Agma Notes 2008

Shmeiseic majmatoc M100
Analutik Gewmetra kai Migadiko Arijmo
Qrstoc Kourounithc TMHMA MAJHMATIKWN PANEPISTHMIO KRHTHS 2008
Keflaio 1 Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

'Ena gewmetrik dinusma enai na bloc, na prosanatolismno eujgrammo tmma, dhlad na eujgrammo tmma pnw sto opoo diakrnoume ta do kra, kai onomzoume to na arq kai to llo prac, (Sqma 1.1). Jewrome epshc mhdenik diansmata, sta opoa h arq kai to prac sumpptoun. Qrhsimopoiome grmmata tou latiniko alfabtou epigrammismna me bloc gia na sumbolsoume di ansmata: , , . . . u v
Sqma 1.1: Diansmata.
Arqik ja exetsoume gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo, dhlad blh pou efptontai sthn epifneia enc epipdou. To shmeo tou epipdou sto opoo brsketai h arq tou diansmatoc to onomzoume shmeo efarmogc tou diansmatoc. (Ta gewmetrik diansmata onomzontai epshc efarmost diansmata, efaptmena diansmata). En h arq tou gewmetriko diansmatoc brsketai sto shmeo A kai to prac u tou brsketai sto shmeo B tou epipdou, sumbolzoume enallaktik to dinusma 1
Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo
me AB . To mhdenik dinusma me shmeo efarmogc to A, to sumbolzoume AA. Prosxte ti qoume na diaforetik mhdenik gewmetrik dinusma se kje shmeo tou epipdou. En = AB onomzoume mtro ( mkoc) tou diansmatoc thn apstash u u metax twn krwn tou eujgrammou tmmatoc AB . To mtro tou sumbolzetai u |: |u | | = |AB| u = apstash ap to A sto B . En den enai mhdenik dinusma, tte h monadik eujea pnw sthn opoa brsketai u onomzetai forac tou , (Sqma 1.2). Wc fora enc mhdeniko diansmatoc to u u jewrome opoiadpote ap tic eujeec pou dirqontai ap to shmeo efarmogc tou.
Sqma 1.2: Forac diansmatoc.
Do diansmata pou qoun to dio fora parllhlouc forec, onomzontai parllhla suggrammik, (Sqma 1.3). Parathrome ti na mhdenik dinusma enai parllhlo proc opoiodpote dinusma tou epipdou. 'Otan do diansmata , u v //. enai parllhla lme ti qoun thn dia diejunsh kai grfoume u v
Parallhlgramma
'Ena sqma pou apoteletai ap tssera diadoqik eujgramma tmmata AB, BC, CD kai DA onomzetai parallhlgrammo en to mso M tou diastmatoc AC sumpptei me to mso tou BD. Aut to parallhlgrammo to sumbolzoume ABCD. Autc o orismc mac epitrpei na jewrsoume tautoqrnwc thn perptwsh pou ta diastmata brskontai se diaforetikc parllhlec eujeec (gnsio parallhlgrammo)
Keflaio 1
Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo
Sqma 1.3: Parllhla suggrammik diansmata.
kajc kai tic ekfulismnec periptseic pou ta tssera shmea brskontai sthn dia eujea.
Sqma 1.4: Parallhlgramma.
Ta smbola ABCD, BCDA, CDAB , DABC , ADCB , DCBA, CBAD kai BADC dhlnoun la to dio parallhlgrammo, me diagwnouc AC kai BD. Parathrste oti to ABCD kai to ABDC enai kai ta do parallhlgramma mnon tan ta A = B kai C = D. Ap autn ton orism mporome na apodexoume lec tic gnwstc idithtec twn parallhlogrmmwn (gia leptomreiec, dec G.Kazantzdh, Dianusmatikc Logismc, Jessalonkh 1966). Ja qrhsimopoisoume qwrc apdeixh to akloujo apotlesma.
Prtash 1.1 En ta sqmata ABCD kai CDEF enai parallhlgramma, tte

