No. 1998.

169

Geologic Setting and Petroleum System of Heavy Oil Occurrences in Sedimentary Basins of India
P.K. Padhy and Daljit Singh, Oil Natural Gas Corporation, Baroda, India

Abstract
Heavy oil, in commercial quantity, has been on production from a linear tectonic belt in the central Cambay Cenozoic rift basin of western India. Recently heavy and nonbiodegraded oil has been discovered from the late Riphean-Vendian strata in Bikaner-Nagaur peripheral foreland basin situated to the north west of Indian shield. Heavy oil belt of Mehsana sub-basin of Cambay rift lies close proximity to the intrabasinal axial high (Mehsana horst) which has undergone synchronous episodic upliftment since early-middle Eocene i.e., deposition of Cambay shale source facies. Occurrence of heavy oil is conned to the pinch-outs of the post rift clastic sequence along the eastern peripheral part of the axial high and in an inversion structure, south-west of Mehsana horst. Generation and migration of oil of Cambay-Kalol(!) petroleum system ranges from Miocene onward. Depletion of nalkanes of the high asphaltic oil, in contrast to the oil of the surrounding elds, is probably due to mild biodegradation. The stable carbon isotopic study infers that oil is generated from the source rock of low maturity at an early stage of catagenesis. The Pan-African tectonism witnessed deposition of saltanhydrite, carbonate and sandstone in Bikaner-Nagaur basin, analogous to that of Gulf, Oman petroleum province, along the primeval late Proterozoic rift. Oil is originated from low thermal maturing source rock (Bilara dolomite) within an early oil window. Early rift sediment (Jodhpur Sandstone) constitutes the primary reservoir facies. Heavy oil deposit of Bilara-Jodhpur (.) petroleum system is likely to be prevalent along the basement controlled structures.

Non-biodegraded heavy oil occurrence has been recently discovered from Bikaner-Nagaur basin located in the northwestern India. Study on paleogeography and paleotec-tonic set up infers that the basin could be regionally a part of extension of Infracambrian Arabian platform. Interestingly presence of bituminous shale, oil shale had been inferred quite long back in this part1 from the Saline range of Infracambrian age.

Tectono-Stratigraphy of Cambay Basin

Cambay extensional expression is related to the evolution of the western continental margin of Indian plate which is characterized by a suite of rift system. The cambay rift initiation (Infrarift stage) took place during early Cretaceous along NNW-SSE Dharwarian trend and the rift drift transition phase of Indian plate witnessed volcanic event (late Cretaceous Deccan Trap eruption) which is attributed to the movement of Indian plate over the Reunion hot spot.2 The sinusoidal basin propagation with low angle basin bounding listric fault arrays exhibits inuence of oblique tensional/transtensional dynamics3 representing a typical half graben style of basin geometry. The asymmetrical rift development is associated with lithospheric thinning, followed by subsequent reactivation of the pre-existing structural fabric. The 425 km long basin narrows towards distal part inferring northward diminishment of rift propagation. The normal geothermal gradient is of the order of 35C/km with North Cambay basin showing slightly higher gradient.The thermotectonics and basin architecture resemble close to the subcrustal mixed shear model in the basin development3. Tectono-stratigraphically the extensional basin segment is divided into South Cambay basin comprising blocks namely Narmada, Jambusar-Broach., and North Cambay basin consisting blocks such as Cambay-Tarapur, Ahmedabad-Mehsana and Patan-Sanchor based on apparent change in tectono-depositional style, demarcated by presence of orthogonal compartmental cross strike faults/canjugate transfer zones across the rift tract (Figure 1a). The geology of the basin is extensively studied by different workers.4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Introduction
Heavy oil play fairways have a selected geographic distribution in Indian sedimentary basins. Since 1971 production of heavy altered oils has been started from the elds of Cenozoic Cambay rift basin situated in the western India. The moderate impedance heavy oil is found in the upper Eocene clastic reservoirs of north Cambay basin. The intragrabenal rift structural dynamics played an important bearing on the alteration of oil sourced from lower Eocene Cambay shale.

