Motivation and Emotion, Vol. 5, No.

3, 1981

A Categorized List of Motivation Definitions, with a Suggestion for a Consensual Definition

Paul R. Kieinginna, Jr. 1 and Anne M. Kleinginna
Georgia Southern College

A major difficulty in the psychology o f motivation has been the lack o f consensus on its definition. In an attempt to resolve the terminological confusion, 102 statements defining or criticizing the concept were compiled from a variety o f sources. The definitions were classified into nine categories, on the basis o f the phenomena or theoretical issues emphasized, with a tenth category containing the skeptical statements. Two categories o f definitions emphasized internal mechanisms (phenomenological and physiological); three emphasized functional processes (energizing, directing, and vector); two restricted the scope o f motivation (temporal restrictive and process-restrictive); and two emphasized the comprehensive nature o f motivation (broad~balanced and all-inclusive). These categories identify concepts or variables that traditionally have been considered important aspects o f motivation. Finally, suggestions were made concerning usage o f the term motivation in a way consistent with both the academic psychological approach and the nonpsychologist's informal concept.

Several writers have recognized the problems of defining motivation. According to Littman (1958), "it is evident.., that there is still no substantial agreement about what motivation is. I think there is something wrong when something like this persists for as long a time as it has" (p. 115). Brown (1961) complained that "the ubiquity of the concept of motivation, in one guise or another, is nevertheless surprising when we consider that its meaning is often scandalously vague .... We thus find ourselves in the posi-

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tion of trying to deal with an allegedly vital factor in the face of violent disagreements as to its origins, its essential nature, and its particular rules as a behavioral determinant" (p. 24). As recently as 1975, Bolles reported: "There is little agreement among different proposals about what the defining criteria [of motivation] should be .... What one proposes as a definition of motivated behavior seems to depend more on his theoretical commitments than upon anything in the behavior itself" (p. 1). It is not surprising that some psychologists (e.g., Bunnell, 1973; Dewsbury, 1978; Verplanck, 1957) have advocated abandoning the concept of motivation altogether. However, considering the ubiquity and apparent usefulness of some motivational concepts and theories, the authors do not accept that position. We hope that the following analysis will facilitate future agreement on a useful definition of motivation. Previous attempts have been made to classify definitions of motivation. Littman (1958) discussed several approaches to defining motivation, five of which emphasize specific defining characteristics: energizing, directive and selective, persistence, motivational physiology, and the motivational phenomena of consciousness. Concluding that none of these characteristics by itself was sufficient to define motivation, he presented a long and exasperated definition that included all his categories. However, he regretted that this definition made motivation difficult to distinguish from other psychological processes. Atkinson and Birch (1978) described four different languages of motivation that psychologists have emphasized in their definitions: experiential, neurophysiological, behavioral, and mathematical. Atkinson and Birch suggested that each of these languages has value, and that each should be evaluated on the basis of its usefulness. Littman's (1958) and Atkinson and Birch's (1978) categories are a good starting place. However, additional characteristics of motivation can be derived from reviewing a larger number of definitions. Of those reported in the present article, 36 have been published since 1977 and thus were not available to the earlier writers. We began with a collection of about 140 statements defining or skeptical of the concept of motivation, taken mainly from well-known texts or articles on motivation, physiological psychology, animal behavior, and introductory psychology. The list then was reduced to 102, excluding definitions either because they were too vague or because a better or more recent definition by the same author was available. The sources of the final 98 definitions and four skeptical statements are listed in Table I. After selecting the statements, we classified them on the basis of common emphasis, and developed nine categories of definitions and one category of skeptical statements (see Appendix). The definitions are listed

Categorized Definitions of Motivation Table L Source of Motivation Definitions

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Area of psychology Motivation Introduction Physiological Animal behavior Dictionary/ terminology Motivation/ emotion Work motivation Educational Social Developmental Emotion Experimental History and systems Learning Total

Number Number of texts of articles before 1970 before 1970 7 5 3 4 2 1 1 1 l 0 0 1 0 0 26 8 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11

Total before 1970 15 5 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 37

Number of texts since 1970 12 18 16 9 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 64

Number of articles since1970 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Total since 1970 12 t8 16 9 0 2 2 t 1 t t 0 1 I 65

under the category of their primary emphasis, but overlapping categories are recognized by stating secondary emphasis where appropriate. Listings within categories are arranged chronologically and include the type of source (motivation text, intro text, etc.). The first two categories emphasize internal mechanisms: either phenomenological or physiological aspects of motivation. The phenomenological definitions emphasize conscious factors such as need, desire, and affect, sometimes implying the concepts of volition and choice, and include the oldest definitions presented (Dewey, 1886; Sully, 1884). The physiological definitions emphasize internal physical processes, in some cases specific physical needs (cf. Butter, 1968) and in others the general underlying physiological mechanisms (cf. Gallistel, 1980). The second group of categories emphasize motivation's energizing a n d / o r directional aspects. The energizing definitions stress the arousal and maintenance aspects of motivation (cf. Corer, 1972). The directional/ functional definitions emphasize the directing aspect o f motivation or its functional significance for the individual or species. Some definitions also try to account for the individual's engaging in one activity as opposed to another, or for the variability o f behavior in general (cf. Kalat, !981). Other definitions in this category emphasize such aspects as goal-oriented behavior, attraction b y incentives, and adaptive consequences (cf. T h o m p s o n , 1975). The directional/functional category was the second

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Table II. Number and Percentage of Definitions by Category of Primary and Secondary Emphasis

Definition category 6 4 5 3 9 1 4 2 2 1 37 27 (16) (11) (14) (8) (24) (3) (11) (5) (5) (3) 4 5 0 6 9 0 3 (11) (14) (0) (16) (24) (0) (8) ---10 9 5 9 18 1 7 2 2 1 64 (27) (24) (14) (24) (49) (3) (19) (5) (5) (3) 1 7 4 12 16 5 7 6 4 3 65 (2) (11) (6) (18) (25) (8) (11) (9) (6) (5) 10 15 1 9 14 1 9

Number (o7o) primary emphasis before 1970 (N = 37) (15) (23) (2) (14) (22) (2) (14) ---59

N u m b e r (o7o) secondary emphasis before 1970 ( N = 37)

Total Number (o70) number (7o) primary before emphasis 1970 since 1970 (N = 37) (N = 65)

N u m b e r (o7o) secondary emphasis since 1970 (N = 65)

Total number (o7o) since 1970 (N = 65) 11 (t7) 22 (34) 5 (8) 21 (32) 30 (47) 6 (9) 16 (25) 6 (9) 4 (6) 3 (5) 124

Phenomenological Physiological Energizing Directional/functional Vector Temporal-restrictive Process-restrictive Broad/balanced All-inclusive Skeptical Total

Qt~ ~.

