Electrical Technology (3 1 3)

D.C. Networks:
Books: 1. Electrical Technology Edward Hughes, ELBS (7th Edition). 2. Theory and Problems of Basic Electrical Engineering D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, Prentice Hall of India (1st Edition). 3. Electrical Engineering Fundamentals Vincent Del Toro, Prentice Hall of India (2nd Edition). 4. Problems in Electrical Engineering S. Parker Smith, CBS Publishers and Distributors (IXth Edition) Basic Concepts: Electric Circuit: - A closed path composed of active and passive elements to which current flow is confined. Active element which supplies energy to the circuit. Passive element which receives energy and then either converts it to heat or stores it in an electric or magnetic field. Kirchoffs Laws, Node Voltage and Mesh Current Methods, Delta Star and Star Delta conversations, Superposition Principle, Thevenins and Nortons Theorems, Maximum Power Transfer Theorems.

Linear and Non-Linear Circuits:

Voltage

Current R is constant Unilateral and Bilateral Elements: + R1 + R2 R1 R2 1 +

Voltage

Current R is not constant

R1 + R2 R1 = R2

Sources (D.C.) Voltage source Ideal: Maintains a constant voltage Vs across its terminals regardless of the current drawn (its magnitude as well as direction). A VS + Voltage Slope is VS zero Current B

So dynamic resistance of the ideal voltage source is Zero. Practical: Voltage decreases some what as the load current is increased. VS + vL Slope is zero Current vL = VS RS iL; RS is internal resistance of the source. + + VS RS iL VL LOAD B A RS VS

Voltage

PL = vL.iL PS = VS.iL vL = VS when iL = 0 VS open circuit voltage of practical voltage source. Current Source Ideal: Maintains a constant current IS (the value and the direction of this current at any instant of time is independent of the value or direction of the volts that appears across the terminal of the source). A IS Voltage IS Slope is infinity Current So dynamic resistance of the ideal current source is Infinite. 2 B

Practical: Current decreases as vL is increased. A Voltage iL IS Current

1 vL RS RS is internal resistance of the source. i L = IS -

IS RS

iL

iL + IS RS vL iL = IS only when vL = 0. IS Short Circuit current of the practical current source. Source Representation and Conversion iL + VS Practical voltage source
1 1 IL = - VS VL + RS RS

LOAD

+ IS RS

iL

RS VL VL Practical current source

I L = IS VL RS

IL

I SC =

VS RS

IL ISC = IS

VOC = VS

VL

VOC = RSIS VL ISC = Short circuit current (VL = 0)

VOC = Open circuit voltage (IL = 0) 3

+ 5V -

2 2.5A 2

Network Laws and Theorems Kirchoffs Laws: 1. Current Law Algebraic sum of all the currents entering or of all the currents leaving any node of an electric circuit is zero. (KCL) i1
m

i
K=1

i6
K

i2

=0

i5 i 4

i3

i1 i2 + i3 i4 + i5 i6 = 0 Currents entering the node are taken as positive and leaving the node are taken as negative. 2. Voltage Law:- Algebraic sum of the emfs and resistance voltages (product of current and resistance) in any continuous path of an electric circuit is zero. (KVL)

v
K=1

=0

Example: f IF +

RF n

+ RC IC RE + IE EB RB IB

g p + + b

m + + RD ID EA RA + IA a Node m Node n Node p Node q : : : : IA ID IF = 0 ID + I E I C = 0 IB + I F I E = 0 IC I A I B = 0 KCL

Loop amnqa: - IARA + EA IDRD ICRC = 0 Loop bpnqb: - IB RB + EB IERE ICRC = 0 Loop amfgpbqa: - IARA + EA IFRF EB + IBRB = 0 Mesh Analysis (Mesh Current Method) Procedure for writing Mesh Equations using KVL 1. 2. 3. 4. Select a set of meshes such that at least one mesh passes through each branch Assign and label mesh currents. Apply KVL around each mesh. Solve resulting equations for unknown mesh currents. IF RD EA + I I1 ID RC IC RF I3 III RE II I2 IE + EB RB IB KVL

Example 1

RA IA

I1, I2 and I3 are assigned mesh currents for loops I, II and III. Loop I Loop II Loop III : : : - I1RA + EA (I1 I3)RD (I1 I2)RC = 0 -(I2 I1)RC (I2 I3)RE EB I2RB = 0 - I3RF (I3 I2)RE (I3 I1)RD = 0

Branch currents: IA = I1; IB = - I2; IC = (I1 I2); ID = (I1 I3); IE = (I3 I2); IF = I3.

Example 2

1A 4 3 I1 1 + 17V I2 2

- 4 (I1 1) 1(I1 I2) 17 = 0 - 3 (I2 1) 2I2 + 17 1(I2 I1) = 0 Solving we get I1 = -2A I2 = 3A Example 3 + 1V 10k + 8k I3 1k - 2I1 6(I1 I2) 10(I1 I3) +1 = 0 - 4I2 7 8(I2 I3) 6(I2 I1) = 0 - 10(I3 I1) 8(I3 I2) 1I3 + 15 = 0 As the resistances are given in kilo ohm, the currents are in milli amp. Solving we get I1 = 1.5 mA; I2 = 1 mA; I3 = 2 mA. Example 4 R1 = 3 III a + R2 = 1 I3 b R3 = 4 v1 R4 = 2 II I1 g 6 I2 c 2A 2k I1 4k I2 + 7V -

6k

15V

Find Iab and Vcg using mesh current method. Loop I Loop II Loop III 3 = 3I1 2I2 I3 ..(i) v1 = - 2I1 + 6I2 4I3 (ii) 0 = - I1 4I2 + 8I3 ....(iii) 48 Solving equations (i) and (iii) we get I1 = - = 0.6956 A and 69 25 I3 = - = - 1.0869 A . 23 Iab = I1 I3 = 0.39 A. Ibc = I2 I3 = - 0.913 A. and Ibg = I1 I2 = 1.304 A. : : :

From equation (ii) v1 = 6.27 V. ------- -----No. of mesh equations: No. of branches No. of nodes + 1