parallhlgrammo enai kai to sqma ABF E .
Sqma 1.5: Prtash 1.1.
Parllhlh metafor
Ma shmantik idithta twn gewmetrikn dianusmtwn sto eppedo enai ti mporome na ta metafroume parllhla. H diaisjhtik nnoia enai ti metakinome to dinusma se na llo shmeo efarmogc, qwrc na to peristryoume. Dnoume tra ton orism.
Sqma 1.6: Parllhlh metafor, AB A B . Jewrome to dinusma = AB , kai na shmeo A tou epipdou, (Sqma 1.6). Lme u ti to dinusma A B prokptei me parllhlh metafor tou AB sto A , en to shmeo B enai ttoio ste ABB A enai parallhlgrammo. Parathrste ti en to A brsketai sto fora tou AB , tte to parallhlgrammo ABBA enai ekfulismno kai ta diansmata AB kai A B qoun ton dio fora. Ean to dinusma CD prokptei ap to dinusma AB me parllhlh metafor, lme
Keflaio 1
ti ta diansmata AB kai CD enai isodnama, kai grfoume AB CD. 'Ola ta mhdenik diansmata enai isodnama metax touc.
Omrropa diansmata
Sqma 1.7: Omrropa kai antrropa diansmata. 'Ena mh mhdenik dinusma kajorzei ma for, na prosanatolism, pnw sto fora tou. Jewrome do mh mhdenik parllhla diansmata, = AB , = CD kai u v metafroume parllhla to CD sto AD , (Sqma 1.7). a. En to shmeo D brsketai sthn hmieujea ap to A pou periqei to B , lme ti ta kai enai omrropa, ti qoun thn dia for u v b. En to shmeo D den brsketai sthn hmieujea ap to A pou periqei to B , lme ti ta kai enai antrropa, ti qoun antjeth for u v
Prxeic me diansmata
Se autn kai tic epmenec paragrfouc ja dome pc mporome na orsoume prxeic me diansmata. O kannac tou parallhlgrammou gia th snjesh do kinsewn do dunmewn enai gnwstc ap thn arqaithta. Ddei mia qrsimh prxh sto snolo twn gewmetrikn dianusmtwn me to dio shmeo efarmogc. Arqik ja orsoume tic prxeic mno gia diansmata me to dio shmeo efarmogc, (prosjtoume omoeid antikemena), en argtera ja dome pc na apotinxoume
autn ton periorism. Jewrome loipn na shmeo O tou epipdou, kai periorizmaste se gewmetrik diansmata me shmeo efarmogc to O.
Sqma 1.8: 'Ajroisma dianusmtwn.
En = OA kai = OB enai diansmata me shmeo efarmogc to O, orzoume u v to jroisma + na enai to gewmetrik dinusma me arq sto O kai prac sto u v shmeo C gia to opoo OACB enai parallhlgrammo, (Sqma 1.8). En = OA kai = OB enai suggrammik, orzoume + na enai to u v u v gewmetrik dinusma OC , pou C prosdiorzetai ap tic sqseic |AC| = |OB| kai |BC| = |OA|. Parathrome ti to jroisma + qei to dio shmeo efarmogc kai thn dia u u , all diplsio mkoc. Mporome na genikesoume aut thn katejunsh me to u nnoia tou pollaplasou, me trpo pou na enai sumbatc me thn prxh thc prsjeshc. En = OA kai a enai pragmatikc arijmc, a R, orzoume to ginmeno a u u | kai thn dia diejunsh me na enai to dinusma me shmeo efarmogc O, mkoc |a| | u to (|a| enai h apluth tim tou a). H for tou a enai h dia me autn tou u u u en a > 0, kai h antjeth en a < 0. H akloujh prtash sunoyzei tic basikc idithtec twn prxewn pou orsame. Prtash 1.2 Jewrome ta gewmetrik diansmata , , me shmeo efaru v w
mogc to O, kai touc arijmoc a, b R. Tte isqoun ta aklouja:
1. + = + u v v u 2. ( + ) + = + ( + ) u v w u v w 3. + OO = u u
Keflaio 1
4. 1 = kai 0 = OO u u u 5. (ab) = a (b ) u u 6. (a + b) = a + b u u u 7. a ( + ) = a + a u v u v
Sqma 1.9: H prosetairistik idithta.
thn apdeixh thc prosetairistikc idithtac. En = OA, = OB kai = OC , u v w tte D, E , Z1 kai Z2 enai ta shmea pou prosdiorzontai ap tic akloujec isthtec, (Sqma 1.9): OA + OB = OD OD + OC = OZ 1 OB + OC = OE OA + OE = OZ 2
kai qoume
Apdeixh. H apdeixh twn perissotrwn idiottwn enai apl. Ja dsoume mno
( + ) + = OZ 1 , u v w
kai
+ ( + ) = 2 . u v w OZ
To shmeo Z2 qarakthrzetai ap thn idithta oti to tetrpleuro OAZ2 E enai par allhlgrammo. Sunepc gia na dexoume ti OZ 1 = OZ 2 , arke na dexoume ti
OAZ1 E enai epshc parallhlgrammo, dhlad na dexoume oti to mso tou OZ1 sumpptei me to mso tou AE . All ODZ1 C enai parallhlgrammo, ap ton orism tou Z1 , ra to mso tou OZ1 sumpptei me to mso tou CD. 'Arke loipn na dexoume oti to mso tou CD sumpptei me to mso tou AE , dhlad oti ACED enai parallhlgrammo. All OCEB kai OBDA enai parallhlgramma, ap ton orism twn E kai D antstoiqa. Sunepc, ap thn Prtash 1.1, ACED enai epshc parallhlgrammo. To dinusma (1) ikanopoie th sqsh + (1) = OO. Onomzetai anu u u tjeto tou , kai sumbolzetai . Qrhsimopoiome epshc to sumbolism thc u u = + ( ). afareshc, v u v u
Lmma 1.3 H parllhlh metafor enai sumbat me tic prxeic thc prsjeshc
dianusmtwn, kai tou pollaplasiasmo diansmatoc me arijm. Pio sugkekrimna, en AB A B kai AC A C , tte
A B + A C AB + AC
kai gia kje a R,
a A B a AB.
Sqma 1.10: Prsjesh kai parllhlh metafor
Keflaio 1
Apdeixh. Gia thn prsjesh, (Sqma 1.10), arke na dexoume ti en ABB A ,

