TRNG H KHOA HC T NHIN TP.

HCM
KHOA CNG NGH THNG TIN
oOo


Lun vn tt nghip

ti :

S Dng Li Hai Chiu
Theo Vt i Tng Trong Video




Gio vin hng dn : Th.S Phm Phm Tuyt Trinh
Sinh vin thc hin : L Thnh Trung (9912087)





TP. H Ch Minh, 7/2003

Li cm n

Sau hn bn thng nghin cu v thc hin , lun vn c hon tt
v t c nhng kt qu nht nh . Nhn li qung ng qua , ti
cm thy v cng bit n cc thy c , xin cm n cc thy cc c trang
b cho chng ti mt nn tng tri thc vng vng , gip chng ti c th t
mnh thc hin vic nghin cu khoa hc .
Xin cm n c Phm Phm Tuyt Trinh , ngi hng dn ti trong
sut qu trnh thc hin lun vn . C ch ra cho ti nhng nh hng
ht sc quan trng .
Xin cm n bn b trong nhm , cm n cc bn Trng Thin nh ,
Nguyn Thanh Sn , Trn Hng Thi gip ti rt nhiu trong qu trnh
thc hin lun vn cng nh trong sut bn nm hc .
V cui cng , con xin cm n ng , cm n m v ch , nhng ngi
thn yu lun l ch da cho ti trong nhng nm thng qua .





Tng Quan

Vn theo vt i tng trong video v ang thu ht c nhiu s
quan tm ca cng ng nghin cu bi n c nhiu ng dng hu ch trong
lnh vc gii tr , truyn thng , th gic my tnh v a phng tin , chng
hn nh ng dng trong x l v bin tp video s , trong nn video , trong
cc th vin s , trong cc h thng gim st giao thng .v.v i tng
trong video , hay ngn gn l i tng video , l nhng thnh phn c
ngha y ca mt khung cnh . Theo vt i tng bao gm vic theo
vt ng bin , theo vt nhng chuyn ng cc b v nhng bin i v
cng ( sng ti , tng phn) ca i tng .

Ni dung chnh ca lun vn ny l nghin cu v thc hin vic theo vt
i tng theo hng tip cn mi : s dng li hai chiu . Theo , vn
theo vt ng bin , theo vt nhng chuyn ng cc b v nhng bin
i v cng s c hp nht li thnh vn theo vt li 2 chiu .
Li y c thit k da theo ni dung ca i tng gip cho vic theo
vt i tng c chnh xc hn . Qu trnh c lng chuyn ng ti cc
node ca li c rng buc cht ch bo ton kt cu ca li



Mc lc
1 Gii Thiu
1.1 ng lc thc y
1.2 Mt s hng tip cn
1.3 B cc lun vn

2 Mt S Khi Nim Nn Tng
2.1 Mt s lnh vc lin quan
2.2 Bin dng nh s
2.3 Video , video tng t , video s
2.4 i tng video , chuyn ng ca i tng video , c lng chuyn
ng
2.5 Hin tng che ph

3 M Hnh Theo Vt i Tng Video
3.1 To li
3.2 c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li
3.3 Lan truyn li

4 Ci t v Th Nghim
4.1 Chi tit ci t
4.2 Kt qu th nghim

5 Kt Lun v hng pht trin

1
Chng 1
Gii Thiu

Vn theo vt i tng trong video v ang thu ht c s quan
tm ca cng ng nghin cu bi n c nhiu ng dng hu ch trong lnh
vc gii tr , truyn thng , th gic my tnh v a phng tin , chng hn
nh ng dng trong x l v bin tp video s , trong nn video , trong cc
th vin s , trong cc h thng gim st giao thng .v.v Xt mt on
video quay mt khung cnh , i tng trong on video , hay ngn gn l
i tng video , l nhng thnh phn c ngha y trong khung cnh
. Theo vt i tng bao gm vic theo vt ng bin , theo vt nhng
chuyn ng cc b v nhng bin i v cng ( sng ti , tng
phn) ca i tng .

Ni dung chnh ca lun vn ny l nghin cu v thc hin vic theo vt
i tng theo hng tip cn mi : s dng li hai chiu . Vi hng tip
cn ny , ba vn : theo vt ng bin , theo vt nhng chuyn ng cc
b v theo vt nhng bin i v cng s c hp nht li thnh vn
theo vt li 2 chiu .
Theo thut ng thng dng , mt phng alpha ca mt i tng video l
tp hp tt c cc im nh thuc i tng . Lun vn ny ra mt
phng php theo vt i tng bn t ng , theo mt phng alpha ca
i tng video s c xc nh bng tay ti mt s frame quan trng , sau
mt phng alpha s c t ng xc nh nhng frame cn li bng

2
cch s dng m hnh theo vt li 2 chiu . Li y c thit k da
theo ni dung ca i tng gip cho vic theo vt i tng c chnh xc
hn .

Phn tip theo ca chng ny s trnh by nhng ng lc thc y vic
nghin cu vn theo vt i tng , nhng hng tip cn c ra ,
v cui cng l gii thiu b cc ca lun vn .

1.1 ng lc thc y
C th d dng nhn ra rng phn ln thng tin m con ngi thu nhn t
bn ngoi l thng qua th gic . Bng cch quan st , con ngi thu nhn
nhng hnh nh t mi trng xung quanh , nhn dng v a ra nhng phn
hi thch hp . Mt cch t nhin , hnh nh tr thnh mt trong nhng dng
thng tin gi vai tr quan trng trong i sng con ngi . Cu chm ngn
t xa xa mt hnh nh c gi tr hn vn li ni hay trm nghe khng
bng mt thy phn no ni ln ngha to ln ca hnh nh trong vic
truyn ti thng tin . Vn ny sinh l lm sao c th biu din , lu tr v
trao i c dng thng tin ny . Bng lao ng v sng to , con ngi
tm ra nhng gii php cho vn trn , t gin n nh nhng hnh th
khc trn , nhng k hiu trn tm da th .v.vcho n nhng bc tranh ,
tm nh y mu sc , nhng hnh nh video sinh ng ngy nay .
Ra i vo nhng nm 30 ca th k 20 , video , hiu mt cch n gin ,
l mt chui cc nh tnh (cn c gi l khung hnh - frame) lin tip , sp
xp theo trt t thi gian . Mt on video cha ng c nhiu thng tin
trc quan hn mt nh tnh , do video c kh nng thu gi c chuyn
ng . Mt nh tnh ch c th cung cp cho ngi xem nhng thng tin tnh

3
v mt khung cnh trong khi mt on video c th em li cho ngi xem
phn ng trong khung cnh . Ban u video dng tng t , v do bn
cht tng t nn n c rt t kh nng x l cng nh tng tc , ch c th
n gin nh chuyn knh truyn hnh hay quay ti quay lui mt on bng
.
S pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh phn cng gp phn hng
ngi s dng n vi video s , vn gn lin vi mt kh nng x l tng
tc tt hn . Ta c th d dng thu nhn , lu tr , x l tn hiu video di
nh dng s , cng nh trao i v chia s n gia cc nn tng v lnh vc
ng dng khc nhau .
Theo nguyn thy , video s c biu din da trn c s khung hnh ,
tc l mi on video bao gm nhiu khung hnh , mi khung hnh l mt
tp hp cc im nh . Cch biu din nh vy ch mi th hin c chiu
thi gian ca video , trong khi li lm n i phn rt quan trng , l ni
dung , l nhng thng tin m video cha ng , l cc i tng video .
Nhng nhu cu mi xut hin gn y lm bc l nhng hn ch ca
cch biu din ny . Nhng th vin s , ni cha s lng khng l d liu
video s , i hi phi c trang b tnh nng truy xut , rt trch v phn
tch d liu mc i tng , vic thc hin theo tng frame tn chi ph qu
ln v khng kh thi . Cng vic x l hu k , bin tp video i hi kh
nng kt hp cc i tng , cc khung cnh t nhin v nhn to to ra
hiu ng . Vic tng tc vi cc i tng trong mi trng trc quan hin
ch mi gii hn trong ha my tnh v mong mun a kh nng ny
vo cc ng dng multimedia , truyn thng , gii tr ngy cng ln . R
rng , kin trc frame v pixel khng tha mn cc nhu cu trn , cn
c mt cch biu din video s cp cao hn . V biu din video da trn c
s i tng l li gii rt thch hp cho bi ton . Trn c s i tng ,

4
mi frame ca video s bao gm nhiu lp chng ln nhau , mi lp tng
ng vi mt i tng video khc nhau .



