Winterization

1.
0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE
1.2 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
1.3 WINTERIZATION METHODS
1.3.1 Operating Techniques
1.3.2 Insulation
1.3.3 Protective Heating
1.3.4 Heated Buildings and Enclosures
1.4 WINTERIZATION PROCEDURE
1.5 DISCIPLINE RESPONSIBILITIES
2.0 INSULATION
2.1 OVERVIEW
2.2 FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS
2.3 BASIC TYPES
2.4 GENERAL CATEGORIES AND AVAILABLE FORMS
2.5 PROPERTIES
2.6 PROTECTION OF INSULATION
2.6.1 Weather barrier
2.6.2 Vapor barrier
2.6.3 Condensate barrier
2.6.4 Forms of barriers
2.7 MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION BY TEMPERATURE RANGE
2.8 PRINCIPAL TYPES
2.8.1 Calcium Silicate
2.8.2 Mineral Fiber
2.8.3 Expanded Silica or Perlite
2.8.4 Glass
2.9 REQUIREMENTS
2.10 REFERENCES
3.0 STEAM TRACING
3.1 OVERVIEW
3.2 TYPES OF STEAM TRACING
3.2.1 External Tracing
3.2.2 Cement External Tracing
3.2.3 Jacketed Tracing
3.2.4 Internal Tracing
3.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.3.1 Steam Pressure
3.3.2 Tracer Length
3.3.3 Tracer Pocket Depth
3.4 SYSTEM DETAILS
3.4.1 Ambient Sensing Valves
3.4.2 Temperature Control
3.4.3 Steam Traps
3.4.4 Mechanical Traps
3.4.5 Thermostatic Traps
3.4.6 Thermodynamic Disk Traps
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3.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM TRACING
3.5.1 Advantages
3.5.2 Disadvantages
3.6 REFERENCES
3.7 COMPUTER PROGRAM
4.0 ELECTRIC TRACING
4.1 OVERVIEW
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACING
4.2.1 Advantages
4.2.2 Disadvantages
4.3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC TRACING
4.4 SELF LIMITING PARALLEL RESISTANCE CABLE
4.5 MINERAL INSULATED SERIES RESISTANCE CABLE
4.6 ZONED SERIES RESISTANCE TRACING
4.7 SKIN EFFECT CURRENT TRACING
4.8 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
4.9 REFERENCES
5.0 LIQUID MEDIA SYSTEMS
5.1 LIQUID MEDIA USED AND RANGE OF APPLICATION
5.1.1 Water
5.1.2 Water/Glycol Mixtures
5.1.3 Organic Compounds
5.2 GENERAL SYSTEM DETAILS
5.2.1 Equipment Requirements
5.2.2 Tracing Methods
5.2.3 Design Considerations
5.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID MEDIA SYSTEMS
5.4 REFERENCES
6.0 COMPARISON OF HEAT TRACING METHODS
6.1 UTILITY AVAILABILITY
6.2 CLIENT PREFERENCE
6.3 SAFETY
6.5 MAINTENANCE
6.6 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
6.7 RATE OF HEAT UP
6.8 RELIABILITY
6.9 COST
6.10 REFERENCES
7.0 PIPING WINTERIZATION
7.1 OVERVIEW
7.2 OPERATING TECHNIQUES
7.3 PIPING COMPONENTS
7.4 PIPING DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
7.5 INSTRUMENTATION
7.6 SAFETY SHOWERS
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8.0 EQUIPMENT WINTERIZATION
8.1 COMPRESSORS
8.2 PUMPS
8.3 VESSELS AND COLUMNS
8.4 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
8.5 AIR COOLERS
8.5.1 Air flow control
8.5.2 Concurrent Flow
8.5.3 Non-contained Internal Air Recirculation
8.5.4 Contained Internal Air Recirculation
8.5.5 External Recirculation
8.5.6 Steam Coil
8.6 COOLING TOWERS
8.7 FIRED HEATERS, HRSGs AND GAS/STEAM TURBINES
8.8 TANKAGE
8.9 REFERENCES
9.0 APPENDICES
9.1 APPENDIX I - CALCULATIONS FOR HEAT LOSS IN PIPING
9.1.1 List of Variables
9.1.2 Safety Factor
9.1.3 Heat Loss Types
9.1.4 Sample Calculations
9.2 APPENDIX II - CALCULATIONS FOR HEAT LOSS FOR VESSELS AND TANKS
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE
This manual is intended to be a comprehensive reference source for process engineers
on the subject of winterization and insulation. The manual therefore includes such
material as recommended procedures, discipline responsibilities, guidelines and
recommended practices for winterizing and insulating equipment, piping and instruments.
Both winterization and insulation have been included in one manual to provide a single
reference source.
"Winterization" is a general term that applies to all measures taken to prevent either
interruption or failure of plant operations as a result of excessive heat loss to the
environment. This can cause a number of undesirable effects that may result in
operating problems with equipment, piping and instruments. Some examples of these
are:
Freezing or congealing of liquids
Increased liquid viscosities
Condensation of liquids from vapor streams
Crystallization of solids from liquid solutions
Separation of one liquid phase into two liquid phases
Formation of ice crystals or hydrates in gas streams
The occurrence of such effects depends on the characteristics of the fluids present and
the ambient temperature. As the ambient temperature decreases, more problems of this
nature arise, so that the degree and extent of winterization must be increased. It is
apparent that a wide variety of fluids can be adversely affected by ambient conditions.
The need for winterization, therefore, should be considered for all onsite, utility, and
offsite systems. The following sections of this manual discuss in detail winterization
needs, and methods to avoid potential problems.
Insulation is applied to equipment and piping for the following purposes:
Conserve heat or cold and thus save energy costs
Protect personnel from injury by accidental contact with a very hot or very cold
surface
Provide a cleaner plant by avoiding pipe sweating
Reduce heat absorption by equipment during a fire
Attenuate noise
Each of these subjects is explored in subsequent sections of this manual.
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1.2 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
When this manual is being used to help define winterization needs at the start of a
project, it is recommended that the procedure in Section 1.3 is followed. This stepwise
procedure facilitates making decisions on the type of winterization required and also
refers to specific sections in the manual where further information is available.
For quick reference purposes the following is a summary of the contents of this manual
by section:
Section 1.3 - Winterization Methods - Aids in establishing the need for
winterizing with heat tracing and insulation or insulation alone.
Section 1.4 - Winterization Checklists - Provides a step by step procedure on
how to approach winterization and insulation design.
Section 1.5 - Discipline Responsibilities - Checklist identifying disciplines with
primary and support responsibility for various tasks.
Section 2.0 - Insulation - An overview of various applications of insulation.
Section 3.0 - Steam Tracing - Descriptions of the types of steam tracing,
system details and considerations in its use.
Section 4.0 - Electric Tracing - Descriptions of the types of electric tracing,
system details and considerations in its use.
Section 5.0 - Liquid Media Systems - Description of the use of liquid media
heat tracing.
Section 6.0 - Comparison of Heat Tracing Methods - Comparison of steam,
electric, and liquid media tracing methods, including cost, technical and
operability considerations.
Section 7.0 - Piping Winterization - Describes piping winterization design
issues.
Section 8.0 - Equipment Winterization - Describes equipment winterization
considerations.
Section 9.0 - Appendices - Outlines calculation methods for heat loss from
piping and equipment.
1.3 WINTERIZATION METHODS
There are four principal methods of winterization:
Operating techniques (also termed freezeproof design and operation)
Insulation
Protective heating
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Heated buildings
Each of these methods will be described so that the selection process provided in
Section1.4 can be better understood and thus used to full advantage.
1.3.1 Operating Techniques
This is winterization that does not utilize heat tracing or insulation but depends
on operating procedures that have been incorporated in the plant design. As this
is the most economical winterization method, due to the high cost of installing
and operating heat tracing, it should be considered first. When feasible to do so,
it may be worthwhile making the modifications to a system that would allow
operating techniques to replace heat tracing. This method is usually vigorously
opposed by operations personnel, since it puts an added burden on their time. It
may be necessary to convince a client's project personnel that significant money
can be saved by not taking an overly conservative approach. To avoid the risk of
operating errors, careful consideration should be given to start-up, shutdown and
alternate operating modes during the design process. Details of the techniques
used should be brought to the operators attention through notes on the P&ID and
descriptions in the operating manual. If there is any uncertainty in the use of this
approach, then heat tracing should be installed, since the consequences of
freezing can be quite costly, and even hazardous.
The principle on which this approach to winterization is based is that of avoiding
stagnant or low flow conditions, or liquid accumulation. This is accomplished by
such means as bypasses around equipment or suitably located drain valves. In
general, a flowing liquid will not freeze during normal operating conditions. For
further details of this method see Section 7.0 of this manual.
1.3.2 Insulation
In certain cases, insulation alone, without heat tracing, can provide adequate
winterization. Omitting the heat tracing has substantial economic benefits by
reducing the capital and maintenance costs and eliminating energy costs. This
method would typically be used to protect continuously flowing streams after a
shutdown or during a low flow condition. The insulation helps to conserve heat
within the system and thus ensure that the plant operators have sufficient time to
take the necessary follow up action; such as, restart the plant, drain lines or
displace heavy oil fractions with flushing oil. Insulation alone will not ultimately
prevent a stagnant fluid in a line from freezing or congealing.
Local experience will often indicate if this approach is feasible. However, the heat
loss calculation methods provided in Appendix I can be used to estimate the time
available before fluids in lines freeze or congeal. This can then be compared to
the expected duration of a low flow or flow interruption condition. Lines of small
diameter should be given careful consideration when applying this method as
they cool quickly due to a high ratio of surface area to volume.
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The heat loss calculation would normally be based on the insulation thickness
specified in the project insulation specification. However, in certain instances
where the calculation indicates that heat tracing would be necessary,
consideration should be given to increasing the insulation thickness. The
process engineer should discuss this possibility with Piping and Electrical before
an economic comparison is made.
A convenient method of winterization is to use common insulation for adjacent
warm and cold lines. This can only be done if there is assurance that the warm
line will always remain warm, as in the case of steam and water lines at a utility
station.
1.3.3 Protective Heating
This method of winterization involves the addition of heat to piping, equipment
and instruments to compensate for heat lost to the environment. The quantity of
heat provided must be sufficient to maintain the fluid at a temperature that is high
enough to avoid the types of operating problems previously described. Heat is
supplied by providing tracing or jacketing for piping, instruments and some
equipment, and internal coils for vessels and tanks. Heat tracing and jacketing
are expensive forms of winterization due to substantial installation, operation and
maintenance costs. Thus, alternative techniques should be used wherever
feasible to minimize these costs.
There are several types of heat tracing systems available:
- External tube or pipe through which a hot fluid, such as steam, a
glycol/water mixture or heating oil flows
- Internal tube or pipe, also referred to as gut tracing, through which a hot
fluid flows
- Electric heat tracing
A detailed description of various methods of heat tracing can be found in
Sections 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 and a comparison is provided in Section 6.0 of this
manual. The details contained in these sections, used in conjunction with the
procedure outlined in Section 1.4, will assist in selecting the optimum heat
tracing method for a process facility. Protective heating methods applicable to
specific types of equipment are described in Section 8.0.
1.3.4 Heated Buildings and Enclosures
Process plants located in geographical regions that have severe winter
conditions usually have a portion, and in some cases all of the facilities, housed
inside heated buildings and enclosures. The items of equipment most frequently
housed include analyzers, process compressors, large process pumps and utility
systems equipment. A housing serves the dual purpose of providing a
comfortable working environment for operations and maintenance personnel
while providing winterization for equipment and associated piping and
instrumentation and also serves as a means of avoiding the use of specialized
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material such as Charpy impact tested steels. When equipment and piping
containing flammable or toxic materials are enclosed, consideration must be
given to providing adequate ventilation. In the case of flammable materials, it
may be necessary to compare the cost of upgrading the electrical hazard area
classification inside the building to Division I with the cost of maintaining a
Division II classification and providing additional makeup air.
1.4 WINTERIZATION PROCEDURE
Below are the recommended steps for establishing the winterization needs of a process
facility and the optimum heat tracing method. This procedure should be carried out as
early in a project as is practical. By doing so, adverse impacts of the selected heat
tracing method on the utility systems will be avoided. In addition, full advantage can be
taken of heat integration and waste heat recovery opportunities, e.g. recovery of waste
heat from the convection section of a fired heater. Plot space, if required for heat tracing
system equipment, can be allocated on the plot plan from the start.
Step 1 - Obtain Climatic Conditions
The extent and degree of winterization required by a process facility is dependent upon
the ambient temperatures that prevail at the plant site and the characteristics of the
process fluids. In general, the lower the ambient temperature , the greater the extent
and degree of winterization that will be required. Winterization requirements are primarily
based on a representative minimum value of the ambient temperature termed the low
ambient design temperature. This temperature can be used to determine the extent of
heat tracing required by categorizing the plant site within a certain temperature zone (see
below for zone definitions). The wind also affects winterization requirements by
increasing piping and equipment heat losses. Both the low ambient design temperature
and the wind velocity taken together determine the extent of tracing required. The values
of the low ambient design temperature and the associated wind velocity should be
provided by the client, and may be available in the project design basis documents. If this
is the case then proceed to Step 2.
If these data have not been provided then they must be determined from climatic data
approved by the client for the plant site. The following data are required for the coldest
month of the year at the plant site:
- Daily mean and low temperatures.
Length of time the average temperature is below 30
o
F (-1.1
o
C). This is required if the
plant site is in a Zone I location.
- Wind velocity.
Judgement will have to be used in deciding how many years of data are required. Often
times, data for the exact plant site are not available, and weather data for adjacent
locations must be extrapolated. When the data has been compiled, further judgement
will be required in selecting a value of the mean temperature that will be designated as
the low ambient design temperature. This temperature will determine the zone for the
plant site and will be used in heat loss calculations for tracing selection. It must therefore
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be selected low enough so the plant is adequately winterized, without being so low as to
significantly increase winterizing costs.
When the above design ambient conditions have been discussed with and approved by
the client proceed to Step 2.
Step 2
Determine the Temperature Zone and the Appropriate Check Lists to Complete as
Explained in Table 1-1, below.
Table 1-1 is a tabular representation of the temperature zones defined in Piping Master
Specification 000 250 50300. This specification defines three temperature zones
(ZonesI, II, and III) with Zone I itself subdivided into two separate zones. For purposes
of clarification, Zone I will be subdivided into Zones 1A and 1B in this manual.
Table 1-1
TEMPERATURE CONDITION ZONE CHECK LIST
TO COMPLETE
Low ambient design temperature of the area
above 30
o
F (- 1.1
o
C)
(a)
.
Zone IA 1
Low ambient design temperature below 30
o
F
(-1.1
o
C), but for periods not exceeding 24
hours in duration.
Zone IB 1, 2
Low ambient design temperature below 30
o
F
(-1.1
o
C) for periods longer than 24 hours in
duration, but not below 0
o
F (- 17.8
o
C).
Zone II 1, 2
Lowest average ambient temperature below
0
o
F (- 17.8
o
C)
Zone III 1, 2
Notes:
(a) Where daily temperature changes bring the minimum temperature below 30
o
F
(-1.1
o
C) for more than four hours (e.g. desert areas), classification as Zone IB
should be evaluated.
Step 3 - Complete the Appropriate Winterization Checklists
Use the winterization checklists in Tables 1-2 and 1-3 and the methods outlined in
Section 1.3 to determine winterization requirements.
If heat tracing is required, go to Step 4.
If insulation only is required, go to Step 11.
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Step 4
Make preliminary determination of which tracing method is technically most appropriate
for the application.
This step is intended to be a preliminary assessment of heat tracing methods to
determine which are acceptable for process or other technical reasons. It is intended to
be a preparation for discussions with the client in step 5. The issues that need to be
considered in this matter are covered in Sections 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 of this manual.
Step 5
Discuss and Agree on Heat Tracing Method with Client
The client should be involved in the selection of the heat tracing method and may in fact
instruct which one is to be used. However, the client may need to solicit Fluor Daniel's
advice on the matter. Through discussion of the technical issues alone it may be possible
to reach agreement on a heat tracing method. If this is the case then continue as
follows:
Electric tracing selected. Go to Step 7.
Steam tracing selected. Go to Step 8.
Liquid medium system selected. Go to Step 10.
If the client is not in a position to make this selection, or there are no overriding reasons
to choose a particular system, then it will be necessary for Fluor Daniel to undertake a
study in this matter. In general, the selection of the most cost effective heat tracing
system requires careful analysis of the process constraints, ambient conditions,
economics and system reliability. A study of this type is the responsibility of Piping.
However, Process and Electrical must provide Piping with the necessary technical
support.
Step 6
The Piping group performs an economic analysis with Process and Electrical input to
determine which tracing method is the most economical
When Piping has completed the draft study report it should be reviewed and its
recommendations agreed to by Process and Electrical. The report is then submitted to
the client for review and approval. When the recommendation has been approved by the
client, continue the procedure sequence at step 7, 8 or 10, depending on the heat tracing
method selected.
Step 7
Provide Electrical with the temperature at which each line must be maintained.
See Section 4.0 for further information on electric tracing.
Electrical will determine the heat tracing power requirements.
Go to Step 12 (End of procedure).
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Step 8
Establish the pressure and temperature level(s) of the tracing steam and the pressure of
the steam condensate return header, or obtain this data from the client as applicable.
See Section 3.0 for further information on steam tracing.
Step 9
Estimate the expected steam rate for each equipment item or line being steam traced.
The heat losses from steam traced piping are determined by Piping through the use of
the heat loss chart provided in Piping Technical Practice 000-250-1601. The heat losses
so determined are submitted to Process for calculation of the steam rates.
Similarly, equipment heat losses and any other duties are converted to equivalent steam
rates.
Step 10
Establish the design parameters for the liquid medium system. (Section 5.0)
Specify the liquid medium supply and return temperatures.
Prepare a set of piping heat loss and tracer sizing charts for the specific liquid
medium, for use by Piping.
Determine the system heat duty from piping and equipment heat losses and any
other duties.
Calculate the liquid medium circulation rate.
Step 11
Establish the functions of the insulation (Section 2.0).
Step 12
End of procedure.
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Table 1-2
WINTERIZATION CHECK LIST 1 - ZONES IA, IB, II, III
CONDITION SEE NOTES
Low ambient design temperature is below the
freezing point or pour point of any fluid.
a,b
Viscosity of any fluid at the low ambient design
temperature is high enough to significantly decrease
the flow below normal value at normal operating
pressure differentials.
a,b,h
Pumps handling fluids that can congeal or freeze at
the low ambient design temperature.
a,b
Pressure reduction results in hydrate or ice formation
from moisture containing gas.
a,l
Cooling to the low ambient design temperature will
result in undesirable separation.
a,b
Stagnant or intermittently used pipe sections can
contain liquids that freeze above the low ambient
design temperature.
a,b
Condensation causes the formation of corrosive
compounds
a
Equipment contains fluids that would congeal or
freeze at the low ambient design temperature
a,b,e
Low ambient design temperature is below the dew
point of the gas in any compressor or blower suction.
a,j
Compressors handling propane and heavier
hydrocarbon gases.
a,j
Process includes streams containing both ammonia
and hydrogen sulfide together.
a,c
Process involves use of chlorine. a,d
Wax deposits or viscous fluids can plug safety valve
inlets.
a,g
Plugging of closed drain headers by wax deposits,
congealed viscous fluids, or auto refrigerated
releases, such as flashing propane, to the system.
a
Maximum operation temperature of any pipe or
equipment item is above 140
o
F (60
o
C).
f
Pipe or equipment items handling heat sensitive
fluids.
a,k
Operating temperature above 300
o
F (149
o
C). f,i
Process involves steam at a pressure above 75 psig
(0.517 MPag).
i
Noise attenuation required. i
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Table 1-2 (Continued)
WINTERIZATION CHECK LIST 1 - ZONES IA, IB, II, III
Notes:
(a) Winterization should be evaluated. The choices are described below (in order of
increasing cost):
Special operating procedures (see Section 7.0 for piping and Section 8.0
for equipment).
Insulation alone (see Section 1.3 for guidelines)
Insulation and heat tracing (see Section 1.4 for guidelines)
(b) Systems containing liquids that can freeze or congeal at the low ambient design
temperature may have provisions for venting and draining, blowing out with air,
or flushing with light stock. These methods are more economical than heat
tracing. However, they must be properly documented on P&IDs and in operating
procedures to eliminate maintenance and downtime risks.
(c) Electric tracing should not be used for freeze protection of lines containing
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. It will not be sufficiently hot to prevent the
formation of solid ammonium sulfide.
(d) If the ambient temperature can drop below 55
o
F (12.8
o
C), evaporators in
chlorine service shall be housed in a heated, forced ventilated building.
(e) Venting and draining capability should be provided when the equipment is not in
service.
(f) Insulation for personnel protection is required by OSHA for equipment or piping
operating at or above 140
o
F (60
o
C).
(g) Process engineering must recommend to the client some form of winterization,
up to and including the PSV as a minimum, to avoid a potential safety hazard.
(h) Start-up and shutdown conditions should be taken into consideration in this
evaluation.
(i) Consideration should be given to insulating valves and flanges.
(j) Compressor suction lines are typically heat traced downstream of the suction
separator.
(k) Electric tracing is preferred.
(l) Tracing may not be adequate in some cases. Preheating prior to pressure
reduction may be required.
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Table 1-3
WINTERIZATION CHECK LIST 2 - ZONES 1B, II, III
CONDITION
SEE NOTES
ZONE
IB
ZONE
II
ZONE
III
Underground water systems including
sewers.
a a
Hydrants, monitors, spray, or deluge
systems.
b b b
Safety showers and eyewash stations
located outside
c c c
Seal legs, flare stack water seal or
seal drums.
d d d
Cone roof tanks. e e e
Utility air systems. f f f
Hydrocarbon and water being
separated in a vessel.
g g
Fluids at or below their pour point at
low ambient design temperature.
h h h
Aboveground stagnant water
systems.
i i i,j
Aboveground flowing water systems. i i,j
Fired heaters or boilers. k
Gas turbines. k
Notes:
(a) Underground water systems should be installed at least 1 ft. (0.305 M) below the
frost line. The above frost line sections should be winterized by heat tracing.
Designing the above frost line portions of the system to drain after each use is
also acceptable. Give special attention to the underground connections adjacent
to the aboveground sections of these systems. Winterization may be required
even though they are below the frost line.
(b) Fire hydrants connected to underground piping shall be self-draining. Monitors
and hose reels connected to aboveground piping and underground piping above
the frost line shall be provided with self-draining or manually operated drain
valves. Spray and deluge systems shall be drained through manually operated
valves located at the main operating valve.
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WINTERIZATION CHECK LIST 2 - ZONES 1B, II, III
(c) The preferred location for safety showers and eyewash stations is inside. When
an outside location is required, a location next to a building wall is preferred, with
the valve installed inside to prevent freezing but operable from the shower or
eyewash station. If this is not practical, the exposed water line shall be either
self-draining or heat traced with self-limiting electric tracing. Steam tracing shall
not be used for safety showers and eyewash stations as the water in the supply
line may become overheated beyond safe exposure limits for personnel when not
in use. See Section 8.1 for further details.
(d) Freezing of the water seals in these items shall be prevented by heat tracing and
insulation or continuous steam injection.
(e) Pressure/vacuum vents shall be provided with non-freezing features.
(f) Provide drain valves at piping low points. Utility air for use in ZonesII and III
should be dried so that its dew point is below the low ambient design
temperature.
(g) The vessel shall be heat traced up to the high water level.
(h) Heat tracing should be provided to keep water at 60
o
F (15.6
o
C) and other fluids
50F degrees (27.8 C degrees) above their pour point
1
.
(i) Provide winterization.
(j) Block valves at branch take-offs shall be protected by one of the methods below:
Locate the valve in an insulated valve box
Locate the valve in a heated valve box
Heat trace and insulate the valve.
(k) Air inlets will be winterized.
1
Pour Point Protection Example; Pour Point 100F + 50F degrees = 150F or Pour Point 37.8C + 27.8
degrees = 65.6C.
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1.5 DISCIPLINE RESPONSIBILITIES
Different disciplines (Process, Piping, Electrical, and Control Systems) are responsible
for different aspects of the work associated with winterization and insulation. Table 1-4
identifies the responsible party for different activities. The letter P in this table refers to
the discipline primarily responsible for the activity, the letter A refers to disciplines
providing assistance, and the letter R refers to disciplines reviewing and providing input.
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DATE 6-95
Table 1-4
DISCIPLINE RESPONSIBILITIES
WINTERIZATION/INSULATION
RESPONSIBLE DISCIPLINE
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION
PROCESS PIPING ELECTRICAL
OTHER AS
SPECIFIED
Establish low ambient design
temperature and design wind
velocity.
P Civil &
Project
Establish preferred method of
heat tracing
(a)
.
Determine if excess steam
is available.
P
Establish data required for
comparison of steam/
electrical/liquid media
tracing (e.g. cost of steam)
A P A
Establish any special
process requirements or
constraints that will
influence selection of heat
tracing methods.
P
Perform economic
comparison of various heat
tracing methods.
P
Issue final design selection
criteria for type of heat
tracing.
R P
Establish equipment and piping
requiring insulation/heat tracing.
Specify type of insulation (e.g.
heat conservation, personnel
protection) or heat tracing
required (e.g. steam, electric)
and identify the same on
P&IDs.
P A Civil &
Project
Establish alternate methods to
be used for winterization (other
than insulation and/or tracing)
show the same on P&IDs
(a)
.
P
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 14
DATE 6-95
OTHER AS
SPECIFIED
Identify which lines and
equipment require heat tracing
for heat conservation. Show
same on P&IDS.
P
Define type of insulation to be
used in different services
(b)
.
A P
Prepare economic insulation
thickness tables for various
types of insulation
(b)
.
A P
Define any items that require
different insulation thickness
(as compared to that shown on
tables) due to process reasons
and show the same on P&IDs.
P A
Define operating temperatures
in piping and equipment
requiring heat conservation or
personnel protection.
P
Define minimum operating
temperature to be maintained in
piping and equipment requiring
winterization. Mark on line lists.
P
Select size and number of
tracers for steam and liquid
media traced pipes.
(c)
A/P P/A
Heat loss calculations for
electrical traced pipes and
equipment.
P
Heat loss calculations for
storage tanks and vessels.
P
Complete form (E-459) to
define insulation and
winterization requirements for
equipment.
P
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
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INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 15
DATE 6-95
Table 1-4 Continued)
OTHER AS
SPECIFIED
Define need for acoustic
insulation and acoustic
insulation thickness.
Mechanical
Determine which instrument
lines need to be heat traced or
insulated.
A Control
Systems
Prepare input for operating
manual and mark specific
instructions on P&IDs
concerning winterization
operating procedures.
P
Notes:
(a) The selection is frequently governed by client preference. Hence, the subject should be
discussed with client before performing a detailed evaluation.
(b) Assistance from vendors and use of their computer programs may be useful. Client preferences
should be considered.
(c) On some projects or at some office locations, Process is responsible for the number and size of
tracers.
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INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 16
DATE 6-95
1.0
2.0 INSULATION
2.1 OVERVIEW
The process engineer is responsible for establishing the need for insulation and providing
the necessary information as required by the piping insulation group for development of
the narrative specification for insulation. The process engineer decides and indicates the
insulation requirements on equipment data sheets, P&IDs, line lists and equipment list by
using defined insulation codes (e.g., IH-insulate for heat conservation, IS-insulate for
personnel protection, etc.).
With the above information provided by Process, the piping insulation group will then be
responsible for insulation material selection. Process will also supply the economic and
design criteria (utility values, incremental capital payback, ambient conditions, etc.) so
that Piping can determine the optimum thickness of insulation for a given operating
temperature, and develop insulation thickness charts for each specific application.
This section outlines the fundamentals of insulation which a process engineer should
know. Topics on insulation which fall within the job scope of the piping insulation group
are briefly covered along with subjects discussed in engineering practices and
specifications.
2.2 FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS
The basic functions that insulation may perform in a process plant are listed below:
Heat conservation for hot services
Heat conservation for cold services
Fire protection
Maintain a specified temperature for process reasons
Retard a change in temperature
Prevent vapor condensation on either the inner or outer surface
Noise attenuation
An ideal insulation material should have the following characteristics:
Low material and installation cost
Low thermal conductivity over a wide range of temperatures
Non-flammable and nontoxic
Neutral pH (pH = 7)
Chloride ion content below 10 ppm to prevent attack on austenitic stainless steel
surfaces
Vermin proof
High mechanical strength
High temperature resistance
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PROCESS MANUAL
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INSULATION
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 1 of 12
DATE 6-95
Non-hygroscopic and resistant to water
Available in preformed sections, slabs and blanket form for ease of installation
Asbestos free
Compatible with the chemical being processed
Reproducible physical properties to reduce batch to batch variation
Corrosion resistance
2.3 BASIC TYPES
The five basic types of thermal insulation from which other types of insulation evolve are:
Flake insulation - is composed of small particles or flakes which finely divide the
air space. These flakes may or may not be bonded together.
Fibrous insulation - is composed of small diameter fibers which finely divide the
air space. These fibers may be organic or inorganic and may or may not be
bonded together.
Granular insulation - is composed of small nodules which contain voids or hollow
spaces. It is not considered a true cellular material since gas can be transferred
between individual spaces.
Cellular insulation - is composed of small individual cells sealed from each other.
Reflective insulation - is composed of parallel thin sheets, or foil, of high thermal
reflectance and spaced to reflect radiant heat back toward its source. The
spacing is also designed to provide restricted air (or gas) space that reduces
heat transfer by convection and conduction.
2.4 GENERAL CATEGORIES AND AVAILABLE FORMS
Thermal insulators are materials or combination of materials which have air or gas filled
pores or void pockets that slow down heat transfer. The most commonly available
materials fall in different categories:
Fibrous or Cellular (mineral) - alumina, asbestos
(a)
, glass, perlite, rock, silica,
slag, or vermiculite.
Fibrous or Cellular (organic) - cane, cotton, wood, and wood bark (cork).
Cellular organic plastics - elastomer, polystyrene, polyisocyanate,
polyisocyanurate, and polyvinyl acetate.
(a)
This material is a carcinogen and is no longer in use.
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DATE 6-95
Cements
Heat-reflecting metals (reflective) - aluminum, nickel, stainless-steel. Mass
insulations come in various forms, sizes, shapes, and thickness. The available
forms and their application are:
Blanket (Felt and Batt) - used where it is supported by other members; such as
in cavity wall, wrapping or lining of ducts, and where compressibility and
expansibility are necessary. It is frequently used in combination with rigid
insulation to provide a thermal and mechanical cushion.
Block and Board - used to insulate large diameter pipe, top heads of vertical
vessels, and walkways on top of storage tanks.
Cements - used to insulate small fittings on contoured equipment , and in
combination with rigid insulations, to fill voids, and sometimes level coat over
block or curved segments.
Loose Fill - used for filling of cavities or tight enclosures.
Foil and Sheet - used to enclose and separate air spaces.
Formed/Foamed-In-Place - used to fill cavities, but the walls of the cavity must
be sufficiently strong to withstand forming pressure, which is 1.5-5psig
(10.3_34.5kPag).
Semi-Rigid, or Flexible - used in walls, ceilings, and other areas where it obtains
support from other members, where mechanical abuse is light, or where its
flexibility is desired to conform to curvatures.
Rigid - used where structural strength is needed and where it is exposed to
mechanical abuses e.g., cold storage walls and ceilings, hot or cold piping, or
exposed ducts, or where the insulation must be at least partly self supporting.
Preformed - used to insulate pipe fittings and piping, especially of smaller
diameter.
2.5 PROPERTIES
A knowledge of the properties required by thermal insulation is necessary for proper
material selection and the prevention of insulation failure. Although this is not a process
engineer's job, the information below will give a better understanding why some
insulation materials are not suitable in some applications. Unfortunately, not all property
information is readily available from manufacturers. Shown in Table 2-1 are the types
and properties of insulating materials commonly used in the chemical process industry.
Note that properties of insulation materials differ slightly according to their physical form.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
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INSULATION
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 3
DATE 6-95
Table 2-1
PROPERTIES OF INSULATION MATERIALS
Material Description Service
Temperature
Average
Density,
Max.
(lb/ft
3
)
Average
Compressive
Strength,
Min.
(psi)
Average Water Vapor
Permeability Max.
(Perm-Inch)
Manufacturer References
Min.
(
o
F)
Max.
(
o
F)
Calcium silicate Hydrous calcium silicate
with mineral fibers
amb. 1,200 14 60 @ 5 % N/A John-Mansville
"Thermo-12"
Owens-Corning "Kaylo 10"
Pabco "Super Caltemp"
Mineral Wool Mineral fiber bonded with
heat resistant binder
amb. 1,200 12 -- N/A Eagle-Picher "200"
Forty-Eight "4800"
Fiber Glass Resin bonded fibrous
glass wool
- 120 450 4 -- 75 Owen-Corning
"Fibeglas 25"
Johns-Manville
Cellular Glass Foamed glass to form a
rigid material with
hermetically - sealed
cells
- 450 800 9.5 75 0.005 Pittsburgh-Corning
"Foam-Glass"
Polyurethane (Isocyanurate
Foam)
Poly-isocyanate reacted
with poly-hydroxy
compounds. Expanded
with fluorocarbon blowing
agent to rigid cellular
form
- 250 250 2.5 17 @ 10 % 3.0 CPR "Trymer 210"
Owens-Corning
Insulating and Finishing
Cement
Mineral fiber blended with
hydraulic-setting binders
and filters
amb. 1,200 42 N/A N/A Forty-Eight "Quik-Set"
John-Mansville
Ceramic Fiber amb. 1,600 N/A N/A N/A
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PROCESS MANUAL
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INSULATION
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 4
DATE 6-95
PROPERTIES OF INSULATION MATERIALS
Material Description Service
Temperature
Average
Density, Max.
(lb/ft
3
)
Average
Compressive
Strength,
Min.
(psi)
Average Water Vapor
Permeability Max.
(Perm-Inch)
Manufacturer References
Min.
(
o
F)
Max.
(
o
F)
Flashing Compound High temperature asphalt
sealant for caulking
application.
- 75 300 75 N/A 0.001 Childers "Stalastic CP-79"
Foster "30-45
Mastic Weathercoat
(Breathing Type)
Breathing type water based
elastomeric coating
- 40 180 78 N/A 0.13 Childers "Vi-Cryl CP-10"
Pittsburgh-Corning
"Pittcote 400"
Vapor Barrier
(Foil-to-Mylar)
Laminated polyester-
aluminum-polyester flexible
film (Emissivity 0.4)
- 100 302 N/A 0 Alumiseal "Zero Perm"
Metal Jacketing Flat or corrugated aluminum
(3003 H-14 or 5005 H-14) with
factory applied poly- kraft
vapor barrier (Emissivity 12)
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Childers Premetco
Metal Clad
Reinforcing Fabric 5 by 5 open weave fiber cloth N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Childers "Chil-glass 5"
Mitered fitting cement Sodium silicate based
adhesive
40 850 100 N/A N/A Childers "Fibrous Adhesive
CP-97"
Vapor Barrier and Waterproofing
Coating
Elastomeric polymer based
coating. Set to a flexible
uniform monolithic film.
- 40 190 80 N/A 0.001 Childers "Encacel X"
Vapor Barrier
Joint Sealant and Flashing
Compound
Flexible elastomeric vapor
barrier sealant
-100 300 75 N/A 0 Childers "Chil-Byl CP-76"
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PROCESS MANUAL
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INSULATION
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 5
DATE 6-95
Table 2-2
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF INSULATION MATERIALS(1)(2)
Btu in/hr ft
2