Onset of intensied rift propagation coincides concomitant with the eruption of huge Deccan basalt during upper Cretaceous time. The basin experienced four episodic rift related tectono-depositional systems viz infrarift systems tract, synrift systems tract, postrift systems tract and late postrift systems tract. The initiation of basin subsidence was emplaced along the basin bounding listric/planar normal faults with the upliftment of basin margin. Tectonic subsidence along the high angle fault system fairly controlled the basin ll geometry with distribution of minor-fault population, more intense towards exural margin. The basin is characterized by intrabasinal highs/ridges, oblique to the rift axis. The prominent among them is the Mehsana horst of Mehsana sub-basin/ block. These intragrabenal highs have strong structural overprint on depositional events corresponding to later part of early Eocene synrift regressive sequence in the north Cambay basin, Mehsana sub-basin in particular. Tilting of fault blocks and synchronous horsting subsequently caused alteration of oil entrapped in the structure close vicinity to the high. Distinct phase of episodic rift propagation resulted characteristic linked tectono-depositional systems, over Deccan trap (acoustic volcanic basement), separated by basin-bound unconformities.The basin witnessed the regional marine transgression during early Eocene time depositing Cambay shale source facies. Extensive middle Eocene sediments were deposited by the south westerly owing principle uvial system in different tectonic blocks along the topographic lows during postrift phase. Ankleshwar formation (South Cambay Basin) and Kadi and Kalol formations (North Cambay basin) of middle Eocene age are the main petroliferous stratigraphic units. The homotaxial equivalent of Younger Cambay Shale of south Cambay basin is characterized by development of three main regressive units known as Kadi formation (Figure 2) in the North Cambay basin. Basin-scale transgression prevailed during late Eocene/early Oligocene time depositing Tarapur shale which constitutes the regional cap rock facies. Towards the end of thermal sag stage, the basin experienced reverse tectonism, with adjustment of original extensional stress eld, resulting forced folding and other anticlinal arching. The hydrocarbon migration occurred during early Miocene coinciding with the terminal phase of basin inversion.

Mehsana horst constitutes one of the prominent intragrabenal positive features in Mehsana sub-basin (Figure 3) separating two half grabens Warosan low to the east and Bechraji low to the west. Seismic expression of rift structural style of Mehsana sub-basin exhibits the aggrading reector close to the rift shoulder representing the footwall derived sequence of earlyrift stage. The fault controlled subsidence continued during synrift time with rotation of fault block as evident from the divergent stratal package towards hanging wall fault plane, to the west of Mehsana horst, thus giving rise to asymmetry geometric conguration. The gentler dip package of reector over the steep ones infers diminishing effect of rotational effect with younger events onlapping over it (Figure 3). The basin-dip divergent reectors close to the east of Mehsana high during synrift time infers out passing of fault-controlled subsidence over sediment supply. The fairly lateral continuity of reector package close to basin-dip is attributed to near equilibrium condition. The parallel onlapping ll reectors (Figure 3) constitute the postrift sequence represented by upwarping folded features. Heavy oil entrapment of Lanwa, Balol, Santhal and Bechraji is conned to upwarping structure, resulted during basin inversion period. The deposition of sandstone-shale with strong coal cyclothem during the period of middle to early Eocene time towards basinal low and uplifted terrace/ramp part is attributed to prevalence of humid climatic condition under the inuence of relatively slow rate of basin subsidence. The Kalol reservoir facies pinchout on either side against the episodic rise of the Mehsana high. Paleotectonic analysis9 and crestal thinning of younger stratigraphic units over the high with downank thickening fairly conrm its synchronous upliftment (Figure 4) sinch early Eocene time due to episodic rejuvenation and rotation of conjugate listric faults. Presence of asphalt lled fractures within Cambay shale over the Mehasan high is an indirect evidence of contemporaneous upliftment. It remained as positive feature till late Eocene time and subsequently inundated by basin wide marine transgression during Oligocene depositing Tarapur shale (regional seal rock) over the high. The episodic upliftment imparted a sort of tectonic barrier for the westerly major paleo run-offs during later part of early Eocene10, 9. Evidently the parallel stratal conguration of considerable thickness (primarily sandstone-shale-coal facies of later part of early Eocene) in the east of Mehsana high is clearly seen where as it is poorly present to the west. The principle uvial system mainly got restricted to the eastern part by Mehsana Horst. Thus it created a two apparently marked tectono-sedimentary environment on either side of the horst. It was only during later part of middle Eocene (near dormant stage of Mehsana high reactivation) the uvial system corresponding to the upper part of Kalol formation could prevail on either side of the high depositing sandstone-shale and minor coal.