Hnh 1.1 : Biu din video da trn c s i tng
c th chuyn video t frame-based sang object-based cn phi thc
hin vic phn vng video , tc l phn mi frame ca video thnh nhiu
vng , mi vng s tng ng vi mt i tng video khc nhau .
Cch l tng thc hin vic phn vng l s dng phng nn xanh .
Theo , tng i tng video ring l s c ghi nhn trn phng nn

5
xanh , vic tch i tng ra khi phng nn xanh l d dng , v cui cng
ta ch vic chng cc i tng ny ln nhau to ra hnh nh video mong
mun . Cch ny i hi phi c nhng trang thit b k thut , nhng phn
cng chuyn dng v nht l phi thc hin ngay trong giai on thu nhn
hnh nh . Vi nhng iu kin phc tp nh vy , k thut phng nn xanh
thng ch c s dng trong vic to cc k xo in nh hay trong cc
chng trnh truyn hnh .
Phn vng bng tay l mt cng vic rt tn thi gian v cng sc . Vi
tc chiu 24 hnh / giy , phn vng mt on video di 5 pht ta phi
thc hin th cng trn 24605 = 7200 frame . Hn na , kt qu phn
vng li khng n nh v thng thay i theo ch quan ca mi ngi .
c nhng phng php phn vng video hon ton t ng c ra
, tuy nhin cc phng php ny ch c th s dng trong nhng iu kin
nht nh v mi ch dng mc phn vng cc i tng video n gin ,
rt kh c th p dng cch ny cho nhng on video thng thng hng
ngy .
Gii php thch hp c la chn hin nay l thc hin phn vng bn
t ng . Vi s tr gip ca my tnh , vic phn vng s c thc hin
bng tay mt s frame quan trng , kt qu thu c , tc l cc i tng
video , s c theo vt cc frame cn li . y , c th hiu theo vt
l xc nh xem trong cc frame tip theo th i tng xut hin u v
xut hin nh th no . Cui cng ta s thu c bn phn vng cng nh
cc lp i tng ti tng frame v qu o chuyn ng ca tng i tng
theo thi gian .
Theo vt i tng tr thnh vn ct li trong vic biu din video
da trn c s i tng . N gi mt vai tr ht sc quan trng trong vic

6
gip cho my tnh hiu cc cnh ng , gip thit lp mi dy lin kt gia
cc i tng video trong qu trnh chuyn ng theo thi gian .
Khng ch gi vai tr trn , trong thc t , vic theo vt i tng cn
c ng dng theo kiu thi gian thc trong cc h thng gim st giao
thng , gim st an ninh , iu khin robot .v.v
Hu ht cc phng php theo vt i tng trc y u thu c kt
qu khng cao , do ch s dng nhng m hnh n gin m t chuyn
ng ca i tng video , chng hn nh m hnh so khp khi , m hnh
so khp vng .v.v ci thin c kt qu , cn tm ra nhng m hnh
chuyn ng thch hp hn , mnh m hn . S dng m hnh li 2 chiu
c xem nh mt hng tip cn mi y ha hn . Theo m hnh ny ,
mi phn t ca li (tc l cc mt li) c gi thit l vng c chuyn
ng ng nht v chuyn ng ny c th c biu din chnh xc bng
mt php bin i khng gian (affine , bilinear , ) . Php bin i ny c
th c suy ra t vect chuyn ng ti cc nh ca mt li ang xt .
Thc t cho thy , biu din i tng v theo vt i tng bng cch s
dng li 2 chiu cho ra kt qu chnh xc hn v n nh hn . Xt v mt
l thuyt , p n tt nht cho bi ton theo vt i tng l s dng cc m
hnh theo vt 3 chiu . Tuy nhin , vic s dng cc m hnh 3 chiu i hi
chi ph tnh ton qu cao , ng thi phi bit r cu trc 3 chiu ca i
tng c quan tm . S dng li 2 chiu l mt gii php cn bng gia
chi ph tnh ton v kt qu thu c . Gii php ny khng i hi phi bit
trc v cu trc ca i tng , khng i hi chi ph tnh ton cao , ng
thi cho ra kt qu y ha hn .

7
1.2 Mt s hng tip cn
c nhiu phng php theo vt c ra , theo Toklu [5] , cc
phng php ny c th c phn thnh bn nhm : Theo vt im c
trng (feature-point tracking) , Theo vt ng bin (boundary tracking) ,
Theo vt vng (region tracking) v Theo vt da trn c s m hnh (model-
based tracking ) . Vic phn loi ny ch mang tnh tng i .

Theo vt im c trng (feature-point tracking)
Trong nhm phng php ny , mt s im c trng (theo mt tiu
chun no ) ca i tng c chn ra v vic theo vt tr thnh vic
xc nh qu o chuyn ng ca cc im ny theo thi gian

Theo vt ng bin (boundary tracking)
Nhm phng php ny tp trung vo vic xc nh chuyn ng ca
ng bin i tng . iu ny c ngha l cc chuyn ng cc b bn
trong i tng b b qua . Tiu biu cho nhm ny l phng php ng
vin ng (active contour model hay ngn gn l snake) do M. Kass , A.
Witkin v D. Terzopoulos ra nm 1988 .
Theo vt vng (region tracking)
Xut pht t tng theo vt mt nhm im s cho kt qu tt hn theo
vt mt im ring l , nhm phng php ny thc hin vic phn i
tng thnh cc vng v thc hin c lng chuyn ng cho tng vng .
Theo vt da trn c s m hnh (model-based tracking)
Nhm phng php ny thng c s dng theo vt mt ngi ,
thn ngi , xe c Nhm phng php ny i hi phi c trang b tri
thc v i tng , chng hn nh tri thc v cu trc ba chiu , cc im

8
c trng ca khun mt , tnh n hi .v.v Nhm phng php khng
c s dng rng ri v thng ch dng trong cc trng hp chuyn bit.

Nhng nm gn y , cc phng php theo vt s dng li ang thu
ht c nhiu s ch . Theo m hnh ny , mi phn t ca li (tc l
cc mt li) c gi thit l vng c chuyn ng ng nht v chuyn
ng ny c th c biu din chnh xc bng mt php bin i khng
gian (affine , bilinear , ) . Php bin i ny c th c suy ra t vect
chuyn ng ti cc nh ca mt li ang xt . Thc t cho thy , biu
din i tng v theo vt i tng bng cch s dng li 2 chiu cho ra
kt qu chnh xc hn v n nh hn. Vic xc nh vect chuyn ng ti
tng node ring l thng em li kt qu khng nh do cc vect tm
c c th an cho nhau . gii quyt vn ny , Nakaya [22] ra
mt phng php so khp su cnh , theo mt li ng dng (cc phn
t tc cc mt li c hnh dng v kch thc ging nhau hnh 1.3a) c
p ln i tng , cc node bn trong s c di chuyn trong mt vng gii
hn bi 6 cnh (hnh 1.2) d ra v tr tng ng trong frame tip theo .
Toklu [5] m rng phng php ny bng cch s dng m hnh li ng
dng phn cp , theo vic c lng chuyn ng s c thc hin trn
li c mt t tha n dy .






Hnh 1.2 : phng php so khp su cnh

9




















Hnh 1.3 : li : a) ng dng , b) da theo ni dung khung cnh
Tuy nhin , c Toklu v Nakaya u s dng li ng dng , bn thn
dng li c to bng cch chia nh ra thnh cc phn bng nhau do
khng phn nh c ni dung ca khung cnh , mi phn t ca li c
th cha nhiu chuyn ng cng mt lc . Altunbasak gii quyt vn ny
bng cch s dng li c thit k da theo ni dung i tng (hnh 1.3b) .
Tuy nhin , trong phng php ny , i tng c xem l ton b frame

10
ch khng ring mt i tng c th no . T nhng nghin cu trn , lun
vn ra mt m hnh theo vt i tng bn t ng cho php ngi dng
chn ra i tng bt k , i tng s c biu din bng mt li tam
gic hai chiu c thit k da theo ni dung ca i tng v c theo
vt mt cch hon ton t ng cc frame tip theo . Qu trnh c lng
chuyn ng ti cc node c rng buc cht ch bo ton kt cu ca
li .

1.3 B cc lun vn
Trong chng 1 ny , lun vn trnh by nhng ng lc thc y
nghin cu vn theo vt i tng , trnh by mt s hng tip cn
c ra . Phn cn li ca lun vn s c t chc nh sau :

chng 2 , lun vn s trnh by nhng khi nim v ni dung nn tng
lin quan n vn theo vt i tng .

Trong chng 3 , lun vn s trnh by chi tit v m hnh theo vt i
tng s dng li hai chiu m lun vn nghin cu v ra .

chng 4 , lun vn s trnh by v phn ci t th nghim thc t .