o
F
Mean Operator
Temperature
Degree F
Calsil Mineral
Wool
Fiber
Glass
Cellular
Glass
Ceramic
Fiber
Polyurethane Insulation
Cement
- 300 - - - 0.190 - - -
- 200 - - - 0.232 - - -
- 100 - - 0.190 0.270 - 0.150 -
- 50 0.380 0.280 0.200 0.280 - 0.170 -
0 0.380 0.280 0.250 0.310 - 0.180 -
100 0.380 0.280 0.250 0.360 - 0.180 -
200 0.410 0.340 0.310 0.420 0.250 - 0.90
300 0.440 0.410 0.400 0.490 0.300 - 0.95
400 0.480 0.485 0.500 0.590 0.350 - 1.00
500 0.530 0.560 0.610 0.710 0.400 - 1.05
600 0.580 0.617 - 0.720 0.450 - 1.10
700 0.650 0.675 - 0.730 0.515 - _ -
800 0.710 0.675 - 0.740 0.580 - -
900 0.780 0.775 - 0.780 0.665 - -
1,000 0.860 0.775 - 0.860 0.750 - -
1,100 0.930 0.775 - 0.930 0.875 - -
1,200 1.040 0.775 - 0.040 1.000 - -
1,300 - - - - 1.125 - -
1,400 - - - - 1.250 - -
1,500 - - - - 1.350 - -
1,600 - - - - 1.450 - -
Notes:
(1) Values from FDI Insulation Optimization computer program
(2) To convert to W/m
o
K multiply above values by 0.144
FLUOR DANIEL
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SECTION 2.0
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DATE 6-95
Listed below are the properties for insulation, some of which apply to insulation in the
wet-to-dry state.
Abrasion resistance
Alkalinity or acidity - the tendency of a material to have a basic or acidic
reaction. A knowledge of this is important to avoid corrosion of the material
being covered.
Breaking load - the property of a material which indicates its strength in flexure
when loaded as a simple supported beam with a constantly increasing
concentrated load at its center.
Capillarity - the capability of a material to absorb liquid.
Chemical reactivity - the property of a material which measures its tendency to
chemically combine (or react) with other material which may come into contact
with or be absorbed by it. Such reaction may cause a fire hazard, and in addition
to holding combustible liquids, the intermixing may change the combustibility of
the chemical by lowering their flash, fire, and self-ignition points.
Coefficient of expansion
Combustibility
Compressive strength
Corrosion to substrates - the property of a material which indicates its chemical
effect on metals. Of particular importance is the stress-corrosion effect of
chlorides on austenitic stainless-steel.
Density - the weight of a unit volume. This is used to calculate loadings.
Dimensional stability - the property of a material which indicates its ability to
retain its size or shape after aging, cutting, or being subjected to temperature or
moisture.
Flexural strength - the property of a material which measures its ability to resist
bending (flexing) without breaking.
Hardness
Hygroscopicity - the property of a material which measures its ability to absorb
and retain water, in either the liquid or vapor state from the ambient air.
Incidence of cracking - the property of a material which indicates its tendency to
crack when applied to hot surfaces.
Resistance to chemicals - the property of a material which indicates its ability to
resist decomposition by various acids, caustics, and solvents.
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Shear strength - the property of a material which indicates its ability to resist
cleavage.
Shrinkage
Specific heat
Temperature limits
Temperature rise - some insulating materials will undergo an internal exothermic
reaction when heated above a certain temperature.
Tensile strength
Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
Thermal shock resistance - the ability of a material to resist rapid temperature
changes without physical failure. This property is important when insulations are
used in cyclic operations and for fire protection.
Vibration resistance - the property of a material which indicates its ability to
resist mechanical vibration without wearing away, settling or dusting off.
Warpage - the change in dimension of one surface of insulation as compared to
that of another surface due to difference in temperature of the two surfaces.
Water adsorption - the property of a material which measures the amount of
water it will adsorb when submerged in water.
Adhesion-wet - the ability of a wet material to adhere to a surface without sliding
or falling off.
Adhesion-dry - the ability of a material to bond to the surface to which it is
applied and remain in service.
Shrinkage-wet to dry - the measurement of changes in volumetric and linear
dimensions which occurs in the drying of insulating cements and mastics.
Expansion-wet to cured - the measurement of changes in volumetric dimensions
of a poured, or foamed in place material.
Coverage-wet - the property of a material which measures the amount of
material necessary to cover a given area to obtain a specific dried or cured
thickness.
Compaction or settling - the property of blankets or batts which measures their
change in density and thickness resulting from loading or vibration.
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DATE 6-95
Recovery of thickness - measurement of recovery of thickness after
compression. This is a significant property of insulation used for cushion
blankets and expansion joints.
Resistance to air movement - the property which indicates the ability of a
blanket-type material to resist erosion by air currents over its surface.
2.6 PROTECTION OF INSULATION
Thermal insulation requires protection from mechanical damage, vapor passage, fire or
chemical attack. Protection can be provided in the form of metal jacketing, mastic coating
or a combination of both depending upon the application, service, and economic
requirements. The different types of protection for thermal insulation are:
2.6.1 Weather barrier - a material installed on the outer surface of thermal insulation
to protect the insulation from the weather, solar radiation, atmospheric
contamination and mechanical damage.
2.6.2 Vapor barrier - a material installed on the high vapor pressure side of insulation
which retards the passage of moisture to the lower vapor pressure side.
2.6.3 Condensate barrier - a material normally used as an inner lining for the metal
jacket of an insulation to prevent the formation of alkaline condensate that tends
to form on the inner surface on the metal jacket.
2.6.4 Forms of barriers - All insulation has a covering in the form of metal or plastic
jacketing or mastic coatings. The former is commonly used since it is more
efficient, gives more protection, and is more aesthetic. Sometimes plastic
jacketing is used because of its chemical resistance. Listed below are the two
forms of weather-vapor barriers:
a. Metal jacketing - Some examples are aluminum, galvanized steel and
stainless steel. The advantages of aluminum are low initial cost and
easy workability. Its disadvantages are low chemical resistance and low
mechanical strength. Stainless steel has the opposite properties from
aluminum and is widely used. Its disadvantages are high initial cost and
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in the presence of chloride
ions.
b. Mastic coatings - This protective coating is usually applied on irregular
surfaces (e.g., pipe fittings and valves) by trowel and spraying and is not
used in high traffic areas or where it can be subjected to mechanical
abuse. These are made of resins or asphaltic material with inorganic
filler.
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INSULATION
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 9
DATE 6-95
2.7 MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION BY TEMPERATURE RANGE
Insulation materials are normally classified according to the temperatures for which they
are suitable for. Operating above their temperature limit can cause structural damage by
crystallizing, melting, or burning of the insulating material. Some insulating materials can
withstand operation beyond their maximum temperature limit but tend to be more costly
because of the increase in thickness due to higher thermal conductivities. It is important
to look at the whole system and make sure that the insulation chosen can withstand the
full range of operating and upset temperatures. There are several insulating materials
available within each temperature range and the selection among the various materials
generally depends on their properties and cost.
The cryogenic temperature range is considered to be - 150
o
F (- 101
o
C) down to
absolute zero -459.4
o
F (- 273
o
C). Cryogenic insulation is mostly applied for the liquid
separation of gases, e.g., nitrogen and oxygen. There are basically two types-one type
is composed of powders in a partial vacuum and the other multilayered, spaced reflective
sheets in a partial vacuum.
For "low" temperature applications [- 150
o
F to 212
o
F (- 101
o
C to 100
o
C)], the major
problem is the permeability of the insulating material to water vapor. The best choice is
foam glass because of its low water permeability. Fiberglass can also be used above
freezing temperature, although massive failure can occur when deeply permeated water
vapor freezes. Some cryogenic insulations are used at the lower end of this range.
The most commonly encountered temperature range in process industries is the
intermediate temperature range [ambient up to 600
o
F (316
o
C)]. In this application,
calcium silicate is usually selected because of its resistance to mechanical abuse.
For high temperature applications [600 to 1,600
o
F (316
o
C to 871
o
C], mineral wool and
calcium silicate are the predominantly used insulation. Denser materials such as perlite
and diatomaceous earth are used as a filler when they are used at a higher temperature.
Mineral wool tends to have lower installation cost than calcium silicate and shipping
damage is minimal. Refractory and reflective insulations can be applied at the higher
end of this range.
Insulations used at temperatures above 1,600
o
F (871
o
C) are called refractory. The
predominantly used refractories are ceramic refractory, reflective insulation, and
inexpensive materials such as firebricks. Alumina beads are poured where there is an
irregular surface.
2.8 PRINCIPAL TYPES
The principal types of thermal insulations for the intermediate temperature application are
listed:
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2.8.1 Calcium Silicate - A mixture of lime and silica reinforced with organic and
inorganic fibers and molded into the shape desired. Temperature range covered
is 100
o
F to 1,500
o
F (38
o
C to 816
o
C). Flexural strength is good and
compressive strength is high. It meets specifications for prevention of stress
corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel. It is available in both half-round
and quarter-round segments for pipes, as well as in the form of blocks.
2.8.2 Mineral Fiber - For this material, rock and slag fibers are bonded together with a
heat resistant binder. The upper temperature limit is up to 1,200
o
F (649
o
C)
(generally about as high as for calcium silicate). The material has practically
neutral pH. Its compressive strength is much less than for calcium silicate. It is
available in both rigid molded form for piping or vessel use, and as a flexible
blanket for irregular surfaces.
2.8.3 Expanded Silica or Perlite - An inert siliceous volcanic rock with some combined
water. The rock is expanded by heating it above 1,600
o
F (871
o
C), where the
water vaporizes expanding the rock volume and creating a structure of minute air
cells surrounded by vitrified product. Added binders hold it together and resist
moisture penetration, and inorganic fibers reinforce the structure. The material
has low shrinkage. Water absorption is low. The chloride content is low enough
to eliminate its causing stress-corrosion stress cracking in austenitic stainless
steel.
2.8.4 Glass - In various forms, glass products are used from the cryogenic level to
around 1,200
o
F (649
o
C) , with some specialty, high-purity products good up to
1,800
o
F (982
o
C). Among the forms available are flexible fiber blankets without
binder, glass fiber with an organic binder, [generally a thermosetting resin good
up to 1,000
o
F (538
o
C) or higher], semi-rigid boards [for up to 850
o
F (454
o
C)]
molded sections for pipe and foam or cellular foam, used for low temperature
insulation applications. Glass has low moisture absorption and can be easily
dried. Upon drying, strength and thermal qualities fully recover. Its low chloride
content keeps it from promoting stainless-steel stress-corrosion cracking.
2.9 REQUIREMENTS
The basic requirements for insulating equipment and piping are determined by the
process engineer at the early stages of a project. P&IDs are stamped by Process with
process design and operating condition information. This includes insulation or heat
tracing requirements for each line. The piping insulation group will select the material and
determine the optimum thickness. Piping will determine the size and the number of
tracers required. The insulation and tracing nomenclature listed below is also shown on
the standard Flowsheet Legend and Symbology drawing.
lH - Insulate for heat conservation.
IC - Insulate for cold conservation.
IS - Insulate for personnel protection. This instructs Piping to provide safety
insulation (usually thinner than for heat conservation) wherever operators could
come in contact with hot surfaces during their normal activities.
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IA - Insulate for noise suppression.
ST - Steam traced.
ST(W) - Steam traced for winterization. These tracers may be installed on a
different header, so they can be isolated with a single valve during warm
weather.
STJ - Steam jacketed pipe.
STT - Steam traced with Thermon, or equivalent heat transfer cement.
STS - Steam traced with a spacer to reduce the impact of high tracing
temperature.
ET - Electric traced.
2.10 REFERENCES
1. Miner, J., Insulation Design: Using the New Computer Programs, Hydrocarbon
Processing, July 1980.
2. Harrison, M. R. and Pelanne, C. H., Cost-Effective Thermal Insulation, Chemical
Engineering, December 19,1977.
3. Martin, R. B., Guide to Better Insulation, Chemical Engineering, May 12,1975.
4. Turner, W. C., Criteria for Installing Insulation Systems in Petrochemical Plants,
5. Marks, J. B., Holton, K.D., Insulation Practices: Protection of Thermal Insulation,
6. Abramovitz, J. L., Economic Pipe Insulation for Cold Systems, Chemical
Engineering, October 25,1976.
7. Ganapathy, V., Sizing Piping Insulation, Chemical Engineering, November 21,
1977.
8. Cordero, R., The Cost of Missing Pipe Insulation, Chemical Engineering,
February 14,1977.
9. Irwin, W., Avoid Common Mistakes When Insulating Piping, Hydrocarbon
Processing, October 1991.
10. Szeto, E., Prevent Insulation from Punking, Hydrocarbon Processing, October
1991.
FLUOR DANIEL
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1.0 2.0
3.0 STEAM TRACING
3.1 OVERVIEW
Steam is commonly used for winterization in refineries and chemical plants. Generally,
this is because steam is readily available, is safe for use in all area classifications and
plant personnel are familiar with the details of steam tracer installation and maintenance.
Typically, the pressure level of the steam used in winterization will be in the range of
15-200 psig (0.103 - 1.379MPag). This corresponds to a saturated steam temperature
range of 260 - 385
o
F (127 - 196
o
C). The pressure level used in any given application
will depend on the cost of steam, plant safety requirements, the amount of heat which
must be provided, and the available pressure levels in the plant.
3.2 TYPES OF STEAM TRACING
Several different types of steam tracing systems are used to transfer heat from the
steam to the process line including:
External tracer
External tracer with heat transfer cement
Jacketed pipe
Internal tracer
Integral tracer
3.2.1 External Tracing
External steam tracing consists of tubing containing the steam which is run along
the outside of the process line. Oversized insulation covers the pipe and tubing.
Depending on the required heat load, multiple tracers may be required. The
tracers are generally run parallel to the pipe, but in some cases may be wrapped
in a spiral around the pipe. Spiral-wrapped tracing should be avoided if possible
since installation costs will be higher than for parallel tracing and draining of
condensate to steam traps is more difficult.
For steam pressures below 175 - 200 psig (1.206 - 1.379MPag) and
temperatures of less than 400
o
F (204
o
C), copper tracer tubing may be used. At
higher pressures and temperatures exceeding 400
o
F (204
o
C) or where there is
a sour gas atmosphere or where steam may be contaminated with ammonia,
copper tubing should not be used. Stainless steel tubing should be used for
steam temperatures above 400
o
F (204
o
C) provided that insulation is carefully
selected. Calcium silicate as insulating material usually contains chloride ions
which corrodes stainless-steel. This type of insulation, when used for stainless
steel, should contain sodium silicate to neutralize the chlorides or be a special
low chloride type.
The minimum size of tubing which should be used is 3/8" O.D. tubing. Larger
tubing is preferable because there is less chance of plugging a tracer and longer
tubing runs can be used. For ease of installation, smaller tubing is used to wrap
around smaller sizes of equipment and instruments (e.g., pump casing,
instrument transmitters).
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STEAM TRACING
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Heat transfer from the tracer to the pipe is accomplished primarily by convection
and radiation. No credit should be taken for conductive heat transfer between
the tracer and pipe, because there is very little actual contact. As a result, bare
tracers have a limited capacity for heat transfer. Enhancing the conductive heat
transfer by welding the heat tracer to the pipe is not a good practice due to
differential expansion and expensive installation (Figure 3-1).
3.2.2 Cemented External Tracing
The amount of heat which a tracer can deliver can be greatly increased if heat
transfer cement is applied to the tracer. Heat transfer cement forms a highly
conductive path for heat between the tracer and pipe. A single cemented tracer
can usually replace two or three bare tracers, so fewer tracers can be used or
faster heat-up times are possible. Installation costs for a single cemented tracer
will be higher than for a single bare tracer, but a savings can be achieved if the
cemented tracer replaces two or more bare tracers. Various manufacturers such
as Thermon sell preformed cement strips and steel channels which allow simple
installation of cemented tracers. High labor costs are incurred if the heat transfer
cement is hand troweled (Figure 3-2).
3.2.3 Jacketed Tracing
Steam jacketing consists of a product pipe placed concentrically within a larger
steam pipe. Steam flowing in the annulus heats the process line. This type of
system is expensive and is only used when a high rate of heat transfer is needed
and a highly uniform wall temperature is required. A typical application of steam
jacketing is on liquid sulfur lines in a Claus plant that require a steam
temperature range of 250
o
F to 320
o
F (121
o
C to 160
o
C) (Figure 3-3).
3.2.4 Internal Tracing
Internal tracing consists of a small diameter pipe or tube passing through the
process line. This form of tracing provides excellent heat transfer and can allow
rapid start-up of lines in intermittent services. Disadvantages of this type of
tracing are that only straight runs of pipe that are free of valves can be traced,
allowance for differential thermal expansion is required, the line can't be pigged
or cleaned with a rotary brush, cross contamination is possible, and special
alloys may be required for the tracer to prevent corrosion. Internal tracing is
applicable only if leakage of heating fluid into the product can be tolerated
(Figure 3-4).
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Figure 3-1
EXTERNAL - AIR CONVECTION - TRACER
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Figure 3-3
EXTERNAL PIPE JACKET
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Figure 3-4
INTERNAL TRACER
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3.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Two major concerns in the design of a steam tracing system are the steam pressure to
be used and the maximum length of each tracer.
3.3.1 Steam Pressure
Fluor Daniel Master Specification000-250-50300 sets out some guidelines for
steam pressures in tracing service which are summarized in the following table:
Winterization
Zone
Steam pressure, psig (MPag)
Minimum Maximum
IA & IB 15 (0.103) 150 (1.034)
II 25 (0.172) 150 (1.034)
III 60 (0.414) 200 (1.379)
In most cases, a client will already have selected tracing steam pressures based
on their existing installations.
Low pressure steam is inexpensive in most plants, but there are some offsetting
factors which must be considered. Low pressure steam requires the use of
larger headers and tracers to minimize pressure drop in the steam system. The
tracers are generally shorter so there are more of them, and more traps. Capital
and maintenance costs will be higher for a low pressure steam tracing system.
If 15 psig (0.103MPag) steam is used, the condensate will be at too low a
pressure for return in a closed system unless a condensate return tank and
pump are provided. If not, it must be discharged to the plant sewer system. This
is not recommended in freezing climates because of the possibility that ice slicks
will form at grade. If the condensate is collected, the minimum usable steam
pressure is 25 psig (0.172 MPag).
3.3.2 Tracer Length
Maximum tracer lengths are selected so that the pressure drop is 10% of the
inlet pressure psig (MPag) or 10 psig (0.069 MPag) whichever is greater. This
will be a function of the tracer size, steam pressure, and steam rates. The
following table, adapted from Fluor Daniel Master Specification000-250-50300
sets limits on the maximum allowable tracer length for bare tracing.
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STEAM TRACING
SECTION 3.0
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DATE 6-95
MAXIMUM TRACER LENGTH, (FEET) (m)
Steam Pressure,
psig (MPag)
Tracer Size (O.D.)
3/8" - 1/2" 3/4" - 1"
15 - 25 (0.103 - 0.172) 200ft (61 m) 300ft (91 m)
50 - 200 (0.345 - 1.379) 200ft (61 m) 400ft (122 m)
Tracer lengths should not exceed these limits even if the pressure drop is still
within the guidelines. Because cemented tracers have higher heat transfer rates
than bare tracers, the maximum tracer length will be lower than that shown in the
above table. The cement vendor should recommend the maximum tracer length.
3.3.3 Tracer Pocket Depth
Tracer pocket depth is the distance the tracer rises in the direction of flow from a
low point to a high point.
The total pocket depth is the sum of all risers of the tracer. The maximum
allowable total pocket depth shall be equal to 40 % of steam gage pressure in
psig (MPag) expressed in feet (mm).
3.3.4 Insulation of Steam Traced Lines
For externally traced piping the internal diameter of the insulation material must
be increased over the same sized non-traced piping by 0.5"-1.0" (12-25mm)
to provide space for the steam tracer tubing. For tracers applied with heat
transfer cement the increase must be 1.0"-2.0" (25 - 50mm). Calculation of
heat loss must consider this larger outside surface of the insulation and steam
consumption must reflect the higher loads. Increase of heat losses of 12-15%
can be expected.
The oversized insulation requirements of the various tracing options are shown in
Table3-1.
3.4 SYSTEM DETAILS
Energy conservation in steam traced winterization applications was not a concern until
the price of energy rose rapidly in the 1970's. It was common practice to turn on the
winterizing steam in the fall before the first freeze and let it run continuously through the
winter until it was shut off in the spring. Steam was consumed with little regard for the
ambient temperature or maintenance temperature of the process. Control valves are
now available which will supply steam in response to the ambient temperature and the
flow rate of steam can be regulated in response to the process temperature.
Specification of these valves should be considered in any winterization application where
the ambient temperature is above freezing during part of the winter.
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Table 3-1
OVERSIZED INSULATION REQUIREMENTS (1)(2)
3/8" O.D Tubing or
Electric Tracing
1/2" O.D.
Tubing
3/4" O.D. Tubing
or 1/2" NPS Pipe
Pipe
Size NPS
One Tracer
NPS
Two Tracers
NPS
One Tracer
NPS
Two Tracers
NPS
One Tracer
NPS
Two Tracers
NPS
WITHOUT TRANSFER CEMENT
1/2 1 1 - 1/4 1 - 1/4 1 - 1/4 2 2
3/4 1 - 1/4 1 - 1/4 1 - 1/4 1 - 1/2 2 2
1 1 - 1/2 1 - 1/2 1 - 1/2 2 2 2 - 1/2
1 - 1/2 2 2 2 - 1/2 2 - 1/2 2 - 1/2 3
2 2 - 1/2 2 - 1/2 3 3 3 3
2 - 1/2 3 3 3 3 - 1/2 3 - 1/2 3 - 1/2
3 3 - 1/2 3 - 1/2 3 - 1/2 4 4 4
4 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 7 7 7 7 7 7
8 9 9 9 9 9 9
10 11 11 11 11 11 11
12 14 14 14 14 14 14
14 15 15 15 15 15 15
16 17 17 17 17 17 17
18 19 19 19 19 19 19
20 21 21 21 21 21 21
22 23 23 23 23 23 23
24 25 25 25 25 25 25
WITH HEAT TRANSFER CEMENT AND CHANNELS
1 - 1/2 2 - 1/2 2 - 1/2
2 3 - 1/2 3
3 4 4 4 4 5 5
4 5 5 5 5 6 6
6 8 8 8 8 8 8
8 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 12 12 12 12 12 12
12 14 14 14 14 14 14
14 16 16 16 16 16 16
16 18 18 18 18 18 20
18 20 20 20 20 20 22
20 22 22 22 22 22 24
24 26 26 26 26 26 26
Notes:
(1) Double traced lines calculated on 90
o
spacing.
(2) When using heat transfer cement of a type that covers the entire tracer tube, allowance will have
to be made for the cement.
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3.4.1 Ambient Sensing Valves
Ambient sensing valves can be installed on individual tracers or on steam
sub-headers which supply a number of tracers. The valve is actuated by
changes in the ambient temperature, so it can be set to supply steam only when
it is required. Care must be taken in installing such a valve to ensure that the
valve senses the true ambient temperature, and not a locally elevated
temperature due to heat from nearby process equipment.
One manufacturer of an ambient sensing valve is Ogontz Controls Co. Their
valves are self-actuating and can be ordered set to open at temperatures from
35
o
F to 255
o
F (1.7
o
C to 123.9
o
C) in sizes from 1/2" to 2", with steam capacities
up to 2,400 lb/hr (1,090 kg/hr).
The amount of steam which can be saved by using an ambient sensing valve
can be readily estimated from climatic data by calculating the fraction of the
winterization period during which the ambient temperature is above the required
maintenance temperature. Economic payout of the control valve can then be
calculated.
3.4.2 Temperature Control
Steam tracing for winterization is designed to maintain a specified minimum
process temperature at the low ambient design temperature. The design
includes a safety factor to ensure the system will work. The net result is that
during most of the winter, the process temperature will be higher than the
required maintenance temperature. This wastes energy and,in the case of some
process fluids, may cause undesirable effects such as increased corrosion rates
or decomposition of thermally sensitive compounds.
The process temperature can be controlled by using a temperature control valve
to regulate the flow of steam to the tracer. Each tracer must be individually
controlled if uniform temperatures are required and even in this case, the
process temperature will very over a 20
o
F (11
o
C) range. This is due in part to
varying steam temperature over the length of the tracer.
Overheating is a potential problem with steam tracing because the temperature
of the steam is often much higher than the required winterization temperature.
Even with bare tracers, there may be local hot spots in the pipe wall which may
cause a degradation of process fluids or increases in stress corrosion in piping
that contains acids or caustic. If this poses a problem, insulating spacers can be
placed between the tracer and pipe to reduce the rate of heat transfer.
Overheating is most likely to occur in dead legs or stagnant lines. Impulse lines
and sample lines are another place where overheating may occur. Use of
electric tracing should be considered if overheating appears to be a concern.
3.4.3 Steam Traps
Each tracer terminates with a steam trap. The steam trap prevents the passage
of live steam and releases condensate and noncondensable gases. Control
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Systems is responsible for specifying the steam trap. Process must indicate
what the expected condensate load will be. Desirable features for a steam trap
are:
Resistance to damage due to freezing
Operation on light condensate loads
Intermittent abrupt discharge
Listed below are the three general types of steam traps and the principle of
operation on how steam and condensate are separated:
Mechanical traps-by density difference
Thermostatic traps-by temperature difference
Thermodynamic traps-by energy difference
3.4.4 Mechanical Traps
There are many designs for mechanical traps (Figure 3-5). All depend on the
fact that the trap's internal mechanism will float on water. The three basic
mechanical steam traps are: inverted bucket, open bucket and float.
The inverted bucket (Figure 3-5a) design is superior to the open bucket
(Figure3-5c) type (which has no air handling capacity) and is the most
commonly used mechanical trap. It is similar to the open bucket trap, but the
bucket is inverted and open at the bottom. The valve linkage mechanism
attached to the top of the bucket permits the valve to open and close as the
bucket moves up and down. Bucket traps should always be primed to prevent
loss of steam on initial startup.
The float trap (Figure 3-5b) is used commonly as a continuous drainer of
condensate. The lever "A" (Figure 3-5b) is connected to the valve arm "B" by
means of a toggle link "C". The levers are arranged to give a small movement to
the valve for a large movement to the float when the trap is nearly empty;
however, the higher the float rises the more rapidly the valve opens. For a given
pressure, each float level corresponds to a valve opening and discharge flow.
Mechanical traps should be installed at least 12 inches below the bottom of the
steam header to allow sufficient static head for operation of the float or bucket
trap without exchanger flooding. These traps also require a vent for elimination
of noncondensible gases. This vent should be piped to a point on the heat
exchanger where there is little chance for blockage with condensate.
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SECTION 3.0
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Figure 3-5
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3.4.5 Thermostatic Traps
Thermostatic traps (Figure 3-6) are activated by the temperature of the fluid
reaching the trap. The balanced-bellows trap (Figure3-6a) consists of a flexible
bellows containing water. The variation of the vapor pressure within the closed
bellows due to the condensate temperature, opens and closes the outlet orifice.
For this reason, the condensate collected in the trap must be slightly sub-cooled
to open the outlet. Because of this requirement for sub-cooling, thermostatic
traps should be installed uninsulated and it is best to leave at least 24 inches
(0.61mm) of uninsulated inlet piping ahead of the trap.
Sometimes a thermostatic trap is combined with the float trap. These
combination traps (Figure3-6b) are intended for low pressure applications where
large volumes of air must be eliminated. The float controls condensate
discharge and the thermostatic element controls elimination.
3.4.6 Thermodynamic Disk Traps
The most commonly used trap today is the thermodynamic disk trap (Figure 3-7).
It uses the higher kinetic energy of steam over water to close the outlet with
static pressure. When condensate enters the trap, it simply lifts the disk and
flows through the trap outlet. If steam reaches the trap, it flows with a higher
velocity, which builds up sufficient pressure above the trap disk to press it
closed. This cycle is repeated as steam continues to condense. A small air vent
is provided for relief of non-condensible gases.
The main advantage of the of the disk trap are its small size and low first cost. It
is widely used for light load applications such as steam line drips and steam
tracers. This trap always expels a little steam so that the condensate line
temperature stays above freezing.
3.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM TRACING
3.5.1 Advantages
a. Low cost of steam per thermal unit.
b. Safe in all electrical area classifications.
c. The mechanical type of system is familiar to operations and maintenance
personnel.
d. A high heat availability for rapid thawing of frozen lines.
3.5.2 Disadvantages
a. Inefficient use of energy at low maintenance temperatures.
b. Difficult to achieve close control of process temperature.
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SECTION 3.0
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Figure 3-6
THERMOSTATIC TRAPS
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SECTION 3.0
PAGE 13
DATE 6-95
Figure 3-7
THERMODYNAMIC DISK TRAP
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c. Not suitable for temperatures above 500
o
F (260
o
C) because of high
steam pressures required.
d. Subject to freezing in very cold climates.
e. Relatively high maintenance requirements.
f. High initial installation cost.
3.6 REFERENCES
1. Kohli, I.P., Steam Tracing of Pipeline, Chemical Engineering, March 26, 1979.
2. Bondy, Mesagno, J. and Schwartz, M., An Easy Way to Design Steam Tracing
for Pipes, Chemical Engineering, August 4, 1986.
3. Monroe Jr., E.S., Dupont de Nemours & Co. How to Size and Rate Steam Traps,
Chemical Engineering, April 12, 1976.
3.7 COMPUTER PROGRAM
There will be a computer program available for steam tracing and Glycol Systems at a
later date.
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STEAM TRACING
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 15
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1.0 2.0 3.0
4.0 ELECTRIC TRACING
4.1 OVERVIEW
Electric tracing is suitable for a wider range of winterization applications than any other
heating medium. Generally electrical heating can be used anywhere that steam heating
can, with the exception of some Class I hazardous areas. The final choice will be
determined by the economics, the availability of power or steam, and by client
preference.
In previous years, electric tracing has been a problem on some contracts. Clients
insisted that subcontractors be responsible for the design of the electric tracing system.
This led to coordination problems with subsequent schedule delays and cost overruns. If
electric tracing expertise is available within Fluor Daniel, we should pursue in designing
these systems, rather than relying on a subcontractor.
Acceptance of electric tracing in winterization has grown in recent years as a result of
improved control technology and because electric tracing is generally more efficient than
steam tracing in typical winterization applications, which have a relatively low
maintenance temperature. Electric tracing control includes numerous features e.g.,
digital temperature read out, low temperature alarm, temperature control setting, and
RTD sensor failure alarm.
There are several different varieties of electric tracing, and the following sections
describe some of the more commonly encountered forms. Process is responsible for
setting the temperature to be maintained and Electrical calculates the heat load and
handles the details of tracing system selection and design. Process and Control
Systems are involved in selection of control of the system. The following information is
provided because, for some jobs, the process engineer may be deeply involved with
details of system design.
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACING
4.2.1 Advantages
a. Accurate temperature control of the process stream.
b. Temperatures higher than about 500
o
F (260
o
C).
c. Services where steam could cause local or general overheating i.e.,
plastic pipe, lined pipe, instrument lines, or safety showers.
d. In areas with very low ambient temperatures where freezing of steam
systems is a possibility.
e. Tracing long piping runs, in remote locations where steam is not
available.
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ELECTRIC TRACING
SECTION 4.0
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4.2.2 Disadvantages
a. Potential sheathing material damage by chemical attack if product leaks.
b. Potential hazard when tracing dismantled for maintenance.
c. Some forms of electric tracing are susceptible to overheating and
burnouts and damage by moisture and corrosive atmosphere.
4.3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC TRACING
Varieties of electric tracing are available which use resistance, impedance, induction, or
skin effect current to provide heat. Resistance heating is the most common form of
heating and can be broken down into several sub-types. The following four types of
commonly used electric tracing will be described:
Self-Limiting Parallel Resistance
Mineral Insulated (MI) Series Resistance
Zoned Series Resistance
Skin Effect Current Tracing (SECT)
4.4 SELF-LIMITING PARALLEL RESISTANCE CABLE
The self-limiting cable responds to local temperatures at each point along its length so
the heat output will vary with the local temperature and tracer length has little effect with
heat input rate. Because of this, self-limiting cable can be overlapped without danger of
cable burnout. The maximum tracer length can be more than 100 ft (30.48M).
Self-limiting cables are thin and flat, and flexible enough for wrapping around fittings or
pipe. Generally the cable will fit under standard size insulation and provide good heat
transfer without cement.
Self-limiting cables are available in heat ranges from 3-20 watts/ft at 50
o
F or 9.8-
65.6W/m at 10
o
C and some varieties are approved for use in Class I, Division 2, Group
B, C, and D areas. Because the cables are plastic jacketed, they are limited to maximum
exposure temperatures of 150
o
F - 375
o
F (65.6
o
C - 190.6
o
C) (Figure 4-1). These
cables are particularly well suited for winterization applications with a low maintenance
temperature or for tracing of instrument lines where overheating is undesirable. Because
the cables are self-limiting, they are economical to operate, and thermostats are
generally not required unless a specific maximum process temperature is required.
Special cables are available for short term exposure to high temperatures as high as 500
o
F (260
o
C), i.e., when steaming out lines or abnormal exposure to high temperatures.
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Figure 4-1
HEAT OUTPUT OF A SELF-LIMITING ELECTRIC TRACER
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4.5 MINERAL INSULATED SERIES RESISTANCE CABLE
Mineral Insulated (MI) cables consist of one, two or three conductors insulated with
magnesium oxide insulation and sheathed in a seamless metal covering of copper,
stainless steel or inconel. The conductor is a resistance heating element, and the
voltage required to provide a specified heat density varies with the length of the circuit.
Each tracer is generally shop designed and fabricated to fit a particular run of pipe. The
cable provides a constant wattage heat output along its length, so it may not be overlaid
or contact itself, otherwise burn-out may occur. Heat transfer cement or metal foil may
be applied to reduce sheath temperature.
The main advantage of MI cables is that they can be used for maintenance of process
temperatures up to 800
o
F (427
o
C) and can withstand exposure temperatures of
1,000
o
F-1,200
o
F (538
o
C - 649
o
C). MI cables are capable of higher heat densities
than self-limiting cables. They are generally more suitable for process heat conservation
than for winterization applications. At least one manufacturer (Thermon) supplies an MI
cable which is approved for use in Class I, Division I areas when the system is
manufacturer designed.
4.6 ZONED SERIES RESISTANCE TRACING
Zoned series resistance tracing consists of two thermoplastic insulated conductors with a
small nichrome resistance wire spiralled around them and covered with insulation. The
resistance wire is connected to the conductors at intervals of 1-4 ft (0.3 -1.2m). This
produces a cable which has a series of independent heating zones along its length. The
cable has a constant wattage heat output generally in the range of 2-10 watts/ft (6.6 -
32.8W/m). Typical temperature limits for these cables are 200
o
F - 400
o
F (93
o
C -
204
o
C) depending on the type of insulation used. Factory fabrication is not required,
because the zoning of the heating elements allows the cable to be cut to length in the
field.
Zoned resistance tracers are subject to overheating since they are constant wattage
heaters, so they should not be overlapped. Also, thermostatic control is desirable in
winterization applications to limit temperatures and provide economical operation.
4.7 SKIN EFFECT CURRENT TRACING
Skin Effect Current Tracing (SECT) relies on a phenomenon known as skin effect to
provide heat. When AC power is passed through a ferromagnetic material such as steel,
the current flows through a thin layer or skin. In the SECT system, AC power is applied
to a small diameter internal cable running inside a steel tube (heat tube) which is welded
continuously (or at fixed interval) or attached by a heat transfer cement to the process
pipe. The terminal ends of the internal cable are connected to the heated tube to form a
complete circuit. The heated tube and the pipe are grounded throughout its length to
avoid electric shock to personnel and fire hazard. Heat generated in the heat tube is
conducted to the process fluid (Figure 4-2).
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Figure 4-2
SKIN EFFECT CURRENT TRACING
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The SECT system utilizes a steel tube having an inside diameter of between 1/4 inch and
1 1/2 inch as the heat tube. The internal cable is usually a copper wire having an inner
conductor cross sectional area ranging from 8 to 60 square millimeters( AWG #8 to
AWG#20). The cable insulating materials are made of heat resisting PVC, cross-linked
polyethylene, silicone rubber and Teflon. Voltage applied to the tube ranges from 300 to
700 volts per kilometer, and the current is in the range of 50 and 200 amperes with
cables connected to an AC source of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. A heating output of between 15
and 150 watts per tube per meter is possible. To facilitate pulling the cable through the
tube, pull boxes are provided at intervals and joint boxes are also installed to splice the
cable.
For most applications, one heat tube is used for pipes up to a diameter of 12 inches
(0.3048m) and two tubes are used for larger pipe diameters. The number of tubes is
increased as the diameter of the pipe becomes larger to improve the temperature
distribution on the circumferential surface of the pipeline. A SECT installation is
engineered to fit a specific application and is not readily field modified. Installation costs
can be high if the heat tube is field welded to the process pipe.
The SECT system is most useful for heat tracing of pipelines, gathering systems and
long offsites piping runs. The only limiting factor for the length of pipe which can be heat
traced by a single power source is the voltage rating of the supply cable which is routed
inside the heat tube. If the supply cable is designed for 10,000 volts, a 30 mile
(48.27km) circuit length is possible. Other strong points of the system are high thermal
efficiency, safety, reliability, and ease of repair. The product pipe and outside of the heat
tube are electrically grounded, so a SECT heated pipe can safely be buried or run
underwater. In spite of the fact that high voltages and currents are present in the inside
skin of the heat tube, the maximum voltage difference between the outside of the heat
and ground is 0.1 - 0.2 volts with a leakage current of 0.01 - 0.1 amps.
A comparison study conducted by Continental Oil Company between the SECT system
and the Thermon series resistance heat tracing on buried flowlines/trunklines
transporting crude oil at 70
o
F - 90
o
F (21
o
C - 32
o
C)

