 4.94 Aluminum 6320 3130 1.7 Acrylic 2730 1430 .32 Water 1480 -----.148 Brass 3830 2050 Titanium 6100 3120 2.76 Calculate wave length of ultrasound in steel and water for a 2 MHz, 10 mm dia longitudinal wave probe, Longitudinal velocity, in steel 5900 Mtrs / sec, water 1480 Mtrs / sec. Velocity = Frequency X Wavelength. or, Wavelength = Velocity / Frequency. 6 steel = 5900 Mtrs / sec or 5.9 X 10 mm / sec. 6 water = 1480 Mtrs / sec or 1.48 X 10 mm / sec 6 Frequency = 2 MHz or 2 X 10 cycles / sec ( each cycle produces one wavelength ) Hence, Wavelength = 5.9 / 2 = 1.48 / 2 = 2.95 mm. = .74 mm in steel in water

Range calibration with the IIW V1 block : The main objective of range calibration is to make the CRT screen represent a desired material thickness. The CRT screen is graduated in 50 small equal divisions, divided into 10 major groups. By positioning the leading edge of the echoes of known material distances to appropriate scale divisions, different test ranges are calibrated. 100 mm full scale : Set the coarse range control to 50 mm. In this position, the range can be calibrated between 50 mm full scale minimum to 250 mm range full scale maximum. Now Place the probe on the broad face of the IIW - V1 block, i.e. Pos 1. Multiple echoes of the block thickness will appear on the screen with distances of 25, 50, 75, 100 mm etc[ use the fine range control to compress or expand the screen display and the bring the required calibration echoes within the display screen ] Now, using the delay control, set the leading edge of the 25 mm [ first back reflection ] echo at 12.5 th small scale division. Position the leading edge of the 100 mm echo [ Fourth back reflection ] at 50 th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these adjustments till both the echoes are accurately positioned [ fixed ] on the scale. To check the calibration, place the probe at pos 2, the first back wall echo shall appear at 50 th scale division. The calibrated range is valid for similar material only. Minimum calibration range possible is equal to one block thickness. Alternate Method : Place the probe at Pos 2. Back wall echoes with 100 mm interval will appear along with the side wall reflection echoes between them [ use fine range control ]. Use lower gain setting. Correctly identify the first and second back wall reflections. Side wall echoes are smaller and appear after each back wall echo. Position the first back reflection at 0 division of the scale with the delay control. Set the second back reflection at 50 th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these adjustments till the echoes are accurately positioned on the scale. The screen now displays from 100 mm to 200 mm. Shift the first back reflection to 50 th small scale division with the delay control only to bring the first 100 mm range within the display screen. Full Scale 200 mm : With the probe at pos 2, set the first back reflection to 25 th division with delay control and the second back reflection to the 50 th division with the fine range control. Repeat till positioning is accurate. Check the calibration accuracy from pos 3.

IIW block : for calibration of test ranges, probe and flaw detectors performance check.

Required range 100 mm : Number of small divisions on the scale = 50 1 small scale division = 100 / 50 or 2 mm distance to 1 st indication = 25 mm [ Probe position 1 ] location on scale = 25 / 2 = 12.5 th small scale division. distance to 2 nd indication = 50 mm location on scale = 50 / 2 = 25 th small scale division. Set the 25 mm indication at 12.5 th small scale division with delay and the 50 mm indication at 25 th small scale division with the fine range control. For accuracy of calibration, the first and the last possible echo [ within the calibrating range ] should be positioned, to reduce the flaw detectors horizontal linearity error.