How to write the Mesh Equations? 1. 2. 3. 4. In each loop, assume a current direction. Indicate the polarity of voltage drops or rise across each resistor in the loop. Determine the algebraic sum of the voltage around the loop and set it equal to zero. If a resistor has two or more loop current flowing through it, the total current through the resistor is the loop current of interest plus or minus the other currents dependent on direction, plus if in the same direction, minus if opposite. 5. The polarity of all voltage sources is independent of current direction. Example: Mesh Equation Method in Matrix form: + Va RA I1 RB RC I2 RD RE I3 + Vb -

(R A + R B )I1 - R B I 2 + 0 = Va -R B I1 + (R B + R C + R D )I 2 - R D I3 = 0 0 - R D I 2 + (R D + R E )I3 = -Vb Placing the equations in matrix form,

R A + R B - RB 0

- RB RB + RC + RD - RD

0 I1 Va - R D I2 = 0 R D + R E I3 -Vb

The elements of the matrixes can be indicated in general form as follows: R11 R 21 R 31 R12 R 22 R 32 R 13 I1 V1 R 23 I 2 = V2 R 33 I3 V3

How to get the elements for a particular problem

R11 (Row 1, Column 1):

Sum of all resistances through which mesh current I1 passes. In the above example it is (RA + RB).

Similarly, R22 and R33 are the sums of all resistances through which I2 and I3 respectively pass. R12 (Row 1, Column 2): Sum of all resistances through which mesh currents I1 and I2 pass. The sign of R12 is +ve, if the two currents are in the same direction through each resistance and ve, if they are in opposite directions. (e.g. RB)

In a similar manner one can write for R21, R23, R13 and R31. It should be noted that for all i and j, Rij = Rji. As a result, the resistance matrix is symmetric about the principle diagonal. The current vector requires no explanation. Element V1 in the voltage vector is the sum of all source voltages driving mesh current I1. A voltage is counted +ve in the sum if I1 passes from the ve to the +ve terminal of the source; otherwise it is counted ve. In the above example mesh 1 has a source Va driving the current in the direction of I1; mesh 2 has no source; and mesh 3 has a source Vb driving opposite to the direction of I3, making V3 negative.
Nodal Analysis (Node Voltage Method) Procedure of writing nodal equations:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Select a reference node and ground it (assume zero potential). Label V1, V2, V3 etc. for each unknown node voltage. Assign current directions. Apply KCL at each node. Use Ohms Law. Solve resulting equations to find unknown node voltages. Obtain the solution for currents.

Example 1 I1 + Ea R1 RA IA 3 (Zero potential) 1 R2 RB IB I2 2 R3 I3 + Eb -

For node 1 : i.e. or For Node 2: i.e. or

I1 I2 IA = 0 or, I1 = I2 + IA E A - V1 V1 - V2 V1 - 0 = + R1 R2 RA
1 1 1 V2 E A + + V1 = R A R1 R 2 R 2 R1

I2 + I3 IB = 0 or I2 + I3 = IB
V1 - V2 E B - V2 V2 - 0 + = R2 R3 RB

1 1 1 V1 E B . + + V2 = RB R2 R3 R2 R3

Number of equations to be solved = 2.

Example 2 f m + RA a I1 q b RF n RD RC RE + g p EB RB

EA

Assuming the potentials of a, q and b are at zero. 1 1 1 Vn Vp E A Vm + + =0 RA RD RF RD RF RA

1 1 1 Vm Vp Vn + + =0 RC RD RE RD RE 1 1 1 Vm Vn E B Vp + + =0 RB RE RF RF RE RB
Example 3 I1 + Ea RA R1 IA 1 I2 R2 IB R5 2 R3 RC 0 I5 I3 IC RB 3 I4 R4 + Eb -

Node 1 : Node 2 : Node 3 :

1 1 1 1 V VA + + + - C R A R1 R 2 R 5 R 2 1 1 1 V V VC + + - B - A RC R 2 R3 R3 R2

VB E A =0 R 5 R1

=0

1 1 1 1 V V E VB + + + - C - A - B = 0. R B R3 R 4 R5 R3 R5 R 4

10

How to write Nodal Equations by Inspection

1. First, write the product of node potential of a particular node and sum of the reciprocal of the branching resistances from that node. 2. Subtract the ratio of adjacent node potentials and the connecting resistance. 3. Subtract the ratio of the adjacent source voltages and the connecting resistances. 4. Lastly, all set equal to zero.
Numerical Example: 1 + 12V I1 4A 1 V1 I2 3

I1 = 4 + I 2 12 - V1 V -0 = 4+ 1 1 3 Solving V1 = 6V, I1 = 6A, I2 = 2A

P12V = 12v 6A = 72W (Power delivering)
2 P1 = I1 1 = 36W (Power dissipating) 2 P3 = I 2 3 = 12W (Power dissipating) P4A = V1 4A = 24W (Power absorbing) P12V = P1 + P3 + P4A (Energy is conserved).

Node voltage method in matrix form:

Example 4 + Va RA RB 0 3 (ref)
V1 - Va V1 V1 - V2 + + =0 RA RB RC V2 - V1 V2 V2 - Vb + + =0 RC RD RE

1 RC

2 RE RD

5 + Vb -

11

In matrix form: 1 1 1 + + R RB RC A 1 RC V Va 1 R = A 1 1 1 Vb + + R C R D R E V2 R E 1 RC

Note the symmetry of the coefficient matrix. The 1, 1 element contains the sum of the reciprocals of all resistances connected to node 1; the 2, 2 element contains sum of the reciprocals of all resistances connected to node 2. The 1, 2 and 2, 1 elements are each equal to the negative of the sum of reciprocals of the resistances of all branches joining nodes 1 and 2. (There is just one such branch in the present problem). On the right-hand side, the current matrix contains Va/RA and Vb/RE, the driving currents. Both these terms are taken positive because they both drive a current into a node.
Example Find Iab and Vcg using Node Voltage Method 3 1 a i v1 = 3V Iab 2 2A

Note Va = 3V For Node a:

1 1 i = 1+ Va - Vb - Vc ..............(i) 3 3

For Node b:
1 1 1 0 = -Va + 1+ + Vb - Vc .(ii) 4 2 4

For Node c:
1 1 1 1 2 = - Va - Vb + + Vc ..(iii) 3 4 3 4

Solving (i), (ii) and (iii) we get Vb = 2.261 V, Vc = 6.26 V. V - V 3 - 2.61 and Iab = a b = = 0.39A . 1 1 No. of nodal equations = No. of nodes 1. 12

Numerical Example: F + 4V E D 5 I1 A 10 15 I4 C 8 I5 G I2 B 12 I3 H + 6V

Find the value of the current through 8 resistor.