showed that the former can maintain
a temperature of up to 300
o
F (149
o
C) whereas the latter can only maintain up to a
temperature of to 150
o
F (65.6
o
C). The SECT system was found to be more economical
for pipes larger than 3 inch with pipe length greater than 5,400 ft (1,646m). Although the
cost of installation of the SECT system was more expensive, more failures have
occurred with the Thermon system.
One of the major advantages of electric tracing is that process temperatures can be
controlled to within 5
o
F (2.8
o
C). Precise temperature control is not a requirement for
winterization; however, use of temperature controls can provide significant energy
savings. Ambient sensing controls should be used in any climate where the ambient
temperature is above freezing during part of the winterization season.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
ELECTRIC TRACING
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 6
DATE 6-95
Mechanical thermostats are generally used to provide control in on-off applications such
as ambient sensing for freeze protection. One limitation in the use of thermostats is that
the maximum capillary tube length is about 10 ft (3.048m), or up to 25 ft (7.62m) with
compensation. Also, thermostats may not be able to withstand intermittent high
exposure temperatures such as during steam-outs. In these cases of electric tracing,
selection of the sensor location must be carefully considered to ensure that the worst
local ambient temperature is sensed.
When precise control is required, voltage-proportioning controllers may be used to
modulate the heat output of the electric tracing. This type of control is more expensive
than thermostatic control. For winterization applications with a minimum of controls,
self-limiting electric tracing with ambient sensing thermostats will provide the most energy
efficient system; however, self-limiting cable will not provide close temperature control
without additional instrumentation.
4.9 REFERENCES
1. Ando, M., and Othmer, D.F., Heating Pipelines with Electrical Skin Current,
Chem. Eng., March 9, 1970.
2. Yurkanin, R.M., and Claussen, E.O., Safety Aspects of Electrical Heating
Systems, Chem. Eng., Dec. 14, 1970.
3. Ando, M., and Kawahara, H., How Skin Effect Tracing Works, Hydrocarbon
Processing, Dec. 1976.
4. Myers, R.W., An Electrically Heated Buried Gathering System Transports
High-Pour-Point Crude Oil, Journal of Petroleum Technology, June 1978.
5. Fisch, E., Winterizing Process Plants, Chem. Eng., August 20, 1984.
6. Brown, C. W., Electric Pipe Tracing Chem. Eng., June 23, 1975.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
ELECTRIC TRACING
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 7
DATE 6-95
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
5.0 LIQUID MEDIA SYSTEMS
5.1 LIQUID MEDIA USED AND RANGE OF APPLICATION
There are a large number of fluids that are used in the chemical process industry as heat
transfer media. They include water, water/glycol mixes, organic compounds and molten
salts. Molten salts have no application to heat tracing and will not be considered further.
5.1.1 Water
Water is the most common heat transfer medium, being used as either liquid or
as steam. It is readily available, cheap, nondegrading, nonflammable and its
thermal properties provide the best heat transfer efficiency. Within the operating
temperature range of most heat tracing applications (up to approximately 300
o
F)
(149
o
C) water can be used without corrosion problems. However, it suffers from
the disadvantage of freezing at 32
o
F (0
o
C), which limits its use to mild climates.
Also, at temperatures above its atmospheric boiling point the system will require
pressurizing to maintain the water in a liquid state.
5.1.2 Water/Glycol Mixtures
Ethylene glycol or commercial formulations of ethylene glycol and corrosion
inhibitors, is added to water to lower its freezing point below 32
o
F (0
o
C). The
concentration of ethylene glycol can be adjusted so that its freezing point is
below the wintertime minimum ambient temperatures. This avoids a freeze up of
the heat tracing system if it were to fail during winter. For example,
concentrations as high as 55wt% ethylene glycol in water are typical in
Canadian locations. This concentration is an optimum of the freezing point
(-47
o
F) (- 43.9
o
C), viscosity (0.55cP at 250
o
F) (0.55MPas at 121
o
C) and
specific gravity of approximately 1.0. The benefits of the favorable thermal
properties possessed by water are reduced somewhat with the addition of
ethylene glycol. However, they are still superior to those of the organic
compounds.
Ethylene glycol/water solutions are generally operated up to temperatures of
250
o
F (121
o
C) in heat tracing applications. Although temperatures up to 300
o
F
(149
o
C) are possible before degradation of the glycol becomes a concern. As
with water, operation at this temperature level would require the system to be
pressurized.
5.1.3 Organic Compounds
This is a large category of heat transfer fluids that includes mineral oils and
vendor formulations of ester based compounds, synthetic hydrocarbon and
aromatic mixtures. The mineral oil selected may simply be a hydrocarbon cut
withdrawn from an intermediate or product stream at the plant site. The vendor
supplied group of heat transfer fluids includes those available under such trade
names as Dowtherm, Santotherm and Therminol. A list of such fluids showing
their physical properties is presented in Tables 5-1 to 5-4.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
LIQUID MEDIA SYSTEMS
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 1 of 17
DATE 6-95
Table 5-1
HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA SELECTION GUIDE
NAME COMPOSITION OPERATING
TEMP. RANGE
o
F
OPERATING
PHASE
FLASH
POINT,
o
F(d)
FIRE POINT
o
F(e)
AUTOIGNITION
TEMP.,
o
F(f)
Dowtherm A
(a)
Eutectic Mix
73.5 % diphenyl oxide
26.5 % biphenyl
60 to 750
495 to 750
Liquid
Vapor
236 245 1,139
Dowtherm G Di-and tri-arylethers 20 to 700 Liquid 266 275 1,183
Dowtherm LF Aromatic Blend - 40 to 650 Liquid 248 259 880
Dowtherm J Alkylated Aromatic - 100 to 600
358 to 600
Liquid
Vapor
136 140 788
Dowtherm HT Partially Hydrogenerated
Terphenyl
25 to 650 Liquid 346 375 662
Dowtherm Q Mixture of diphenylethane
& Alkyated aromatics
- 30 to 625 Liquid - - -
Dowtherm SR-1
(52.4 %W Glycol)
Ethylene glycol-based - 40 to 250 Liquid - - -
Dowtherm 4,000 Ethylene glycol-Based - 46 to 350 Liquid - - -
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 2
DATE 6-95
TEMP. RANGE
o
F
OPERATING
PHASE
FLASH
POINT,
o
F
FIRE POINT
o
F
AUTOIGNITION
TEMP.,
o
F
Dowfrost Propylene glycol-based - 46 to 250 Liquid - - -
Dowfrost HD Propylene glycol-based - 60 to 325 Liquid - - -
Therminol LT
(b)
Alkyl Substituted Aromatic - 100 to 600
- 100 to 600
Liquid 134 150 805
Therminol 44 Modified Ester based - 61 to 400 Liquid 405 438 705
Therminol 55 Synthetic Hydrocarbon
Fluid
- 19 to 550 Liquid 350 410 675
Therminol 59 Alkyl Substituted Aromatic - 49 to 600 Liquid 302 335 770
Therminol 60 Polyaromatic compounds - 61 to 620 Liquid 310 320 835
Therminol 66 Modified Terphenyl 17 to 650 Liquid 350 380 705
Therminol 75 Terphenyl/Quarterphenyl 158 to 750 Liquid 390 440 100
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 3
DATE 6-95
TEMP. RANGE
o
F
OPERATING
PHASE
FLASH
POINT,
o
F
FIRE POINT
o
F
AUTOIGNITION
TEMP.,
o
F
Therminol VP-1 Biphenyl and Diphenyl
Oxide
54 to 750
54 to 750
Liquid
Vapor
255
-
260
-
1,150
-
Mobiltherm 600 Alkylated Aromatic - 5 to 600 Liquid - 460 -
Water 32 to 700
32 to 700
Liquid
Vapor
-
-
-
-
-
-
Glycol Ethylene glycol and water
(50% solution)
< - 40 to 220 Liquid - 245
(100 % glycol)
-
Hot Oil Kerosene - 40 to 550 Liquid - - -
HITEC Eutectic Mix 40 %
NaNO
2
, 7 % NaNO
3
, and
53% KNO
3
400 to 850 Liquid - - -
UNCON 50 HB-280X
(c)
Ether Polyalkylene Oxide 0 to 500 Liquid - 600 743
UCARTHERM
(c)
Ethylene glycol based - 70 to 232 Liquid 264 - -
Notes:
(a) Dowtherm is a Dow Chemical product.
(b) Therminol is a MONSANTO product.
(c) UNCON or UCARTHERM is a Union Carbide product.
(d) ASTM - D2155 - 66
(e) Cleveland Open Cup, ASTM D92-56
(f) ASTM D2155-66
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 4
DATE 6-95
Table 5-2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA BY TRADE NAME
NAME
FREEZING
POINT,
o
F
LIQUID SP. GR.
(a)