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most popular primary category. Information on the frequency of statements in each category before 1970 and since 1970 is presented in Table II. The vector definitions emphasize broth the energizing and the directing aspects of motivation (cf. Houston, Bee, Hatfield, & Rimm, 1979). Duffy (t941) was an early advocate of this viewpoint, which was the most popular primary category (see Table II). The next two categories restrict motivation temporally to short-term processes and/or distinguish it from other traditional psychological processes. The temporal-restrictive definitions usually consider motivation to be temporary and reversible (cf. Logan, 1976). Less commonly, these definitions merely state that all motivational processes take place in the immediate present (cf. Atkinson, 1964). Process-restrictive definitions distinguish motivation from various other processes, with different authors excluding different factors. For example, motivation has been distinguished from sensation/perception (cf. Seay & Gottfried, 1978), understanding (cf. Campbell & Pritchard, 1976), reflexes (cf. Teitelbaum, 1967), maturation (cf. Manning, 1967), emotion (cf. Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson, 1979), learning (cf. Cofer & Apple),, 1964), ability (cf. English & English, 1958), and personality (cf. Cofer & Appley, 1964). The next two categories include comprehensive definitions that either emphasize the breadth of motivational interactions (broad/balanced) or suggest that motivation should be considered the cause of all behavior (allinclusive). The broad/balanced defimtions place relatively equal weight upon several characteristics of motivation, rather than limiting the concept as the restrictive definitions did, and tend to be long (cf. Littman, 1958). The allinclusive definitions state that motivation includes all causes of behavior, whether internal or external (cf. Young, t96t). The final category consists of skeptical or disparaging statements denying the present or future usefulness of motivation as a concept (cf. Dewsbury, 1978). These authors have implied that motivation is a useless hypothetical construct, which may actually interfere with behavioral research and theory construction. In Table II, the frequencies of definitions mentioning each aspect of motivation before 1970 and since 1970 are compared. No statistically significant trends were found; however, it is interesting to note in the more recent definitions an increase in directional/functional primary emphasis. This change may reflect the contemporary rebirth of functionalism (Marx & Hillix, 1979). After the categories had been established, we evaluated the definitions in each one. The first set of categories included definitions emphasizing internal mechanisms, the phenomenological or physiological aspects of motivation. These definitions are acceptable in that they are consistent with

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the contemporary emphasis on cognitive and physiological factors (ChadwickJones, Lenzer, Darley, & Hill, 1979; Chaplin & Krawiec, 1979; Hilgard, 1980; Marx & Hillix, 1979). However, definitions in these categories usually omitted other important aspects of motivation, such as energy and direction. Throughout this evaluation we will be critical of incomplete definitions. Definitions that emphasize the energizing and/or directing aspects are commendable in that they call attention to the characteristics that both psychologists and nonpsychologists usually consider fundamental (Madsen, 1973). An analogy can be drawn between the controls in an organism and those in a radio: output for both is a function of selection mechanisms or "tuners" and energizing mechanisms or "volume controls" (Gleitman, 1981). The importance of these factors is reflected by the large number of definitions in this group, particularly the vector category. However, most of the definitions in this group typically leave out other important aspects of motivation, such as the physiological or phenomenological. The restrictive definitions are the most provocative and potentially the most valuable; they recognize that a term is useful to the extent that it can point clearly to the phenomenon to which it refers and exclude other phenomena. The problem with the concept of motivation (like several other basic concepts in psychology) is that motivational psychologists have not been able to agree on exactly which boundaries should be placed on the term. The temporal-restrictive definitions typically limit motivation to short-term, reversible effects on activity. Does "short-term" mean seconds, minutes, hours, or however long it takes the organism to reach its goal state? A food-deprived individual could remain hungry for a few seconds or many days. Because of this variability, it does not appear useful to generalize a uniformly short time-frame for all motivation. It may be helpful here to draw an analogy between motivation and the operation of an automobile. In order for the automobile to reach its destination, several mechanisms of variable duration must be engaged or released: the ignition must be turned on, the brake released, the gears engaged, and the gas pedal depressed to increase speed. Just as the brake and accelerator involve antagonistic processes, motivation may involve certain neural/hormonal systems that initiate and maintain some activities while inhibiting others. Given the plasticity of the nervous system (Lund, 1978), we also may question whether motivational circuitry is always completely reversible. Process-restrictive definitions present even more difficult problems. Psychologists obviously cannot agree on which traditional psychological processes should be differentiated from motivation, For example, both receptor processes (sensation) and effector processes (motor display) usually are distinguished from motivation, since they are primarily either input or output mechanisms (Wickelgren, 1979). However, perceptual/