ACC A , ABDC kai A B D C enai parallhlgramma, tte ADD A enai epshc parallhlgrammo. Efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.1, prta sta parallhlgramma ABDC kai ACC A , gia na dexoume oti BDC A enai parallhlgrammo, katpin sta BDC A kai A B D C gia na dexoume oti BDD B enai parallhlgrammo, kai tloc sta BDD B kai ABB A gia na dexoume oti ADD A enai parallhlgrammo. H apdeixh gia ton pollaplasiasm enai anlogh.
Grammiko sunduasmo, grammik anexarthsa

Enai endiafron na dome poia diansmata mporome na proume tan efarmsoume autc tic prxeic se na dedomno snolo dianusmtwn. En qoume na dinusma, efarmzontac ton pollaplasiasm me arijm parnoume upoqrewtik diansmata suggrammik me to dojn. To epmeno apotlesma deqnei oti me autn ton trpo parnoume la ta suggrammik diansmata.
OB Prtash 1.4 En = kai = brskontai sthn dia eujea, tte uprqei u OA v

pragmatikc arijmc a R ttoioc ste
= a v u Tte, en kai u enai omrropa, = a , en en kai enai antrropa, = a . v v u u v v u

|OB| . |OA|
Apdeixh. 'Estw a o lgoc twn mhkn twn kai : a = v u
En qoume do diansmata kai sthn dia eujea, ap thn Prtash 1.4 = a , u v v u + = (1 + a) . Sunepc la ta diansmata pou parnoume efarmzontac kai u v u tic prxeic thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo me arijm brskontai epshc sthn dia eujea. En qoume do diansmata kai ta opoa den brskontai sthn dia eujea, u v tte qoume perissterec dunatthtec, (Sqma 1.11). Ja dexoume ti mporome na proume kje dinusma tou epipdou efarmzontac tic prxeic sta kai . u v OA OB Prtash 1.5 En ta diansmata = kai = den brskontai sthn dia u v eujea, tte gia kje dinusma tou epipdou, me arq sto O, = OC , uprqoun w w pragmatiko arijmo a, b R ttoioi ste = a + b. w u v
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Sqma 1.11: Grammiko sunduasmo twn kai . u v
Sqma 1.12: Anlush tou OC se grammik sunduasm.
1.12). Afo ta , den enai suggrammik, aut tmnei thn eujea OA sto A . u v To dinusma OA enai suggrammik me to , kai ap thn Prtash 1.4, OA = a u u gia kpoio a R. Parmoia, frnoume ap to C parllhlo proc thn OA, h opoa tmnei thn OB sto B , kai OB = b gia kpoio b R. Ap thn kataskeu, to v tetrpleuro OA CB enai parallhlgrammo, kai sunepc = OC = + w OA OB = a + b . u v
Apdeixh. Ap to kro C tou , froume parllhlo proc thn OB , (Sqma w
Keflaio 1
11
En 1 , 2 , . . . , n enai diansmata, me arq sto O, onomzoume u u u 1 , 2 , . . . , n kje kfrash thc morfc sunduasm twn u u u a1 1 + a2 2 + . . . + an n u u u
grammik
pou a1 , a2 , . . . , an enai pragmatiko arijmo. 'Ena dinusma ekfrzetai wc grammikc sunduasmc twn 1 , 2 , . . . , n en mporome na to kataskeusoume efarmzonu u u tac tic prxeic the prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo me arijm sta diansmata 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Sthn Prtash 1.5 dexame ti kje dinusma tou epipdou ek u u u frzetai wc grammikc sunduasmc do dojntwn mh suggrammikn dianusmtwn. 'Otan exetzoume mia sullag dianusmtwn, suqn mac endiafrei na gnwrzoume en kpoio ap ta diansmata mpore na ekfraste wc grammikc sunduasmc twn upolopwn. En sumbanei aut, jewrome ti h sullog periqei, me kpoia nnoia, peritt stoiqea. Aut thn nnoia apotupnei o akloujoc orismc. Lme ti ta diansmata 1 , 2 , . . . , n , me arq sto O, enai grammik exarthu u u mna en kpoio ap aut mpore na ekfraste wc grammikc sunduasmc twn upolopwn, dhlad en uprqei kpoio i, 1 i n, kai pragmatiko arijmo a1 , . . . , ai1 , ai+1 , . . . , an ttoioi ste