Cui cng , trong chng 5 , lun vn s a ra kt lun v hng pht
trin tng lai .






11
Chng 2
Nhng khi nim v ni dung
nn tng

2.1 Mt s lnh vc lin quan
Cc phng php theo vt i tng trong video s thng s dng
nhng k thut thuc nhiu lnh vc khc nhau . Kt qu ca vic theo vt
cng c ng dng tr li trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau . Trong phn ny
, lun vn s gii thiu s qua mt s lnh vc quan trng c lin quan , bao
gm x l nh s (digital image processing) , ha my tnh (computer
graphics) , th gic my tnh (computer vision) , a phng tin (multimedia)
v x l video s (digital video processing) . Ring bin dng nh s (digital
image warping) , mt nhnh ca x l nh , l mt lnh vc mi c bit
n v c nhng ni dung quan trng nn s c trnh by trong mt phn
ring .

X l nh s (digital image processing)
X l nh s , ng nh tn gi ca n , bao gm vic phn tch v x l
cc nh s bng my tnh . Mc nh chnh ca x l nh l tng cng mc
thu nhn thng tin ca con ngi t ngun d liu nh v lm cho my
tnh c th t ng x l (lu tr , biu din , trao i ) cc hnh nh thu
nhn t mi trng t nhin .

12





Hnh 2.1 : X l nh

ha my tnh
ha my tnh bao gm tt c nhng g lin quan n vic s dng
my tnh pht sinh ra hnh nh . So vi x l nh th ha my tnh
ng vai tr nh mt ha s , cn x l nh ng vai tr nh mt th chp
nh .

Th gic my tnh (computer vision)
Th gic my tnh l hng ngc li ca ha my tnh . Trong khi
ha ly thng tin m t cnh bn ngoi (scene discription) to ra nh
trong my tnh th th gic my tnh li t nh bn trong my tnh suy ra
thng tin m t cnh bn ngoi .

13


Hnh 2.2 : Tng quan gia x l nh , ha my tnh v th gic my tnh

a phng tin (multimedia)
Thut ng a phng tin din t tng cc thng tin trong my
tnh c th c biu din bng cc m thanh , hnh nh video sinh ng ch
khng ch gii hn trong nhng cch biu din truyn thng (vn bn , nh
tnh.v.v) .
Lnh vc multimedia cp n vic s dng my tnh tch hp cc
dng d liu nh vn bn , hnh nh tnh , hnh nh ng (video) , m thanh
hay bt k dng d liu s no .

X l video s
X l video s tc l x l lung d liu video s (digital video
bitstream) , bao gm cc cng vic nh thu nhn , lu tr , phn tch , tng
hp , trao i .v.v

14
2.2 Bin dng nh s (digital image warping)
Bin dng nh s , hay r hn l bin i (v mt hnh hc) nh s , l
mt nhnh ca x l nh . Bin i v mt hnh hc (geometric
transformation) l thao tc xc lp li mi tng quan v v tr gia cc im
trn nh . Ct li ca bin i hnh hc l nh x mt h ta ny sang mt
h ta khc . iu ny c thc hin thng qua mt bin i khng gian
(spatial transformation) , y l mt hm nh x thit lp s tng ng gia
cc im trn nh u vo v cc im trn nh u ra . Hm nh x ny c
th biu din theo hai cch sau :

[x , y] = [X(u,v) , Y(u,v)]
hay :
[u , v] = [U(x,y) , V(x,y)]

Trong [u , v] ch v tr ca im nh trn nh input tng ng vi im
nh v tr [x , y] trn nh output ; cn X , Y , U , V l cc hm nh x c
trng cho tng php bin i c th . Do X v Y thc hin vic nh x t
nh input sang nh output nn c gi l cc nh x tin (forward mapping)
, tng t , U v V c gi l cc nh xa li (backward mapping) hay nh
x ngc (inverse mapping) . nh x tin thc hin vic sao chp tng pixel
trn nh input sang nh output tai cc v tr do nh x xc nh . Cn nh x
ngc th thc hin vic i chiu tng v tr trn nh output sang nh input ,
sau sao chp pixel ti v tr va tm c trn nh input sang v tr tng
ng trn nh output .

15
Mt vn pht sinh l cc gi tr v tr lc ban u l s nguyn , sau khi
qua hm nh x th tr thnh s thc . iu ny gy ra hin tng l hng v
hin tng chng ln nhau . L hng y ch nhng pixel khng c i
tng no tng ng . Cn hin tng chng ln nhau l hin tng nhiu
pixel cng c nh x tng ng vo mt pixel .




Hnh 2.3 : nh x tin


16


Hnh 2.4 : nh x ngc

Ta c th gim bt hin tng ny bng cch chia nh ra thnh cc vng nh
(patch) , chng hn nh chia thnh cc vng hnh vung . Vic nh x khi
s khng thc hin trn n v im nh m thc hin ti tng vng . Cch
ny gip bo ton kt cu lin lc ca nh .

Trong phn tip theo , lun vn s trnh by cc php bin i khng gian
c s dng trong m hnh theo vt i tng . y ta ch xt cc php
bin i 2 chiu . Vic biu din php bin i c thc hin trong h ta
thun nht (Homogeneous Coordinates) , y l h ta do tc gi
Roberts ra nm 1965 trong lnh vc ha my tnh nhm m bo tnh
nht qun trong cch biu din cc php bin i .



17
2.2.1 Bin i affine (Affine transformation)
Php bin i affine l php bin i tuyn tnh , thun nghch , c dng
biu din tng qut nh sau :

| |
11 12
21 22
31 32
0
, ,1 [ , ,1] 0
1
a a
x y u v a a
a a
(
(
=
(
(


T suy ra :
11 21 31
12 22 32
x a u a v a
y a u a v a
= + +
= + +


Nhng tnh cht quan trng ca php bin i affine l :
Bo ton ng thng : nh ca mt ng thng qua php bin i
affine l mt ng thng
Bo ton tnh song song ca cc ng thng : nh ca hai ng
thng song song l hai n song son
Bo ton t l v khong cch : gi s C l im chia on AB theo t
s t . Nu A , B , C ln lt l nh ca A , B , C qua php bin i
affine th C cng s chia AB theo t s t .


18

Hnh 2.5 : Php bin i affine

Mt s trng hp c bit ca php bin i affine l : php tnh tin
(translation) , php quay (rotation) , php bin i t l (scale) , php ko
xin (shear) .

Tnh tin (Translation)
Gi T
u
, T
v
l di tng ng vi u , v , dng biu din ca php tnh
tin l :


| |
1 0 0
, ,1 [ , ,1] 0 1 0
1
u
x y u v
T Tv
(
(
=
(
(



Quay (Rotation)
Gi l gc quay , dng biu din ca php quay l :


19

| |
cos sin 0
, ,1 [ , ,1] sin cos 0
0 0 1
x y u v


(
(
=
(
(



Bin i t l (Scale)
Gi S
u
, S
v
l cc h s t l tng ng vi u v v , dng biu din

ca
php bin i t l l :


| |
0 0
, ,1 [ , ,1] 0 0
0 0 1
u
v
S
x y u v S
(
(
=
(
(



Ko xin (Shear)
Gi H
u
h s ko xin theo phng trc honh , dng biu din ca php
ko xin theo phng trc honh c dng :

| |
1 0
, ,1 [ , ,1] 0 1 0
0 0 1
u
H
x y u v
(
(
=
(
(



Gi H
v
h s ko xin theo phng trc tung , dng biu din ca php
ko xin theo phng trc tung c dng :


20
'
'
x
x
w
=
'
'
y
y
w
=

| |
1 0 0
, ,1 [ , ,1] 1 0
0 0 1
v
x y u v H
(
(
=
(
(



2.2.2 Bin i phi cnh (Perspective transformation)
Dng biu din tng qut ca php bin i phi cnh l :

| |
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
', ', ' [ , , ]
a a a
x y w u v w a a a
a a a
(
(
=
(
(



Vi : ,

T suy ra :

11 21 31
13 23 33
'
'
a u a v a x
x
w a u a v a
+ +
= =
+ +

12 22 32
13 23 33
'
'
a u a v a y
y
w a u a v a
+ +
= =
+ +


21



Hnh 2.6 : Php bin i phi cnh


2.3 Video , video tng t , video s
Vic theo vt i tng c thc hin trn d liu video , chnh xc l
trn d liu video s , nn hiu r v dng d liu ny l iu cn thit .