Application of Kirchoffs laws:

Current Law: I1 = I2 + I4 I2 + I3 = I5 Voltage Law: Loop ADEFA: Loop ABCDA: Loop BCGHB: From (i) and (iii) From (ii) and (v)

at A (i) at B ........ (ii) - 15I4 + 4 5I1 = 0 ... (iii) - 10I2 8I5 + 15I4 = 0. (iv) - 8I5 + 6 12I3 = 0. (v) 4 5I2 20I4 = 0 ... (vi) 6 20I5 + 12I2 = 0.. (vii)

Arranging (iv), (vi) and (vii) - 10I2 + 15I4 8I5 = 0 - 5I2 20I4 =-4 + 12I2 20I5 = - 6 -10 15 0 -5 -20 -4 -12 0 -6 I5 = = 0.32 A -10 15 -8 -5 -20 0 +12 0 +20

13

Mesh Analysis: F + 4V E 15 I1 D 5 A 10 8 I2 C I3 G B 12 H + 6V

Assign three loops or mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 with arbitrary directions. Loop ADEFA: Loop ABCDA: Loop BCGHB: Rearranging 20 I1 15 I2 - 15 I1 + 33 I2 8 I3 8 I2 20 I3 =-4 =0 =-6 15(I1 I2) + 4 + 5I1 = 0 ......... (i) 10I2 + 8(I2 I3) + 15(I2 I1) = 0 (ii) - 8(I3 I2) + 6 12I3 = 0 (iii)

Solving for I2 and I3 the current through 8 resistors can be obtained.

240 2130 and I3 = 7420 7420 I8 = (I3 I2) in the direction B to C = 0.32 A. I2 = -

F + 4V E Nodal Voltage Method: 5

VA A 10 15

VB B 12 8

H + 6V -

D Zero

Assume the voltage of E, D, C or G is zero. Voltage of node A is VA. Voltage of node B is VB. For node A
4 1 1 1 V VA + + - B = .. (i) 15 5 10 10 5

For node B 14

6 1 1 1 V VB + + - A = (ii) 8 10 12 10 12

Simplifying and rearranging 11 VA 3 VB = 24 - 12 VA + 37 VB = 60 Solving

VB = 7912 371

So current through 8 resistor

I= VB = 0.32 A 8

15

Delta () Star (Y) Conversion Star (Y) Delta () Conversion

Given/Wanted 1 Y R1 R3 R2 3 2 Y 2 3 R23 R31 Wanted/Given 1 R12

Equivalence based on the effective resistance between terminals 1, 2 and 3. Resistance between terminals 1 and 2 Star connection: R1 + R2 R12 ( R 23 + R 31 ) Delta connection: R12 + R 23 + R 31 For equivalence R12 ( R 23 + R 31 ) .(1) R12 + R 23 + R 31 Similarly for terminals 2 and 3 and 3 and 1 R ( R + R12 ) .(2) R2 + R3 = 23 31 R12 + R 23 + R 31 R ( R + R 23 ) R3 + R1 = 31 12 .(3) R12 + R 23 + R 31 R1 + R2 = Adding R1 + R2 + R3 =
R12 R 23 + R 23 R 31 + R 31R12 (4) R12 + R 23 + R 31

Subtracting (2), (3) and (1) from (4) in sequence R 31R 12 .(5) R12 + R 23 + R 31 R 12 R 23 R2 = .(6) Y Conversion R 12 + R 23 + R 31 R 23 R 31 R3 = .(7) R12 + R 23 + R 31 R1 = Denoting R12 + R23 + R31 = R and forming three possible products from (5), (6) and (7)

16

2 R12 R 23 R 31 R 1R 2 = (8) R2 R R2 R R 2 R 3 = 12 23 31 (9) R2 R R R2 R 3 R1 = 12 23 31 (10) R2

Adding (8), (9) and (10)

R12 R 23 R 31 (R 12 + R 23 + R 31 ) R2 R R R = 12 23 31 ..(11) R from (7), (5), (6) and (11) we obtain the following relations: R 1R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R 1 = R 12 = Y Conversion R 1R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R 1 RR = R1 + R 2 + 1 2 .(12) R3 R3 R R + R 2 R 3 + R 3R1 R R R 23 = 1 2 = R 2 + R 3 + 2 3 (13) R1 R1 R R + R 2 R 3 + R 3R1 RR R 31 = 1 2 = R 3 + R1 + 3 1 .(14) R2 R2

How to Remember?

i. Y: To find one leg of the Y, multiply the two adjacent arms of the and divide by sum of the three resistances forming there. ii. Y : To find any side of the , and the two resistances (between the extremities of which this arm of exists) and also add the quotient obtained by the resistance of the third leg of the Y.
Example C' 3.25 5 c 2.5 1.5 a 4.7 A' I A + 1 5 5V B b 4.5 B' 5

17

Find the value of the current I

c

1.5

Rc Rb

2.5

Ra 1

1 1.5 1.5 = = 0.3 1.5 +1+ 2.5 5 1 2.5 2.5 = = 0.5 Rb = 5 5 1.5 2.5 Rc = = 0.75 5 C' Ra =
3.25 5

0.75 0 0.3 0.5

4.5 B'

A' 4.7

R AO = (4.7 + 0.3) = 5 R BO = (4.5 + 0.5) = 5 R CO = (3.25 + 0.75) = 4

C'

5 13 13

16.25 A' 5 B'

18

R AB = 3.83 R BC = 3.62 R CA = 3.62

C' 4 5 A' 5 B'