Mehsana Horst, Its Control on Depositional Events and Hydrocarbons (Heavy Oil) Accumulation
Geographically the main heavy oil elds (Lanwa, Balol, Santhal, and N.Kadi) constitute as a linear belt (Figure 1B) on the lowside of the fault block to the east of Mehsana Horst. Bechraji eld, situated to the south-west of the Mehsana Horst, constitutes a mild inversion structure for entrapment of oil.

Cambay-Kalol(!) Petroleum System

Occurrence of heavy oil is conned to Kalol formation along the linear belt close to the east of Mehsana horst and Bechraji ed. Cambay Shale of Paleocene -early Eocene represents the primary source rock (Figure 5), deposited during synrift stage of basin evoluation. Based on an identied unconformity marker and geochemical characteristics of sediments Cambay Shale is divided into two members: Older Cambay Shale and Younger Cambay Shale, the latter is characterized by three prominent deltaic sequences (sandstone-shale-coal) separated by marine shale. In Mehsana block the thickness of Older Cambay Shale ranges from 200800m. The organic matter is mainly type-III kerogen and organo facies deposited towards basinal axis is characterized by type-II kerogen. TOC in Cambay Shale ranges from 24%. The burial history analysis (Figure 6) shows onset of oil generation took place since early Miocene time. The associated events/processes are depicted in Figure 7. The carbon isotope of aromatics and saturates plot (Figure 8) infers high proportion input of terrestrial organic matters in the source rock. Hopane and sterane biomarker distribution indicates that the heavy oil belt of Lanwa - Balol Santhal is abundant of C29 sterane (Figure 9). High ratio of hopane to sterane (1124) indicates terrestrial source organics11,12 and in contrast, predominance of C30 sterane homologues in heavy oil of Becharji eld (Figure 9) infers lacustrine algal input in the source facies deposited in Bechraji low. Biomarker ngerprints (Figure 10) of heavy oils show characteristics of similar terrestrial source organics. Paleo geothermal gradient of North Cambay basin is 3550 C/km. The average TOC, S2 and HI value of Cambay shale section met in the well drilled in the basinal part is 3.95, 5.6 and 116, and that of in Bechraji eld is 0.9, 0.34, and 35. In the north Cambay basin the maximum hydrocarbon generated (HCG) in Cambay shale is of the order of 4 million MT/Km.2, 13 Kadi and Kalol formations represent the principle clastic reservoir facies in Mehsana block. The litho assemblage is characterized by sandstone coal carbonaceous shale suite deposited under paludal environment.The heavy oil occurs at a relatively shallow depth (-800 to -1050mts) and is conned to the upper part of Kalol formation (Kalol sand-I and II, Upper Suraj Pay of Wavel member which pinch-outs against the Mehsana Horst. The thickness of each payzone ranges from 420 mts., porosity and permeability are of the order of 2030% and 35 darcy. The level of certainty infers the condence level in oil to a particular active source rock. GC-MS, carbon isotopic and biomarker data of oils and source rock extracts11, 12, 14 fairly show presence of good correlation between oil and Cambay shale source rock. Carbon isotopic composition of aromatics (ranges from - 29.4 to -31.6) of heavy oil indicates good match with the value of Cambay source sediments (-26.1 to 29.8) and carbon isotopic ratios saturates versus of aromatics of heavy oil and rock extracts of Cambay shale show near similarity (Figure 8). The C29R/C30R sterane ratio (1.0-2.3)

is well correlated with the higher sterane rich (0.98 - 2.03) of Cambay shale.14 Also hopane/sterane ratio (11.0-23.4) of heavy oil exhibit close correlation with that of sediment extracts (8.5-28.3) of Cambay shale.14