Calibration of 100 mm full scale for shear wave probe using a longitudinal wave probe and V1 block : Angle probe range calibration with the IIW V1 block normally provides 150 and 250 mm minimum calibrated distances. A 100 mm distance calibration is possible by separately scanning the 25 and the 100 mm radius. The 91 mm step in the IIW block is also useful for calibrating 100 mm full scale for shear wave probes. The travel time for 91 mm steel by longitudinal wave equals travel time of 50 mm steel by shear wave. This is because the velocity of shear wave is nearly 50 % of longitudinal wave. Hence, this 91 mm thickness is considered to be 50 mm equivalent for a shear wave probe. Procedure : With the coarse range at 50 mm, pick up two back reflections from the 91 mm step using a normal probe. Position the 1st back reflection at half scale with the delay control and the 2 nd back reflection at full scale location with the range control. Repeat till the echoes are positioned. Be careful to correctly identify the side wall reflections appearing after each back reflection. The range thus obtained is theoretically equivalent to 100 mm for a shear wave probe. Delay correction for the Shear wave probe : A delay correction for the plastic wedge is required to correctly set the scale to 100 mm with each shear wave probe. Scan the 100 mm radius with the shear wave probe for which the range is to be calibrated and maximize the signal obtained from the radius. Observe the location of this indication on the scale and bring it to the full scale location using the delay control only.

Maximizing the 100 mm radius signal, produces indications with distances of 100, 225, 350 etc. By positioning the 100 and 225 mm indications at 4th and 9th division respectively, 250 mm range is obtained. If the 25 mm radius is scanned the indications will appear at 25 mm, 150 mm, 275 mm etc. [ echo separation for this block is 125 mm ]

Calibration of shear wave test ranges with the V2 calibration block : Position the exit point [ as found by scanning the 25 mm radius of the block ] of the angle probe on the center of the scale marked on the face of the V2 calibration block to obtain the maximized signal from the 25 mm radius. Alternatively, move the probe above the scale area to obtain the maximized signal from the 25 mm radius. Set the coarse range control to 50mm. The echoes with distances of 25 and 100 mm will appear on the screen [ use the fine range control to compress the screen and bring the echoes within view ] Set the gain control to display clear interpretable signals. Full scale 100 mm : Position the 25 mm echo at 12.5 th small scale division with the delay control. Adjust the fine range control to position the 100 mm echo at 50 th scale division. Repeat these adjustments till the echoes are accurately positioned. To confirm the accuracy of calibration, scan the 50 mm radius of the block, the maximized indication shall form on the 25 th division on the CRT screen [ 2 X 12.5 divisions ]. Full scale 125 mm : To calibrate 125 mm full scale, position the 25 mm echo at 10 th small scale division with the delay control and the 100 mm echo at 40 th small scale division with the fine range control. Full scale 200 mm : To calibrate 200 mm full scale, set the coarse range control to 250 mm position, because shear wave velocity is nearly 50 % of longitudinal wave. Bring the 25, 100 and 175 mm echoes within the screen [ use fine range control ]. Now position the 25 mm echo at 6.25 th small scale division with the delay control and the 100 mm echo at 25 th small scale division with the fine range control, repeat adjustments till the echoes are accurately positioned. Check accuracy of calibration.

Only reflections from 25 mm radius reach crystal.

Probe angle check using the 5 mm dia through drilled hole.

Calibration of 125 and 200 mm using V2 block : Move the probe over the scaled area to obtain the maximized signal from the 50 mm radius. The beam index point of the probe can be found by marking the probe body, above the central line of the scale divisions. Set the coarse range control to 50 mm . Using the fine range control, compress the scale and bring the 50 and 125 mm distance signals within the CRT screen. Full scale 125 mm : Position the 50 mm signal at 20 th small scale division with the delay control. Adjust the fine range control to position the 125 mm signal at 50 th small scale division. Repeat these adjustments till the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further adjustments. Check calibration using the 25 mm radius, maximum signal shall appear at 10 th division. Full scale 200 mm : Set the coarse range switch to 250 mm position. Compress the scale using fine range and bring 50, 125 and 200 mm echo signals within the screen. Position the 50 mm [ 1 st echo ] at 12.5 th small scale division with the delay control and the 200 mm [ 3 rd echo ] at 50 th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these adjustments till the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further adjustments.