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cognitive functions seem to overlap closely with motivation (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1979); perception can lead to motivated behavior and motivation can change perception (Ludel, 1978). Juxtaposed neural mechanisms may produce special relationships between particular perceptual and motivational circuitry, as in the case of some taste-aversion systems (Garcia, 1980). Although more conceptual refinement is needed, it seems reasonable to expect that a distinction between perceptual/cognitive and motivational processes will be maintained. A related problem involves the relationship between understanding and motivation. For example, Campbell and Pritchard (1976) excluded understanding from their definition of motivation. Although the concept of "understanding" is not clearly defined, it implies the formation of difficult associations among related variables. In this sense, there may be cases in which a certain degree of understanding is required for the occurrence of motivation~ understanding that there is an energy crisis may be necessary to motivate conservation. Another common distinction has been made between motivation and reflexes or other highly preprogrammed behaviors (cf. Schneider & Tarshis, 1980; Teitelbaum, 1967). However, while some reflexes such as antagonistic muscle responses are very general, other specialized reflexes such as gastrointestinal contractions may be an integral part of motives like hunger (Alcock, 1979). Especially in the latter cases, it may be best to think of motivational systems as hierarchies, with reflexes at the lower end and something like central motive states at the higher end (Gallistel, 1980). A distinction between motivation and maturation (cf. Manning, 1967) is related to this issue. Maturation refers to the development of structures and activities that are highly dependent on hereditary growth factors (Munn, t955), However, motivational or energizing systems are certainly dependent on these factors, although it still may be useful to distinguish between the developmental history of motivational mechanisms and their current functions. One of the most difficult distinctions is that between motivation and emotion, which traditionally has been defined as a type of energy arousal that disrupts or reorganizes ongoing processes (Hebb, 1958). Emotion has been distinguished from motivation on the basis of being externally triggered (cf. Hilgard et al., 1979), having no "natural" triggers like food or water (cf. Plutchik, 1980), or having unique feelings associated with it (cf. Ferna!d & FernalG 1978). However, Gazzaniga, Steen, and Volpe (1979) have pointed out that occasionally emotion may be triggered by internal physiological events, and that there may be natural (preprogrammed) associations between certain ~nternal or external stimuli for both processes. Arnold (1970) has claimed that experientially and functionally emotion and motivation sometimes can be very similar.

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Some ethologists (e.g., Alcock, 1979) have implied that emotion is a disruption of normal motivational processes, particularly in conflict situations, taking the form of intention movements, redirection, or displacement. Pribram (1971) presented a provocative distinction, calling " g o " processes motivational and "stop" or satiation processes emotional. While this view might turn out to be useful, it does not fit the common use of the terms. Motivation and emotion may involve different consequences of the same arousal processes; for example, food deprivation may produce both emotional irritability and motivation to obtain food. On the other hand, they may be two separate processes that frequently are associated with each other and interact in complex ways, like taste and smell. For the present, it may be best simply to recognize a very large overlap in the descriptions of motivational and emotional processes (Beck, 1978). The overlap between learning and motivation is also extensive. Traditionally, learning has been defined as the acquisition of long-term changes in response potential resulting from experience, excluding temporary changes such as motivation and emotion (cf. Cofer & Appley, 1964; Houston, 1976; Kimble, 1961). We have already mentioned the problems involved in distinguishing psychological processes sotely on temporal grounds. While the information storage capacity (engram or memory) associated with learning seems to be a meaningful concept (Hilgard & Bower, 1975), the problem of determining whether information storage is unique to perceptual-learning experiences still remains. On the one hand, memory neural circuits have been conceptualized as distinct from motivational or energizing circuits; on the other hand, plasticity and therefore information storage may be a capacity of all neural circuitry (Lund, 1978). It still may prove useful to distinguish between circuits that are primarily involved in memory or storage and those that are primarily involved in motivational or energizing processes, as well as distinguishing circuits on the basis of the main type of information they store. In any case, traditional motivational (or emotional) variables seem to facilitate most types of information storage (Cotman & McGaugh 1980), and new motives can be acquired that subsequently energize behavior (Miller, t948). Untangling the processes of learning/memory and motivation or emotion must await further developments. A related issue is the distinction sometimes made between abilities and motivation (cf. Campbell & Pritchard, 1976; English & English, 1958). Ability is defined as the capacity to engage in certain activities, and is considered to be dependent on both genetic influences and learning experiences (Minton & Schneider, 1980). A certain confusion exists in the use of the term, since on the one hand we speak of abilities that remain latent until activated by appropriate motivation (Tolman, 1932), and on the other hand we imply that a person may have the ability for self-motivation when

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sustained arousal is necessary (Marx & Tombaugh, 1967). However, some distinction between primarily information analysis/storage proceses and motivation seems reasonable. The same statement can be made concerning the distinction between other personality factors (e.g., interests, beliefs, values) and motivation (cf. Cofer & Appley, 1964). While these personality structures or processes overlap extensively with motivation, they probably merit independent consideration. The problems inherent in differentiating motivation from other processes have led some authors to suggest that such a distinction is not possible (Bindra & Stewart, 1971). Others, possibly to avoid the problem, have proposed either broad/balanced definitions (cf. Kimble, Garmezy, & Zigler, 1980) tha~ emphasize many characteristics of motivation, or allinclusive definitions that equate motivation with all causes of activity (cf. Young, 1961). The broad/balanced definitions present problems opposite to those posed by the restrictive definitions, by failing to point out the boundaries of the concept of motivation. However, such definitions can point out interesting distinctions among types of motivation. For example, Walker (1980) described three categories of motives, two intrinsic and one extrinsic. He listed autarkic or task-intrinsic motivation, such as play; idioeratic motivation, based on the individual's intrinsic or personal needs, such as career preparation; and extraneous or purely instrumental motivation, such as working for a salary. The all-inclusive definitions are even less satisfactory, since they cause many of psychology's traditional concepts, such as perception and learning, to become blurred with motivation (Appley, 1980). It appears more useful for psychologists to continue looking for ways to distinguish motivation from other important psychological processes, an endeavor in which new contributions from physiological psychology may prove particularly helpful. The final issue to consider is the value of disparaging statements (cf. Bunnell, 1973; Dewsbury, 1978). These writers have suggested that the term motivation is not necessary, and may distract investigators from the study of directly measurable physiological or behavioral variables. The motivation for these comments probably involves a concern for careful experimental design, precise measurement and data language, and a skepticism about the use of intervening variables. While the term motivation may not be absolutely necessary in describing or explaining physiology or behavior, we feel that it is helpful for theory construction and everyday convenience (Madsen, 1974; Miller, 1959). At this point we would like to make suggestions for a consensual definition of motivation. While avoiding an all-inclusive definition, we must recognize that motivation appears to overlap with several other fundamental psychological processes. Etymologically, motivation comes