i = ai 1 + . . . + ai1 i1 + ai+1 i+1 + . . . + an n u u u u u En ta diansmata 1 , 2 , . . . , n den enai grammik exarthmna, lme ti enai u u u grammik anexrthta1 . Oi Protseic 1.4 kai 1.5 deqnoun ti kje sullog pou periqei do suggrammik diansmata enai grammik exarthmnh, kai kje sullog pou periqei perisstera ap do diansmata sto dio eppedo enai grammik exarthmnh. Parathrome ti do mh suggrammik diansmata sto eppedo enai grammik anexrthta, kai kje llo dinusma tou epipdou me arq sto O mpore na ekfraste wc grammikc sunduasmc twn do dianusmtwn. 'Ena zegoc dianusmtwn me autc tic idithtec onomzetai bsh twn dianusmtwn tou epipdou me arq sto O.
'Axonac, algebrik tim diansmatoc

'Axona onomzoume ma eujea pnw sthn opoa qoume epilxei na mh mhdenik
dinusma = OA. H epilog tou kajorzei nan |bemprosanatolism pnw sthn v v eujea.
. , 1 , . u
1
12
En = OB dinusma suggramik me to , onomzoume algebrik tim ( u v wc proc ton xona (, ) ton pragmatik arijm proshmasmno mtro) tou u v a R o opooc ikanopoie th sqsh = a u v | | v Parathrome ti |a| = | |, kai en den enai mhdenik, tte a > 0 en enai u u u , en a < 0 en enai antrropo prc to . Thn algebrik omrropo me to v u v tim tou diansmatoc OB sumbolzoume (OB). Den ja qrhsimopoiome suqn to sumbolism () gia thn algebrik tim tou , kajc autc o sumbolismc mpore u u na parermhneute. xona (, ), tte v
Lmma 1.6 (Kannac tou Chasles) En A, B, C enai suggrammik shmea pnw se

(AB) + (BC) = (AC) .
Probol diansmatoc, eswterik ginmeno

Jewrome do mh mhdenik diansmata, = OA kai = OB . 'Estw o forac u v tou . Ap to shmeo A froume kjeto proc thn , kai stw A to shmeo pou v aut tmnei thn . Onomzoume (orjognia) probol tou sto , kai u v 2 sumbolzoume pr (), to dinusma OA , (Sqma 1.13) . v u
Lmma 1.7 H probol enai sumbat me tic prxeic thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo me arijm. 1. pr ( + ) = pr + pr w v u v w v u 2. pr (a ) = a pr u v v u
w OA , pr = OB kai pr ( + ) = OC . H parllhloc proc thn apo v u v w to B tmnei thn kjeto proc thn apo to C sto shmeo D. Ta trgwna OAA kai BCD enai sa. 'Ara (OA ) = (BD) = (B C ). Ap ton kanna tou Chasles (OC ) = (OB )+(B C ), kai sunepc (OC ) = (OB )+(OA ). 'Ara OC = OA +OB .
OA 1 v (, ), . | | v .
2
Apdeixh. Parapmpoume sto Sqma 1.14. Apodeiknoume to 1. Jtoume pr = v u
Keflaio 1
13
Sqma 1.13: Orjognia probol diansmatoc se xona.
Sqma 1.14: Probol ajrosmatoc.
To 2 apodeiknetai anloga.
u v Sugkrnontac thn probol pr = OA tou sto me thn probol pr = u v v u OB tou sto , blpoume ti autc enai, en gnei, diaforetikc. En mwc v u
14
exetsoume tic algebrikc timc twn do proboln ja dome ti ikanopoion ma apl sqsh.
Lmma 1.8 En , enai mh mhdenik diansmata me koin shmeo efarmogc u v