Petroleum Geochemistry of Heavy Oil: A Degradational Model

Oils from the elds (Lanwa, Balol, Santhal, and N. Kadi and Bechraji) are asphaltic, heavy (0.930.97) and aromatic (Saturate: aromatic ratio = 0.57-1.53) in contrast to the oils of the surrounding elds. The oil occurs at a shallower depth within the Kalol formation. Chromatographic signature of these oils are distinguished by complete absence of n-alkanes (Figure 11) with partial absence in the oil of North Kadi eld situated south of the elongated homoclinal linear heavy oil belt.11 Devoid of n-alkanes, reduced isoprenoids and absence of alkylcyclohexanes (Figure 12) indicate the oil might have undergone biodegradation.15 Carbon isotopic composition of saturate and aromatic fractions of heavy oil ranges from -31.0 to -33.0 and -29.4 to -31.6 respectively.11 The associated gas, rich in methane (9599%) and with high ic4/nc4 ratio (46), is characteristics of thermogenic in nature.16 The lighter d13c saturates support low maturity of source rock. Biomarker study reveals that hopane isomerisation has reached equilibrium stage11 inferring generation of oil has entered the oil window (Ro > 0.55). The low value of C29 sterane isomers viz, 20S/20R and b/a+b shows comparatively low maturation level of heavy oils12 and generation of oil from an early catagenetic stage.11 Absence of n-alkanes does not mean always immaturity. The Kalol oils close to Mehsana Horst is heavy, viscous and asphaltic in nature and GC of the heavy oil pyrolysates resembles with that of well preserved oils of the surrounding elds.12 Hence absence of n-alkanes could be due to biodegradation/water-washing. Interestingly the synchronous horsting continues upto Miocene, predating/contemporaneous with the hydrocarbon migration time. The uplifted structure slopes southward with gradual diminishing of horsting and it has been observed that the degree of alteration of oil increases towards north along the linear belt (Figure 13). It has been observed that oil viscosity also increases towards north (60 cp in Santhal, 150 cp in Balol and 600 cp Lanwa eld). Possibly the upliftment has established an hydrostatic head to drive meteoric water and there by altering the oil. Presence of thermophillic microorganisms in the formation water has also been observed12. Structurally controlled high relief is characterized by heavy oil in this region. The hydrogeochemistry study17 has also indicated the recharge of meteoric water causing alteration of oil.

Tectono-Stratigraphy of Bikaner-Nagaur
Bikaner-Nagaur basin constitutes a late Riphean-Vendian basin in the north western part of peninsular Indian shield. The tectonic tract of Rajasthan shelf comprises BikanerNagaur, Jaisalmer, and Barmer basins. Structurally ikanerNagaur basin is bounded in the east by Delhi- Aravalli folding and in the south, south-west by Pokra -Nachna high, separating Jaisalmer basin and to the north-east lies the Delhi-Sargoda ridge (Figure 14). The basin slopes to north and northwest and merges with the Indus shelf. The north-western shield (Rajasthan craton) had undergone proto-plate tectonics: a complex process of a Proterozoic accretionary collisional tectonics starting from 1300700 ma18. This accretionary process, with the development of trench-arc-marginal sea prograding westward, continued and the remnants are represented by suite of ophiolite melange. The collided subduction tectogen caused wide spread volcanic suite (Malani lgneous suite) of calc-alkaline18 which constitutes the basement of Rajasthan shelf. The Pan-African extensional tectonism witnessed deposition of synrift evaporite along the late Proterozoic rift (Arabian Infracambrian salt basin set up).19, 20 The Bikaner-Nagaur basin could probably an extension of the Infracambrian tectono-depositional system (Figure 15) of Arabian platform21. The major tectonic element is represented by basement highs trending meridional to submeridional direction, the prominent being the Pokran-Nachna high to the south-west. These could be related to basement block faulting with langitudinal basinal lows depositing maximum sediment thickness of around 2,000 mts. The prominent east-west basement high trend acts as a structural trap for heavy oil accumulation (Figure 14). Broadly two sedimentary systems (a) clastic-carbonate system (Infracambrian-Cambrian) (b) Clastic dominant system (Post Devonian). have been observed in this basin (Figure 16). The synrift clastic-carbonate system is correlated to the Salt range of Punjab basin and Harmuz of Gulf. Early Synrift Fluvio-Clastic Cycle: comprises of conglomerate, arkosic sandstone with minor shale and volcano-clastic fragments of Vendian age. The Jodhpur formation is unconformably underlain by Malani lgneous Suite and overlain by Bilara formation. Synrift Carbonate-Evaporite Cycle: The carbonate sedimentation corresponding to Bilara formation is deposited under shallow marine transgressive phase. The limestone is often stromatolitic in nature. It is overlain by evaporite sequence (Hanseran Evaporite formation)22, and laterally it can be correlated to Ara evaporite of Oman. Postrift Clastic Cycle: During lower Cambrian time, there seems sharp change in facies from carbonates to clastics (conglomerate, sandstone) deposited under high energy shallow water condition. The clastic dominated Nagaur formation grades upward to second cycle of carbonate-evaporite sedimentation. Permo-Triassic Fluvio-Glacial Cycle: The basin experienced a strong regional upliftment during post-Cambrian and it

