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=
| |
|
\
| |
= =
|
\
| |
+
|
\
1
i o o
i o o
v v dt v
RC
dv v dv
dt RC dt
= +
= +
Step Response
C
v
o
(t)
V e
-t/RC
V
v
i
(t)
V
RC = time constant
t
0
R
v
i
(t)= V u(t)
v
o
(t) = V e
-t/RC
+
_
i(t)
High Pass RC Circuits
0
V ( )
1
1
V sRC V
s
s sRC
s
RC
= =
+
+
(Assumed v (0) = 0)
( )
t
RC
v t Ve
=
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
6
t= __xRC v
0
= __xV
0.5 0.607
1 0.368
2 0.135
3 0.0498
4 0.018
5 0.007
When step is applied, positive discontinuity
of V volts is passed to output (as capacitor can not change its
voltage instantaneously, that is v (0 )= v (0 ). T
Physical
hereafte
Reasoning
r,
capacitor c
:
C C
+
0
harges increasing v with polarity shown, decreasing
the loop current i(t) exponentially with time-constant = RC.
At steady state, v ( ) = V, i( ) = 0 and v ( ) = 0
C
C
Smaller the RC, faster the decay
: Find and sketch the impulse response of the high pass RC ckt.
Justify the sketch with physical reasoning.
Exercise
(Assumed v
c
(0) = 0)
( )
RC
o
v t Ve =
Note the special feature of exponential decay- equal attenuation over equal intervals
Response to Square Pulse
v
i
(t)
V
0
T
t
v
0
(t)
V
1
0
T
t
+
_
V
1
V
( )
T
RC
1 1 2 1
t
RC
0
V = V; V Ve ; V V V
for 0 t < T, v (t) Ve
= =
< =
i
v (t) Vu(t) Vu(t-T) =
High Pass RC Circuits
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
7
0
T
_
V
2
V
( ) t T
T
RC RC
0
for t > T, v (t) Ve V e
(
=
(
DC component is absent in the output, indicated by its integral being zero. Positive area
equals the negative area making the net area under the output waveform zero. (Verify by
integration.) As the transfer function has a zero at origin, dc component gets zero gain.
The ability of high pass RC circuit to block dc is used by a series capacitor inserted
between two stages for ac coupling, while preventing dc coupling.
Think it over: Step response of HPRC does not integrate to zero! Why is DC component
not blocked in this case?
Response to Periodic Square Wave
v
i
(t)
V
0
T
1
t
T
2
V = peak-to-peak voltage of input ; Period T = T
1
+ T
2
v
o
(t)
V
High Pass RC Circuits
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
8
0
T
1
t
T
2
Note that the transient portion of the response where dc level is shifting. At steady state,
the response reaches zero dc level, with positive and negative areas equalling over each
period. Therefore, steady state output is independent of input dc level. The waveform
becomes periodic at steady state.
The transient portion appears due to any dc bias in the input, which causes corresponding
step response to be present in the output. Steady state is reached when the step response
dies down.
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave
T
1
T
2
Period T = T
1
+ T
2
v
o
(t)
V
1
t
V
2
V
1
V
2
V
2
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
2
V
1
= +
( )
1 2
2
2
1 1
2 1
2 2
1 2
T T T/2 square wave
T
RC
T
RC
V Ve
V V V
V V e
V V V
= =
= +
1
2
1
2
2 1
2 1
symmetric square wave
response
V
V
1
V
V
1
V V
V V
T
RC
T
RC
e
e
=
+
=
+
=
=
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave: Effect of RC
Variation
Small time-constant RC<<T/2: Alternating positive and negative spikes each
with amplitude V and equal areas, coincide with upward and downward
discontinuities of the input. Steady state is reached within the first half-period.
Large time-constant RC>>T/2: Steady state is reached after many cycles. Shape
of response at steady state is nearly identical to the input waveform, except for
the absence of dc level tops.
High Pass RC Circuits
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
10
Shape distortion: The flat tops of input square wave become tilted in the
response. Tilt is small for large RC, and increases with decrease in RC. The
measure of tilt for symmetric square wave response at steady state is as below:
Peak-to-peak value of response: is nearly V for large RC, increases with
decrease in RC, approaching 2V for small RC.