sto O, isqei h isthta
| |(pr ) = | |(pr ) . u v u v v u
pou h algebrik tim lambnetai wc proc ton xona thc probolc.
(1.1)
Apdeixh. Parapmpoume sto Sqma 1.13. Ap ta moia trgwna OAA kai OBB
parathrome ti, en |pr | = 0, tte v u
|pr | |OA | | | u |OA| v u = = = | | v |pr | |OB| |OB | u v

Apomnei na dexoume ti oi algebrikc timc twn proboln enai omshmec. H alge v brik tim (pr ) enai jetik en h probol pr enai omrroph me to . All v u v u kai to brskontai sto dio hmieppedo wc proc aut sumbanei mnon tan to u v . 'Omwc se autn thn perptwsh ta kai thn kjeto ap to O sto fora tou v u v brskontai epshc sto dio hmieppedo wc proc thn kjeto ap to O sto fora tou , kai sunepc pr enai omrroph me to , kai h algebrik tim (pr ) enai u u u v u v epshc jetik.
Ton pragmatik arijm | | (pr ) onomzoume v v u , kai to sumbolzoume kai tou v
eswterik ginmeno tou u
= | | (pr ). u v v v u En na ap ta diansmata , enai mhdenik, orzoume = 0. u v u v Oi kuriterec idithtec tou eswteriko ginomnou sunoyzontai sthn akloujh prtash Prtash 1.9 En , , enai diansmata, me koin shmeo efarmogc sto O, u v w
kai a R, isqoun ta aklouja:
1. = , u v v u 2. (a ) = a ( ), u v u v u v w u v u w 3. ( + ) = + , 4. 0 kai | | = . u u u u u
Keflaio 1
15
Apdeixh.
To 1 enai sunpeia thc (1.1). To 2 kai 3 prokptoun ap to Lmma 1.7. Gia to 4, parathrome ti pr = , kai oti, en to den enai mhdenik, h algebrik tim u u u u tou wc proc ton xona pou orzei to dio enai sh me to mtro tou. 'Ara u
= | | (pr ) = | | | | = | |2 0. u u u u u u uu
Gwna metax do dianusmtwn