5 4 R BC = 5 + 4 + = 13 5 45 R CA = 4 + 5 + = 13 5 5 5 R AB = 5 + 5 + = 16.25 4
C' 7.24 3.62 3.83 A' + A 1 5V 2.5 A' + A I 5V B B' B B' A I 5V 3.62 A' + B 3.83 B'

19

Example

Find the value of the input resistance Rin of the circuit from Fig. (i)
a

36 Rin 12 26 26 26

30

15

0.6

36 12 = 64.61 26 36 26 R ao = 26 + 36 + = 140 12 26 12 R bo = 26 + 12 + = 44.66 36 R ab = 36 + 12 + From Fig. (ii)

a Rab 36 Ra0 12 26 b Rb0 Fig. (i) 0 0 26 Rc0 Fig. (ii) 15 c Ra0 30 a Rac

30 15 = 62.31 26 15 26 R co = 15 + 26 + = 54.00 30 26 30 R ao = 26 + 30 + = 108 15 R ac = 30 + 15 +

20

From Fig (iii)

0

Rb0 6 b

26

Rc0

0.6 c Rbc Fig. (iii)

6 0.6 = 6.738 26 6 26 R bo = 6 + 26 + = 292 0.6 0.6 26 R co = 0.6 + 26 + = 29.2 6 R bc = 6 + 0.6 +

a 60.96 Rin 64.61 19.84 b 6.74 a c 62.31 18.95

64.61 Rin 63.82 138.14

62.31

44.95 b 6.74 c

R ac = 42.94 R bc = 5.85 R ab = 32.11

R in = 19.37

21

Superposition Theorem:

In a network of linear and bilateral resistors that is energized by two or more sources, (a) The current in any resistor or (b) The voltage across any resistor is equal to (a) the algebraic sum of separate currents in the resistor, or (b) the voltages across the resistor, assuming that each sources acting independently of the others, is applied separately in turn, while the others are replaced by their respective internal values of resistance.
Note: In case of ideal sources: (i) voltage source to be replaced by a short circuit and (ii) current source by an open circuit. Illustration: I A EA R1 IA R I R2 IB EB R1 R I' R2 I 1 I 2 R1 R I'' R2 I B

I A = I - I ; I B = I - I1 ; I = I + I A 2 B Where R1 and R2 are the internal resistances of sources.

Example 1

Find I
10 5 10 3 I1 (b) 5 3 I2 (c) 10

5 3 5A I (a) 20V 5A

- 20V

I = I1 + I2 20 5 = 2.5A and I 2 = 5 = 3.125A (5 + 3) (3 + 5) I = (2.5 + 3.125)A = 5.625A I1 = In Fig. (a) Both sources acting. In Fig. (b) Voltage source acting only In Fig (c) Current source acting only

22

Example 2 4 47 + 200V 20A

27

23

Compute the current in 23 resistor When the voltage source (i.e. 200 V source) acting alone:
4 a.c. 23 I 23

27

47 + 200V -

R eq = 47 + IT = I 23

27(4 + 23) = 60.5 54

200 = 3.31A 60.5 27 = 3.31 = 1.65A. 54

When the current source (i.e. 20-A source) acting alone

4 20A S.C. I 23 23

27

47

(27)(47) = 21.15 74 21.15 I = (20) = 9.58A. 23 (21.15 + 23) Therefore, total current through 23 resistor I 23 = I + I = (1.65 + 9.58)A = 11.23A. 23 23 In the downward direction. R eq = 4 +

23

Example

Find Iab and Vcg using Superposition Theorem. First consider the voltage source only:
3 1 a + 3V g

c 2A

23 7 R eq = (R ac + R cb ) R ab + R bg = + 2 = 8 8 3 I= = 1.043 A 23 8 7 Iab = 1.043 = 0.913 A 8 Iacb = 1.043 - 0.913 = 0.13 A

3 1 a + 3V g I

Vcg = Vcb + Vbg

= (4 0.13 + 2 1.043)V = 2.61 V.

Note: c is at a higher potential than g. Next consider only the current source: Current through 3 resistor = 14/3 2A = 1.217A . (14/3) + 3

24

Through 4 resistor = (2 1.217)A = 0.783 A. Through 1 resistor (b to a) =

3 1 a

2 0.783A = 0.522A . 3

b 4

c 2A

1 Iba

2A

(a, g)

Voltage across 3 resistor c-g terminal) Vcg = 1.217 3 V = 3.651 V. Note: c is at a higher potential than g. Total current (due to both sources) flowing through 1 resistor (from a to b) i.e. Iab = (0.913 0.522) A = 0.391 A. Total voltage (due to both sources) across 3 resistor i.e. Vcg = (2.61 + 3.651)V = 6.261 V. Note: c is at higher potential.
Limitations of application of Superposition Theorem:

Not applicable for power calculation, as power is the product of voltage and current or proportional to the square of current or voltages which are not linear operations. Not applicable to circuits containing non linear elements such as Diodes, Transistors, Thermistors etc.

Remark: For a network containing a large number of independent sources the method becomes tedious. Thevenins Theorem:

The current through a resistance RL connected across any two terminals A and B of an active network is obtained by dividing the potential difference between A and B with RL disconnected (VTH), by (RTH + RL), where RTH is the resistance of the network measured between points A and B with RL disconnected and all sources are replaced by their respective internal resistances. Note: Ideal voltage source is replaced by S.C. and Ideal current source is replaced by O.C.

25

Explanation: A
LINEAR ACTIVE NETWORK

IL B

RL

IL = ?

ORIGINAL CIRCUIT A
LINEAR ACTIVE NETWORK LINEAR NETWORK WITHOUT SOURCES

V VTH B

RESISTANCE SEEN THROUGH A&B

RTH

A + VTH B RTH RL IL

A linear, active network which contains one or more voltage or current sources can be replaced by a single voltage source can be replaced by a single voltage source and a series resistance. The voltage of the equivalent source is called Thevenin equivalent voltage and the series resistance is called Thevenin equivalent resistance.
Illustration: To find VTH:

Disconnect RL Find voltage between A and B R2 VTH = E R1 + R 2

R3 + R1 R2 RL A

To find RTH:

Replace the source by its internal resistance and look back into the network from A and B with RL disconnected. 26

R TH = R 3 +

R 1R 2 R1 + R 2

A R1 R2 R3

Note: Here source of emf is shorted.