2
1 1 1
2
1
%Tilt 100 200; for large RC, 100 100
2 2
1
T
RC
T
RC
V V f e T
V RC f
e
= =
+
= =
| |
+
+
|
\
= = +
| | | |
+ +
+ +
| |
\ \
= = = =
=
= = = =
(
=
(
defining
t
x
0
( )
1
x
x
n
Vn
v x e e
n
(
=
(
Response to Exponential Input
High Pass RC Circuits
0
v
v
input
n=100
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
12
v
t
x
=
RC
n
=
n increasing
n=0.1
n=1
n=10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Response to Ramp Input
High Pass RC Circuits
0
2
0
1
; V( ) ; V ( )
At steady st
( ) (
ate,
)
( )
i i
RC
v t t u s s
s
s s
t
t
v RC
= =
| |
+
=
=
|
\
=
RC
v
i
(t) = t
t 0
v
0
(t)
0
( ) 1
t
RC
v t RC e
(
=
(
=
(
=
0 0 0
0
(constant) for t RC.Thus the input-
output relation + approximates to , resultin n
g i ( )
t
i
i R
i
C
i
dv v dv dv v dv
v t RC
dt
dv
e
RC dt dt RC dt
dt
=
= =
=
+
=
+
= =
+
gain
( )
( )
( )
o
i
V f
A f
V f
=
1
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
16
2
1
= (Hz)
2
f
C R
2
1
2
2
2
( ) 1
( )
1
1
( ) ; ( ) tan
1
phase la Low Pass RC circuit is a network g
.
o
i
V f
f V f
j
f
f
A f f
f
f
f
=
+
= =
+
| |
|
\
| |
|
\
| |
|
\
o
i o
dv
v v RC
dt
= +
0
f
1
Note: f
2
is the 3 dB bandwidth
of the Low Pass circuit.
Low Pass RC Circuits
Step Response
C
R
v
i
(t)= V u(t)
v
o
(t) = V[1- e
-t/RC
]
+
_
i(t)
0
1
V ( )
1
1
V
V
RC
s
s sRC
s s
RC
= =
+ | |
+
|
\
(Assumed v
c
(0) = 0)
( ) 1
t
RC
o
v t V e
(
=
(
v
o
(t)
V[1- e
-t/RC
]
V
v
i
(t)
V
RC = time constant
t
0
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
17
At t = 0 , output is zero (as capacitor can
not change its voltage instantaneously, that is v (0 )= v (0 ).
Thereafter, capacitor charges increasing v with
Physi
pola
cal Reas
rity shown,
decreas
oning:
C C
C
+
+
0
ing the loop current exponentially with time-constant = RC.
At steady state, capacitor is fully charged and v ( ) v ( ) = V.
C
=
1
: F i n d a n d s k e tc h t h e i m p u l s e r e s p on s e o f t h e l o w p a s s R C c kt .
J u s t i f y t h e s ke t c h w i t h p h ys i c a l r e a s o n i n g .
: F o r t h e n o n -z e r o i n i t i a l c o n d i t i on , v
1
( 0 ) , s h o w t 2 h a
o
E x e r c i s e
E x e r i V c s e
=
1
t
; w h e r e , V i s t h e s t e a d y s t a t e v a l u v ) ( ) e ( .
t
R C
o
t V V V e
= +
(Assumed v
c
(0) = 0) o (
Rise Time t
r
of a low pass circuit is
the time for step response to rise
from 10% to 90% of steady state
value.
2
0.35
2.2
r
t RC
f
= =
Response to Square Pulse
Low Pass RC Circuits
v
i
(t)
V
0
T
t
v
0
(t)
V
0
T t
V
2
( )
t
RC
0
T
RC
2 0
t T T
RC RC
0
for 0 t < T, v (t) V 1 e
V v (T) V 1 e
for t > T, v (t) V 1 e e
(
< =
(
(
= =
(
(
=
(
i
v (t) Vu(t) Vu(t-T) =
(Assumed v
0
(0) = 0)
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
18
0
T t
0 (
DC component is passed to output with unity gain, indicated by integral (net area) of response
being equal to integral of input . Verify. The two hatched areas shown are equal.
v
0
(t)
V
0
T t
Observe that as RC decreases, the response approaches the
input square shape. However the leading upper edge is
rounded off and a tail is added. For most practical
purposes, the square pulse is adequately passed if
2
1
T
f
= Then T = 6.3 RC or RC=0.16 T
RC decreasing
Steady State Response to Periodic Square Wave
Low Pass RC Circuits
v
i
(t)
V
0
T
1
t
T
2
Period T = T
1
+ T
2
v
o
(t)
0
T
t
T
V
1
V
1
V
1
V
2 V
2
V
2
V V
V
V
V
V
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
19
0
T
1
t
T
2
Steady state response is also periodic with T, and with the same dc value of the input.