H gwna metax do mh mhdenikn dianusmtwn = OA kai = OB orzetai wc u v h kurt gwna AOB = , h opoa parnei timc sto disthma 0 . Ja th sumbolzoume (, ). u v
Sqma 1.15: Proshmasmnh gwna metx do dianusmtwn. En qoume prosanatolsei to eppedo, epilgontac th jetik for peristrofc, tte h gwna mpore na enai jetik arnhtik. H proshmasmnh gwna ( , ) u v orzetai wc h gwna peristrofc , me timc sto disthma < , pou diagrfei to dinusma tan strfetai sto eppedo gia na sumpsei me to , Sqma 1.15. u v , ) = , tte ( , ) = (, ). En ( u v v u u v H orjognia probol kai to eswterik ginmeno sundontai me to sunhmtono thc proshmasmnhc gwnac me tic akloujec sqseic
u u v (pr ) = | | cos (, ) v u = | || | cos ( , ) . u v u v u v
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Ssthma anaforc
Jewrome to eppedo E 2 , na stajer shmeo O kai do mh suggrammik diansmata me shmeo efarmogc to O, = OA kai = OB . Ta diansmata kai u v u v prosdiorzoun do xonec, (, ) kai (, ), oi opooi tmnontai sto shmeo O. To u v ), (, ) onomzetai ssthma anaforc kai diatetagmno zegoc axnwn (, u v , ), Sqma 1.16. Lme ti to shmeo O enai h arq ja to sumbolzoume me (O, u v twn axnwn tou sustmatoc anaforc.
Sqma 1.16: Suntetagmnec diansmatoc kai shmeou se (mh orjognio) ssthma anaforc.
En enai opoiodpote dinusma me shmeo efarmogc sto O, qoume de ti w mporome na ekfrsoume to wc grammik sunduasm w = a + b . w u v
Oi arijmo tou diatetagmnou zegouc (a, b) onomzontai suntetagmnec tou di ansmatoc wc proc to ssthma anaforc (O, , ). Ta diansmata a , b w u v u v wc proc to ssthma anaforc (O, , ). onomzontai sunistsec tou diansmatoc w u v Gia kje shmeo C tou epipdou, onomzoume suntetagmnec tou shmeou C
Keflaio 1
17
tic suntetagmnec tou diansmatoc OC . To dinusma OC onomzetai dinusma jshc ( dianusmatik aktna) tou shmeou C wc proc to ssthma anaforc (O, , ). u v Blpoume oti h epilog enc sustmatoc anaforc sto eppedo mac ddei th dunatthta na antistoiqsoume ta shmea tou epipdou, amfimonosmanta, me ta diatetagmna zegh pragmatikn arijmn. Prosdiorzei, dhlad, ma antistoiqa ap to eppedo E 2 sto snolo R2 = {(x, y)|x, y R}. Se autn thn antistoiqa baszetai h Analutik Gewmetra, h opoa qrhsimopoie algebrikc mejdouc sth melth tou epipdou kai tou qrou. Sth sunqeia ja perioristome se orjognia sustmata anaforc, dhlad aut sta opoa oi do xonec tmnontai se orj gwna. Mporome na antikatastsoume ta diansmata , me ta antstoiqa monadiaa diansmata, u v 1 i = , | u |u 1 j = . | v |v
'Ena ssthma anaforc me orjogniouc xonec kai monadiaa diansmata onomzetai orjokanonik, Sqma 1.17.
Sqma 1.17: Orjokanonik ssthma anaforc. To akloujo Lmma deqnei ti oi suntetagmnec enc diansmatoc wc proc na orjokanonik ssthma anaforc sqetzontai me to eswterik ginmeno.
tagmnec (a, b) enc diansmatoc = a i + b j ddontai ap to eswterik ginmeno w
Lmma 1.10 'Estw (O, , ) orjokanonik ssthma anaforc. Tte oi suntei j
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tou me ta antstoiqa diansmata tou sustmatoc anaforc: w a= i , w b= j w
Apdeixh. Se na orjokanonik ssthma = = 1 kai = 0. i i j j i j