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from the Latin m o v e r e (to move), and in a literal interpretation might be considered as all causes of movement. However, multiple process sequences go on simultaneously on different planes, horizontally from input through analysis to output, and vertically from higher to lower hierarchical control (Gallistel, 1980). If all of these process sequences and planes were to be considered motivational, no nonmotivational processes would remain. Therefore, it may be useful for psychologists to limit motivation, perhaps to the energizing mechanisms that are directly connected to the final common pathway for motor responses. This restriction would exclude both receptor influences and muscular/glandular reactions, as well as most analysis, storage, and retrieval mechanisms. Only the final analysis systems and gating to the final common motor pathways would be left as motivation. This view would allow for most of the energizing and some of the directing functions that psychologists traditionally have associated with motivation. These processes may not always be highly localized in the brain and may depend on cortical control as well as on the traditional subcortical motivation circuits such as the lower limbic system structures (Kolb & Whishaw, 1980). By restricting motivation in this manner, we do not overlook the fact that psychological processes are complex and involve continuous interactions among various systems. Therefore, we suggest the following physiological definition, with secondary emphasis on process-restrictive, vector, and phenomenological aspects. Motivation refers to those energizing/arousing mechanisms with relatively direct access to the final common motor pathways, which have the potential to facilitate and direct some motor circuits while inhibiting others. These mechanisms sometimes may influence sensory input and analysis as well. We recognize at least two obstacles to acceptance of a restrictive definition such as this one. First, the specific physiological mechanisms are difficult to identify completely. Second, the nonpsychologist commonly uses the term m o t i v a t i o n in the all-inclusive sense. While some psychologists also hold this view (cf. Young, 1961), more prefer to restrict the term, for reasons discussed earlier. In conclusion, we hope that the present analysis of definitions will help researchers and theorists to define the field by specifying the types of variables they study. Other writers may devise an alternative classification system, discover some developmental pattern, or suggest a better model for a consensual definition.

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APPENDIX Definitions of Motivation and Motives

Phenomenological Definitions (emphasizing conscious or experiential processes)

J. Sully, 1884 (intro text) "The desire that precedes an act and determines it is-calted 'Rs moving force, stimulus or motive.'" secondary emphasis: vector John Dewey, 1886 (intro text) " A desire when chosen becomes a motive." secondary emphasis: directional/functional D. McClelland, J. W. Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. L. Lowell, 1953 (motivation text) "Our definition of a motive is this: A motive is the redintegration by a cue of a change in an affective situation. The word redintegration in this definition is meant to imply previous learning. In our system, all motives are learned. The basic idea is simply this: certain stimuli or situations involving discrepancies between expectations (adaptation level) and perception are sources of primary, unlearned affect, either positive or negative in nature. Cues which are paired with these affective states, changes in these affective states, and conditions producing them become capable of redintegrating a state (A ') derived from the original situation (A), but not identical with it." Abraham Maslow, 1955 (motivation article) "The original criterion of motivation and the one that is still used by all human beings except behavioral psychologists is the subjective one. I am motivated when I feel desire or want or yearning or wish or lack." V. H. Vroom, 1964 (work-motivation text) " A process governing choices made by persons or lower organisms among alternative forms of voluntary activity." secondary emphasis: directional/functional David Birch and Joseph Veroff, 1966 (motivation text) "Motives are modifiers of incentives--this is, if the incentive value of a given consequence is of a certain absolute strength, it will be more attractive to a person with a high motive for that consequence, and less attractive to a person with low motive for that consequence." secondary emphasis: directional/functional

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Frank J. Bruno, 1980 (intro text) "The term motive, objectively defined, refers to a hypothetical state in an organism that affects the relationship between stimulation and behavior . . . . On the existential or subjective level a motive may be defined as a wish or a desire to take a particular action." secondary emphasis: directional/functional

Physiological Definitions (emphasizing internal physical processes)

Karl S. Lashley, 1938 (physiological article) "I suspect that all cases of motivation will turn out to be of this character; not a general drive or libido, or disturbance of the organic equilibrium, but a partial excitation of a very specific sensori-motor mechanism irradiating to affect other systems of reaction." Horace B. English and Ava C. English, 1958 (psychological dictionary) "Motivation: n. 1. The nonstimulus variables controlling behavior: the general name for the fact that an organism's acts are partly determined in direction and strength by its own nature (or enduring structure) and/or internal state. When the term is thus used, it contrasts with two other determinants of action: ability, and the stimulus or situation. But since the stimulus is conceived as touching off the motivation, it is sometimes half included under that term." secondary emphasis: vector, process-restrictive Theodore C. Ruch, 1962 (physiological text) "Motivation or drive is a neural process which impels the organism to some action or goal, the attainment of which results in drive reduction." secondary emphasis: vector Charles M. Butter, 1968 (physiological text) "Whenever homeostatic regulation involves overt behavior, we speak of that behavior as being motivated. The concept of motivation then, refers to behavioral adjustments which satisfy needs of the body." secondary emphasis: directional/functional Peter M. Milner, 1970 (physiological text) "Motivation means literally that which produces motion, but in psychology the term is given a narrower interpretation; it is applied not to the metabolic and mechanical features of the motor system but to certain hypothetical states of the nervous system that determine what