2.3.1 Video
Thut ng video dng ch ngun thng tin hnh nh trc quan
(pictorial visual information) , bao gm mt chui cc nh tnh (still image)
lin tip nhau , c sp xp theo chiu thi gian . Video cn c gi l
nh thay i theo thi gian (time-varying image) , k hiu l s( x
1
, x
2
, t ) ,
trong x
1
, x
2
l cc bin ch v tr trong khng gian , cn t l bin thi gian
. Mt nh tnh l mt phn b cng theo khng gian v phn b ny l
khng i theo thi gian . Trong khi nh thay i theo thi gian l mt phn

22
b cng theo c khng gian ln thi gian . Xt v mt vt l , cp thp
nht , video tn ti di dng cc tn hiu .

Tn hiu l mt hm cha ng thng tin [3] , hay ni mt cch khc , tn
hiu l mt m t chi tit s ph thuc ca mt tham s ny vo mt tham s
khc [2] . Nu min gi tr ca 2 tham s ny l lin tc th tn hiu c gi
l tng t , nu min gi tr l ri rc th tn hiu c gi l ri rc hay gi
l c s ha . Cng c nhng trng hp , min gi tr ca tham s ny l
ri rc , ca tham s kia li l lin tc , nhng nhng trng hp ny rt
him khi xy ra v tn hiu lc cng khng c mt cch gi tng qut no
. Hu ht cc tn hiu tng t xut hin trong th gii t nhin , cn cc tn
hiu ri rc (s) th xut hin trong th gii my tnh . Cn nhn mnh l
my tnh ch hiu c cc tn hiu c s ha .
Ban u video c thu nhn , lu tr v truyn dn di dng tng t .
Nhng nm gn y , s pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh phn cng ,
cng ngh x l nh , cng vi nhng u im ni bt ca nh dng s
ang hng ngi s dng n vi video s .

2.3.2 Video tng t (analog video)
Tn hiu tng t l tn hiu in t mt chiu bin i theo thi gian , k
hiu l f(t) . Cho mt nh bin i theo thi gian dng tng t (tng
ng vi hnh nh trong t nhin) , k hiu l s
c
( x
1
, x
2
, t) . Tn hiu video
tng t thu c bng cch ly mu s
c
( x
1
, x
2
, t) theo chiu dc x
2
v
chiu thi gian t . Tin trnh ly mu c thc hin theo chu k v c gi
l tin trnh qut (scanning) . Phng php qut thng c s dng nht l

23
qut lin tip (progressive scanning) v qut lun phin (interlaced
scanning).
Trong phng php qut lin tip , c sau mt khong thi gian t , vic
qut li c thc hin trn ton nh (hnh 1.1) . Phng php ny thng
c s dng i vi cc mn hnh c phn gii v tn s qut cao .








Hnh 2.7 : Phng php qut lin tc

Trong phng php qut lun phin , c sau mt khong thi gian t/2 ,
vic qut li c thc hin trn cc dng hoc l chn , hoc l l , nu
ln qut trc l dng chn th ln qut ny l dng l v ngc li (hnh
2.2) . Phng php ny thng c s dng i vi cc mn hnh c
phn gii v tn s qut thp






Hnh 2.8 : Phng php qut lun phin

24

Cc thng s k thut quan trng ca tn hiu video tng t l phn
gii theo chiu dc (vertical resolution) , t l kch thc (aspect ratio) v tn
s lm ti (refresh rate) . T l kch thc l t l gia chiu ngang v chiu
dc . Tn s lm ti l s lng frame chiu trong 1 giy .
trn l trng hp tn hiu video n sc (monochromatic video signal)
. Ta c th m rng ra cho trng hp tn hiu video nhiu mu sc . Theo
L thuyt ba tc nhn ca mu sc (tri-stimulus theory of color) , mi mu
sc u c th c ti to bng cch kt hp 3 mu nguyn t : (red R)
, xanh dng (blue B) v xanh l cy (green G) , theo mt t l thch hp
. Hnh nh nhiu mu sc s c to bng cch chng 3 lp tng ng vi
3 mu nguyn t ln nhau .
Hin nay , c nhiu chun video tng t (analog video standards) ang
c s dng , chng khc nhau v cc tham s hnh nh (chng hn nh
phn gii theo khng gian v thi gian) v cch x l mu sc . Cc chun
ny c th c phn thnh 3 nhm :
Video tng t a thnh phn (component analog video CAV)
Video tng hp (composite video)
S-video

Trong trng hp video tng t a thnh phn , cc n v cu thnh
tn hiu video c phn chia thnh cc tn hiu video n sc ring bit .
Cc n v ny c th n gin l 3 mu nguyn t : , xanh dng , xanh
l cy , hoc c bin i thnh dng biu din sng mu sc
(luminance chrominance) . Thnh phn luminance (k hiu l Y) th hin
cc mc xm (gray level) ca video , v c tnh t 3 mu nguyn t nh
sau :

25
Y = 0.30R + 0.59G + 0.11B
Thnh phn chrominance cha ng thng tin v mu sc . ng vi mi
chun , thnh phn chrominance li c cch biu din khc nhau , chng hn
nh :
Thnh phn chrominance c biu din thnh I , Q , vi :
I = 0.60R + 0.28G 0.32B
Q = 0.21R 0.52G + 0.31B

Hoc thnh phn chrominance c biu din thnh Cr , Cb , vi :
Cr = R Y
Cb = B Y

Trong thc t , tn hiu video vi cch cu to a thnh phn to ra cht
lng mu sc tt nht . Tuy nhin , iu ny i hi qu trnh truyn dn
cc thnh phn phi c ng b ha chnh xc , ng thi bng thng
cng phi tng ln gp ba ln so vi tn hiu n sc .
Trong trng hp video tng hp , tn hiu video c nh dng theo
hnh thc : cc thnh phn chrominance c m ha vo u thnh phn
luminance , hp thnh mt tn hiu duy nht . iu ny gip tit kim bng
thng v n gin ha qu trnh truyn dn tn hiu . Cc nh dng video
tng hp ph bin hin nay l NTSC (National Television System
Committee hay Never Twice the Same Color) , PAL (Phase Alternating
Line) , SECAM (Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire hay Sequential
Chrominance Signal with Memory) . Chun NTSC c s dng ph bin
khu vc Bc M v Nht Bn ; chun SECAM c s dng Php , ng
u , Lin X v vng Trung ng ; chun PAL c s dng khu vc hu
ht cc khu vc cn li , bao gm Ty u , Anh , Nam M , Chu .v.v

26
Mt khuyt im ca video tng hp l cht lng mu sc to ra khng
tt . Svideo l mt gii php trung ha gia video tng hp v video a
thnh phn .Tn hiu trong Svideo c phn thnh 2 b phn , mt cho
thnh phn luminance v mt cho cc thnh phn chrominance c tng
hp li . Nh vy , cht lng mu sc trong Svideo tt hn trong video
tng hp ng thi bng thng truyn tn hiu Svideo cng tn t hn
bng thng dng cho video a thnh phn . Chun Svideo hin ang c
s dng rng ri trong cc my ghi videocasette , my quay phim .v.v

Vic thu nhn video tng t ch yu da trn cng ngh bng t , tr
trng hp a laser l s dng cng ngh quang hc .

Vi video tng t , cc hnh nh trong th gii t nhin c thu
nhn chnh xc . Tuy nhin , do bn cht ca n , video tng t cung cp
cho ngi dng rt t kh nng tng tc v x l , ch c th n gin nh
chuyn knh TV hay quay ti quay lui , chiu nhanh chiu chm mt on
bng . Nhng nm gn y , s pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh phn
cng , nhng tin b trong cng ngh x l nh v nht l nhng u im
ni bt ca nh dng s ang hng ngi s dng n vi video s . Trong
th gii s , tn dng sc mnh ca my tnh , ta c th d dng thu nhn ,
lu tr , bin tp , x l v trao i hnh nh video .

2.3.3 Video s
c c tn hiu video , tng t (analog) hay s (digital) , cn phi
thc hin vic ly mu nh s
c
( x
1
, x
2
, t) theo c chiu khng gian v thi
gian . i vi video tng t , vic ly mu c thc hin theo chiu dc

27
x
2
(tung ) v theo chiu thi gian t . i vi video s , vic ly mu c
thc hin trn c 3 chiu : chiu ngang x
1
(honh ) , chiu dc x
2
(tung )
v chiu thi gian t . Thc cht , thu c tn hiu video s , ta cn phi
thc hin vic s ha (digitization) , gm 2 bc : ly mu (sampling) v
lng t ha (quantization) . Ly mu l tin trnh chuyn i tn hiu t
dng lin tc theo khng gian v thi gian sang dng ri rc theo khng gian
v thi gian . Sau khi ly mu , cc tn hiu thu c tuy dng ri rc
nhng chng vn c gi tr dng lin tc . Do ta cn phi thc hin vic
lng t ha , tc l chuyn cc gi tr t dng lin tc (c th l dng s
thc) sang dng ri rc (s nguyn) .