To obtain load current IL A + VTH RTH

B Draw Thevenins equivalent circuit between A and B i.e. an equivalent source VTH and an equivalent resistance RTH in series. Connect RL across A and B. VTH Find current R L = R TH + R L

Example 12 + 4 4 IL 6 To get VTH 12 + 4 4 VTH A

VTH = 8 ( 4) (12 + 4 ) = 2V

A RL 2

8V

IL = ?

8V

27

To get RTH A 12 4 4
R TH = 4 +

(12 )( 4 ) + 6 = 13 (12 + 4 )

Thevenins equivalent circuit

A 13 2V 2
IL = 2 A 13 + 2

= 0.133A

B Proof of Thevenins Theorem: A Active Linear Bilateral Network B A Active Linear Bilateral Network B A Active Linear Bilateral Network B RL IL = 0 V Reading of Voltmeter is VTH (say) RL IL A Reading of Ammeter is IL

A VTH

Reading of Ammeter is zero

28

Now apply superposition principle:

RL IL VTH Active Linear Network B A RL IL

Linear Bilateral Network with all sources replaced by their internal resistances

So the equivalent resistance of the network is Req which is nothing but RTH. So we can replace the complicated active linear bilateral network by an equivalent simple network containing a simple voltage source (VTH) and a series resistance RTH to produce the same current through RL when connects to the points A and B.
RTH
VTH R TH + R L

VTH

RL IL

IL =

Ex.

Find Iab using Thevenins theorem and hence calculate Vcg.

3 1 a + 3V -

c 2A

g Fig. 1 To find VTh:

Step 1: Disconnect the load i.e, 1 and circuit is as shown in Fig. 2 Step 2: Apply any method (say Node Voltage Method) at Node C: 2 I1 I 2 = 0 V 3 Vc 0 2 c =0 3 6 Vc = 6v, I1 = 1A & I 2 = 1A
VTh = Vag Vbg = ( 3 2 ) v = 1v.

29

3 I1 a + 3V b VTH 2 4 I2 c 2A

g (zero potential) Fig. 2 To find RTh:

Step 3: Replace all sources by their internal resistances and look into the network from a and b. (Fig. 3). 2 7 R Th = = 1.555 2+7
3 c c a 3 4 b

2 Fig. 4

Fig. 3 To find IL i.e, Iab:

Step 4: Draw Thevenins equivalent circuit as in Fig. 5 1 Iab = A = 0.39A 1.555 + 1

RTH + 1V Fig. 5 1.555 VTH Iab b 1 a

30

To compute Vcg
Vbg = Vag Vab = ( 3 1 0.39 ) v = 2.61v I bg = ( 2.61 2 ) A = 1.305A; Icb = (1.305 0.39 ) = 0.915A Vcg = ( 4 0.915 + 2 1.305 ) v = 6.27v

3 1 a + 3V g Fig. 6 Alternative Statement of Thevenins Theorem:

c 2A

In any two terminal network of linear resistors and independent sources, the current in a load resistor connected to the output terminals is equal to the current that would exist in the same resistor if it were connected in series with (a) A simple source of EMF whose voltage is measured at the open circuited network terminals and (b) A simple resistance whose magnitude is that of the network looking back from the two terminals into the network with all sources replaced by their internal resistances.
Nortons Theorem

It states that any two terminals A & B of a network composed of linear bilateral resistances and independent sources may be replaced by an equivalent current source and a parallel resistance. The current magnitude of the source is the current measured in the short circuit placed across the terminals A & B. the parallel resistance is the equivalent resistance looking back into the network through the poins A & B with all independent sources have been replaced by their internal resistances. A A LINEAR ISC ACTIVE RL RN RL IL NETWORK
B IL B

I L = Isc

RN RN + RL

31

It is clear that the equivalent parallel resistance RN has got the same value as that of RTh i.e, RN = RTh. Nortons equivalent circuit is dual to thevenins equivalent circuit.
A A
LINEAR ACTIVE NETWORK

A RTH = RN B

+ VTH B -

RTH ISC

The current magnitude of current source will be obtained by short circuiting A & B terminals. V So Isc = TH . Therefore, R TH I L = Isc RN V R TH = TH R N + R L R TH R TH + R L VTH = R TH + R L

The above result is obtained directly from thevenins theorem.

HIGH RESISTANCE VOLTMETER GIVES VTH LINEAR ACTIVE NETWORK LOW RESISTANCE AMMETER GIVES ISC

LINEAR ACTIVE NETWORK

R TH = R N =
Illustration: To find Isc:

VTH Isc

Disconnect RL Short circuit A & B terminals Find current through short circuited path R1 R3
+ -

R2 IL B

RL

Isc =

R2 E R 2R 3 R 2 + R 3 R1 + R2 + R3

32

ER 2 R 1R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R 1
A E + R1 R2 R3 ISC B

To find RN (or RTN):

R N = R TH = R 3 +

R 1R 2 R1 + R 2 R R + R 2 R 3 + R 3R1 = 1 2 R1 + R 2
A R1 R2 B R3 RN (or RTh)

Note: Here source of EMFE is shorted.

To obtain load current IL:

I L = Isc

R TH R TH + R L

ISC

RTh

IL B

RL

Example 12 + 4 4 6 IL B A RL 2

8V

33

To get Isc:
Isc = 8 4 4 10 14 12 + 14 2 = A. 13

12 4 8V 4 6

A ISC B

To get RN or RTH:

R TH = 4 +

12 4 + 6 = 13. 12 + 4
A 12 4 6 B 4

To get IL:

IL =

2 13 A 13 13 + 2

= 0.133A.
2 A 13

13 IL

RL 2

Ex: Find Iab and Vcg using Nortons Theorem.

To find the Nortons source current. Step 1: Remove the 1 resistor connection between a and b and short the terminals a & b. Find IN by any method. Let us apply Nodal voltage method taking g is at zero potential.

