Manusm ti Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian subcontinent.

Hinduism is known to its followers as Santana Dharma (eternal , preserving law). Among other practices and philosophies, Hinduism includes a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on the notion of karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder and is often referred to as one of the oldest living religions in the world. A large body of texts is classified as Hindu, divided into ruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered") texts. These texts discuss theology, philosophyand mythology, and provide information on the practice of dharma (religious living). Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics, which consist of the Mah bh rata and the R m ya a. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratification which later evolved into the Indian caste system. Manusm ti(written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti), also known as M navaDharma stra, is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharma stra textual tradition of Hinduism. Generally known in English as the laws of Manu , it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones. According to Hindu tradition, the Manusmriti records the words of Brahma. By attributing the words to supernatural forces, the text takes on an authoritative tone as a statement on Dharma, in opposition to previous texts in the field, which were more scholarly Manu is considered a law giver in the Hindu tradition. Manu Smriti is one of the 18 Smritis. It is important to note that laws given by Manu, in Manu Smriti although followed in some form even today, are not considered divine, and may be modified by the society to keep up with the times. Indeed, it has been speculated that in its current form, Manu Smriti represents laws that have been added or modified throughout the history. Manusmriti translated into Laws of Manu or Institutions of Manu , is regarded as foundational work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society, compiled and written quite late ,c.200 C.E. in India. It is one of the 18 smritis of Dharmashatras (laws of righteous conduct). Smritis mean "that which has to be remembered". Unlike the Vedas which are considered of divine origin, the Smritis are of human compositions which guide individuals in their daily conduct according to time and place. They list the codes and rules governing the actions of the individual, the community, society, and the nation. They are also called Dharma Sastras or laws of righteous conduct. STRUCTURE The original treatise consisted of one thousand chapters of law, polity, and pleasure given by Brahm . His son, Manu, learns these lessons and proceeds to teach his own students,

including Bhrigu. Bhrigu then relays this information in the Manu Smriti, to an audience of his own pupils. The text shows the obvious influence of previous Dharmasutras and Arthasastric work. In particular, the Manu Smriti was the first to adopt the term vyavaharapadas. These eighteen Titles of Law or Grounds for Litigation make up more than one fifth of the work and deal primarily with matters of the king, state, and judicial procedure. This original narrative was subdivided later into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written. The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next. The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's disciple, Bhrigu, and an audience of his own students. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first about how Brahmins can be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action. Table of Contents This Table of Contents comes from Olivelle's translation of the Manu Smriti and provides the transitional verses between each subject:[13] 1. Origin of the World (1.1119) There are no transitional verses for this section 2. Sources of the Law (2.124) "I have described to you above succinctly the source of the Law, as also the origin of this whole world. Learn now the Laws of the social classes." (2.25) 3. Dharma of the Four Social Classes (2.2511.266)
  

3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.2510.131) 3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.269.336) 3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.266.97) "I have explained to you above the fourfold Law of Brahmins, a Law that is holy and brings imperishable rewards after death. Listen now to the Law of kings." (6.97)

3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.19.325)

"I have described above in its entirety the eternal rules of action for the king. What follows, one should understand, are the rules of action for the Vai yas and


dras in their proper order." (9.325) dras (9.325-36)

3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vai yas and

"I have described above the splendid rules of action for the social classes outside times of adversity. Listen now to the rules for them in the proper order for times of adversity." (9.336)


3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1129) "I have described above the entire set of rules pertaining to the Law of the four classes. Next, I will explain the splendid rules pertaining to penance." (10.131)

3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1265) "You have described this Law for the four classes in its entirety, O Sinless One! Teach us accurately the ultimate consummation of the fruits of actions." (12.1)

Nature and Purpose Dharma is not religon but it respects all religion. The Manu Smriti is written with a focus on the "shoulds" of dharma rather than on the actuality of everyday practice in India at the time. Through intermediate forces, such as the instruction of scholars, the teachings did indeed have indirect effects on major segments of the Indian population. It is also an invaluable point of common reference in scholarly debates Views and Criticism The work is considered an important source for sociological, political and historical studies. Manu Smriti is one of the most heavily criticized of the scriptures of Hinduism, having been attacked by colonial scholars, modern liberals, Hindu reformists, Dalit advocates, feminists, Marxists and certain groups of traditional Hindus, namely Smartas[citation needed]. Much of its criticism stems from its unknown authority, as some believe the text to be authoritative, but others do not. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses. In northern/southern India Vaishnavism and Shaivism were the common religious traditions, and the teachings of the Manu Smriti was not as widely followed or well-known. In 300 BCE, Megasthenes wrote that the people around the Mathura region worshipped "Hercules". Also Faxian did not mention anything about rigid-ness of the varna systems.Chanakya, the author of Arthashastra, never mentioned any social laws

prevailing in the society during the first integrator and Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta's reign. The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir William Jones. His version was published in 1794. British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements. According to Avari: The text was never universally followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are, however, anathema to modern thinkers and particularly feminists. The "Law of Manu" was cited favorably by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who deemed it "an incomparably spiritual and superior work" to the Christian Bible. He observed that "the sun shines on the whole book" and attributed its ethical perspective to "the noble classes, the philosophers and warriors, [who] stand above the mass." However, he also criticized it for its abusive treatment of the chandala, claiming that "this organization too found it necessary to be terrible." The law in Manu Smriti also appears to be overtly positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti about women has also been debated. While certain verses such as (III 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom women have. The education of women is also discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II 240), however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX 94) and (IX 90). In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar asserted that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism. However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra. Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas" Hinduism does not evangelize. However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is not authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, hold the text to

be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living" Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrtia 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian bermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.

Bibliography
Romila Thapar, (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of

California Press. Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1986). A History of India Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the M navaDharma stra. Oxford: Oxford University Press.