Hnh 2.9 : Qu trnh s ha

Cc thng s k thut quan trng ca video s l phn gii theo chiu
dc (s pixel trn mt ct) , phn gii theo chiu ngang (s pixel trn mt
dng) , t l kch thc (chiu ngang / chiu dc) v tn s lm ti . Bng
thng ca video c tnh theo cng thc :






28
FR = Tn s frame (tn s lm ti)
NL = S dng trn 1 frame
HR = phn gii theo chiu ngang
= thi gian chuyn tn hiu t gia 2 dng k tip nhau

Hu ht cc h thng video s u biu din mu sc di dng cc thnh
phn ring bit (tng t video analog a thnh phn) . Ngay c khi u vo
l tn hiu video tng t tng hp (composite video) th u tin n cng
phi c chuyn sang dng video tng t a thnh phn (CAV) , sau
tng thnh phn s c s ha cui cng thu c tn hiu video s .
Vic trao i video s gia cc ng dng cng nh gia cc h thng i
hi vic chun ha . Ngnh cng nghip my tnh (computer industry) c
cc chun v phn gii lc hin th , ngnh cng nghip truyn hnh (TV
industry) c cc chun v thu pht , ngnh cng nghip truyn thng
(communications industry) c cc chun v giao thc mng .

Do ta ch lm vic vi video s nn t y v sau , khi cp n video tc
l cp n video s .

2.4 i tng video , chuyn ng ca i tng
video , c lng chuyn ng
Trong phn ny , lun vn s trnh by nhng khi nim v ni dung c
bn ca vn theo vt i tng .

29
2.4.1 i tng video (video object VO)
Xt on video quay mt khung cnh , i tng trong on video , hay
ngn gn l i tng video , l nhng thnh phn c ngha y trong
khung cnh . Tht ra , khi nim i tng video rt linh ng , n c th
l bt k thnh phn trong khung cnh , min sao l thnh phn m ta
quan tm . Phn cn li ca khung cnh thng c gi l nn
(background) . Tp hp tt c cc im nh thuc i tng to thnh mt
phng alpha (Alpha plane AR) ca i tng .

2.4.2 Chuyn ng ca i tng video
Mt on video cha ng c nhiu thng tin trc quan hn mt nh
tnh , do video c kh nng thu gi c chuyn ng . Mt nh tnh ch c
th cung cp cho ngi xem nhng thng tin tnh v mt khung cnh trong
khi mt on video c th em li cho ngi xem phn ng trong khung
cnh .
Hnh nh m ta nhn thy trong video l hnh chiu ca nhng khung
cnh 3 chiu ln mt phng 2 chiu (mt phng nh) . Do , chuyn ng
ca cc i tng video cng chnh l hnh chiu chuyn ng ca cc i
tng trong khng gian 3 chiu ln mt phng nh . Tuy nhin , khi quan st
cc hnh nh video , khng phi lc no ta cng thy c nhng chuyn
ng tht s . Nguyn nhn chnh l do mt ngi nhn ra chuyn ng
(trong video) da trn s thay i v cng ca im nh . Do , c
nhng trng hp ta khng nhn ra c chuyn ng , v d : quan st hnh
nh mt qu bng ng mu quay quanh trc qua tm , mc d c chuyn
ng xy ra nhng do cng cc im nh khng i nn mt ta khng
nhn ra c

30







Hnh 2.10 : Qu bng ng mu quay quanh trc qua tm
Li c nhng trng hp ta ng nhn chuyn ng , v d : nh sng mi
trng thay i , mc d tht s vt ng yn nhng ta vn c cm nhn vt
di chuyn

frame k frame k+1






Hnh 2.11 : nh sng mi trng thay i

tch bit r rng gia chuyn ng tht s v chuyn ng do mt
ngi cm nhn , ngi ta a ra khi nim lung th gic (optical flow).
Theo , chuyn ng hai chiu (2-D motion) , tc chuyn ng tht s , l
hnh chiu ca chuyn ng ba chiu ln mt phng nh , cn lung th gic
l nhng chuyn ng m mt ngi nhn ra c da trn nhng thay i
v cng ca cc im nh theo thi gian . Do thc t ta ch c th quan

31
st c lung th gic nn t y v sau , khi cp n chuyn ng tc l
ta cp n lung th gic .
Chuyn ng ca i tng video c th phn thnh 2 loi : chuyn ng
cc b (local motion) v chuyn ng ton cc (global motion) . Chuyn
ng cc b l chuyn ng do bn thn i tng to ra , l nhng chuyn
ng gia cc b phn ca i tng so vi nhau . Cn chuyn ng ton
cc l chuyn ng ca i tng , xt trn tng th , so vi camera , hay c
th ni l chuyn ng do camera to ra .



Hnh 2.12 : Chuyn ng ton cc v chuyn ng cc b


2.4.3 c lng chuyn ng (motion estimation)
c lng chuyn ng ca mt im nh l tm ra vect dch chuyn
ca im nh . Khi nim v vect dch chuyn d
ur
, c minh ha trong
hnh 2.12 . M rng ra , c lng chuyn ng ca mt i tng l c
lng chuyn ca tt c cc im nh thuc i tng . Mc ch ca

32
vic c lng chuyn ng l tr li cho cu hi chuyn ng din ra
nh th no ? .

Nh vy , vic theo vt i tng c th c xem l vic c lng
chuyn ng ti cc frame lin tip nhau , kt qu c lng ti frame ny l
c s cho vic c lng frame tip theo .





Hn 2.12 : Vect dch chuyn d
ur


2.5 Hin tng che ph (occlusion)
Trong thc t , tin trnh theo vt i tng video thng gp phi hin
tng che ph . Che ph cp n hin tng cc b phn ca i tng
(hay ca khung cnh) b che i hay hin ra do nhng chuyn ng ca

33
camera hay ca chnh i tng . Hin tng ny c phn lm hai loi : t
che ph (self-occlusion) v che ph ln nhau (mutual occlusion) . T che
ph ch hin tng cc b phn ca i tng b che mt i hay c hin ra
do nhng chuyn ng ca bn thn i tng . Che ph ln nhau ch hin
tng cc b phn ca i tng b che mt i hay c hin ra do nhng
chuyn ng ca i tng khc .



Hnh 2.13 : Hin tng t che ph





Hnh 2.14 : Hin tng che ph ln nhau


34

Chng 3
M hnh theo vt i tng
s dng li hai chiu


Xt on video quay mt khung cnh , i tng video l nhng thnh
phn c ngha y trong khung cnh . Mt phng alpha (alpha plane
AR) ca mt i tng video c nh ngha l tp hp tt c cc im
thuc i tng .


Theo vt i tng bao gm vic theo vt ng bin (boundary) , theo
vt nhng chuyn ng cc b (local motion) v nhng bin i v cng
( sng ti , tng phn) ca i tng .
Theo m hnh m lun vn ra , i tng video c biu din bng
mt li tam gic hai chiu . Li c thit k da theo ni dung ca i
tng . Vic theo vt ng bin (chuyn ng ton cc) , chuyn ng cc

35
b cng nh nhng bin i v cng gi tr thnh vic theo vt li hai
chiu .
Nh trnh by trong chng 1 , m hnh m lun vn ra l m hnh
bn t ng . Theo , ngi dng s m nhn trch nhim chn frame bt
u , gi l frame tham chiu (reference frame) , v trn frame ny chn ra
i tng video c quan tm (tc l xc nh mt phng alpha ca i
tng c quan tm) . Sau , trong cc frame tip theo , vic theo vt i
tng s c thc hin hon ton t ng .

Tng qut , tin trnh theo vt i tng bao gm cc bc sau :

o Bc 1 : Chn frame tham chiu v chn i tng video c quan
tm

o Bc 2 : To li tam gic cho i tng

o Bc 3 : c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li

o Bc 4 : Lan truyn li

Bc 1 v 2 c thc hin ti frame tham chiu , bc 3 v 4 c thc
hin ti mi frame tip theo .

Ngi dng chn ra i tng bng cch xc nh mt phng alpha ca
i tng . ng bin ca mt phng alpha c xp x bng mt a
gic , gi l a gic tham chiu (hnh 3.1) . a gic ny cn c xc nh
sao cho cng st vi ng bin cng tt . Chuyn ng ca a gic tham

36
chiu (tc chuyn ng ton cc ca i tng) c m t bng cc vect
dch chuyn ti cc node ng vi cc nh ca a gic (corner node) , cn
chuyn ng cc b bn trong a gic tham chiu (bn trong i tng)
c m t bng cc vect dch chuyn ti cc node nm bn trong a gic
(inner node) . Vect chuyn ng ti cc node c xc nh bng thut ton
so khp khi (block matching) kt hp vi cc chin lc tm kim .