34

3 1 a + 3V -

c 2A

g Fig. 1

At Node C: 2 + I bc = Ica V Vc Vc Va i.e, 2 + b = 4 3 Note here Vb = Va = 3V Which gives Vc = Vcg = 6.428V

3 Ica a 3V IN 2 Ibg g b 4 Ibc 2A c

At Node b: I N = I bc + Ibg =
= 0.643A

Vb Vc 3 ( 3 6.428 ) 3 + = + 4 2 4 2

This indicates that Nortons current direction is opposite to the assigned short circuit current (i.e, from b to a). The equivalent resistance between a and b which all sources are replaced by their equivalent internal resistance is RN = RTh = 1.555. Therefore Nortons equivalent circuit becomes a
I L = 0.643 1.555 A (1.555 + 1)

= 0.39A. ( a to b )

0.643A

1.555 IL b

35

Ex. Obtain Thevenins & Nortons Equivalent Circuits between Points A & B.

6 = 9V = Open circuit voltage across A & B. 2+6 Isc = Sort circuit current when A & B shorted 12 6 = = 0.67mA 6 12 6 + 12 2+ 6 + 12 VTH = 12
A + 12V 2K 6K 12K B

2 6 R TH = R N = 12 + K 2+6
= 13.5K

2K

6K

RTH = RN

12K

Thevenins Equivalent Circuit A + 9V B Nortons Equivalent Circuit A 0.67 mA 13.5 K

13.5 K

36

Find Nortons Thevenins Equivalent Circuit Ex. 1 9A 5 + 3 A

9V

B For RTH: 1 5 3 RTH A

R TH =
For Isc:

3 ( 5 + 1) = 2 3 + ( 5 + 1)
+ + 45V B Nortons Equivalent Circuit A 5 1 A

9V

6A

B Thevenins Equivalent Circuit A + 12V B 2

37

Converting the Current Source to A Voltage Source A + 36V B 6 ISC

Short circuiting A & B source voltage = (45-9)v =36v total resistance = (5+1) = 6.
Note: 3 resistance will be ineffective.

Isc = 36 6

A = 6A

Practical Verification of (i) Superposition theorem (ii) Thvenins theorem

R1 + 220V D.C. R1 + 220V D.C. Ex. 5 + 4V 15 8 10 12 + 6V R3 R2 + 110V D.C. V RL A I1 R3 A I3 R2 A I2 + 220V D.C. -

38

Find current through 8 resistor I8 by applying (i) Super position theorem (ii) Thevenins theorem (iii) Nortons theorem
i) Superposition Theorem:

(a) Replacing 6V battery by its internal resistance

A I1 ' I4 ' D A I1 ' I4 ' D I2 ' D R2 = 10 + R1 I1 ' C I2 ' I5 ' D A R3 B I3 ' I1 ' I4 ' C A I2 ' R1 B

R1 =

12 8 24 = 12 + 8 5 74 5

R 2 = 10 + R 1 = R3 =

R 2 15 = 7.45 R 2 + 15
' I'2 = I1

' I1 =

4 = 0.321A; 7.45 + 5 R2 ; 15 + R 2

15 ; 15 + R 2

' I3 =

8 ' I2 ; 20

' I'4 = I1

' I5 =

12 ' I2 20

' ' I'2 = 0.503 I1 hence I5 =

12 ' I 2 = 0.097A in the 20

39

Direction From B to C.

b) Replacing 4V battery by its internal resistance

I1'' I4''

I2'' I5''

I3'' R4

I2'' I5''

I3''

R4 =
'' I1 =

15.5 = 3.75 15 + 5

15 '' I 2 = 0.75 I''2 15 + 5

I''4 = 0.25 I''2

I2'' I3'' R5 I5'' R6 I3''

R 5 = R 5 + 10 = 13.75 I''2 =
'' I5 =

8 '' '' I3 = 0.365 I3 R5 + 8 13.75 '' '' I3 = 0.635 I3 21.75 R 5 8 13.75 8 = = 5.06 R5 + 8 21.75

R6 =
'' I3 =

' '' Hence current through 8 resistance = I5 = I5 + I5 = ( 0.097 + 0.223) A = 0.32A

6 '' = 0.353A, I5 = 0.223A in the direction from B to C. R 6 + 12

The direction of current is from B to C.

ii) Thevenins Theorem:

Disconnecting 8 resistance from the network

4 - 5I1 -15 ( I1 - I 2 ) = 0

40

-22 I 2 - 6 -15 ( I 2 - I1 ) = 0

Solving I 2 = -0.116A & I1 = 0.113A

A 5 4V I1 D C 10 15 I2 B 12 6V

VTH = 6 +12 I 2

= ( 6 -12 0.116 ) v = 4.608v

R TH

515 10 + 12 20 = = 6.42 515 10 + +12 20

A 5 15 I2 D C 10 B 12

The current through 8 resistor I8 = From B to C.

12 5 B 10 15 C + 4.608V 12 iii) Nortons Theorem:
4 - 5 I1 -15 ( I1 - I 2 ) = 0 ............ (1) -10 I 2 -15 ( I 2 - I1 ) = 0 ............. (2)

VTH 4.608 = A R TH + 8 6.42 + 8 = 0.32A

B 6.42A 8 C

-12 I3 - 6 = 0 .......................... (3)

41

ISC = I 2 - I6
A B

ISC I1 D I2 C I3

From(3) I3 = -0.5A 15 5 From (2) I 2 = I1 I1 = I 2 25 3 5 From (1) 4 - 20. I 2 + 15 I 2 = 0 3 43 I2 = A = 0.218A 55 ISC = ( 0.218 + 0.5 ) A = 0.718A
B 0.718 A 6.42 8 C

I8 = 0.718 From B to C.