Upologzoume ta eswterik ginmena, Sqma 1.18,
= (a + b ) w i i j i = a i i +b j i = a
kai parmoia,
= b. w j
Sqma 1.18: Suntetagmnec wc proc orjokanonik ssthma anaforc.
Jewrome orjokanonik ssthma anaforc (O, i , j ), kai diansmata , u v me shmeo efarmogc sto O kai suntetagmnec (u1 , u2 ), (v1 , v2 ) antstoiqa (dhlad = u1 +u2 kai = v1 +v2 ). Tte to jroisma + qei suntetagmnec u i j v i j u v (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ), dhlad + = (u1 + v1 ) + (u2 + v2 ) , u v i j kai en a R, to ginmeno a qei suntetagmnec (au1 , au2 ), dhlad u a = au1 i + au2 j . u
Keflaio 1
19
Upologzoume to eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn kai : u v = (u1 + u2 ) (v1 + v2 ) u v i j i j = u1 v1 i i + u1 v2 i j + u2 v1 j i + u2 v2 j j = u1 v1 + u2 v2 . To mtro tou diansmatoc enai u u u | | = u = (u1 i + u2 j ) (u1 i + u2 j ) = = u1 2 i i + u1 u2 i j + u2 u1 j i + u2 2 j j u1 2 + u2 2 .
Elejera diansmata
Sthrizmenoi sthn arq ti prosjtoume omoeid antikemena, mqri tra perioristkame na orsoume tic prxeic se diansmata me na koin shmeo efarmogc, to O. An mwc sthn prth txh tou Dhmotiko mac problhmtize h prsjesh 2 mla + 3 portoklia, argtera xepersame to prblhma, bzontac mla kai portoklia sthn koin kathgora frota. Kti anlogo ja knoume tra, ste na mporome na prosjsoume diansmata me diaforetik shmea efarmogc. Ac dome prta kpoia fusik problmata sta opoa qreizetai na sunjsoume diansmata me diaforetik shmea efarmogc.
Pardeigma 1.1 Ma fusik ermhnea twn dianusmtwn enai h metatpish, Sqma
Sqma 1.19: Snjesh metatopsewn.
1.19. To dinusma AB perigrfei th metatpish enc antikeimnou ap to shmeo A
20
sto shmeo B . En katpin to antikemeno metatopisje ap to B sto C , ja jlame na mporome na ekfrsoume th sunolik metatpish wc snjesh twn metatopsewn AB kai AC , dhlad wc to jroisma AB + BC , all ta do diansmata den qoun koin shmeo efarmogc.
Pardeigma 1.2 Ma llh fusik ermhnea twn dianusmtwn enai h taqthta.
Sqma 1.20: Sqetik taqthta tou A wc proc to B .
To dinusma me shmeo efarmogc A paristnei thn taqthta enc antikeimnou v th stigm pou brsketai sto shmeo A. En na llo antikemeno thn dia stigm brsketai sto shmeo B kai kinetai me taqthta , h sqetik taqthta tou A wc u proc to B fusiologik ddetai ap th diafor twn taquttwn, , Sqma 1.20. v u Pli, qreizetai na sunjsoume diansmata me diaforetik shmea efarmogc.
Pardeigma 1.3 Ma trth fusik nnoia pou paristnetai me diansmata enai h
dnamh. H dnamh F1 dr se na stere sma sto shmeo A, en h dnamh F2 dr sto shmeo B . Poi ja enai to sunolik apotlesma, h sunistamnh dnamh? Ja jlame aut na ekfrzetai me kpoio trpo ap to jroisma twn do dianusmtwn F1 + F2 .
Se autc tic periptseic jloume na exetsoume diansmata qwrc na lambnoume up yin to akribc shmeo sto opoo efarmzontai. Gia na petqoume aut orzoume ma kainorgia nnoia, to elejero dinusma. To elejero dinusma pou antis toiqe sto efarmost dinusma = AB enai to snolo lwn twn dianusmtwn pou u enai isodnama me to , dhlad pou prokptoun ap to me parllhlh metafor. u u Proc to parn ja sumbolzoume to elejero dinusma pou antistoiqe sto me [], u u
Keflaio 1
21
dhlad
[ ] = { diansma sto eppedo, ttoio ste }. u v v u
'Etsi, to elejero dinusma pou antistoiqe sto enai so me to elejero dinusma u en kai mnon en to prokptei ap to me parllhlh pou antistoiqe sto v u v metatpish, [ ] = [ ] en kai mnon en . u v u v
Prosxte ti en do diansmata enai isodnama me na trto, tte enai kai metax touc isodnama, kai sunepc en [ ] = [] kai [ ] = [ ], tte [] = [ ], pwc u v v w u w ja perimname.
Prxeic me elejera diansmata

Gia na prosjsoume elejera diansmata qrhsimopoiome antiprospouc twn sunlwn, me koin shmeo efarmogc. Aut h ida den enai tso parxenh so swc fanetai arqik. To dio prgma knoume tan prosjtoume klsmata: 'Enac rhtc arijmc antistoiqe se na snolo klasmtwn pou ton paristnoun, gia pardeigma 2 5 ta klsmata 1 , 4 , 10 , 341 la paristnoun ton dio rht arijm. Gia na prosjsoume 2 682 1 kai 1 qrhsimopoiome touc antiprospouc pou tairizoun kaltera, se aut thn 2 3 1 2 perptwsh autoc pou qoun ton dio paronomast, kai grfoume 2 + 1 = 3 + 6 = 5 . 3 6 6 Anloga, gia na prosjsoume ta elejera diansmata [ ] kai [ ] qrhsimopoiome u v antiprospouc pou tairizoun kaltera, dhlad pou qoun koin shmeo efarmogc. Jewrome ta elejera diansmata [ ] kai [ ]. Sto shmeo O qoume OA u v u . Prosjtoume ta efarmost diansmata, + = . Orzoume kai OB v OA OB OC ] kai [ ] na enai to elejero to jroisma twn elejerwn dianusmtwn [ u v dinusma pou antistoiqe sto OC ,
[ ] + [] = u v
OC = [ ] . w
Orzoume to ginmeno tou elejerou diansmatoc [ ] me ton pragmatik arijm a na u enai to elejero dinusma a OA , a [] = u a OA = [a ] . u
Parmoia orzoume thn probol elejerwn dianusmtwn
pr[] [ ] = pr OA v u OB
22 kai to eswterik ginmeno
[ ] [] = OA OB . u v
Se lec autc tic periptseic prpei na elgxoume ti oi prxeic enai kal orismnec, dhlad ti to elejero dinusma o arijmc pou parnoume wc apotlesma den exarttai ap touc sugkekrimnouc antiprospouc pou epilxame, OA kai OB . Aut isqei, kai h epaljeush baszetai stic idithtec thc parllhlhc metaforc. Ac dome thn perptwsh tou ajrosmatoc. En epilxoume antiprospouc me na llo shmeo efarmogc, O A kai O B , tte OA O A kai OB O B , kai ap to Lmma 1.3, OA + OB O A + O B . 'Ara to elejero dinusma [ ] + [] den exarttai ap thn epilog tou shmeou efarmogc. u v Anloga apodeiknoume ti oi uploipec prxeic enai kal orismnec. Sth sunqeia ja jewrome la ta diansmata pou qrhsimopoiome wc elejera diansmata, ektc en anafretai rht to antjeto. Gia na aplopoisoume to sumbolism, kai na akoloujsoume th sunjh majhmatik praktik, ja paralepoume tic agklec [ ], kai ja sumbolzoume me AB ete to elejero dinusma ete to u efarmost.
Suntetagmnec elejerou diansmatoc