remained emergent and non-depositional during Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods. The basin bound fault system got reactivated during Permo-Triassic time with deposition of conglomerate, gritty sandstone, chert with minor cherty dolomite (Bap and Badhaura formations). The faunal assemblages is correlated with Eury desma and Conularia beds of Salt range.23 The basin oor underwent north westerly tilting with the development of prominent Pokran-Nachna high. The basin remained uplifted for a considerable time during Mesozoic. Jurassic Cretaceous Fluvio-Deltaic Cycle: The subsurface geological data from the drilled well infers the Jurassic sediments (red brittle sandstone, pinkish ferruginous sandstone) unconformably overlies the Bap and Badhaura formation. The Jurassic sediments are overlain by a thin sequence of dark grey claystone with minor sandstone of Maestrichtian age sediments.22 Tertiary Cycle: Consequent to the upliftment during upper Cretaceous lower Paleocene time (initiation of Himalayan collision phase), the western Rajasthan shelf had a widespread marine regression during Paleocene with deposition of conglomerate, sandstone (Palana, Marh formations). Early Eocene marine transgression occurred with advancement of the sea in Bikaner-Nagaur basin depositing Jogira limestone. The Quaternary deposit mainly constitutes clay, claystone, sandstone.

Bilara Jodhpur (.) Petroleum System

Scope of prevalence of Proterozoic petroleum and petroleum system in Indian sedimentary basins24, 25 has remained as an enigma in exploration history. Occurrence of asphaltene rich oil has been discovered from late Riphean-Vendian-Cambrian sequence in the newly explored Bikaner-Nagaur basin.22 Geochemically the oil characteristics fairly match with the Infracambrian oil of Huqf group of central Oman and Salt range of Pakistan.26 The GCMSMS data26 infers origin of oil from Vendian Cambrian carbonate source deposited under marine environment. Limestone of Bilara formation and Upper Carbonate sequence (Cambrian age) are generally massive and dolomitic in nature. Thickness of Bilara formation ranges from 5055 mts. The dolostone is deposited under shallow marine environment and is associated with minor amount of chert and anhydrite nodules.22 The TOC content of Bilara dolostone is moderate to high (up to 400 mg HC/ of TOC) and the hydrogen indices is of typical oil prone algal rich organic matter.26 Low sterane / hopane ratio (0.38) and highly negative stable carbon isotope ratio infer oil originated mainly from phytoplanktonic organic matter deposited under restricted marine with signicant bacterial input.26 Low diasteranes/ diasteranes+steranes), low Ts/Tm and moderately high gammacerane (Figure 17) suggest carbonate-evaporite source.26

The oil is nonbiodegraded as evident from the abundant presence of n-parafns and acyclic isoprenoids (Figure 18). Low aromatic steroid (22%), low gravity oil (17.6 API), high sulfur rich (1.2 wt%), high Pr/nc17 (0.91) and Ph/n18 (1.0) ratio of oil indicate that it originated from a low thermal maturity source rock within the early oil window.26 Within Infracambrian sequence, heavy oil occurs in sandstone reservoir of Jodhpur formation at a shallower depth (1,100m). Patches of heavy oil occurrence is also observed in siltstone of Hanseran evaporite sequence and within vugs and fractures of carbonate reservoir of Cambrian age.22 The oil is asphaltic in nature (asphaltene content is 42%) and is viscous (6,667 cp at 30C). Jodhpur sandstone is arkosic, course to ne grained with small scale cross bedding and deposited under braided river environment. Porosity of sandstone reservoir ranges from 1625%. Entrapment style is mainly structural controlled basement highs and it is envisaged that the heavy oil is accumulated mainly in the reservoir rocks deposited on these highs. As there is a prolonged hiatus in post Cambrian (Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian) time, it is presumed that trap might have formed during synrift stage with critical moment taking place around mid Cambrian time21 (Figure 19). The evaporite sequence, deposited under restricted environment, (supratidal) acts as an effective seal and this can be regionally correlated with the evaporite sequence of Salt range of north Pakistan, Harmuz of Gulf basin and Rezu-Desu-Ravan series of Kerman basin of central Iran. Presence of Infracambrian heavy oil has been inferred from one well in this basin, and based on regional correlation of the oil of Arabian platform, it is inferred that the source could be Vendian / Cambrian carbonates. Moreover age diagnostic biomarkers (high 24isopropyl/ n-propylcholestane ratio > 1) infer oil sourced from Vendian to early Cambrian rock.26

rock deposited in anoxic marine environment. The evaporite sequence acts as an ideal cap rock for entrapment of oil. It is envisaged that the basement high trends along the evaporite depositional locales could be the possible geographic extension of prevalence of Infracambrian petroleum system in the north western basinal part of the Indian shield.