Hnh 3.1 : Xp x ng bin ca mt phng alpha


Do m hnh ra cha gii quyt vn che ph (occlusion) nn gi
thit l trong sut qu trnh theo vt , k t frame bt u (frame tham chiu)
n frame kt thc , khng c hin tng che ph xy ra .

37
Tip theo , trong phn 3.1 , lun vn s trnh by chi tit v vic to li .
Trong phn 3.2 , lun vn s trnh by v phng php xc nh vect dch
chuyn ca cc node li . Cui cng trong phn 3.3 , lun vn s trnh by
phn lan truyn li .

3.1 To li
Li tam gic l li m mi phn t (mt li) l mt tam gic . To
li tam gic cho mt i tng ngha l p mt li tam gic ln mt phng
alpha ca i tng . Ta ch xt dng li tuyn tnh , l dng li m
cc cnh thuc cc mt li u l ng thng , khng phi l ng cong .
Do , ng bin ca i tng cn phi c xp x bng mt polyline
khp kn (a gic) .

Theo [4] php to li tam gic c coi l ti u nu ng vi mi tam
gic thnh vin ca li va to , ba nh ca tam gic l ba nh gn nht
i vi cc im thuc min tam gic (hnh 3.2) . C hai tiu chun
thng c s dng ti u ha php to li tam gic :

1. Tiu chun Max-Min : tam gic thnh vin c to sao cho
cc i ha gc nh nht (hnh 3.3)

2. Tiu chun Vng trn : tam gic thnh vin c to sao cho
vng trn ngoi tip ca n khng cha nh thuc tam gic
khc (hnh 3.4) .



38


Hnh 3.2 : Php to li tam gic ti u v khng ti u




Hnh 3.3 : Tiu chun Max-Min


39


Hnh 3.4 : Tiu chun Vng trn


Trong m hnh ra , lun vn s dng li tam gic ti u v c thit
k da theo ni dung ca i tng . Theo [6] , nguyn tc c bn trong vic
thit k li da theo ni dung l t cc node ca li ln cc cnh c
cng ln v nh v sao cho gi tr ca hm DFD (Displaced Frame
Difference) ti cc mt li l xp x nhau . Hm DFD tnh ti v tr (x ,y)
c cho bi cng thc :
DFD(x ,y) = ( I
C
(x ,y) I
R
(x ,y) )
P


trong , I
C
(x ,y) v I
R
(x ,y) l cng im nh ti v tr (x ,y) trn hai
frame c xt , thng l frame k v frame k-1 hay frame hin hnh v
frame tham chiu ; cn p l mt s nguyn dng , thng thng p=2 .



40
Thut ton to li tng qut bao gm nhng bc sau :

o Bc 0 : Khi to tp node = , chn cc nh ca a gic tham
chiu a vo tp node . a gic tham chiu chnh l ng bin bao
ngoi ca li .

o Bc 1 : Gn nhn unmarked cho tt c cc pixel thuc i tng

o Bc 2 : Tnh gi tr DFD trung bnh cho tt c cc pixel c nhn
unmarked
( , ) & ( , )
( , )
p
x y AR x y unmarked
avg
DFD x y
DFD
K

=



AR l k hiu mt phng alpha ca i tng , K l s lng pixel c
nhn unmarked , p=2

o Bc 3 : Vi mi pixel c c nhn unmarked , tnh gi tr hm
lng gi :
2
( , ) | ( , ) | C x y I x y =

|I(x,y)| l ln ca vect gradient cng im nh ti pixel
(x,y)


41
o Bc 4 : Tm pixel c nhn unmarked v c gi tr C(x,y) cao nht ,
chn pixel lm node mi v a vo tp node ca li .

o Bc 5 : Ly node va chn c lm tm , thc hin lan rng vng
ra cc pixel unmarked xung quanh cho n khi gi tr DFD
avg
ca
vng ln hn gi tr DFD
avg
tnh bc 2 , nh du marked cho tt
c cc pixel trong vng va to c .

o Bc 6 : Nu tt c cc pixel u c nh du marked th
chuyn qua bc 7 , nu khng th quay li bc 2 .

o Bc 7 : Thc hin php to li tam gic Delauney trn tp node va
chn c .

Vect gradient cng im nh (spatial intensity gradient)
o hm l mt cng c rt hu hiu o tc thay i ca s vt .
Xt hm s mt bin y = f(x) , o hm theo bin x c cho bi cng thc :

0 0
( ) ( )
'( )
lim lim
x h
y f x h f x
f x
x h
> >
+
= =

Nh cp trong chng 2 , nh tnh l mt phn b cng theo
khng gian , ta c th biu din nh tnh nh mt hm hai bin I(x, y) vi x
ng vi honh , y ng vi tung v I(x, y) cho bit cng im nh
ti im (x, y) . o hm ca hm I(x, y) theo bin x cho bit tc thay i

42
ca cng im nh theo honh , tng t , o hm theo bin y cho
bit tc thay i ca cng im nh theo tung .

0
( , ) ( , )
lim
h
f f x h y f x y
x h
>
+
=

0
( , ) ( , )
lim
h
f f x y h f x y
y h
>
+
=

Khi , vect gradient cng im nh ti im nh (x, y) , k hiu
I(x, y) , c xc nh bi :
( , ) ( ( , ), ( , )) ( , )
x y
f f
I x y I x y I x y
x y

= =



V ln ca vect gradient c xc nh bi :
2 2 2 2
| ( , ) | | ( , ) | | ( , ) | ( ) ( )
x y
f f
I x y I x y I x y
x y

= + = +



i vi nh s , |I
x
(x ,y)| v |I
y
(x ,y)| c tnh xp x nh sau :
| ( , ) | ( , ) ( 1, )
x
I x y I x y I x y =

hay

1
| ( , ) | [ ( 1, ) ( 1, )]
2
x
I x y I x y I x y = +


43


| ( , ) | ( , ) ( , 1)
y
I x y I x y I x y =

hay

1
| ( , ) | [ ( , 1) ( , 1)]
2
y
I x y I x y I x y = +


Php to li tam gic Delauney
Php to li Delauney l php to li ti u da theo tiu chun Vng
trn cp trn , ngha l tam gic thnh vin c to sao cho vng
trn ngoi tip ca n khng cha nh ca tam gic khc .
c nhiu thut ton to li tam gic Delauney c a ra , tiu biu
nh :
Thut ton Chn tng tin (Incremental Insertion Algorithm) ca tc
gi Lawson (Mathematical Software III1977) v ci tin ca thut
ton ny do tc gi Watson a ra nm 1981 (Computer Journal 24) .
Thut ton Chia tr (Divide and Conquer Algorithm) ca cc tc
gi D. T. Lee v B. J. Schachter (International Journal of Computer
and Information Sciences1980) v ci tin ca thut ton ny do tc
gi Rex A. Dwyer a ra nm 1987 (Algorithmica 2) .
Thut ton o dng (Sweepline Algorithm) do tc gi Steven
Fortune a ra nm 1987 (Algorithmica 2) .
Theo [13] , thut ton Chia tr v o dng c nh gi l tt hn
Chn tng tin , rt tic l lun vn cha tm c nhng ti liu m t r
rng hai thut ton ny nn khng th trnh by y .


44
Thut ton Chn tng tin (Incremental Insertion Algorithm) ca tc gi
Watson
Thut ton c trnh by mt cch trc quan nh sau :

Cho mt tp im ng vin :





Bc 0 : bao tp im bng mt li tam gic Delauney hp l







45
Bc 1 : ly ra mt nh ty t tp ng vin , chn vo li




Bc 2 : Xa nhng tam gic no c vng trn ngoi tip cha im
va chn vo




46
Bc 3 : To li tam gic mi t cc nh ca ng bao li ca
im va chn vo v bn thn im



Bc 1, 2, 3 c lp cho n khi khng cn im no chn vo li ,
c th l :















47
Kt qu cui cng :




Cc im Steiner
Trong thc t , vi mt tp im input bt k , khng phi lc no cc
thut ton cng c th to c li tam gic ti u , v d nh tp im
input l cc nh ca ch A :











48
Gii php cho nhng trng hp ny l trn cc cnh ca li ta thm vo
cc im mi , gi l cc im steiner , sao cho li to t tp im mi
tha c cc iu kin ca li ti u .