LIQUID SP. HT.
(b)

LIQUID
VISCOSITY
(c)
LIQUID
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
(d)
VAPOR
PRESSURE
(e)
Dowtherm A 53 0.90/0.68 0.50/0.63 0.38/0.13 0.069/0.055 4/152
Dowtherm G - 40 0.96/0.82 0.48/0.57 0.68/0.27 0.068/0.054 2/58
Dowtherm LF - 40 0.87/0.76 0.53/0.61 0.42/0.22 0.065/0.051 2.6/51
Dowtherm J - 100 0.71/0.57 0.60/0.72 0.23/0.17 0.051/0.037 25/174
Dowtherm HT - 25 0.87/0.78 0.53/0.66 0.81/0.33 0.065/0.061 0.25/14
Dowtherm Q - 30 0.83/0.74 0.53/0.62 0.36/0.19 0.06/0.048 3/48
Dowtherm SR-1
(f)
(52.4 % W Glycol)
- 40 1.09/1.07 0.75/0.88 19.35/0.52 0.20/0.240 0.02/20
Dowtherm 4,000
(f)
(52.4 % W Glycol)
- 46 1.1/0.96 0.74/0.93 19.35/0.27 0.20/0.23 0.02/89
Dowfrost
(f)
(50.2 % W Glycol)
- 46 1.06/0.96 0.81/0.94 61.32/0.6 0.20/0.22 0.02/26
Dowfrost HD
(50.2 % W Glycol)
- 60 1.08/0.94 0.77/0.97 61.32/0.40 0.20/0.21 0.02/82
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 5
DATE 6-95
NAME FREEZING
POINT,
o
F
LIQUID SP. GR.
(a)
LIQUID SP. HT.
(b)
LIQUID
VISCOSITY
(c)
LIQUID THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
(d)
VAPOR
PRESSURE
(e)
Therminol LT
(g)
- 100
(j)
0.70/0.56 0.59/0.72 0.19/0.11 0.051/0.037 27/233
Therminol 44 - 80
(j)
0.78/0.72 0.57/0.58 0.66/0.59 0.065/0.064 0.16/0.19
Therminol 55 - 40
(j)
0.77/0.69 0.62/0.66 0.74/0.038 0.063/0.056 0.36/3.8
Therminol 59 - 90
(j)
0.84/0.74 0.55/0.64 0.50/0.25 0.060/0.051 0.86/15
Therminol 60 - 90
(j)
0.87/0.76 0.54/0.64 0.54/0.28 0.064/0.052 0.43/15
Therminol 66 - 18
(j)
0.88/0.77 0.53/0.065 0.81/0.35 0.061/0.052 0.43/15
Therminol 75 158
(j)
0.98/0.82 0.50/0.61 1.2/0.31 0.072/0.057 0.21/19
Therminol VP 56
(j)
0.91/0.70 0.50/0.63 0.38/0.15 0.065/0.044 4/156
Mobiltherm 600 0
(j)
0.86/0.81 0.56/0.66 1.03/0.41 0.062/0.058 1</<1
Water 32 0.86/0.44 1.08/11 0.13/0.75 0.38/0.24 249/300
Glycol
(h)
< - 40 1.17 0.87 0.75 0.24 9
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 6
DATE 6-95
NAME FREEZING
POINT,
o
F
LIQUID SP.
GR.
(a)

LIQUID SP. HT.
(b)
LIQUID VISCOSITY
(c)
LIQUID THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
(d)
VAPOR
PRESSURE
(e)
Hot Oil - 40 0.68 @ 500
o
F (i) (i) (i) (i)
Hitec Salt 288 1.94/1.75 0.35 7.1/1.4 0.35
(k)
-
Ucon 50-HB-280X - 35
(j)
- - - - -
Ucartherm
(f)
(53.1 %w Glycol)
- 36 1.09/1.03 0.82/0.89 19.5/0.63 0.21/0.26 .001/0.8
Notes:
(a) SpGr @ 400
o
F/max operating temp. or range limit
(b) Btu/lb
o
F @ 400
o
(c) cP @ 400
o
(d) Btu/hr ft
o
F 400
o
(e) PSIA @ 400
o
F/max operating temp. Or range limit
(f) Properties @ 0
o
F/max operating temp or range limit
(g) Properties @ 200
o
F/max operating temp or range limit
(h) Properties @ 200
o
F
(i) Kerosene, UOP K-12 and 42 API
(j) Pour point or crystallization point
(k) Constant from 468
o
F to 689
o
F
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 7
DATE 6-95
Table 5-3
PROPERTIES OF MAJOR TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA
(a)
Composition Temp. use
range,
o
F Min
pumping
temp.
(b)
,
o
F
Flash
point
(c)
,
o
F
Fire
point
(c)
,
o
F
Auto-
ignition
temp.
(d)
,
o
F
Vapor
pressure
psig
(e)
Thermal
conductivity
Btu/hr ft
2

o
F/ft
Specific
heat
Btu/lb
o
F
Density
lb/ft
3
Viscosity
cP Liquid Vapor
Mixtures of
diphenyl and
diphenyl oxide
(f)
60/750
6/750
495/750
495/750
53.6
53.6
255
240
275
260
(1,139)
1,150
30.6
31.0
0.061
0.056
0.579
0.564
49.29
49.78
0.19
0.18
Mixture of di- and
tri-arylethers
20/700 - - 4 285 295 (1,083) 9.5 0.059 0.540 53.91 0.30
Aromatic blend - 40/650 - - 50 275 295 (932) 17.3 0.055 0.590 48.67 0.24
Alkylated aromatic - 100/600 358/600 < - 100 145 155 (788) 159.8 0.0625 0.720 35.36 0.11
Hydrogenated
terphenyls
25/650
15/650
-
-
31
30
355
350
375
375
(662)
705
(434)
(434)
0.062
0.0545
0.630
0.628
49.55
50.30
0.38
0.40
Dimethyl siloxane - 40/750 - < - 50 320 350 725 50 0.0520 0.490 42.00 0.43
Polyaromatic - 60/600 - - 50 310 320 835 6.9 0.0540 0.622 49.05 0.30
Synthetic hydrocarbon 0/600 - 4 350 410 675 (341) 0.0535 0.699 42.71 0.36
Paraffinic Oils 15/600
40/600
-
-
< 15
< 40
390
430
430
ND
(a)
670
675
(110)
(150)
0.046
0.064
0.70
0.70
44.42 0.40
Mineral oils 5/600
25/600
5/600
-
-
-
< 35
< 25
20
350
380
400
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
(210)
(160)
(120)
0.060
0.065
0.065
0.70
0.67
0.670
47.30
42.43
42.43
0.45
0.43
0.47
Isomeric Dibenzyl
Benzenes
- 4/662 - - 18 374 ND 932 (134) 0.0644 0.61 50.85 0.38
Isomeric dimethyl
diphenyl oxide
- 4/626 - - 46 275 ND 1,013 15.3 0.0534 0.55 49.79 0.27
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 8
DATE 6-95
Table 5-3
PROPERTIES OF MAJOR TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA
(a)
Composition Temp. use
range,
o
F Min
pumping
temp.
(b)
,
o
F
Flash
point
(c)
,
o
F
Fire
point
(c)
,
o
F
Auto-
ignition
temp.
(d)
,
o
F
Vapor
pressure
psig
(e)
Thermal
conductivity
Btu/hr ft
2