Acknowledgment
The authors record their gratefulness to the Director (Exploration) for according permission for publication of the paper.

References
1. 2. Gee, E.R. Saline series of N.W. India, Current Science, II (1934) 460463.

Conclusion
Heavy oil fairways of Mehsana block of Cambay basin is basically controlled by episodic rejuvenation of intrabasinal structural high (Mehsana horst). The habitat of heavy oil petroleum system of Eocene age has both geographical and stratigraphic limitations. Geochemical analysis infers terrestrial inputs in source organics. Absence of n-alkanes and reduced isoprenoids in oil indicates that it might have undergone biodegradation/waterwashing. The synchronous upliftment with rejuvenation of conjugate fault systems possibly drived meteoric water, thus altering the reservoir oil. The discovery of upper Proterozoic petroleum system of Bikaner-Nagaur basin establishes the possible continuation of tectono-depositional salt basin set up of Arabian plate. The sedimentary system is primarily classied as synrift carbonate evaporite cycle and post rift clastic dominant cycle. The heavy, low thermal maturity, nonbiodegraded oil occurs in early synrift clastics and it is generated from carbonate source

Norton, I.G. and Sclater, J.G, A model for the evolution of the Indian ocean and break up of Gondwan land, Jour. Geophy. Res. 84, B 12, (1979) 68036830. 3. Thakre, A.N. and Padhy, P.K. Cambay basin architecture and exploration play system. Proceedings on Rifting of western margin of India and its bearing on the geological evolution and mineralization, M.S. University, Baroda, India (1993). 4. Raju, A.T.R. Geological evolution of Assam and Cambay Tertiary basins of India, AAPG Bulletin, 52 (1968) 24222437. 5. Chandra, P.K. and Choudhary, L.P. Stratigraphy of Cambay Basin, Oil and Natural Gas Commission Bulletin, 6, (1969). 3550. 6. Biswas S.K. Rift basins in the western margin of India and their hydrocarbon prospects, AAPG Bulletin, 66, (1982) 14971513. 7. Biswas, S.K., Rangaraju., M.K, Thomas J., and Bhattacharya, S.K,: Cambay Hazad (!) petroleum system in the south Cambay Basin, India, in Magoon, L.B. and Dow W.G (eds.), The Petroleum system from source to trap, AAPG Memoir 60 (1994) 615624 8. Kundu, J. and Wani, M.R. Structural style and tectonostratigraphic frame work of Cambay rift basin, western India: Indian Jour. Pet. Geol., I,. 2, (1992) 181202. 9. Padhy, P.K. and Rao, K.J.M,: Genesis of Mehsana high an integrated approach.Unpublished ONGC report, Baroda, India, (1992) 10. Chowdhary, L.R., and Singh, Lakshman,: Early Eocene subaerial erosional valleys in Cambay basin, India, AAPG Bulletin, 62, 3 (1978) 442454. 11. Pandey, A., Hazra, P.N., Singh, B.D., Khan, M.S.R, Barry, V.K., Tripathy, G.K., and Chandra, K. Origin and evolutionary histories of crude oils of Cambay basin through biomarkers composition, in S.K. Biswas, et al,