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actions the organism will perform at any moment." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive, directional/functional, temporal-restrictive Datbir Bindra and Jane Stewart, 1971 (motivation text) "Any goal-directed action is instigated by a central motivational state, which itself is created by an interaction within the brain between the neural consequences of bodily organismic states ('drives') and neural consequences of environmental incentives ('reinforcers')." secondary emphasis: vector Jackson Beatty, 1975 (physiological text) "Motivation is a term used by psychologists to denote internal processes such as hunger that serve to direct the behavior of the organism. Motivational processes are inferred from changes in the direction, intensity, or persistence of behavior." secondary emphasis: vector Hugh Brown, 1976 (physiological text) "Motivation is the change in the biological state of the organism that relates to behaviors directed at self and species preservation." secondary emphasis: directional/functional Francis Leukel, 1978 (physiological text) "The way the nervous system translates the needs of the body into behavior--the topic of motivation." secondary emphasis: directional/functional C. R. Gallistel, 1980 (physiological text) "Drive. A signal originating at a high level in the hierarchical structure underlying behavior, which potentiates one class of behaviors, for example, behaviors that contribute to the maintenance of body water (thirst behaviors), and depotentiates other classes of behavior." secondary emphasis: vector Robert Plutchik, 1980 (emotion text) "The characteristics of motives may be summarized as follows: 1. Motives are aroused by gradually changing internal states of the organism. 2. The basic condition for the arousal of a motive is the absence of something (emotions are typically aroused by the presence of something. 3. There are certain objects toward which motives 'naturally' tend to direct the organism (e.g., food, water, sex, mate). 4. Most motives tend to have a rhythmic character, showing more or less regular peaks and troughs of intensity." secondary emphasis: vector, process-restrictive

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Energizing Definitions (emphasizing energy arousal)

William McDougal, 1908 (social text) "The human mind has certain innate or inherited tendencies which are the essential springs or motive powers of all thought and action." secondary emphasis: phenomenological, directional/functional J. F. Dashiell, 1928 (intro text) "An entity or force, external or within the individual, which adds energy or force to a reaction; an incentive, the actual phenomenon of increase in energy or forcefulness." Konrad Lorenz, 1950 (animal behavior text) " I n this case, the undischarged activity becomes a motive in the literal and original sense of the word, derivated from movere, 'to m o v e . ' " Robert S. Woodworth and Harold Schlosberg, 1954 (experimental text) "It will be convenient to stretch the ordinary meaning of motivation somewhat and make it equivalent to mobilization or activation, so as to cover all 0-factors not included under the head of ability." Secondary emphasis: process.restrictive Judson S. Brown, 1961 (motivation text) "Thus a specific variable tends to be regarded as motivational (1) if it tends to facilitate or energize several different responses, (2) if its termination or removal following a new response leads to the learning of that response, (3) if sudden increases in the strength of the variable lead to the abandonment of responses, and (4) if its effects on behavior cannot be attributed to other processes such as learning, sensation, innate capacities, and sets." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive Jozef Cohen, 1970 (motivation text) "Motivation is the inner thrust behind behavior." Charles N. Cofer, 1972 (motivation-emotion text) "Psychology tends to limit the word motivation, then, to those factors involved in energy processes and to include other factors in the determination of behavior." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive K. B. Madsen, 1974 (motivation text) "Motivation--the 'driving force' behind behavior." Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975 (animal behavior text) "Observations on intact animals have shown that fluctuations in their responsiveness to external stimuli are in part caused by built-in physiological mechanisms that act as 'drives.' These mechanisms motivate or cause an animal to actively seek, in what we call appetitive behavior,

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for stimuli situations that allow certain behavior patterns (according to the 'mood' of the animal) to discharge." secondary emphasis: physiological, directional/functional

Directional~Functional Definitions (emphasizing choice, incentives, goal-directed behavior, or adaptive effects)

Harvey A. Carr, 1925 (intro text) "A motive is defined as a relatively permanent stimulus that dominates the behavior of an organism until it responds in such a manner that it is no longer affected by it." N. R. F. Maier, 1949 (motivation text) '[Motives] characterize the process by which the expression of behavior is determined or its future expression is influenced by the consequences to which such behavior leads." Keller Breland and Marian Breland, 1966 (animal behavior text) "The condition known as drive, or motivation, occurs in an organism when a sequence is interrupted. These interruptions can occur for various reasons. In the case of the so-called primary drives, such as hunger and sex, the interruptions are internal or endogenous .... Fear, avoidance, escape from punishment involve 'drives' that occur as a result of environmentally induced interruptions of behavior sequences." secondary emphasis: physiological M. Ray Denny and Stanley C. Rather, 1970 (animal behavior text) "An objective and restricted way to view motivation is to view it as motivated behavior. Specifically, we mean by this the behavior which regularly consummates or terminates a recurring behavior sequence." R. L. isaacson, R. J. Douglas, 3. F. Lubar, and L. W. Schmaltz, 1971 (physiological text) "Traditionally, when psychologists speak of motivation, they refer to primary drives--states of behavior that are essential to the maintenance of the organism .... but animals show other types of motivated behaviors which are not nearly so well understood but may also be necessary for well-being: curiosity, manipulation of objects and exploratory behavior." secondary emphasis: physiological David Lester, 1973 (animal behavior text) " W e can define motivated behavior in terms of the end, goal, or purpose of the behavior." Elliott S. Vatenstein, 1973 (physiological text) "Motivation implies 'goal direction' (toward or way from a goal), but the behavior cannot be completely reflexive, involving only inflexible