Vic thm vo cc im steiner cn gip thit lp c cc rng buc v gc
ti thiu , chng hn nh rng buc khng c tam gic thnh vin no c gc
nh hn 30 . C hai lut c bn trong qu trnh thm vo cc im steiner :

Lut ng trn xuyn tm (diametral circle) : ng vi mi cnh ca
li, dng ng trn nhn cnh lm ng knh , nu c nh th ba
lt vo ng trn th thc hin vic thm im steiner vo trung im
ca cnh ang xt .

Lut ng trn ngoi tip (circumcircle) : nu mt tam gic thnh vin
c gc qu nh , khng tha rng buc v gc ti thiu th thc hin vic
thm im steiner vo v tr tm ng trn ngoi tip ca tam gic .

49





3.2 c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li
c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li tc l tm ra vect dch
chuyn ca cc node . Khi nim v vect dch chuyn c trnh by
trong chng 2 . Chuyn ng ton cc ca i tng (tc chuyn ng ca
ng bin ca li) c m t bng cc vect dch chuyn ti cc node
thuc ng bin . Cn cc chuyn ng cc b bn trong i tng c
m t bng cc vect dch chuyn ti cc node nm bn trong ng bin .
tm ra cc vect ny , lun vn s dng phng php so snh khi kt
hp vi cc chin lc tm kim .


50
Vect dch chuyn ti mt im nh trn frame k c xc nh khi ta
tm ra v tr tng ng ca im trong frame k+1 . Tuy nhin , nu ch
da vo gi tr cng ca mt im nh th khng c th tm c
chnh xc v tr ca im nh trong frame mi . L do n gin l v xung
quanh mt im nh thng c nhiu im c cng gi tr cng vi
im nh . Vy , nu khng th ch da vo thng tin ca bn thn im
nh th ta c th kt hp thm thng tin t cc im lng ging . y chnh
l tin ca phng php so khp khi . Theo phng php ny , tm ra
v tr mi ca im nh (x ,y) trn frame k+1 , ta s xt mt khi kch thc
N
1
N
2
c tm l (x ,y) trn frame k v tm khi tng ng trn frame k+1 ,
khi v tr mi ca im nh (x ,y) trn frame k+1 s l v tr cho kt qu
so snh khi tt nht . Vic tm kim khi tng ng c gii hn trong
mt vng kch thc (N
1
+2M
1
)(N
2
+2M
2
) , gi l ca s tm kim (search
window) , nhm tit kim chi ph tnh ton .







51
tng trn c p dng cho cc node tm ra vect dch chuyn
tnng ng (hnh)




Cc thut ton block-matching khc nhau nhng im sau :
Tiu chun nh gi vic so khp
Chin lc tm kim
Cch xc nh kch thc khi

3.2.1 Tiu chun nh gi
Cc tiu chun thng c s dng l Trung bnh bnh phng sai s
(Mean Square ErrorMSE) , Trung bnh tr tuyt i sai s (Mean Absolute
ErrorMAD)

Mean Square Error (MSE)
2
1 2 1 1 2
,
1 2
1
( , ) [ ( , ) ( , )]
k k
x y B
MSE d d I x y I x d y d
N N

= + +

52

trong B l khi N
1
N
2
, Ik(x ,y) l cng im nh ti v tr (x ,y) trn
frame k , d
ur
=(d
1
,d
2
) l vect dch chuyn ng vin .

Mean Absolute Difference (MAD)
1 2 1 1 2
,
1 2
1
( , ) | ( , ) ( , ) |
k k
x y B
MAE d d I x y I x d y d
N N

= + +

3.2.2 Cc chin lc tm kim
Chin lc ba bc (Three Step Search TSS)
Chin lc tm kim ny do Koga ra nm 1981 . y l mt chin
lc rt ph bin bi n n gin v hiu qu . tng nh sau :

Bc 1 : Khi to kch thc bc tm kim (k) . Thc hin vic so khp
ti chn v tr : mt v tr ti tm v tm v tr ti cc ln cn cch tm mt
khong ng vi k . Di chuyn tm n v tr c kt qu so khp tt nht .

Bc 2 : Gim k i mt na , nu k1 th qua bc 3 . Thc hin vic so
khp ti tm v tr xung quanh tm tng ng vi k . Di chuyn tm n
v tr c kt qu so khp tt nht . Quay li bc 2 .

Bc 3 : Thc hin vic so khp ti tm v tr xung quanh tm tng ng
vi k . Di chuyn tm n v tr c kt qu so khp tt nht . chnh l
v tr cn tm .


53


Chin lc tm kim logarithm (Two Dimensional Logarithmic Search
TDL)
Chin lc ny c Jain gii thiu gn nh cng thi im vi Three
Step Search . N c nh gi l tt hn TSS , c bit trong nhng trng
hp c ca s tm kim ln . tng ca chin lc nh sau :

Bc 0 : Khi to kch thc bc tm kim (k) .

Bc 1 : Thc hin so khp khi ti v tr tm v bn v tr : trn , di ,
tri , phi ca tm .

Bc 2 : Nu v tr c kt qu so khp tt nht l ti tm th gim k i
mt na , nu k1 th qua bc 3 . Nu v tr tt nht khng l tm th di
chuyn tm n v tr mi . Quay tr li bc 1 .


54
Bc 3 : Thc hin vic so khp ti tm v tm v tr ln cn tng ng
vi k . V tr cho kt qu tt nht chnh l v tr cn tm .



Chin lc bn bc (Four Step Search FSS)
Chin lc ny do Lai-Man Po v Wing-Chung Ma a ra vo nm
1996. tng ca chin lc nh sau :
Bc 1 : Bt u vi bc tm kim k = 2 . Thc hin vic so khp ti
chn v tr , mt ti tm v tm ti cc v tr ln cn cch tm mt khong
k . Nu v tr cho kt qu tt nht l v tr tm th qua bc 4 , ngc li
th qua bc 2 .

Bc 2 : Di chuyn tm n v tr c kt qu so khp tt nht , k vn gi
nguyn , sau xt :
Nu v tr tt nht l gc th ta xt tip nm im nh trong hnh
Nu v tr tt nht l ti v tr gia ca cnh ngang hay cnh dc th
ta xt ba im tip nh trong hnh

55
Di chuyn tm n v tr tt nht . Nu l v tr tm th qua bc 4 ,
ngc li th qua bc 3 .
Bc 3 : Quay tr li bc 2

Bc 4 : k =1 , thc hin so khp ti chn v tr , mt ti tm v tm ti
cc v tr ln cn cch tm mt khong k . V tr cho kt qu tt nht
chnh l v tr cn tm .






56
3.2.3 Khng gian tm kim hp l
Trong qu trnh c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li , nu ta
khng gii hn ca s tm kim ca cc node trong mt khng gian tm kim
hp l th tnh ton vn v kt cu ca li c th b vi phm , v d :

frame k frame k+1



c th minh ha r rng khi nim khng gian tm kim hp l , ta chia
cc node ca li thnh ba loi : node gc (corner node) ng vi cc nh
ca a gic tham chiu , node bin (boundary node) ng vi cc im steiner
c thm vo ng bin v node trong (inner node) ng vi cc node nm
trong ng bin .
Corner node



57


i vi corner node , khng gian tm kim hp l l min c gch
cho trong hnh

Boundary node

i vi boundary node , khng gian tm kim hp l l on AB

Inner node


i vi inner node , khng gian tm kim hp l l min a gic c
gch cho

58
3.3 Lan truyn li
Da vo tp vect chuyn ng ti cc node tm c bc trn , ta
thc hin vic lan truyn li , tc l xc nh vect chuyn ng ca tt c
cc im nh cn li . Theo m hnh li hai chiu , mi phn t ca li
(tc l cc mt li) c gi thit l vng c chuyn ng ng nht v
chuyn ng ny c th c biu din chnh xc bng mt php bin i
khng gian (affine , bilinear , ) . Php bin i ny c th c suy ra t
vect chuyn ng ti cc nh ca mt li ang xt . i vi li tam gic
th php bin i khng gian c chn l php bin i affine , bi php
bin i ny c su h s t do v vi ba tng ng im nh ti ba nh
tam gic , ta c th c suy ra cc h s ny .

Biu din tng qut ca php bin i affine c dng :

1 2 3
4 5 6
'
'
a a a x x
a a a y y
| | | | | | | |
= +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .



T ba nh (x
1
,y
1
) , (x
2
,y
2
) , (x
3
,y
3
) tm ra ba im nh tng ng (x
1

,y
1
) , (x
2
,y
2
) , (x
3
,y
3
) . T ba cp tng ng ny , ta c th tnh ra cc h
s t do trong () bng cch gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh :


59

' '
1 1
1 1
' '
2 1
1 1
' '
3 2
2 2
' '
4 2
2 2
' '
5 3
3 3
' '
6 3
3 3
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
a x
x y
a y
x y
a x
x y
a y
x y
a x
x y
a y
x y
| |
| | | |
|
| |
|
| |
|
| |
=
|
| |
|
| |
|
| |
|
| |
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .


Sau khi xc nh xong cc h s , tt c cc im trong tam gic s
c dch chuyn thng qua php bin i affine va tm c .

















60

Chng 4
Ci t v th nghim

Ton b m hnh theo vt i tng s dng li hai chiu m lun vn
ra bao gm bn ni dung chnh :

1. Chn frame tham chiu v chn i tng video c quan tm

2. To li tam gic cho i tng

3. c lng chuyn ng ti cc node ca li

4. Lan truyn li

Lun vn ci t hon chnh phn chn frame tham chiu v xc nh mt
phng alpha ca i tng (ni dung th nht) , ci t hon chnh phn to
li ti u vi thit k da theo ni dung ca i tng (ni dung th hai) .
Trong ni dung th ba , lun vn ci t xong phn c lng chuyn ng
ti cc corner node , bao gm phng php so khp khi v cc chin lc
tm kim ; rt tic l i vi cc inner node v boundary node , do cha gii
quyt c vic gii hn khng gian tm kim nn khng th thc hin

61
chnh xc c vic c lng chuyn ng v phn ci t nh phi dng
y .

4.1 Chi tit phn ci t
Cng c
Chng trnh demo c thc hin trn mi trng Visual C++ 6.0 , cc
th vin s dng gm b th vin Dali ca trng i hc Cornell dng
gii m file MPEG v b th vin BCGControlBarPro dng to giao din
cho chng trnh .

Ni dung chng trnh
Chng trnh bao gm cc phn chnh sau :
1. Lp MPEGDecoder : gii m file MPEG
2. Lp MPEGViewer : hin th file MPEG
3. Lp MPEG : lp bao ngoi ca hai lp trn
4. Lp FrameBuffer v Frame : qun l cc b m dng trong qu trnh
gii m v hin th file MPEG
5. Lp VideoObject : lu tr v x l cc ni dung lin quan n i
tng video
6. Dll TriMesh : cha cc hm to li
7. Lp TrackingAlgorithm : thc hin cc bc trong qu trnh theo vt
i tng

4.2 Kt qu th nghim
M hnh c th nghim trn hai on video s theo chun MPEG-1 ,
c t tn l book1 v clock1 , mi on gm c 20 frame . ng vi

62
mi on , ba thut ton so khp khi ng vi ba chin lc tm kim
(Three Step Search , Logarithmic Search v Four Step Search) c chy
th nghim . Tt c cc tnh ton u c thc hin trn thnh phn
sng (luminance Y) . Do m hnh cha ci t hon chnh nn hiu ng
quan st c khng phi l ton b i tng m ch c ng vin ca i
tng c theo vt m thi .

4.2.1 Book 1












Mt phng alpha Li tam gic

Frame tham chiu




63
Logarithmic Search











Frame 2 Frame 10












Frame 20


64
Three Step Search











Frame 2 Frame 10












Frame 20


65
Four Step Search











Frame 2 Frame 10












Frame 20


66
4.2.2 Clock 1










Mt phng alpha Li tam gic
Frame tham chiu

Logarithmic Search










Frame 2 Frame 10

67










Frame 20


Three Step Search











Frame 2 Frame 10


68











Frame 20

Four Step Search











Frame 2 Frame 10


69










Frame 20


Cc kt qu cho thy , chin lc Four Step Search t c kt qu tt
nht , k n l Three Step Search , cui cng l Logarithmic Search . C th
gii thch vic Logarithmic Search cho kt qu km nht l do chin thut
ny xt t im hn , ch khi u vi 5 im : trn , di , tri , phi ca
tm v bn thn v tr tm . Trong khi cc chin thut FSS v TSS u khi
u vi 9 im k c tm .












70

Chng 5
Tng kt v hng pht trin

Theo vt i tng l mt ti mi thuc lnh vc x l video . Vi
nhiu ng dng hu ch trong thc t , ti v ang thu ht s quan tm
ca cng ng nghin cu . Trong phm vi ca mnh , lun vn trnh by
nhng ni dung c bn ca vn theo vt i tng , ng thi ra mt
m hnh theo vt s dng li tam gic hai chiu c thit k da theo ni
dung ca i tng . Nhng kt qu ci t c th phn no th hin c
tnh ng n ca m hnh .
Thc t vn cn rt nhiu vn cn phi gii quyt . Trc ht l hon
chnh phn ci t ca m hnh . Tip l thc hin ti u ha tng bc
trong m hnh ra , nghin cch to li tt hn , tm ra nhng chin lc
tm kim mnh m hn . bc u ca m hnh , ngi s dng vn phi
m nhn nhiu thao tc . Cn tm ra cch lm gim bt trch nhim cho
ngi dng . Hin ti , tt c cc tnh ton u c thc hin trn thnh
phn sng (luminance Y) , nhng th nghim trn cc khng gian mu
khc ha hn nhng kt qu kh quan hn . Mt phn quan trng na cn
phi thc hin l gii quyt hin tng che ph , iu ny s gip cho m
hnh c th ng dng vo thc t .

71

Ti liu tham kho

[1] A.Murat Tekalp , Digital Video Processing , Prentice Hall , 1995
[2] Steven W. Smith , Digital Signal Processing , California Technical
Publishing , 1997
[3] Nhiu tc gi , Handbook of Image & Video Processing , Academic
Press , 2000
[4] Geogre Wolberg , Digital Image Warping , IEEE Computer Vision
Press , 1990
[5] Cademir Toklu , Object-Based Digital Video Processing Using 2-D
Meshes , 1998
[6] Yucel Altunbasak , A.Murat Tekalp , Occlusion-Adaptive , Content-
Based Mesh Design and Forward Tracking , 1996
[7] Hong Kim , Dng Anh c , L nh Duy , C S Ha My
Tnh , Nh xut bn Gio Dc , 2000
[8] Deepak Turaga , Mohamed Alkanhal , Search Algorithms for Block-
Matching in Motion Estimation , 1998
[9] Peter van Beek , A.Murat Tekalp , Ning Zhuang , Isil Celasun v
Minghui Xia , Hierarchical 2D Mesh Representation , Tracking and
Compression for Object-Based Video , IEEE Transactions On CSVT , 1998
[10] Bilge Gunsel , A.Murat Tekalp v Peter J. L. van Beek , Content-
Based Access to Video Objects : Temporal Segmentation , Visual
Summarization , and Feature Extraction , 1997

72
[11] Isil Celasun , Minghui Xia , Peter J. L. van Beek v A.Murat Tekalp ,
Hierarchical 2D Mesh Design and Compression for Video , 1999
[12] Jonathan Richard Shewchuk , Triangle , 1996
[13] Jonathan Richard Shewchuk , Triangle: Engineering a 2D Quality
Mesh Generator and Delaunay Triangulator , 1996
[14] David L. Marcum , SIAM Short Course on Unstructured Mesh
Generation , SIAM Conference on Geometric Design and Computing ,
4 November 2001 Sacramento , CA
[15] Hong Kim , Trn Hnh Nhi , Dng Anh c , Nhp Mn Cu Trc
D Liu v Thut Ton , H Khoa Hoc T Nhin , Khoa Cng Ngh Thng
Tin , 2000.
[16] Dave Marshall , Introduce to Multimedia , 2001
[17] Pekin Erhan Eren , Object-Based Digital Video Analysis and
Manipulation For Multimedia Applications , University of Rochester ,
NewYork , 2002
[18] Yucel Altunbasak and A.Murat Tekalp , Closed-Form Connectivity-
Preserving Solutions for Motion Compensation Using 2-D Meshes , IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing , Vol 6 , No.9 , September 1997
[19] Isil Celasun , A.Murat Tekalp , Optimal 2D Hierarchical Content-
Based Mesh Design and Update for Object-Based Video , 2000
[20] Ghassan Al-Regib , Yucel Altunbasak , Russell M. Mersereau ,
Hierarchical Motion Estimation with Content-Based Meshes , 2003
[21] Ghassan Al-Regib , Yucel Altunbasak , 2-D Motion Estimation with
Hierarchical Content-Based Meshes , 1999
[22] Y. Nakaya v H. Harashima , Motion compensation based on spatial
transformation , IEEE Trans. Circuits and Syst. Video Tech., vol. 3 , pp.
339 - 357 , June 1994