| | | |
| |
( )
| |
1
1 2
01 1 2 1
02 2 1 2
v V+ V V ; V V+ V V
v V + V V ; V V + V V
T t
RC RC
t T T
RC RC
e e
e e
= =
= =
2
2 1
2
: Show that for a symmetrical square wave input with zero average, the steady
st
V 1 V
V tanh
2
ate values are
2 4
1
T
RC
T
RC
e T
V
RC
e
Exercise
| |
= = = (
|
\
( +
Response to Exponential Input
Low Pass RC Circuits
( )
o
From the equations derived earlier for exponential response of high pass RC,
exponential response for low pass RC circuit can be obtained as:
v
1 , 1
V 1 1
x x
n
x
e n
e n
n n
= +
( )
1 1 1
,
x
x e n
= + =
Response to Ramp Input
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012 20
Response to Ramp Input
( )
Similarly, from ramp response of HP RC, we obtain that for LP RC circuit
as : v ( )
t
RC
o
t t RC RC e
= +
T>>RC
RC
RC
0
( )
i o
i
for ramp time T Transmission error
v ( ) v ( ) RC
e
v (
R
) T
C
t
T T
T
= +
2
g,
Vt t
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
21
( )
2
0
1
step response and ramp response
2
Ideal integrator provides 90 phase delay to sinusoidal response.
Practical RC integr
Criterion for good integra
ator gives phase delay of tan . A
t
ion
Vt t
RC RC
RC
( )
0
good
differentiator may be specified by phase lag > 89.4 or 95.5.
satisfies this RC co >15 nditi n T o
RC >
Good integrator produces very low voltage responses, therefore needs to be followed by a high gain
amplifier.
Signal Attenuators
R
R
2
R
1
v
i
(t) v
o
(t)
2
o i
1 2
1 2
R
v (t) = v (t), where = attenuation factor
R +R
R , R chosen large (in M ) to prevent source loading.
a a =
1 2
R R
Attenuation ignoring stray capacitance
Effect of stray capacitance on attenuation
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
22
R
2
R
1
v
i
(t)
v
o
(t) C
2
v
o
(t)
C
2
1 2
R + R
2
i
1 2
R
V(t)
R +R
Compensating capacitor C
1
is added (shunting R
1
) with C
1
= R
2
C
2
/R
1
. Then the
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
23
1 1 1 2 2 1
equivalent bridge is balanced with zero current in arm X-Y.
Step response: At t=0
+
, the voltage jump at input appears across C
1
- C
2
in
series. Then
At steady state, C
1
- C
2
are open and
As the output initial value = final value (for the C
1
chosen), we get ideal step
response with no distortion. (Note: Above analysis ignores source resistance)
2
o
1 2
R
v ( ) = V
R +R
2
1 2
C
+
1
o
C C 1 2
X
C
v (0 ) = V = V
X +X C +C
Compensated Attenuator: Step Response
2
o
1 2
R
v ( ) = V
R +R
2 2
1
1
R C
v (0 ) for C =
R
o
+
t 0
2 2
1
1
R C
v (0 ) for C <
R
o
+
2 2
1
1
R C
v (0 ) for C >
R
o
+
Over-compensation
Under-compensation
Correct compensation +
1
o
1 2
C
v (0 ) = V
C +C
Time Constant of Transient Decay
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
24
1 2 eff
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
Effective RC for exponential
R R
= (C +C )
decay to steady
Seen inw
stat
ard from output terminals,
R R R ; C
e
= C
R
C
+R
eff
| | (
|
(
\
=
For Larger Attenuation Factor: R
eff
reduces, leads to smaller effective RC therefore causing lesser
waveform distortion.
(Note: Above analysis ignores source resistance)
Time Constant of Transient Decay
Effect of Introducing Compensated Attenuator on Waveform
Assumptions: 1) Compensation is exact, and arm X-Y maintains zero current. 2) R
S
<< R
1
, R
2
1 2
C C
Effective RC with Compensated Attenuator = R
(
(
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
25
1 2
1 2
1 2
S 2
1 2 1 2
Effective RC with Compensated Attenuator = R
C +C
C R
RC without attenuator = R C , and Attenuation Factor
C +C R +R
Compensated attenuator reduces RC by the value of attenuation factor, a
S (
= =
nd
therefore improves waveform.