Maximizing the indication from the 50 mm radius of the block, produces signals at 50, 125 and 200 mm etc

Range calibration procedure : Required range 125 mm ; Number of small divisions in the scale = 50 1 small scale division = 125 / 50 or 2.5 mm distance to 1 st indication = 50 mm location on scale = 50 / 2.5 = 20 th small scale division th [ 4 mark on the screen ] distance to 2 nd indication = 125 mm location on scale = 125 / 2.5 = 50 th small scale division. th [ 10 mark on the screen ] Set the 50 mm indication at 20 th small scale division with delay control and the 125 mm indication at 50 th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat the adjustments till the indications are accurately positioned.

AWS - DC type block designed for distance and beam index calibration of angle beam probes. This is a simple block for calibrating a shear wave probe. The block has 1" radius overlying a 2" radius on 180 degree half circle. The block produces 1 and 2 inch echoes and calibration is easy. This block can be easily machined and is useful when standard blocks are not available for non ferrous material testing. Block thickness is 1 inch.

Ultrasound propagates by means of the oscillatory motion of the atomic or molecular particles in the medium. Ultrasound wave modes : All material substances are composed of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. When the particles are displaced from their equilibrium positions by any applied force, internal stress acts to restore the particles to their original positions. Because of this inter-atomic forces between adjacent particles, a displacement at one point induces displacement at neighboring points and so on, thus propagating a stress - strain wave. The actual displacement of matter that occur in ultrasonic wave is very small. The amplitude, mode of vibration and the velocity of the wave differ in solids, liquids and gasses because of the large differences in the mean distances between particles in these form of matters. These differences influence the forces of attraction between particles and the elastic behavior of the materials. In air, sound travels by compressions and rarefactions of the air molecules in the direction of sound propagation and generate longitudinal wave. In solids, the molecules can support vibrations in other directions, hence, a number of different types of sound wave modes are possible. Longitudinal or Compressoinal wave is generated when the external applied force produces vibration of the particles in the direction of the wave propagation. The wave produces alternate zones of compressions and rarefactions. Longitudinal wave can propagate by simply pushing the particles of the medium and hence can be generated in gasses, liquids and solids. Because of its easy generation and detection, longitudinal wave is most widely used in ultrasonic testing. Almost all of the ultrasonic energy used for material testing is generated in this mode and is then converted to other wave modes for different testing applications. Straight beam examination utilize these waves. Shear waves can have the vibration at any angle with respect to the direction of wave propagation and can therefore be polarized. Shear wave is commonly described as a wave with particle vibration perpendicular to wave propagation. These waves propagate with a velocity which is about 55 % of longitudinal waves. Shear waves will not propagate in liquids and gasses since these mediums do not support shear forces. Shear wave has shorter wavelength, can detect smaller flaws and has higher attenuation compared to equivalent longitudinal wave. Angle beam examination mostly utilize shear waves. Surface waves propagate along the surface of a metal with an elliptical particle motion. To sustain the waves, the medium above the metal surface must be gas or a very thin layer of liquid couplant. The waves propagate along the test surface through a thickness of only one wavelength. At one wavelength deep, the wave energy drops to only 4 %. The waves have a velocity of approximately 92 % of equivalent shear wave. Surface wave follows curved surfaces and gets reflected from sharp corners, surface and very near surface discontinuities. Surface wave has low attenuation and high sensitivity for detection of surface defects. Lamb wave or plate waves are produced by an angulated compression wave launched into a thin plate [ few wavelengths thick ]. Lamb waves are zig zag reflected longitudinal and transverse waves, but bounded by the sheet or plate surfaces

causing a wave guide effect. Some particles oscillate 0 90 to the plate surfaces and others at various angles. They propagate by flexing the plate surfaces and saturate the plate thickness. Lamb wave testing is usually done by mechanized scanning systems. Mode conversion : Ultrasonic wave when reflected may change from one form to another, i.e. from 0 longitudinal to shear, shear to surface etc. If a 60 0 shear wave hits a vertical plane at 30 angle of incidence, the wave changes to longitudinal mode with nearly 20 dB loss of energy. The mode changes are accompanied by the appropriate change in 0 velocity. 60 probes are not suitable for vertical defects, tandem technique, weld root face.