6.42 = 0.32A 6.42 + 8

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem r

RL

RL = r

3 + 4A 5V 2

5 + 14V -

RL

42

RTh + VTh -

RL

RL = RTh

Ise

RTh = RN

RL

RL = RN = RTh

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem In D.C. Circuit:

The electrical power transferred to an adjustable resistor RL is maximum, when RL is equal to the thevenins (or Nortons) resistance RTH (or RN) between the two terminals across which RL is connected. Proof: According to thevenins theorem the equivalent circuit of any active linear circuit across any two points A & B can be represented as below:
A + VTh B RTH IL RL

IL =

VTH ................................... (1) R TH + R L

2 2 L

VTH PL = I R L = R L ............(2) R TH + R L for maximum or minimum value of PL for adjustable RL dPL ...................................... (3) dRL d 1 i.e. ( VTH ) 2 RL = 0 2 dR L ( R TH + R L )

43

i.e.

( R TH +R L ) 2 ( R TH +R L ) R L 4 ( R TH +R L )
2

=0

R TH + R L = 2R L

therefore, R L = R TH .......................... (4) Now

d 2 PL V2 = TH < 0 condition for maximum power dR 2 8R TH L

R L = R TH ............................... (5) So when RL = RTH, the power transferred to RL is maximum. PLmax

2 2 2 VTH 1 VTH 1 VTH = I RL = R TH = = ........... (6) 2 4R TH 4 R TH 4 R L 2 L

Total power delivered by the source

2 2 PT = I L ( R TH + R L ) = 2I L R L ........................................ (7)

So the maximum power delivered to load is 50% of the total power drawn from the source.
Remark:-

1) The power transferred to load resistance vs the load resistance plot is shown in Fig. 1.
PL max PL

RTh Fig. 1

RL

2) Operating at the maximum power transfer condition is meaningful only in low-power electronic circuits, such as communication and instrumentation systems, where it is desirable for the signal source to transmit as much power as possible to the receiver or load. 3) In power utility systems, however, this theorem has limited applications as operating the network at maximum power transfer condition has only 50% transmission efficiency and a large voltage drop and also large power loss in the transmission lines.

44

Analysis of Electric Circuits in presence of one Non-linear (N.L) resistance Problem:

(i) A known non-linear resistance (NLR) is connected across a variable voltage source, we want to know the current drawn by the resistance.
Solution:

Method 1 (Analytical) Method 2 (Graphical)

i v N L R

Method 1: If the expression governing the v-i characteristic of NRL is given, then the problem may be solved analytically. It is straight forward. Method 2: If the v-i characteristic of the non-linear element is known, then the problem could also be solved graphically.
i i3 i2 i1 v1 v2 v3 v v i characteristic of NLR

If v = v1, obtain i from graph as i1 if it is required to find voltage required for current i3 (say), this could also be obtained from the graph as v = v3.
Problem:

Suppose a given NLR is connected in series with a known linear resistance (LR). If a voltage source of E volts is connected across the combination, how to find out the current?
Solution:

The solution of this problem may again be obtained either analytically (if the expression for v-i characteristic of NLR is given) or graphically (if the graphical representation of v-i characteristic of NLR is provided). But the solution is not very straight forward lime problem (i), since the voltages across each of the resistors are not known before hand.

45

Ex.

8V

N L R

i = 0, for v 1.5v 0.4 2 i = 3 ( v 1.5 ) v 1.5v 10

i

Using KVL: 8 = v + i 2.4 103 2 = v + 2.4 0.4 ( v 1.5 ) assuming v 1.5

1.5 V

or, 0.96 v 2 1.88v 5.84 = 0 or, v = 3.633V or -1.675V (The second solution is not possible since v 1.5 ) Therefore, i = 1.82mA For graphical solution of such types of problems are as follows: To begin with note i. ii. LR & NLR are in series, as I will be same Sum of the voltage drops in LR & NLR must be equal to E

Step 1: Draw the i-v characteristics of NLR & LR in the first and 2nd quadrant respectively of the same graph paper as shown.
i LR A C NLR B

C v

Step 2: One rather length procedure could be: Assume the current to be any arbitrary value OC. Draw a horizontal line through which cuts LR & NLR characteristics at A and B. then voltage drop across LR is AC & voltage drop across NLR is CB. Now check whether AC+CB = AB = E or not. If not, repeat this procedure with position of C shifted elsewhere, till the above condition is fulfilled. If it AB = E, the current will be i = OC.

46

Step 3: Although step (2) is apparently lengthy, the correct location of C can be fixed in one stroke as follows: Cut out a length XY = E and imagine XY be moved parallel to v-axis. Try to place the segment XY (parallel to v-axis) in such a way that the point X lies on LR characteristic and point Y lies on NLR characteristic. Then we can say with certainly that OC will be current.
i LR X E C' Y NLR

v v O O'

Step 4: Step (3) is certainly better than step (2), but same parallel shifting of XY is necessary. Now in this step we will see that this shifting is also not necessary. How? Let us draw a line parallel to XO through the point Y such that it meets the v-axis at O. Obviously OXYO is a parallesgram. So OO = E. Therefore, the alternative way of getting OC can be:
i LR NLR

C'

O'

i. ii. iii. iv.

Draw NLR characteristic On v-axis cut out OO such that OO = E. At O sketch LR characteristic The point of intersection of NLR characteristic and this new shifted LR characteristic will fix up C.

Then CM = i OM = voltage drop across NLR MO = voltage drop across LR Finally, For a complicated network having only one non-linear resistance can be solved as follows:

47

1) Obtain the Thevenins (or Nortons) equivalent of the linear part of the circuit looking NLR terminals and represent the network as
RTh A

VTh

N L R B

2) If NLR is represented as an analytical expression the problem may be solved analytically. 3) If NLR characteristic is given then adopt the graphical method. In this method, we may conceptually break up the circuit into a pure linear and a pure non linear part as follows: v A
RTh VTh i N L R VTh i RTh v + + v i N L R

The v-I characteristics of the two parts are:

i VTh / RTh LR characteristics or load line i

NLR (given) characteristic v

VTh v

Since the v-i in the two circuits are identical, the solution is obtained by the intersection of two curves.