Circuit for
Direct Coupling
An oscilloscope, used for monitoring waveforms at points in active circuits has to deal with R
S
which may
not be small. To improve waveformtransmission, the probe includes a fixed attenuator (eg. 1/100)
R-L Circuits: Equivalence with RC Circuits
Low Pass RC Circuits
v
i
(t)
v
o
(t)
(Input) (Output)
C
C
R v
i
(t)
v
o
(t)
(Input) (Output)
R
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1
o
i
RC s
V s
V s RC s
=
+
( )
( ) 1
( ) 1
o
i
V s
V s RC s
=
+
HP RC LP RC
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
26
L
R v
i
(t)
v
o
(t)
(Input) (Output)
v
i
(t)
v
o
(t)
(Input) (Output)
L
R
( )
( )
/
( )
( ) 1 /
o
i
L R s
V s
V s L R s
=
+
( )
( ) 1
( ) 1 /
o
i
V s
V s L R s
=
+
HP RL
LP RL
Parallel Circuits for Processing Current Waveforms
Low Pass RC Circuits
C R
i
o
(t)
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1
o
i
RC s
I s
I s RC s
=
+
( )
( ) 1
( ) 1
o
i
I s
I s RC s
=
+
HP RC LP RC
i
i
(t)
C R
i
o
(t)
i
i
(t)
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
27
L R
( )
( )
/
( )
( ) 1 /
o
i
L R s
I s
I s L R s
=
+
( )
( ) 1
( ) 1 /
o
i
I s
I s L R s
=
+
HP RL
LP RL
i
o
(t)
i
i
(t)
L R
i
i
(t)
i
o
(t)
RLC Circuits
v
i
(t)
v
o
(t)
C
R
L
0
2 2
0 0
2
0
0
V ( ) /
; second order system
V( ) / 1/
(standard form for system analysis)
1
where natural (resonant) frequency
1
= = damping const
V ( )
ant; natural per
2
=
V( )
o
2
i d T
2
o
i
o
i
s s RC
s s s RC LC
LC
L
s k s
k
s
R C
s k s
=
+ +
=
+
=
+
2 LC =
2
1 2 0 0
Roots of characteristic equat o
,
i n
1 s s k k =
Case 1: ( = 1 ); s ,s = Critically damped k Case 2: ( > 1) over-damped k
Presented by APN Rao, Dept ECE, GRIET, Hyderabad. Jan 2012
28
( )
0
1 2 0
0
0 2
0
0
0
0
0
Case 1: ( = 1 ); s ,s =
2 V
Step response V ( ) ;
1 1 2 2
Other substitutions:
2
Critically damp
ed
v
( )
2
V
t
o
k
s
s
t
t e
R
RC L T LC
t
x
T
=
+
(
= = = =
=
(
(
(
=
(
( ) ( )
0
0
1 2 0 0 2
0 0 2
0 0
0
0
1
0 0
2
2
Case 2: ( > 1)
1
s ,s = 1
1
for 1, 1
2
/
over-dampe
2 , 2
2 V
Step response V
d
( )
/ 2 2
(for k>>1)
v ( )
V
R
t t t
k t
o k RC L
k
k k
k
k k k
t
e e e
k
k k
k
s
s
e
k s k
(
(
=
+
= =
+
Q-factor
; indicates how close the RLC circuit is to resonant cond
1
i on Q
2
ti
k
: If C 0, with R & L fixed, step response (same as high pass RL circuit). If R 0, with L & C fix ) ed, (
R
t
o o L
v
Not
v
e u t
V
e
V
RLC Circuits
( )
( )
0
2
1 2 0 0
0
0 2
2
2
0 0
2
0
2
Case 3: ( < 1 )
s ,s = 1
2 V
Step response V ( )
1
under-damped
v ( ) 2
sin 1
V
1
k
o
t
k
k j k
k
s
s k
t k
e k t
k
k
=
(
(
=
(
+ +
= <
Ringing Circuit
A highly underdamped RLC circuit is also called a Ringing Circuit. The number N of
oscillations in its step response before the amplitude falls to 1/e of initial value, is a
measure of the damping constant.
and
1 1
2 2
k Q N
N k
= = =