o
F/ft
Specific
heat
Btu/lb
o
F
Density
lb/ft
3
Viscosity
cP Liquid Vapor
Alkyl diphenyl - 39/707 - - 22 266 ND ND 11.3 0.0569 0.625 47.96 0.322
Alkyl benzene 32/590 - - 49 358 367 ND (310) 0.0609 0.645 43.70 0.35
Courtesy: Chemical Engineering, February 1989, Siefert, W. F., Matching the Fluids with the Process.
Notes:
(a) Data for a given fluid are based on input from its manufacturer. An ND entry means no data available.
(b) For mixtures of diphenyl and diphenyl dioxide, this is the freezing point; for the other products, this is the temperature at which the fluid viscosity is 1,000 centipoise.
(c) Cleveland Open Cup (COC).
(d) Values in parentheses determined by ASTM Method E-669-79; other values determined by ASTM D-2155.
(e) Values in parentheses are in mm Hg rather than psig.
(f) Each of two products listed is a eutectic mixture of 26.5 % diphenyl and 73.5% diphenyl oxide.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 9
DATE 6-95
Table 5-4
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF MAJOR TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA
(a)
Fluid composition Maximum usage
temp.,
o
F
Minimum pumping
temp.,
o
F
Film coeff. at 600
o
F, Btu/(hr) (ft
2
) (
o
F) Pressure drop at 600
o
F
psi/100 ft
At 5 ft/s At 7 ft/s At 3 ft/s At 7 ft/s
Mixture of diphenyl and diphenyl
oxide
750 53.6 464 607 1.3 6.9
Mixture of diphenyl and diphenyl
oxide
750 53.6 449 588 1.3 7.0
Dimethyl siloxane 750 - 50 239 313 1.2 6.2
Mixture of di- and tri-aryl ethers 700 - 4 387 506 1.5 7.6
Hydrogenated terphenyl 650 31 353 462 1.4 7.2
Hydrogenated terphenyl 650 30 310 417 1.4 7.3
Aromatic blend 650 - 50 384 503 1.3 6.9
Alkylated aromatic 600 < - 100 522 684 0.9 4.9
Polyaromatic 600 - 50 355 465 1.4 7.0
Synthetic Hydrocarbon 600 4 302 395 1.2 6.2
Paraffinic oil 600 < 15 + 268 351 1.3 6.5
Paraffinic oil 600 < 40 + 280 367 1.3 6.4
Mineral oil 600 < 35 319 417 1.4 7.0
Mineral oil 600 < 25 + 310 406 1.3 6.3
Mineral oil 600 20 298 390 1.3 6.3
Isomeric dibenzyl benzenes 662 - 18 366 479 1.4 7.4
Isomeric dimethyl diphenyl oxide 626 - 46 359 469 1.4 7.1
Alkyl diphenyl 707 - 22 350 458 1.4 6.9
Alkyl benzene 590 - 49 330 433 1.3 6.4
Notes:
(a) Siefert, W.F., Matching the Fluid with the Process, Chemical Engineering, Feb. 1989
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 10
DATE 6-95
Commercial organic compounds have been developed to replace steam as a
process heating medium. The basis for this approach is that they have
significantly lower vapor pressures than water at high temperatures. The
equipment cost for a system using such fluids as the heat transfer medium is
thus less than a system using steam.
Normally there would have to be special circumstances for organic compounds
to be considered for heat tracing service alone. Such a case may be a large
heat tracing and storage tank heating requirement in a concentrated area and at
a temperature level difficult to maintain with steam or electric tracing. The most
probable application for organic fluids in heat tracing service however, would be
in conjunction with their use in overall plant process heating.
The range of temperature that can be covered by organic compounds in total is
extremely large. Specific compounds have an optimum operating temperature
range. However, there are a number of compounds (alkylated benzenes and
alkylated biphenyls) that exceed the needs of heat tracing service, with individual
compounds having a range of application from -100
o
F (- 73
o
C) to in excess of
500
o
F) (260
o
C).
5.2 GENERAL SYSTEM DETAILS
5.2.1 Equipment Requirements
Figure 5-1 is a schematic diagram showing the equipment items required for a
liquid medium system. These include an expansion tank, a heater, circulation
pumps and a side stream filter. Although this configuration is typical, the specific
characteristics of the fluid employed has a bearing on the design criteria and
specification of each item. These matters are discussed below on an equipment
item basis.
A liquid medium heat tracing method requires several items of equipment, it is
advisable that the heat tracing selection procedure is completed as early in the
project as is practical. This will ensure that the equipment data sheets are
prepared in a timely manner and that space is allocated on the plot plan.
Due to the flammable nature of many of the liquids that may be used,
consideration must also be given to the electrical area classification.
a. Expansion Tank
This equipment item provides the surge volume for expansion of the
liquid medium on heating. It also acts as the main venting point of the
system for air and oxidation products. Usually the expansion tank is
sized so that it is 1/4 full when the system is at its minimum ambient
temperature and 3/4 full when the system is at its operating temperature.
However, its minimum volume is set at twice the expansion volume.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 11
DATE 6-95
Figure 5-1
LIQUID HEATING MEDIUM TRACING SYSTEM
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 12
DATE 6-95
The expansion tank should be blanketed with an inert gas such as
nitrogen or sweet, dry fuel gas if the liquid medium decomposes in the
presence of oxygen. This will occur at a measurable rate at
temperatures above 250
o
F (121
o
C) for glycol solutions. The
degradation temperature and decomposition products for commercial
formulations vary widely. The vendor should be consulted for system
design recommendations. The corrosion inhibitors and buffers contained
in commercial glycol formulations are intended to minimize corrosion
from oxidation products. Such additives are used to increase the
operating temperature of glycol/water solutions. For example Dowtherm
4,000 is rated by Dow Chemicals for use up to a temperature of 350
o
F
(177
o
C).
A pressurized inert gas blanket may also be required to suppress boiling
water when either water or a water/glycol solution is used as the liquid
medium, and it is not possible to locate the expansion tank at the high
point of the system.
The double "drop leg" arrangement shown on Figure 5-1 facilitates
purging air from the system during start-up and ensures that flow to the
pump is uninterrupted at all times.
b. Circulation Pumps
For the circulation rates and differential heads encountered in this
service, centrifugal pumps will normally be specified. Mechanical
specifies the specific requirements of this pump service (e.g.,
mechanical seal materials and arrangement and lube oil cooling) from
data supplied on the pump data sheet provided by Process. Depending
on service temperature and pump characteristics there may be the need
to provide cooling water for bearings or stuffing box jacket cooling.
As this is a critical pump service, the usual practice is to provide one
100% duty, normally operating pump and one 100% spare. A minimum
flow bypass is recommended for start-up and summer operation.
c. Heater
Heat for liquid media tracing systems may be supplied by a number of
means:
A shell and tube heat exchanger using excess low pressure
steam as the heating source. This method would be most
applicable to a glycol/water system.
Fired heater, either direct or firetube type, with the former
preferred.
Waste heat recovery unit, such as that for recovering waste heat
from gas turbine exhaust.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 13
DATE 6-95
Electric heating.
Organic compounds will degrade when subjected to excessively high
temperatures. For commercial formulations the degradation products
are mainly "low boilers" that are periodically vented. This is a source of
fluid loss from the system that must be replaced by makeup. The
parameters of the heater design should ensure that the maximum film
temperature, recommended by the vendor for the specific fluid, is not
exceeded. One approach to avoid this is to maintain relatively high fluid
velocities, generally 4-10 ft/sec (1.20 - 3.05m/s) over the heating
surface. System controls and pump design should ensure that the
maximum recommended film temperature is not exceeded during
turndown operation.
d. Filter
A sidestream filter is not essential but may be included if there is reason
to believe that degradation products will form in the system. The vendor
of the liquid medium should be consulted on this matter. A capacity of
2-10 % of system circulation rate is sufficient, along with the capability to
remove particles 10-20m in size.
5.2.2 Tracing Methods
Liquid media supply heat to piping, equipment and instruments through the use
of tracing and jacketing in a similar manner to steam. Thus the concepts
described for steam tracing in sections 3.1.1 through 3.1.5 apply to liquid media
also. An obvious difference is that steam condenses in use and the condensate
is collected in a condensate return system after it exits the tracing through a
steam trap whereas a liquid medium is collected in a return header system that
forms a closed loop with the supply system.
5.2.3 Design Considerations
a. Determining System Heat Duty
Making an accurate estimate of the heat duty for liquid media tracing
systems is extremely important since it forms the basis for the equipment
specifications. The tendency is to underestimate the heat duty,
especially during the earlier stages of a project when the demands on
the system are not well defined. This would not be of great
consequence for steam tracing systems, due to the ready availability of
low pressure steam. However, a significant underestimate of heat duty
for a liquid medium system will be reflected in operation as a deficiency
in equipment performance that may be difficult and costly to rectify.
The schedule for a project may require the issue of the equipment
specifications before all of the duties on the heat tracing system are
adequately quantified or even identified. The process engineer
responsible for the heat tracing system must make the effort to
understand the accuracy of the duties that are provided for the
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DATE 6-95
consumers. Then judgement is used in evaluating the contingency that
is to be added, and incorporated into the equipment specifications, to
account for growth over the remainder of the project.
The heat duty on the tracing system will be the sum of individual duties
from many consumers. The principal components will be from supplying
tracing heat to the process piping, equipment and instruments. However
the heat tracing system is often utilized as a convenient heat source and
may also be used in the following services:
Providing small quantities of low grade process heat
Heating buildings
Heating protective instrument boxes, required for cold climate
plant locations
b. Distribution System Hydraulics
As stated above, a liquid medium is supplied to and returned from the
plant consumers through piping headers. In practice the individual
consumers (pipe and instrument tracers, tank heating coils, etc.,) are
usually supplied from sub-headers that branch off the main supply
header into specific areas or units. There is a corresponding
arrangement of sub-headers to collect the heating medium and return it
to the main return header. Sizing the piping in this complex hydraulic
network of supply and return headers, sub-headers and consumers,
presents a difficult process design problem requiring careful analysis.
The objective for the process engineer sizing the piping is to ensure that
there is reasonably even distribution throughout, so that an adequate
supply of heating medium is available to all areas of the plant.
The required calculations can be assisted through the use of a PC
hydraulics network program, such as KYPIPE. This program, available
in all Fluor Daniel offices, is specifically designed for single phase
hydraulic network analysis. It is recommended that, as a minimum, the
system model include the main supply and return headers and
subheaders. The program will optimize header and subheader size and
turndown and off design operations can be evaluated.
The task of system hydraulic design is simplified if the flow of liquid
medium through the principal consumers is controlled.
Two possible methods for this are:
Adjusting the tracer block valves located at the return
sub-headers to balance the system
Installing at the outlet of each tracer a self contained regulator
specifically intended to control liquid medium flow rate by
sensing its temperature
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Note that these control methods are seldom actually used due to
the increased operator attention to adjust valves and the high
cost of individual regulator valves.
Even with a carefully designed system, it is not always possible to
provide an adequate supply of heating medium to remote consumers
e.g., long product lines and flare knock-out drums. In such cases it may
be necessary to selectively use electric tracing in preference to the liquid
medium.
c. Development of Heat Tracing Selection Charts
The normal Fluor Daniel method of determining the number and size of
tracers required to maintain a fluid in a pipe above its minimum allowable
temperature is by means of a heat loss chart. A standardized chart, for
use with steam as the heating fluid, is provided in Piping Engineering
Technical Practice 000 250 1601. A similar set of charts is not available
for liquid media. When a liquid medium tracing system is selected an
equivalent set of charts must be developed by process engineering for
the specific fluid. The charts are then used by piping to determine the
number and size of tracers required by each traced line. The method
used to develop the charts is described in Appendix I.
5.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID MEDIA SYSTEMS
Advantages
a. Temperature of the liquid medium can be closely controlled to avoid degradation
of heat sensitive process fluids.
b. For plants located in areas with severe winters, liquid media are available that do
not freeze or congeal in the event that operating problems cause circulation
failure during winter.
c. Temperature of a liquid medium can be adjusted as the ambient temperature
changes to optimize energy use.
Disadvantages
a. Degradation of liquid media can occur if the system is operated incorrectly,
resulting in excessive make up requirements.
b. Leakage requires expensive make up and may result in environmental
contamination and product contamination.
c. Some liquids used in this service are flammable and can pose a fire and
explosion risk.
d. Some liquids used in this service pose potential health risks due to skin and eye
irritation. Oral toxicity is generally low.
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5.4 REFERENCES
1. Singh, J., Selecting Heat Transfer Fluids for High Temperature Service,
Chemical Engineering, June 1, 1981.
2. Green, R.L., Larsen, A.H., and Park, A.C., Get Fluent about Heat Transfer
Fluids, Chemical Engineering, February, 1989.
3. Siefert, W.F., Matching the Fluid with the Process, Chemical Engineering,
February, 1989.
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1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
6.0 COMPARISON OF HEAT TRACING
Steam, electric, and hot-heat transfer fluid tracing are suitable for many winterization
applications. The choice between the three methods can generally be made by
considering the following items:
Utility Availability
Client Preference
Safety
Temperature Control
Maintenance
Energy Efficiency
Rate of Heat-up
Reliability
Cost
In some situations, consideration of the first eight items will eliminate one of the methods. If all
methods are still acceptable after considering the first eight items, then an economic comparison
will indicate the preferred method of tracing.
6.1 UTILITY AVAILABILITY
Steam may not be available in some plants or it may not be readily available in certain
areas, such as tank farms. The cost of installing a steam system solely for the purpose
of tracing is generally unacceptable. Adding steam headers and condensate return lines
to serve remote plant areas is also an expensive proposition.
Electrical power is normally available throughout most plants; however, in some cases,
the addition of electric tracing may require extensive modifications of the power
distribution system (substations, panels, etc.).
Hot water as a heat transfer fluid has been widely used as a heating medium, especially
in building heating application. Although there is an abundant supply in a process facility
in the form of condensate, its reuse for heat tracing is not an acceptable engineering
practice in cold climate areas where it can easily freeze. Water has other disadvantages
such as the need to maintain a high operating pressure at high temperatures and
potential corrosion problems. Synthetic organic or glycol based heat transfer fluids are
usually not readily available in a plant unless previously used in existing facilities.
6.2 CLIENT PREFERENCE
Some clients will have specifications which dictate the type of tracing to be used. Also,
the client may not be willing to consider a method because of past experience. This sort
of bias, if it exists, is usually against electric tracing.
Clients should consider using synthetic organic heat transfer fluids instead of steam at
temperatures above 350
o
F (177
o
C) or below 32
o
F (0
o
C). Most clients in the petroleum
industry are not aware that new heat transfer fluids are available with good potential for
winterizing applications. Glycol/water solutions are commonly used in cold environments
and may be more acceptable to clients in other areas as well.
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SECTION 6.0
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6.3 SAFETY
Steam tracing is safe for use in all electrical areas classifications. It poses a possible
burn hazard to personnel.
Electric tracing poses a safety hazard because of the possibility of electrical arcing.
Special precautions such as a metallic braided sheath, use of conduit, and use of
explosion-proof and/or gas-purged enclosures are required for use of electric tracing in
hazardous areas. To date, only one electric tracer is approved for use in Class I, division
1 areas, and only then if the system is vendor designed. A wide variety of electric tracing
is approved for Class I, division 2 areas.
Many clients are hesitant to use organic heat transfer fluid because of safety concerns
with regard to combustibility and toxicity. New products have been introduced which
have higher flash point, fire point, and auto ignition temperature. Proper safety
precaution during piping design and layout should be observed and organic heat transfer
fluids with high vapor pressures should be avoided.
When process fluid temperatures must be closely controlled, electric tracing is the
method of choice. Electric tracing provides better temperature control because of
uniform heat output along the length of the tracer, easy integration of thermostatic
controls, and rapid response time. Temperatures can be held within a ten degree range
or less. Steam tracing doesn't provide close temperature control because of changes in
heat output along the length of tracer due to pressure drop and the accumulation of
condensate in the tracer. Also the response time of a thermostatically controlled system
is slower than for electric tracing. Good temperature control can be obtained with steam
jacketing, but the jacketing is expensive.
Liquid media heat transfer fluids can provide close temperature control, but only if
multiple supply points are used. The extra piping and controls are very expensive and so
liquid media heat transfer fluids are not usually used for close temperature control.
6.5 MAINTENANCE
Steam tracing needs more maintenance than electric tracing. Leaking joints must be
repaired to prevent the waste of steam and degradation of the surrounding insulation.
Steam traps must be checked several times a year for proper operation and replaced or
serviced if they are faulty.
Maintenance of properly installed electric tracing normally consists of checking
thermostats, and testing circuit integrity once a year. More frequent checking may be
necessary in some installations, and, in this case, use of indicator lights to show active
circuits may be useful. Repair of a faulty circuit can be time consuming particularly for MI
cable.
Because heat transfer fluids operate at low pressure, failure due to leakage seldom
occurs and the system requires minimum maintenance. Degradation has to be
monitored frequently by analyzing samples of the fluid at regular intervals. Samples are
periodically checked for inhibitor concentration, freeze point, and any significant changes
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in their physical properties. Manufacturers claim that some heat transfer fluids have
lasted for over 20 years in some applications. Some products are reclaimable when
degraded and firms give the client credit incentives for the returned products. Some
firms are now putting up reclamation facilities at plant location.
6.6 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Although electric power costs more per thermal unit than steam does, electric tracing is
generally regarded as being more energy efficient. The better efficiency is primarily a
result of the use of thermostatic controls in electrically traced systems to prevent the use
of power when it is not needed. Steam tracers generally provide more energy than the
process requires. The efficiency of steam tracing can be improved by adding appropriate
controls such as ambient sensing valves. Heat transfer fluids have higher overall thermal
efficiency than steam as there are no fluid losses since the system works on closed loop.
6.7 RATE OF HEAT-UP
Some lines in intermittent service are allowed to cool down when out of service. They
are heated by tracing prior to being placed back in service. Steam jacketing or cemented
steam tracing are best suited for rapid heat-up of such a line. Cemented MI electric
tracing can also provide a high rate of heat output, but self-limiting or zoned-resistance
cables have too low a heat output to provide rapid heat-up.
One of the disadvantages of heat transfer fluid is the length of time it takes to bring a
system up to temperature in order to avoid equipment damage. A quick restart after a
brief shutdown should not create a serious problem.
6.8 RELIABILITY
The reliability of the tracing system can be an important factor. Failure of the tracing
system can cause a total plant shutdown, particularly in arctic climates. Steam tracing is
somewhat more reliable than electric tracing because the source of supply is less subject
to interruption and most common tracer failures, such as leaking joints or pipes, may
waste energy but don't impair system performance. Steam tracing is subject to failure if
condensate freezes.
Electric tracing is reliable if it is properly installed. Most failures are due to burn-out of a
cable. Repair or replacement of a burnt-out cable can result in prolonged down time if
the problem is not found quickly.
Synthetic organic heat transfer fluids could be more reliable compared to steam and
electric tracing if the fluid used has a wide temperature range. Lines will not be frozen in
case of unattended shutdown in winter whereas steam lines have to be freed from
condensates. The system can be operated from a cold start if a spare pump is connected
to an emergency generator using natural gas as fuel.
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6.9 COST
The installation and operating costs for both steam and electric tracing are dependent on
the specific application. A meaningful cost comparison can only be done by calculating
the costs for each specific application. An article at the end of this section illustrates an
approach to executing a cost comparison. Some broad generalizations concerning
economics are possible. Installation costs for electric tracing are lower than those for
steam if the cost of headers for steam and condensate are included. Electric tracing
which can be field designed (self-limited or zoned resistance) is cheaper to install than
steam tracing even if header costs are excluded. Operational costs for electric tracing are
higher than for steam tracing if the systems are in service for the same amount of time
and the service is heat conservation. Operating costs for electric tracing are generally
lower for winterization applications with a low maintenance temperature. Electric tracing
is cheaper than steam tracing for tracer lengths of less than 100 ft (30.48m) if the
thermostat can be used as a contactor.
Since most of the synthetic organic heat transfer fluids operate at low vapor pressure,
the installation and operating costs are much lower compared to steam. The system will
have smaller pipe sizes, no pressure control valves and steam traps, and less piping
because there are no steam supply subheaders and condensate return lines. A flash
drum is not required unless a vapor phase heat transfer fluid is generated. The only
make-up required is to replace degradation products.
6.10 REFERENCES
1. Dotiwalla, K. K., Process Heating Systems: Steam or Thermal Fluid?,
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1991.
2. Erickson, C. J., Lyons, D. J., Rafferty, N. R., Sandberg, C., A Study of Steam vs.
Electrical Pipeline Heating Costs on a Typical Petro-Chemical Plant Project.,
Paper No. PCIC-90-02, IEEE.
3. Sandberg, C., Heat Tracing: Steam or Electric, Hydrocarbon Processing, March
1989.
4. Maltby, F. O., Pipe Tracing and Energy Conservation, 27th Canadian Chemical
Engineering Conference, Calgary, Alberta., October 23-27, 1977.
5. Luke, A. G., Miserlis, C. D., How Steam and Electric Tracing Compare in Plant
Operations, Oil and Gas Journal, November 7,1977.
6. Butz, C. H., When is Electricity Cheaper than Steam for Pipe Tracing?, Chemical
Engineering, October 10,1966.
7. Holstein, Jr., W. H., What it Cost to Steam and Electrically Trace Pipelines,
Chemical Engineering Progress, March 1966.