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responses to stimuli. Motivation is applicable only in instances where it is possible to demonstrate the animal's capacity to substitute responses to achieve the same end. Emotion and motivation probably represent different aspects of the same process. They are clearly interrelated, the difference being that motivation involves a more easily identifiable goal." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive Donald G. Stein and Jeffrey J. Rosen, 1974 (motivation-emotion text) "We will view motivation as the process whereby the organism selects, out of the myriad of incoming messages, those most relevant to his personal needs." Richard F. Thompson, 1975 (physiological text) "The behaviors that we call 'motivated' are frequently described as 'goal-directed' and 'purposive.' They do not seem to happen either at random or in an automatic, reflexive fashion but appear to be guided by their consequences, related to some goal, and carried out in such a manner as to satisfy the present and future needs of the individual or the species." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive Roderick Wong, 1976 (motivation text) "Motivated behavior is guided by its consequences, related to some end point, and carried out in such a manner as to satisfy the present or future biological requirements of the individual or species." secondary emphasis: physiological Carl W. Cotman and James L. McGaugh, 1980 (physiological text) "We can define motivation as a state that directs an organism in certain ways to seek particular goals." James Geiwitz, 1980 (intro text) "Motivation: a general term referring to an organism's tendency toward need-fulfilling and goal-seeking behavior." John A. King, 1980 (animal behavior text) "Motivation can be derived by definition and convention from overt behavior. Motivation is inferred when an animal overcomes many obstacles in order to reach a goal or consistently avoids a noxious stimulus." James W. Kalat, 1981 (physiological text) "When we speak of 'motivation' we refer to the fact that one works for different goals at different times. 'Motivation' refers to one's variable state of preferences among possible rewards." secondary emphasis: phenomenologicat Spencer A. Rathus, 1981 (intro text) "Motivation. A state within an organism that leads to goal directed behavior."

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Vector Definitions (emphasizing both energy arousal and direction)

Elizabeth Duffy, 1941 (terminology article) "The phenomena of motivation are said to be (1) the maintenance of direction in behavior and (2) an increase in energy level." Donald O. Hebb, 1955 (motivation article) ' "Motivation' refers here in a rather general sense to the energizing of behavior, and especially to the sources of energy in a particular set of responses that keep them temporarily dominant over others and account for continuity and direction in behavior." Helen Peak, 1955 (motivation article) " W e shall, like the rest, assign properties to the motivation construct which correspond with these central features of motivated behavior; namely, its persistence with some intensity and in some direction until a goal is reached." Donald B. Lindsley, 1957 (motivation article) "Motivation is the combination of forces which initiate, direct, and sustain behavior toward a goal." Horace B. English and Ava C. English, 1958 (psychological dictionary) "Motivation: n. 2. A specific hypothesized process that energizes differentially certain responses, thus making them dominant over other possible responses to the same situation; a specific hypothesized personal or organismic determiner of the direction and/or strength of action: his motivation was easily inferred.--Syn, motive." secondary emphasis: physiological John F. Hall, 1961 (motivation text) "In summary then, it appears that the use of motivational concepts can be justified in order to predict something about (1) the activity level of the organism, (2) the direction of such activity, and, finally, (3) the organism's persistence in attempting to reach an appropriate goal." E. Vinacke, 1962 (motivation article) "Motivation concerns the conditions responsible for variations in the intensity, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior." Joseph Attman, 1966 (animal behavior text) "All motivated acts consist of three common phases, which we shall refer to as (1) arousal, or activation, (2) engagement of specific mechanisms and activities, and (3) sustained and various modes of pursuance of certain ends or goals." Melvin H. Marx and Tom N. Tombaugh, 1967 (educational psychology text) "[Motivation] involves two components: (1) habit, or associative factor, and (2) a drive, or activating (energizing) factor. A motive is thus seen as a kind of activated habit."

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Vincent G. Dethier and Eliot Stellar, 1970 (animal behavior text) "Motivated behavior, then is a drive that leads to goal-directed behavior and satiation." Eva D. Ferguson, 1976 (motivation text) "The construct of motivation is generally used to refer both to the energy as well as the direction of behavior, and this direction is often said to be provided by the goal." Thomas L. Bennett, 1977 (physiological text) "Motivation is the driving force, or energizer, of behavior that causes us to act in such a way that these biological needs will be fulfilled. We also say that organisms are motivated to act in a hedonistic way; that is, we approach pleasant things and avoid unpleasant ones. This second broad category of motivated behaviors often encompasses emotion." secondary emphasis: physiological, phenomenological Elton B. McNeil and Zick Rubin, 1977 (intro text) "Motives are certain kinds of causes, the internal factors that arouse and direct a person's behavior." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive G. Lindzey, C. S. Hall, and R. F. Thompson, 1978 (intro text) "The three major characteristics of motivated behavior are: arousal, direction, and desire." secondary emphasis: phenomenological Robert E. Silverman, 1978 (intro text) "Motivation concerns those events--the pushes and pulls that move us to action .... variables that activate, energize, and frequently direct behavior." Raymond J. Wlodkowski, 1978 (educational psychology text) "Motivation is the word used to describe those processes that can (a) arouse and instigate behavior; (b) give direction or purpose to behavior; (c) continue to allow behavior to persist; and (d) lead to choosing or preferring a particular behavior." secondary emphasis: phenomenological Jay Braun and Darwyn E. Linder, 1979 (intro text) "Motives have two components: the internal drive state that activates and orients the animal toward some goal, and the external incentive that is the goal itself." J. P. Houston, H. Bee, E. Hatfield, and D. C. Rimm, 1979 (intro text) "Motives are (1) what activate and arouse the organism, and (2) what direct the organism's behavior toward the attainment of some goal .... Motivation is what translates learning into observable behavior." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive

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Charles G. Morris, 1979 (intro text) "Think of motivation as a series of stages that we are continually going through. Each series begins with a stimulus (perhaps a bodily need or a cue in the environment). The stimulus triggers a motive--a sort of arousal to action of one kind or another. The motive, in turn, activates behavior. When this behavior leads to goal attainment, the motive is satisfied and the chain of motivation is complete." secondary emphasis: physiological Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porter, 1979 (work motivation text) "When we discuss motivation, we are primarily concerned with (1) what energizes human behavior; (2) what directs or channels such behavior; and (3) how this behavior is maintained or sustained." Robert A. Wallace, 1979 (animal behavior text) "Drive has generally been regarded as the force that motivates an anim~il to seek a consummatory stimulus. It may thus be considered the 'motivation' behind appetitive behavior." L. S. Wrightsman, C. K. Sigelman, and F. H. Sanford, 1979 (intro text) "Define a motive as an energizing condition of an orgmnism that serves to direct that organism's behavior, usually toward a goal or goals of a certain class. By contrast, the term motivation is usually used in a broad, general sense." R. A. Baron, D. Byrne, and B. H. Kantowitz, 1980 (intro text) "We define motivation as a hypothetical internal process that provides the energy for behavior and directs it toward a specific goat." Dennis Coon, 1980 (intro text) "Motive: A drive or force within the organism that activates behavior or directs it toward a goal." Herbert L. Petri, 1981 (motivation text) "Motivation is the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. The concept is also used to explain differences in the intensity of behavior."