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(eds.), Proceedings. Second seminar of Petroliferous basins of India, Indian Petroleum Publishers, New Delhi, (1993) 137160. Sharma, A.K., Pande, A., RazaKhan, M.S., Singh, B.P., Goel, J.P., Mathur, M., and Mishra, K.N. Causes of Heavy, Asphaltic nature of the oils of Mehsana Horst, Cambay basin, India, in Proceedings Petrotech 95, New Delhi, (1995) 291300, B.R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. Banerjee, A and Rao, K.L.N. Geochemical evaluation of part of the Cambay basin, India, AAPG Bulletin, 77, 1 (1993). 2948. Banerjee, A. and Misra, K.N. Oil-Source correlation study in Cambay basin, India, evaluation of the causes of diverse oil characteristics. Unpublished KDMIPE, ONGC, report, (1996) Mathur, S., Jain,V.K., Tripathy, G.K., Jassal, J.K., and Chandra, K. Biological marker geochemistry of crude oils of Cambay basin, India, in Ruby K.Kumar,et al, (eds.), Petroleum geochemistry and exploration in the Afro-Asian Region. A.A. Balkema Publishers, USA, (1987) 459474. Banerjee, V., Dhawan, R., and Uniyal, A.K. Stable carbon isotope geochemistry of natural gases of Mehsana block of Cambay basin, Unpublished ONGC report, Dehradun, India, (1991). Rao, K.L.N and Rao,V.S. Some aspects of petroleum hydrogeology of Cambay basin, Bull. ONGC, 7 (1970) 2532. Sinha Roy, S. Proterozoic wilson cycles in Rajasthan. in Rai, A.B. (ed.), Aravalli Mountain, GSI Memoir7. Geological Society of Indian Publication, Bangalore, India, (1988). 95107.

19. Piper, J.D.A. Dynamics of the continental crust in Proterozoic times, Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. 161, (1983) 11 34. 20. Husseini, Moujahed and Husseini, Sadad, I. Origin of the Infracambrian salt basins of the Middle East. in J.brooks (ed.), Classic Petroleum provinces. Published by the Geological Society Special Publication No. 50, (1990) 279292. 21. Padhy, P.K. Proterozoic petroleum systems of Indian sedimentary basins, Presented in the International conference and exhibition, Vienna, Austria, Sept. 810, 1997, AAPG, 81/8, (1997) 14021403. 22. Das Gupta, S.P. and Bulgauda, S.S. An overview of the geology and hydrocarbon occurrences in the western part of Bikaner-Nagaur basin, Indian Jour. Petro. Geol, 3, (1994) 117. 23. Mishra, P.C. and Singh, N.P, Lithostratigraphy of Indian Petroliferous basins, Western Rajasthan basins, Unpublished ONGC document, KDMIPE, Dehradun, India, (1993) 24. Radhakrishna B.P. Petroleum prospects in Precambrian, Current Science., 53, (1984) 671674. 25. Padhy, P.K. Proterozoic hydrocarbon prospect An Indian Scenario, Proceedings Petrotech-95, B.R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi (1995) 123132. 26. Peters, K.E., Clark, M.E., Das Gupta, U., McCaffren, M.A., and Lee, C.Y, Recognition of an Infracambrian Source Rock Based on Biomarker in the Baghewala1 oil, India, AAPG Bulletin, 79 (1995) 14811494.

Figure 1A: Location Map of Cambay Basin Figure 1B: Location Map of Heavy Oil Fields of Mehsana Block

Figure 2: Techno-Stratigraphy of North Cambay Basin

Figure 3: Seismic Section Showing Major Tectono-Depositional Elements

Figure 4: Seismic Paleotectonic Evolution of Mehsana Horst and Mild Basin Inversion

Figure 5: Schematic Geological Cross Section of Cambay-Kalol Petroleum System

Figure 6: Burial and Thermal history of a Well close to Wardsan Low

Figure 7: Events Chart for Cambay-Kalol Petroleum System of North Cambay System

Figure 8: Carbon Isotopic Ratio of Saturate versus Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Heavy Oils and Rock Extracts from Cambay Shale Figure 9: Predominance of C29 Sterane Homologues in Heavy Oil Belt: Bechraji Well Oil (BX-6) Shews Abundance of C3011

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Figure 10: Triterpane Distribution of Heavy Oil From M/Z 191 Mass Fragmentograms11 Figure 13: Oil Gravity (Kalol Formation) Against Depth

Figure 11: G C Fingerprints of Heavy Oil

15, 11

Figure 14: Sedimentary Basins and Tectonic Elements of Rajasthan

Figure 12: Mass Fragmentograms of Alkylcyclohexanes (M/e 83) of Heavy Oils15

Figure 15: Paleogeography of proterozoic Sediments of Indian Plate21

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Figure 16: Tectono-Stratigraphy of Bikaner-Nagaur Basin

Figure 17: Terpane Mass Chromatogram for Saturate Fraction of Well-A Oil Bikaner-Nahgaur Basin26

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Figure 18: Gas Chromatogram of Well-A Oil, Bikaner-Nagaur Basin26

Figure 19: The Events Chart for Bilara-Jodhpur Petroleum System of Bikaner-Nagaur Basin21

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