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1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
7.0 PIPING WINTERIZATION
7.1 OVERVIEW
Piping winterization methods include operating techniques, tracing, and insulation, as
previously discussed. All types of winterization may be incorporated during detailed
design, keeping in mind operability and economics. Some guidelines are outlined below.
7.2 OPERATING TECHNIQUES
Operating techniques are based on the principle of avoiding stagnant or low flow
conditions or avoiding liquid accumulation.
One method is to provide bypasses so that liquid in a normally stagnant line (e.g. spare
pump suction and discharge lines), is continually flowing. This can be done by providing
a jumpover line and valve (e.g. bypass from cooling water supply to cooling water return
at end of header) or check valve bypass to backflow material (e.g. pump discharge check
valve bypass). Another method is to drain or blow out liquids during shutdown, assuming
that safe and environmentally acceptable destinations are available. If these methods
are used, the client needs to agree, since his operating and maintenance procedures
must be written with these in mind. In addition, properly located drain valves and
jumpovers must be shown on the P&IDs for Piping to reflect them on the piping
isometrics. Depending on the project piping standards, hydrotest low point drains may
be available for draining lines during shutdown. These will have to be identified by
Process during detailed engineering, since they are typically seal welded after hydrotest.
The use of operating techniques for winterizing should be thoroughly reviewed with the
client during P&ID reviews. Be prepared for vigorous opposition from client operations
personnel. It is much easier for them to rely on expensive tracing than it is to perform
extensive draining and blow down every time the plant shuts down. The client needs to
balance the extra operating problems with the cost of facilities.
7.3 PIPING COMPONENTS
Special piping components to facilitate winterizing protection are available. These
include self draining valves for firewater hydrants and monitors that have a drain opening
that seals itself when the system is pressurized. They need to be installed properly with
adequate underground drainage and are sometimes prone to continual leakage. Other
components are drilled check valves to allow a continual backflow of fluid and twin seal
valves with a port for a drain or vent valve.
7.4 PIPING DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
Sewers and any underground water lines should be winterized by installing below the
frost line. Liquid pockets that may contain water should be minimized. Dead lines,
particularly extensions to low point drains, should be minimized. It is up to Process to
identify potential trouble spots and discuss them with Piping during the detailed design
phase.
The impact of winterizing on piping design needs to be considered. For example, a
stagnant steam traced line may approach the steam tracing temperature unless spacers
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or other measures are taken. Thus, a line normally designed for 100
o
F (38
o
C) may
reach 300
o
F (149
o
C), creating potential pipe stress problems. Adding bends in the line
to overcome stress problems may be incompatible with the process objectives of the line
(e.g. short coupled compressor suction line.) Another potential problem area is the
question of insulating and tracing valve bodies. This may be necessary to absolutely
insure good winterization, but leads to problems when the valve is taken out of service
for maintenance.
There are several approaches to optimize winterization of piping. One approach is to
show winterizing, in the form of tracing or insulation alone, everywhere on the P&ID that
can be identified as a potential problem. Then, when the model is available and/or piping
isometrics can be reviewed, winterization can be eliminated from places that obviously
don't need it (e.g. lines that are self draining, lines that can be winterized by common
insulation, etc.). Another approach is to initially show minimum winterization and pick up
additional requirements when the detailed piping is available for review. Neither of these
approaches is very elegant and both are inefficient and wasteful of home office
manhours. A third approach is to indicate minimum winterization to start with and have
the client add what they feel is required after the plant starts up. Although this reduces
Fluor Daniel's home office hours and the client may be able to add winterization on a
maintenance budget rather as a capital item, it is a difficult concept to sell to a client.
Typical piping that is almost always heat traced for winterizing, either to prevent piping
damage, equipment damage or operating problems, include:
- fuel gas lines from a knockout drum to a user.
- lube oil lines around compressors and other rotating equipment.
- seal oil lines around compressors.
- sour gas lines.
- stagnant instrument leads.
- water line dead legs and drains.
- level connections.
- relief valve inlet lines.
- pump minimum flow bypass lines.
- cooling water bypass lines at exchangers.
- control valve bypass lines in water service.
- compressor suction lines.
7.5 INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is particularly susceptible to cold temperatures because small leads have
a high surface to volume ratio. Ambient temperatures beyond operating limits can cause
measurement errors, inoperability, or actual damage. To winterize instrumentation, the
following need to be considered:
- configuration of connecting piping
- design of instrument measuring chamber
- damage due to external moisture condensation
- temperature effects on accuracy and operability
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- type of fluid being measured
- amount of water in fluid being measured
- ambient temperature variations
- cost of winterizing
- gas samples to analyzers
The most effective winterization method is to install instruments in heated buildings. This
simplifies protection requirements and facilitates maintenance. When instruments must
be located outside, steam tracing is simple if it uses a tracer already installed in the
process line. The installation for this method must consider instrument maintenance
procedures. Electric tracing should be used when instrumentation contains liquids that
boil at steam tracing temperatures.
Close coupling is another method of winterization. If the instrument and its piping can be
located very close to a high temperature process line or vessel, then the process heat
becomes available to the instrumentation through conduction and radiation. Insulation
only may be adequate in these cases.
A steam tracer inside an instrument housing is a common method of winterization. The
instrument is mounted in an insulation box fitted with a door, or lift cover, for
maintenance. A heater and thermostat are located in the enclosure. This keeps the
instrument at the required temperature, and protects it from high tracing temperature and
from heavy snowfall.
If freezable liquids are prevented from reaching the instrumentation in the first place,
winterization becomes less of a problem. An instrument gauge can be isolated from the
process fluid by means of a diaphragm or seal pot; a "liquid fill" transmits line pressures
to the gauge. The "liquid fill" is a fluid, such as silicon, which freezes below expected
temperatures. A 60% ethylene glycol and water solution is utilized for most hydrocarbon
process fluids. Insulation is not necessary. High maintenance and seal breakages may
be a problem with this method.
7.6 SAFETY SHOWERS
Safety showers are required at locations in a plant where there is a possibility of an
operator getting sprayed by toxic, caustic, acid or otherwise harmful material.
For personnel safety, the water in the shower system should be maintained as near as
possible to 70
o
F (21
o
C) and should never exceed 95
o
F (35
o
C).
The shower systems should be externally insulated to serve the dual purpose of freeze
protection and protection from overheating due to solar radiation. Electric heat tracing
should be used with a thermostat to ensure that the water temperature remains relatively
constant. Steam tracing is not recommended for safety showers due to the likelihood of
overheating.
The use of a packaged safety shower system (Thermon, Encon, or equivalent) will
usually provide an acceptable shower system more economically than a field fabricated
shower system.
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1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
8.0 EQUIPMENT WINTERIZATION
8.1 COMPRESSORS
During cold weather, condensation can occur in compressor suction lines, particularly if
the compressor is shutdown for a few minutes. This condensation can accumulate and
slug forward to damage the compressor, particularly a reciprocating machine. This may
be avoided by heat tracing the suction line and keeping the line close coupled from the
knockout drum to the pulsation dampener. Both the pulsation dampener and suction line
should be traced with double tracers using heat transfer cement. The suction line to
centrifugal machines is not as critical but are generally traced in cold climates.
Consideration should also be given to:
- cooling water lines
- cooling jackets
- lubricating lines
- seal oil lines
- oil filters
- suction filters
- knockout drums
- drain boots
It is advisable to house all field compressor units installed in winter climates. This is
done for the protection of the machinery as well as the comfort of employees who have
to work on them. Even though the units are housed, thermostatically controlled oil
heaters should be installed on all compressors so they can be easily started during cold
periods. Snow shelters may be required for compressors in exposed locations where
snowfall is excessive.
If not enclosed, winterization can be obtained through insulation and possibly heat
tracing. Compressor casings should be considered for insulation and all low points and
drains may require heat tracing. Thermostatic traps may also be used as drainers.
Winterization bypasses between cooling water supply and cooling water return headers,
provide freeze protection by allowing constant circulation of cooling water. This
technique is more economically attractive than heat tracing, and can be effected without
wasting the fluid.
8.2 PUMPS
For pump winterization the following equipment components need to be considered:
- cooling water lines
- cooling jackets
- lubricating lines
- seal oil lines
Where normally running pumps are spared, and the pour point of the liquid is above the
design low ambient temperature, the pump and its components can be winterized by
operating techniques (see section 7.1). It is usually not cost effective to heat trace a
small pump, since tracing and insulation get in the way of maintenance and soon
disappear. Larger pumps and barrel pumps may be insulated and small pumps may be
provided with
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a removable insulating blanket. If spare pumps are heat traced, each pump should be on
an independent tracer circuit so maintenance will not impact the operating pump. This
also applies to spare filters etc.
For sections of the suction and discharge lines which will have no flow for long periods,
an alternative to tracing is to provide a small backflow for fluid from the operating pump
through a hole drilled in the pump check valve flapper, or through a valved bypass
around the check valve of the idle spare pump. Pumps may be equipped with drains to
allow complete draining of the case when not in use. This method is used on spared
pumps but not on pumps in intermittent service that are not spared. Thermostatic traps
may also be used as drainers. Pumps should have valve drains on all water cooled
jackets and pedestals. Pumps in high pour point service may require flushing facilities on
the stuffing box.
Pumps and drivers may also be winterized by being enclosed or partially enclosed in a
suitable housing, or they may be insulated. Normally only pumps operating above 400
o
F
(204
o
C) are insulated, but they may require insulation or enclosed in cage for personnel
protection. Snow shelters may be required for equipment in exposed locations where
snowfall is excessive.
8.3 VESSELS AND COLUMNS
A drum or vessel containing water with hydrocarbon or chemicals which normally
operates above 125
o
F (52
o
C) may be winterized by insulating the nozzles, block valves,
and drain piping in contact with the water. Its internal heat is sufficient to prevent it from
freezing. If the drum or vessel operates below 125
o
F (52
o
C) good practice dictates the
nozzles, block valves etc. should also be heat traced.
Air and gas receivers, water separators or dryers which collect moisture may have
internal steam coils, be heat traced or steam jacketed, and insulated, if not situated in a
heated building.
Condensate flash drums, blowdown drums, and desuperheaters which are usually
located outdoors may also be heat traced and insulated. A deaerator may be winterized
by insulation alone. Steam boilers and related equipment which are not inside a heated
building must be winterized.
Winterization of vessels may be up to the normal liquid level or high liquid level or
interface level only. Water boots are completely heat traced and insulated.
Bottoms of fuel gas knockout drums, gas scrubbers, flare drums and low points in above
ground gas lines (subject to freezing) should be heat traced and insulated.
Generally, most vessels and columns are already insulated for heat conservation, and in
some application, heat traced or jacketed, if temperature control is needed for process
stability. This handles the winterization problem. If a vessel or column is not insulated,
the impact of cold weather on the plant operation should be evaluated and winterization
considered.
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8.4 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Exchangers or coolers containing liquids requiring winterization should have baffling and
drains arranged in such a way that the unit may be completely drained when not in
service. Cooling water connections to a shell and tube exchanger can be economically
winterized by installing a winterization bypass between the cooling water supply and
return headers as discussed previously. Shell and tube heat exchangers are usually
insulated for heat conservation. Removable insulation blankets are available to insulate
the head and flanges.
8.5 AIR COOLERS
Operating air coolers in cold climates can lead to low tube skin temperatures, particularly
at low throughput. The process engineer specifies on the air cooler data sheet what the
minimum acceptable temperature is, generally the pour point plus a safety factor (plus
10
o
F (5
o
C) for water and 25
o
F (14
o
C) for hydrocarbons). The mechanical engineer or
vendor then calculates the minimum tube skin temperature and recommends
winterization techniques to avoid problems.
Water solutions of organic compound e.g., benzene, xylene, cyclohexane, phenol,
monoethanolamine and diethanolamine are likely to freeze in air coolers during winter
service condition. Paraffinic and olefinic gases from C
1
to C
4
saturated with water vapor
when cooled will form hydrates which are solid crystals and can collect and plug
exchanger tubes.
Several techniques for winterization of air coolers are:
8.5.1 Air flow control
The simplest means of control is to reduce the flow of inlet air to the tube bundle.
Louvers can be closed, fan blade pitch can be adjusted or one of the fans
serving the tube bundle can be shutdown.
8.5.2 Concurrent Flow
Designing the air cooler so the process stream flows co-currently with the air flow
(rather than the normal countercurrent flow) results in the cold inlet air contacting
the tubes with the process fluid at its highest temperatures. This will mean a
lower temperature difference and more exchanger surface, but may be cost
effective if complicated winterizing can be avoided.
8.5.3 Non-contained Internal Air Recirculation
The basic feature of this system is that cold inlet air, after passing across a
portion of the tube bundle through one of the fans, is warmed up and recirculated
back across the remaining length of the tube bundle in reverse flow direction and
discharges through the other fan with the louvers or wind skirt in closed position.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 3
DATE 6-95
8.5.4 Contained Internal Air Recirculation
The basic feature of this system is that cold inlet air is forced up across a portion
of the tube bundle with the top louver closed. The warmed air is redirected by a
second louver within the bay passing across the remainder of the bundle through
the other fan functioning in the opposite manner as the first.
8.5.5 External Recirculation
A portion of the warmed air passing over the tube bundle is routed through an
external duct and mixed with the cold inlet air. The louvers that control top air
flow, recirculation and side louvers, can be pneumatically controlled by either the
process outlet temperature or air plenum temperature. This method is probably
the most expensive, basically completely enclosing the air cooler with sheet
metal. It is important that the ducting be correctly designed. An example of both
poor and good design is shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. The poor design does
not allow for adequate mixing of cold air and recirculated warm air leading to cold
air contacting part of the tube bundle.
8.5.6 Steam Coil
Sometimes, a steam coil is installed in the air inlet ducting to heat the air during
winter operation. The heating coil is started up before switching on the air fan
motors to prevent sudden congealing or freezing of fluids. This method can lead
to poor performance if the steam coil is left on when not needed.
8.6 COOLING TOWERS
Cooling Towers reduce the temperature of cooling water by the evaporation of water into
the air and are designed to promote the maximum possible contact between air and
water. This feature results in the cooling tower having the capability to produce
performance degrading ice formations during winter operations.
Ice formations in cooling towers are categorized as either acceptable or unacceptable.
"Acceptable" ice is a fairly thin cross section of ice which forms on the louvers or air
intake structure of the tower and poses no structural concern. This retards the air inlet
flow through the louvers, which has a similar effect as the air-side control of louvers that
can be manipulated by the operator. Thus, it is self-regulating to some extent. As
performance decreases and the circulating water warms up, the ice is melted.
"Unacceptable" ice is a significant amount of ice that has formed on the fill, jeopardizing
the operation and existence of heat transfer surface, and threaten the integrity of the
tower structure (Figure 8-3).
For mechanical and natural draft towers the formation of ice is influenced by the following
conditions, which are usually under the control of an operator.
Ice formation is promoted by the air flow rate (more air, more ice)
Ice formation is promoted by the lack of heat load (less heat load, more ice)
Ice formation is promoted by a slower water rate (less water rate, more ice)
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 4
DATE 6-95
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 5
DATE 6-95
Figure 8-3
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 6
DATE 6-95
The design features for winterization of cooling towers include:
Air-Side Control
Multiple fans with two speed motors
Multiple fans with reversible motors
Water-Side Control
Send high water flow nearest the tower air intakes
Bypass circulation
System draining
Immersion heaters
8.7 FIRED HEATERS, HRSGs AND GAS/STEAM TURBINES
The fired heater itself needs minimal winterization. Firebox, smoke stack and air
preheater ducting are fully insulated, and external surfaces are jacketed and properly
sealed which make them freeze proof. The related items that need protection from
adverse effect of low ambient temperature are piping, valves, instruments, air intake and
drain lines around the heater.
Fuel gas lines and low point drains are heat traced and insulated from the source to the
burner to prevent hydrate formation which can plug the line or condensed hydrocarbon
liquids that can cause burner sputtering. Low point drains in close proximity to the heater
should be a double block and bleed arrangement for safety reasons. If the heater is fired
with fuel oil the entire fuel oil loop and return circuit must be heat traced and fluidity must
be maintained at all times (generally above 30 centistokes (30 mm
2
/sec) viscosity).
Atomizing steam lines should be insulated to blow out condensate and drain lines must
be heat traced completely .
Snuffing steam, soot blower, and superheater coil low point drains are also heat traced
and insulated. Valve bodies, flow meters, and pressure gauges should be winterized.
The air intake for an air preheater should be protected from snow by installing a weather
hood. As an added protection for the air intake, upstream of the air filter and silencer,
baffles and steam coils are often used.
Equipment associated with steam and gas turbines (e.g., lube/seal oil tanks and coolers)
which are not within the heated enclosure must be heat traced and insulated. Air intakes
of gas turbines have a built-in anti-icing and icing protection system. Winterization
techniques discussed in section 8 for exchangers should be followed.
Heat recovery steam generators, similar to fired heaters, are fully insulated to conserve
heat and in general the same methods for winterizing can be applied as previously
mentioned. Fuel oil tanks, fuel gas knock out drums, fuel gas lines and air intake and
related accessories are the ones considered for winterization.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 7
DATE 6-95
8.8 TANKAGE
It is the responsibility of the process engineer to determine the freeze or pour point of the
product, and specify a safe storage temperature to be maintained. A heat loss
calculation should be performed based on the storage temperature, minimum design
ambient temperature, insulation thickness, and wind. Heat losses on tank surfaces on
dry-side wall, wet-side wall, tank roof, and tank bottom should all be accounted for. The
total heat load requirement should be noted on the equipment data sheet and passed on
to Mechanical for sizing an internal coil.
Aside from tank bulk heating, the economic viability of an alternative method; i.e.,
lowering the storage temperature and using a suction heater or a combination of both
should be evaluated by the process engineer. The economic comparison should be
based on the ease of maintenance, installed cost and heating cost in conjunction with
insulation. In areas of mild winter where the ambient temperature is often above the
freezing point, tank heating without insulation may be considered.
In general, winterization is required for storage tank whose fluids freeze point, or pour
point temperature is above the minimum design ambient temperature.
Light ends products (e.g., butane, propane, MTBE, methanol) usually have lower
freezing point than the minimum design ambient temperature and do not require
winterization when stored. However, they do need some insulation for heat conservation
purposes .
Because of a high pour point, storage tanks containing crude oil and heavier end
products are normally winterized by heating using internal coils heated with steam or
heating fluid and insulated. Asphalt tanks are commonly heated with direct fired internal
tube heaters. Agitation is applied near the tank bottom to ensure good thermal mixing.
Other storage tanks (e.g., raw water, demineralized water, waste water, caustic and acid
tanks) which are outside are also winterized by heating using internal coils and insulation.
Since they are less dense, they do not need agitation and heat distribution in the tank is
accomplished by natural convection. Materials of construction for steam coils needs to
be carefully evaluated in some services. For example, it may be less expensive to
provide an external heat source for caustic heating, than to provide an alloy coil.
Firewater tank may be winterized by steam sparging without insulation, although this is
only practical in areas where winter is milder. Although inexpensive, it is not a very
effective design in cold climate region, since not only is steam wasted, but after operating
for some time steam condensate can build up, causing the tank to overflow.
For large tanks the temperature changes very slowly with changes in ambient
temperature. Insulation may therefore be based on an average winter temperature
instead of the minimum design ambient temperature.
The roofs of cone and dome roofed tanks are not normally insulated. In locations where
extremely low temperatures may prevail (below -13
o
F or -25
o
C) or where the tank
liquid has a high freezing point, roof insulation may be required. The roofs of floating roof
tanks should be insulated.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 8
DATE 6-95
Tank water draw valves should be freeze proof type (Fluor Engineering Standard
ST-2-4129).
Conservation vents or pressure relief valves should be traced to prevent freezing.
8.9 REFERENCES
1. Shipes, K.V., Air-Cooled Exchangers in Cold Climates, Chem. Eng. Progress,
July 1974.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 9
DATE 6-95
1.0 2.0 APPENDICES 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
9.0 APPENDICES
9.1 APPENDIX I - CALCULATIONS FOR HEAT LOSS IN PIPING
9.1.1 List of Variables
d inside diameter of pipe (inches)
D outside diameter of pipe (inches)
surface emittance ratio as compared to a black body
f
i
film coefficient of fluid inside of pipe (Btu/hr ft
2