Temporal-Restrictive Definitions (emphasizing immediate or temporary determinants of behavior)

John W. Atkinson, 1964 (motivation text) "The contemporary (immediate) influences on the dkection, vigor, and persistence of action." secondary emphasis: vector

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Robert A. Hinde, 1974 (social text) " W e may refer to the presumed changes in the internal state of the animal as involving changing 'motivational factors.' In practice, it is usual to limit the problem of motivation somewhat. Only changes in responsiveness that are reversible and non-permanent are considered. Furthermore, changes in responsiveness that can be accounted for in terms of peripheral factors, such as sensory adaptation and muscular fatigue, are usually excluded." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive, vector, physiological Frank A. Logan, 1976 (learning text) "Motivational factors are ones that refer to states of the organism that are relatively temporary and reversible and which tend to energize or activate the behavior of organisms." secondary emphasis: energizing Hal R. Arkes and John P. Garske, 1977 (motivation text) "The study of motivation emphasizes contemporaneous influences on present behavior. Whereas learning is relatively permanent, motivation is not." secondary emphasis: process-restrictive Robert C. Beck, 1978 (motivation text) "Motivation is broadly concerned with the contemporary determinants of choice (direction), persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior." secondary emphasis: vector John Alcock, 1979 (animal behavior text) "Short-term changes in responsiveness are commonly discussed with reference to such words as motivation, drive, or tendency." secondary emphasis: vector

Process-Restrictive Definitions (distinguishing motivation from other processes)

Charles N. Cofer and Mortimer H. Appley, 1964 (motivation text) "Both behavior theory and personality theory are replete with assumptions and hypotheses about underlying motivational principles. It is our impression that those principles were developed to account for variability which was left unexplained by the concepts of perception, habit, and personality structure." secondary emphasis: vector Aubrey Manning, 1967 (animal behavior text) "Changes in 'motivation' are deduced when we can eliminate the other factors just listed [fatigue, maturation, and learning] but still observe that an animal spontaneously changes its behavior or shows a changed threshold to particular types of stimuli." secondary emphasis: vector

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Philip Teitelbaum, 1967 (physiological text) "The motivational state--the physiological central state that corresponds to the urge to perform a given act, to obtain a certain object, or to produce a desired outcome. As long as a fixed built-in relation exists between a stimulus and a response, we have no justification for inferring the additional existence of a motivational state underlying that response to the stimulus." secondary emphasis: physiological, phenomenological, vector Dalbir Bindra, 1969 (motivation article) "When habit (i.e., learning or practice) is held constant and the investigator manipulates variables related to incentives, or to bodily changes (e.g., those arising from food deprivation, fatigue, hormonal variations or drugs), or both, the resulting changes in behavior are usually described as 'motivational effects.'" secondary emphasis: directional/functional, physiological Karl H. Pribram, 197t (physiological text) "The term 'motivation' can be restricted to the operations of appetitive "go' processes (such as those converging in the lateral hypothalamic region) that ordinarily result in behavior which carries forward an action, and the term 'emotion' to the operations of affective 'stop' or satiety processes of reequilibriation." secondary emphasis: vector, physiological John P. Campbell and Robert D. Pritchard, 1976 (work motivation article) "Motivation has to do with a set of independent/dependent variable relationships that explain the direction, amplitude, persistence of an individual's behavior, holding constant the effects of aptitude, skill, and understanding of the task, and the constraints operating in the environment." secondary emphasis: vector L. Dodge Fernald and Peter S. Fernald, 1978 (intro text) "Emotion refers primarily but not exclusively to the feeling state, while motivation refers chiefly to the goal-directed activity, which may involve gaining or dispelling a feeling state. To the extent that goaldirected activity is prompted by feelings, as opposed to cognitive processes and routine habits, we may speak of emotional motivation." secondary emphasis: directional/functional Bill Seay and Nathan Gottffied, 1978 (developmental text) "Perceptual systems are those that provide information about the state of the external world. Motivational systems are those that provide information about the internal state of the organism." secondary emphasis: physiological M. S. Gazzaniga, D. Steen, and B. T. Volpe, 1979 (physiological text) "Abont the only distinction that can be drawn between motivation and emotion is that one usually thinks of motivation as arising from within the organism, often as a result of some biological need or hormonal

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influence. Emotion, on the other hand, is often thought to be a cognitive response initiated by an external stimulus. This is not a wholly valid distinction, however . . . . There are times when hunger is induced.., by seeing or smelling a particularly enticing food. Fear, too, can certainly come from an internal stimulus." secondary emphasis: physiological E. R. Hilgard, R. L. Atkinson, and R. C. Atkinson, 1979 (intro text) "Motives...are more often aroused by internal stimuli and are 'naturally' directed toward certain objects in the environment . . . . emotions are usually aroused by external stimuli and emotional expression is directed toward the stimuli in the environment that arouse it." secondary emphasis: physiological, vector Allen M. Schneider and Barry Tarshis, 1980 (physiological text) "Two types of behavior are under the control of homeostasis. The first type involves internal reflexes.., but they are not of primary concern to the psychologist. The second type is overt behavior, such as eating and drinking, directed toward filling various needs. Overt and voluntary responses to needs are known as motivated behaviors." secondary emphasis: directional/functional, physiological