48

Transients in D.C. Circuits A. Resistance Inductance (R L) circuit.

a) Growth of Current:

Let i(t) be the current through the circuit at any instant of time t after closing the switch. Let us also suppose that the current increases by di in time dt secs. Then se can write using KVL.
R Closed at t = 0 L i(t)

+ -

di ( t ) dt di ( t ) V L = i(t) + ; or, R R dt L di ( t ) or, I i ( t ) = R dt di ( t ) R or, dt = L I i(t) V = R i(t) + L integrating both sides w.r.t. t,

V = I = Steady state current i.e. current at t = R

R t dt = L o

i(t )

di(t) I i(t)

i(t ) R I t = ln ( I i(t) ) o = ln L I i(t)

i ( t ) = I 1 e

R t L

) ........................ (1)
vR ( t ) = V 1 e

The voltage across R : & the voltage across L:

i 0.632I

vR ( t ) = L

di ( t ) R t = Ve L ............... ( 2 ) dt
v V

R t L

i = I(1- e

- Rt L

)
v L = Ve
- Rt L

49

Note: At t = 0, the current through the inductor is zero i.e. it is open circuited Time constant of an R-L circuit: It may be defined as follows: i. It is the time by which the current through the inductor grows and reaches the final steady state value (I) if the initial rate of growth of current is maintained.
I and from eqn (1) the initial rate T

Now from the figure (a) initial rate of increase of current = of increase of current di ( t ) R R t = I . t =0 = I dt L t =0 L I R L = I T = secs T L R

therefore, ii.

In eqn (2) let us put t = T

i (T) = I 1 e

RT L

) = I (1 e ) = 1(1 e ) = 0.632I
L R R L

So the time constant may also be defined as the time during which the current through the inductance grows to 63.2% of its final steady state value. iii.
b)

It may also be defined from figure (b), as the time required for the voltage across the inductor to reach from V to O
Decay of current:

Let initially i.e. at t = 0 (when the switch is thrown to 2), the current through the inductor is I. Now after time t secs of closing the switch in position (2), i(t) be the current flowing in the circuit as shown and let di be the decay of current through the inductor in time dt sec. So we may write
1 (for growth) 2 (for decay) V i(t) L R

R i(t) + L or Integrating, leading to

di ( t ) =0 dt di ( t ) R dt = L i(t)
i di ( t ) R t o dt = I i ( t ) L
R t L

i ( t ) = I.e

(Note at t = 0, i(a) = I) 50

Here again, the time constant may be defined as before & we got T = by which the current falls to 36.8% of its initial value.
i (t) I

L sec or its is the time R

0.368I T B. Resistance Capacitance circuit

i (t) t

i.

Charging of a capacitor

At t = 0, the switch S is closed. After time t secs of closing the switch let the voltage across the capacitor be v(t) and also let us suppose that the voltage changes by dv in dt secs. Therefore, the charging current
S R

V i(t)

+ + ++ C - - - -

dv ( t ) dq d = cv ( t ) = c dt dt dt Applying Kirchoffs law dv ( t ) V = R i ( t ) + v ( t ) = RC + v(t) dt dv ( t ) or V v ( t ) = RC dt dv ( t ) dt or = dc V v ( t ) i(t) = Integrating

v ( t ) dv ( t ) dt = o RC V v(t)

Which results in v ( t ) = V 1 e i(t) = C

dv ( t ) t d 1 e RC = CV dt dt V t = e RC R

RC

51

v (t)

V v (t) 0.632 V

i (t)

T I

0.368 I i (t) T t

t V and so i ( t ) = I e RC R The charge accumulated in the capacitor at time t t t q ( t ) = Cv ( t ) = CV 1 e RC = Q 1 e RC

At the instant of switching on t = 0, i ( o ) = I =

Where Q is the final charge accumulated in the capacitor at t = . Initially at the instant of switching on, the capacitor behaves as short circuit and whole of the applied voltage will be across the resistance as there is no charge on C at that time.
Time Constant: i) It is the time required for the potential difference across C or the charge accumulated in C from zero to its final value if it continues to increase at its initial rate.

Initial rate of increase of p.d. = Again ii) dv ( t ) V = . dt t =0 RC

V volts/sec. from graph. T

So T = RC sec.

At t = T, v(T) = 0.632V & q(T) = 0.632Q also i(T) = 0.368 I.

So the time constant may also be defined as that time by which voltage (or charge) across the capacitor plates is 63.2% of their final values or the charging current decreases to 36.8% of its initial value.
1 S 2 V i v R + C -

52

ii)

Discharging of a capacitor: Let initially the capacitor is fully charged to a p.d. of V volts and stored charge Q coulombs. Let at t = 0, the switch S is thrown to 2. Let the voltage across the capacitor fall to v(t) after t secs of closing the switch and the corresponding discharging current be i(t) amps.
v(t) V

v(t)

i(t)

T T

t t

-0.632 I i(t) -I

Therefore,

v(t) dv ( t ) =C since the direction of current is opposite R dt dv ( t ) dt . Integrating we get = RC v(t)

t RC

v ( t ) = V e i(t) = C

dv ( t ) t = I e- RC dt t & q ( t ) = cv = CVe RC

Time Constant:

i) It is the time by which the voltage across the capacitor (or the charge stored in the capacitor) reaches the final value (i.e. zero for discharge) if the initial rate of decrease of voltage (or charge) is maintained constant. It gives T = RC. ii) It is also defined as defined as the time in secs during which the voltage (or charge) across the capacitor falls by 36.8% of its initial value.

53

D.C. Transients in R-L-C circuit :

Ri ( t ) + L i ( t ) dt di ( t ) + =V dt C

R t=0 i

Differentiating di ( t ) d 2i ( t ) i ( t ) R +L + =0 dt dt 2 C The solution of this equation i = A e m1t + B e m2 t

R + R 1 Lm + Rm + = 0 which gives m1 = C 2L
2 2 4L C

where m1 & m2 are roots of

R R 2 4L C

& m2 =

2L

Case 1.

R2 >

4L ; m1 & m2 are both real & unequal C

R R24 L R + R 2 4CL t C t 2L 2L e e

Soln.

i=

V R 2 4L C

i(t)

Case 2.

4L C V Rt i ( t ) = t e 2L L R2 =

m1 = m 2 =

R 2L

i(t)

54

Case 3.

R2 <

4L C
V
L C

m1 & m2 are both complex

1 R2 sin 2 LC 4L t

i(t) =

R4

2R t L

i(t)

55