o
F)
f
o
film coefficient of air outside of bare pipe or outside of insulation
(Btu/hrft
2
o
F)
k
i
conductivity of insulation material (Btu in/hr fts
o
F) (see Table 2-2)
k
p
conductivity of pipe (Btu in/hr fts
o
F) (see Table 9-2)
l length of pipe (ft)
q water flow rate (gal/hr/100 ft exposed pipe)
Q heat loss (Btu/hr fts )
Q
c
heat loss due to conduction (Btu/hr fts )
Q
cv
heat loss due to forced convection (Btu/hr fts )
Q
r
heat loss due to radiation (Btu/hr fts )
t thickness of insulation (inches)
T
w
temperature of water in pipe (
o
F)
T
o
operating temperature (
o
F)
T
a
minimum design ambient temperature (
o
F)
T
s
surface temperature of exposed surface (
o
F)
V wind velocity (mph)
9.1.2 Safety Factor
Liberal safety factors are warranted in heat loss calculations for the following
reasons:
The equation for convection losses uses an approximation of film
coefficient which is not 100% accurate in all situations.
Insulation efficiency is generally less than 100%.
A minimum of 20% safety factor is recommended for all heat loss calculations,
50% is used for these examples.
9.1.3 Heat Loss Types
Heat loss occurs in three ways, conduction, convection and radiation. Heat from
a pipe is conducted through the pipe wall and insulation, then convected and
radiated to the environment.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 1 of 10
DATE 6-95
Heat flux due to conduction through pipe wall and insulation and through inside
and outside fluid films referenced to the outside surface of the insulated pipe is
expressed as:
Q
c