Welding defects : Crack : Cracks are rupture of metal caused by severe heat and stress. Crack can occur anywhere in the weld metal, heat affected zone and in the base metal. Longitudinal cracks propagate along the weld length. Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the weld seam. Crater cracks form at the weld surface and radiate out in many directions [ visible at surface ]. Base metal cracks may be in any orientation to the weld. Tight crack produces small indication or no indication at all. Opened cracks usually produce recognizable high amplitude broad based indication with wide signal envelope. Lack of penetration : Incomplete filling and not bridging the gap of the weld root opening. Weld metal does not extend entirely through the joint thickness. For welding from one side, this discontinuity is open to the surface. Produces high amplitude sharp indication from the corner of the root face, detectable from both the sides of the weld. Plotting does not cross over the root centerline. Cross over indicates probability of root lack of fusion or root undercut. Lack of fusion / Cold lap : Failure of the weld metal to fuse along the edges of the base metal [ bevel ] or lack of bond between adjacent weld passes [ an area of the parent metal or already solidified weld metal does not get melted to fuse with the weld metal ]. Usually caused by improper heat or poorly prepared weld surfaces. Lack of fusion may have slag associated with it. Produces high amplitude sharp indication, 0 only when intercepted at 90 , usually detectable from one side of the weld only. When slag is present, the defect is detectable from both the sides of the weld. Slag / Inclusions : Entrapment of foreign material in the weld metal. Slag may be small irregular fragments or elongated. Slag lines follow the direction of welding and will be located along the weld groove edge or between passes following a valley left by weld passes. Produces forked, broad based, lower height indication, Usually detectable from both the sides of the weld. Porosity : Porosity occurs when gasses in the molten weld metal fails to escape before solidification of the weld material. Occurs anywhere within the weld. Isolated pore is a single spherical gas pocket. Scattered porosity is random distribution of single pores. Cluster porosity is a group of pores. Wormhole is an elongated [ tunneling ] pore. Hollow bead is an elongated gas pocket that tunnels down the root pass in the direction of welding. Single pore produces a narrow base sharp small amplitude indication. Single and dispersed / scattered pores are difficult to detect. Cluster will produce broad base indication with multiple peaks. Root concavity : The root of the weld is fused but the center of the root weld pass is below the surface of the adjacent base material. This defect occurs on joints that are welded from one side only, where excessive melting of the underside occurs. This discontinuity is open to the surface. Detectable as low amplitude signal from both the sides of the weld. Plotting short of plate thickness with no crossover. Difficult to 0 detect if wide and shallow. [ a 45 probe is preferred ] Undercut : Undercut is a groove cut along the edge of the weld, caused by excessive melting of base material and left unfilled by the weld metal. Undercut forms on any or all the four edges of the weld. It is open to the surface. Produces sharp indication at half or full skip 0 beam path, amplitude depends on depth of cut [ 45 probe preferred ]. May produce twin peaked signal due to beam spread hitting both the defect and the root bead. Plots short of plate thickness with no cross over. Excess Penetration : Excess metal accumulation at root, occurs mostly after root repair. Low amplitude signal from the root bead, detectable from both the sides, distinguishing feature is ringing of the falling edge of the signal. Beam path just longer than half skip beam path. Plots deeper than plate thickness level with cross over. Misalignment with / without penetration : Misalignment of the members is visible at the surface. Produces high amplitude root signal detectable from the member which is lower in height. Scanning from the other member does not produce any indication. Backing Bar : The inherent gap between the backing bar and the base material and the edges of a narrow backing strip produce indications. Other defects : Irregular weld surface, Excessive capping, Under fill, Irregular root penetration, Burn through, Tungsten [ GTAW ],