Broad~Balanced Definitions (emphasizing the complexity of motivation)

Marshall R. Jones, 1955 (motivation article) "How behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what kind of subjective reaction is present in the organism while all this is going o n . " secondary emphasis: vector, phenomenological Richard A. Littman, 1958 (motivation article) "Motivation refers to processes or conditions which may be physiological or psychological, innate or acquired, internal or external to the organism which determine or describe how, or in respect of what, behavior is initiated, maintained, guided, selected, or terminated; it also refers to end states which such behavior frequently achieves or is designed to achieve whether they are conditions of the organism or environment; it also refers to the behavior engaged in, or aspects of that behavior, in respect of its organization, occurrence, continuation, reorganization, or termination with regard to past or present or future organic or environmental conditions; further, it refers to the fact that an individual will learn or remember or forget certain material, as well as the rate or manner in which these processes occur and the ease or difficulty with which they are altered, as well as to some of the processes or conditions which are responsible for this behavior; similarly, it determines

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how and what perceptual and judgmental activities and outcomes will occur, as well as some of the conditions and determinants of such activities and outcomes; similarly, it also refers to the fact of and the determinants of the occurrence and fate of affective processes; finally, it describes and accounts for various individual differences which appear in respect of the various behaviors, processes, conditions, and outcomes referred to above. Motivation refers to any one or m o r e of the above behaviors, conditions, processes, or outcomes in any combination." Secondary emphasis: physiological, vector, phenomenological Marvin Schwartz, 1978 (physiological text) "The concept of motivation contains at least four considerations that require analysis: t. The fact that behavior appears purposive and anticipatory. 2. The pleasurable or hedonic aspects of motivation. 3. The generality of the assumption that all motivations stem from bodily deficits. 4. The physiological mechanisms that mediate motivation." secondary emphasis: phenomenological, direction~functional, physiological James P. Chaplin and T. S. Krawiec, 1979 (history and systems text) "First, the psychology of motivation is concerned with changing physiological states .... Second, emotional states .... Third, habits .... Fourth, sets, attitudes, and values .... Fifth, incentives and other environmental influences." secondary emphasis: physiological, phenomenological, directional/ functional C. T. Morgan, R. A. King, and N. M. Robinson, 1979 (intro text) "Motivation has three aspects: (1) a driving state within the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs, environmental stimuli, or mental events such as thoughts and memories; (2) the behavior aroused and directed by this state; and (3) the goal toward which the behavior is directed." secondary emphasis: physiological, phenomenological, vector G. A. Kimble, N. Garmezy, and E. Zigter, 1980 (intro text) " A complete discussion of any single motive would treat three kinds of earlier conditions that arouse motives [deprivation, stimulational variables, and history of the organism], three aspects of the motivational state itself [perceptual, emotional, and behavioral], three varieties of motivated behavior [consummatory, instrumental, and substitute], and three sets of underlying neurophysiological mechanisms [sensory, neuroendocrine, and skeletal nervous system]." secondary emphasis: vector, phenomenological, physiological Edward L, Walker, 1980 (motivation text) "Three sources of motivation for learning can be distinguished .... Autarkic motivation refers to motivation to perform a task for the sake of the performance alone, unsupported by motivation from any other

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source .... Idiocratic motivation has its source in the individual. It is motivation that is characteristic of a given person and is a stable aspect of personality .... The essential feature of extraneous motivation is that extraneously motivated behavior will occur only when the source of motivation is present and operating." secondary emphasis: vector, phenomenological Philip G. Zimbardo, 1980 (intro text) "Motivation is characterized by the following features: (a) energy arousal; (b) direction of effort toward a particular goal; (c) selective attention to relevant stimuli (with decreased sensitivity to irrelevant ones); (d) organization of response units into an integrated pattern or sequence; and (e) persistence of this activity until the initiating conditions are changed." secondary emphasis: vector, phenomenological

A ll-Inclusive Definitions Oncorporating all determinan ts of behavior)

H. L. Hollingsworth, 1928 (intro text) "The relation between cause and effect; causation; in psychology, the relation between stimulus and behavior." Paul T. Young, 1961 (motivation-emotion text) "Define the study of motivation broadly as a search for determinants (all determinants) of human and animal activity." John W. Atkinson and David Birch, 1978 (motivation text) " W e continue to identify the problem of motivation as involving the interaction of personality and the immediate environment in the contemporaneous determination of behavior, B = f(P, E)." John Jung, 1978 (motivation text) "In general, when we speak of motives we are referring to the causes or reasons that underlie a given behavior." Philip Groves and Kurt Schlesinger, 1979 (physiological text) "In common usage drive and motive refer to ideas, needs, emotions, and organic states which compel or incite individuals to action. Thus, according to most dictionary definitions, drives and motives can be equated with the underlying causes of behavior." Guy R. Lefrancois, 1980 (intro text) "Motive... refers to all forces, internal or external, involved in accounting for the instigation, direction, and termination of behavior."

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Skeptical or Disparaging Statements (questioning the term or concepO

W. S. Verplanck, 1957 (terminology article) "The term usually indicates that the controlling variables of a set of behaviors are unknown." B. N. Bunnell, 1973 (animal behavior text) "If we had no genes, no anatomy, no physiology, no ecology, and no past experience, we might need to invent motivation. Since we have all these things together with a set of evolutionary principles to guide us, we have all'we need in terms of a framework within which to work at the problem of the how of behavior." Robert C. Bolles, 1975 (motivation text) "Thus, motivation seems to be neither a fact of experience nor a fact of behavior, but rather an idea or concept we introduce when we undertake to explain behavior." Donald A. Dewsbury, 1978 (animal behavior text) "The concept of motivation tends to be used as a garbage pail for a variety of factors whose nature is not well understood."

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