(T
o
T
s
)
1
f
i
D + 2t
2
_
,
In
D
d
_
,
kp
+
D + 2t
2
_
,
In
D + 2t
D
_
,
k
i
+
1
fo
Heat flux due to radiation is expressed according to the Stefan Boltzman Law as:
Q
r
0.174

T
s
+ 459.6
100
_
,
4
T
a
+ 459.6
100
_
,
4
1
]
1
Heat loss due to forced convection is expressed according to Langmuir as:
Q
cv
0.296 (T
s
T
a
)
5/4
1 + 1.277V
Note: For natural convection, V is assumed zero.
a. Heat Loss from Bare Steel Pipes
It is possible to simplify general heat transfer equations by making some
assumptions. For a steel pipe, the temperature on the outside of the
pipe will approach the operating temperature on the inside of the pipe,
T
s
=T
o
. Heat loss is expressed in terms of radiation and convection:
Q 1.74x10
9
[(T
o
+ 460)
4
(T
a
+ 460)
4
] + 0.296(T
o
T
a
)
1.25
1 + 1.277V
This equation can be easily modified into a number of more useful
equations. For example, heat loss from a bare steel pipe per foot of
pipe, assuming painted outside surface with =0.9 and 50% safety
margin will be:
Q
l

1.5D
12
1.74 x 10
9
x 0.9[(To
+ 460)
4
(Ta
+ 460
4
] + 0.296(To
Ta
)
1.25
1 + 1.277V
To freeze water in a bare steel pipe, per foot of pipe, the heat loss
equals the latent heat of fusion multiplied by the weight of water, which
gives:
Q = 48.37 d
2
The time required to freeze water in a bare steel pipe can be estimated
by following the equation (including a 50% safety factor), assuming
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 2
DATE 6-95
painted steel pipe, and ignoring time required to cool water to freezing
point:
time, hrs =
48.37 d
2
D
6.15x10
10
492
4
(T
a
+ 460)
4
1
]
+ 0.116(32 T
a
)
1.25
1 + 1.277V
Similar equations can be easily developed for other fluids.
b. Heat Loss from Insulated Steel Pipes
As with bare pipes, simplifying assumptions can be made for insulated
steel pipes. With insulation the outside surface temperature of the
insulation approaches the ambient temperature T
s
=T
a
. Further
simplification is possible by assuming an infinite wind velocity, this
means f
o
goes to infinity and 1/f
o
goes to zero. Also the resistances due
to heat flow through the pipe and heat flow due to the film conductance
on the inside surface can be assumed to equal zero. This results in:
Q
2k (T
o
T
a
)
(D + 2t) In
D+ 2t
D
_
,
Heat loss per foot of pipe becomes:

Q
l

0.524 k (T
o
T
a
)
In

D + 2t
D
_
,
This equation can be converted into various useful relationships given
below. Note: no safety factor, other than conservative assumptions
discussed above, has been incorporated in these relationships.
Time required to freeze water solid in an insulated pipe:
time, hrs =
92.31 d
2
In
D + 2t
D
_
,
k (32 T
a
)
Time required for water to cool from t
w
to 32
o
F (0
o
C):
time, hrs =
0.65 d
2
(Tw
32) In
D+ 2t
D
_
,
k (16 + 0.5T
w
T
a
)
In developing this equation, it was assumed that the average water
temperature is (T
w
+ 32) / 2. More accurate results can be calculated by
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 3
DATE 6-95
integration. However using arithmetic average gives a conservative and
simpler relationship.
Flow rate of incoming water, at temperature T
w
, required to prevent
freezing:
q =
6.28 k (32 T
a
)
(T
w
32) In
D + 2t
D
_
,
9.1.4 Sample Calculations
a. Given a 4" NPS uninsulated pipe operating at 300
o
F, the wind velocity is
20 mph and the ambient temperature is -20
o
F. Calculate the heat loss
assuring that resistance through pipe wall and films are negligible and
heat loss is controlled by radiation and forced convection:
D = 4.5"
d = 4.026"
T
o
= 300
o
F
T
a
= -20
o
F
V = 20 mph
= 0.9
add a safety factor of 30%
Q = 1.3 1.74x10
9
[(T + 460)
4
(T
a
+ 460)
4
] + 0.296 (T
o
T
a
)
1.25
1 + 1.277V
= 1.3 1.74x10
9
x0.9 [(300 + 460)
4
(20 + 460)
4
] + 0.296[300 (20)]
1.25
1 + 1.277x20
= 1.3 (464 + 2,064)
= 2,536 Btu/hrft
2
To determine the time required to freeze water in this pipe, using a 50%
safety factor:
time, hrs =
48.37 d
2
D
6.15 x 10
10
[492
4
(T
a
+ 460)
4
] + 0.116(32 T
a
)
1.25
1 + 1.277V
=
48.37 x 4.026
2
4.5
6.15 x 10
10
[492
4
(20 + 460)
4
] + 0.116[32 (20)]
1.25
1 + 1.277 x 20
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 4
DATE 6-95
time, hrs =
174.23
6.15 x 10
10
(2.11x10
10
) + 0.116 (139.64) (5.15)
time = 1.81 hrs
b. Given the same pipe as in 9.1.4.a and adding 2" of calcium silicate
insulation. Calculate the heat loss assuming that resistance through pipe
wall and films are negligible; insulation controls heat transfer while
radiation and forced convection dissipates all transferred heat from the
surface:
k
i
= 0.43 at a mean temperature of [300-(-20)]/2 + (- 20) = 140
o
F:
Q =
2k (T
o
T
a
)
(D + 2t) In
D + 2t
D
_
,
=
2 x 0.43 [300 (20)]
(4.5 + 2 x 2) In
4.5 + 2 x 2
4.5
_
,
= 51 Btu/hr ft
2
The time to freeze the water solid in this pipe is:
time, hrs =
92.31 d
2
In
D + 2t
D
_
,
k (32 T
a
)
=
92.31 x 4.026
2
In
4.5 + 4
4.5
_
,
0.43 [32 (20)]
= 42.5 hrs
If the unsimplified equation is used, and assuming f
i
=200, f
o
=1.9,
k
p
=370,
then:
Q =
(To
Ts
)
1
f
l
+
D+ 2t
2
_
,
In
D
d
_
,
kp
+
D + 2t
2
_
,
In
D + 2t
D
_
,
k
l
+
1
fo
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 5
DATE 6-95
=
[300 (20)]
1
200
+
4.5 + 4
2
_
,
In
4.5
4.026
_
,
370
+
4.5 + 4
2
_
,
In
4.5 + 4
4.5
_
,
0.43
+
1
1.9
Q = 47 Btu/hr ft
2
The simplified equation gives a value that is about 10% higher than the
actual value, this verifies that the assumptions are conservative.
For other emissivity values and other pipe materials use Table9-1 and
Table9-2.
9.2 APPENDIX II - CALCULATIONS FOR HEAT LOSS FOR VESSELS AND TANKS
Where a quick, non-rigorous estimation of heat loss from a vessel is required and all the
following criteria are met, then the method below can be utilized.
Where insulated, the insulation's k value is less than 0.25 Btu in/hr fts
o
F
Product to air temperature difference is less than 200
o
F
Wind speeds are less than 30 mph
Outside of the above conditions, the estimated heat loss value may be too low.
For a storage tank or vessel, to prevent the liquid from freezing, it is necessary to
calculate the total exposed surface area, i.e., sides, ends, or roof, (the floor in contact
with the ground can be ignored). Usually, it will be traced to the high liquid level.
The heat loss equation used for this type of calculation is:
Q = UA(T
p
- T
a
)
where
A = surface area, fts (Note: with insulation, the area is greater)
T
a
= ambient temperature,
o
F
T
p
= minimum allowable tank temperature,
o
F
U = overall coefficient, Btu/hr ft
2
o
F
Choose the appropriate U value from Table 9-3 and correction factors from Table9-4.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 6
DATE 6-95
Table 9-1
NORMAL TOTAL EMISSIVITY OF VARIOUS SURFACES
(VALUES COMPARED TO BLACK BODY AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE)
Surface

Aluminum
Polished 0.050
Gray Dull 0.075
Oxidized 0.200
Carbon Steel
Metallic Condition 0.242
Rolled Sheet 0.657
Oxidized 0.790
Stainless Steel (304/316)
Polished 0.230
Rolled Sheet 0.370
Oxidized 0.830
Aluminum Paint
New 0.250
Weathered 0.550
Other Materials
Gypsum 0.900
Asbestos 0.960
Black Mastics 0.850
Tar Roofing Paper/Felt 0.910
Table 9-2
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS PIPE MATERIALS
(VALUES AT AMBIENT CONDITION)
Material k
p
(Btu in/hr ft
2

o
F
Stainless Steel (304/316) 112
Carbon Steel 312
Wrought Iron 410
Aluminum 1,400
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 7
DATE 6-95
Table 9-3
HEAT LOSS
(a)
FROM STORAGE TANKS AND PRODUCT
(d)
surface conditions still air 10 mph 15 mph 20 mph 25 mph 30 mph
general range of T
(b)
= 60
o
F
uninsulated 1.80 4.10 4.70 5.20 5.70 6.10
1" insulation
(c)
0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21
1" insulation 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
2" insulation 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
general range of T = 100
o
F
uninsulated 2.10 4.40 5.10 5.70 6.10 6.50
1" insulation 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21
1" insulation 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
2" insulation 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
general range of T = 200
o
F
uninsulated 2.70 5.10 5.70 6.40 6.80 7.40
1" insulation 0.19 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22
1" insulation 0.13 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
2" insulation 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
Notes:
(a) Heat loss expressed as U (Btu/hr fts
o
F).
(b) T-product temperature minus air temperature.
(c) A k value of 0.23 (Btu in/hr ft
2

o
F) was used in calculating U for insulated tanks.
(d) U values as listed for insulated tanks, apply to all products without correction.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 8
DATE 6-95
Table 9-4
CORRECTION FACTORS
(a)
Product Approximate Product Temperature
70
o
F 150
o
F 250
o
F
Watery Solutions 1.00 1.00 1.00
Gasoline, Kerosene, etc. 0.90 0.90 0.90
Light Oils 0.80 0.85 0.90
Medium Oils 0.70 0.75 0.80
Heavy Oils 0.60 0.65 0.70
Asphalts, Tars, etc. 0.50 0.55 0.60
Gases or Vapor Spaces 0.50 0.50 0.50
Note:
(a) Product correction factors apply to uninsulated U values only.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 9
DATE 6-95
REFERENCES
1. Nelson, W.L., Oil and Gas Journal, The Refiner's Notebook, No. 125.
2. Kumana, J.D. and Kothari, S.P., Predict Storage-Tank Heat Transfer Precisely,
Chemical Engineering, March 22, 1982.
FLUOR DANIEL
PROCESS MANUAL
WINTERIZATION
APPENDICES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 10
DATE 6-95

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