Weld Scanning calculations : [ for flat plates ] Half skip distance Thickness X Tan A Half skip Beam path Thickness / Cos A or, Thickness X SF Full skip distance 2 Thickness X Tan A Full skip Beam path 2 Thickness / Cos A or, 2 Thickness X SF A is effective probe angle, SF [ Slant factor = 1 / Cos A ] A

Tan 80 0 Tan 70 0 Tan 60 0 Tan 45 0 Cos 80 0 Cos 70 0 Cos 60 0 Cos 45 -

5.67 2.74 1.73 1.0 0.17 0.34 0.50 0.70

SF

80 0 70 0 60 0 45 -

5.75 2.94 2.0 1.41

Weld scanning with angle probes : In angle beam weld testing, the probe is moved in a Zig Zag path, perpendicular to the axis of the weld, from the edge of the weld to full skip distance. [ 2 Thk X Tan A ] The distance [ along the test surface ] between the center / root of the weld to probe exit point, when the sound beam hits the root of the weld is known as Half skip distance. The distance, where the beam hits the top [ plate level ] of the weld is Full skip distance. First, the angle probe movement area should be scanned with a suitable single / twin normal probe to detect presence of laminar flaws which may prevent full body weld testing. For sensitivity, second backwall echo should be set to full screen height. If the weld surface condition permits, then the weld volume should be scanned with a twin crystal normal probe from the surface of the weld to detect internal flaws. This is a good technique for detecting slag, porosity and root penetration. To scan the full body of the weld and to detect discontinuities along the fusion lines, the weld must be scanned with different angle probes and from both the sides of the weld [ scan 1, 2 ]. Thick welds [ > 50 mm ] should be scanned from all the four surfaces [ up to half skip distance from each surface ]. Attempt should be made to hit the defect with shorter beam path to produce good signal amplitude for evaluation. Care should be taken to detect fusion line discontinuities with a suitable angle probe [ perpendicular hit ]. The weld should be scanned for transverse defects also by directing the sound beam nearly parallel to the weld seam [ probe body nearly parallel to the weld seam, scan 3a ]. Weld scanning sensitivity must be at least 6 to 12 dB above the flaw evaluation gain setting. Slag fragments and dispersed porosity is difficult to detect at DAC gain setting. Ideal sensitivity standard is the smallest flaw placed in the test block at maximum test distance. The flaw detector / probe combination shall be able to produce a clear signal from the smallest flaw to be detected throughout the scanning range. Maximum sensitivity can be achieved by adjusting the gain to produce grass up .

to the maximum test distance. A fixed root scan should be carried out from both sides of the weld using a guide strip. For weld root 0 examination, a 45 angle probe exhibits good sensitivity. The probe will also produce indications from irregular 0 [ corroded / pitted ] undersurface. A 60 probe may hit 0 the root with 30 angle of incidence. This will cause 0 mode conversion and loss of signal amplitude. A 70 probe does not produce good signal from root discontinuities with rounded reflecting surface such as a concave root or shallow undercut. Misaligned root may produce strong signal, detectable from one side of the weld. Misalignment may produce Lack of penetration. For evaluation of root defects reference notches may be given consideration. Unnecessary root repair should be avoided. Wherever possible, reflections, located near the surfaces should be checked by finger damping. Generally selected angle probes for weld scanning, 0 4 to 6 mm -- 80 0 up to 10 mm -- 70 0 0 up to 25 mm -- 70 and 60 0 0 more than 25 mm -- 60 and 45 0 0 For curved surfaces / welds 45 and 60 probes are more suitable because of lesser increase in beam path.