Jewrome orjokanonik ssthma axnwn (O, i , j ), kai shmea A, B, C, D me suntetagmnec (a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ), (c1 , c2 ) kai (d1 , d2 ) antstoiqa, Sqma 1.21. En AB CD, tte, ap ta sa trgwna ABM kai CDN prokptei ti b1 a1 = d1 c1
kai
b2 a2 = d2 c2
(1.2)
Sumperanoume ti oi arijmo v1 = b1 a1 kai v2 = b2 a2 den exartntai ap to sugkekrimno antiprswpo AB , all qarakthrzoun to elejero dinusma = AB . v
ma anaforc (O, i , j ), enai oi arijmo v1 = b 1 a 1
Suntetagmnec tou elejerou diansmatoc wc proc to orjokanonik ssthv
kai
v2 = b2 a2 ,
pou (a1 , a2 ) kai (b1 , b2 ) enai oi suntetagmnec twn krwn kpoiou antiprospou AB tou . En v1 = 0, onomzoume suntelest diejunshc tou ton arijm v v v2 = . v1 H prohgomenh paratrhsh (1.2) deqnei ti do elejera diansmata enai sa en kai mnon en oi suntetagmnec touc enai ma proc ma sec.
Keflaio 1
23
Sqma 1.21: Oi suntetagmnec tou elejerou diansmatoc den exartntai ap ton antiprswpo.
Aplc lgoc trin shmewn

Jewrome tra shmea P1 , P2 , P pnw se ma eujea. Ta diansmata P1 P kai P P2 enai suggrammik, kai en P = P2 uprqei nac arijmc ttoioc ste P1 P = P P2 .
O arijmc onomzetai aplc lgoc twn trin shmewn, kai sumbolzetai (P1 P2 P ). (P1 P ) Parathrome ti (P1 P2 P ) = , kai oti h allag tou prosanatolismo thc (P P2 ) eujeac den ephrezei ton apl lgo. En jewrsoume ta P1 , P2 stajer, kai to P na kinetai pnw sthn eujea, h tim tou aplo lgou metablletai pwc sto Sqma 1.22. En ta shmea qoun suntetagmnec P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ) kai P (x, y), tte
x x1 = (x2 x)
ap' pou prokptoun oi tpoi
kai
y y1 = (y2 y),
x=
x1 + x2 1+
kai
y=
y1 + y2 . 1+
(1.3)
'Otan > 0, to P brsketai metax twn P1 kai P2 , kai oi tpoi ddoun tic suntetagmnec tou shmeou pou qwrzei to disthma P1 P2 se do tmmata me lgo : 1.
24
Sqma 1.22: H tim tou aplo lgou kajc to shmeo P kinetai pnw sthn eujea P1 P2 .
Efarmog: To shmeo tomc twn diamswn trignou

Jewrome to trgwno ABC , tou opoou oi korufc qoun suntetagmnec (a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ) kai (c1 , c2 ) antstoiqa.
Sqma 1.23: Oi dimesoi trignou.
To shmeo A (a1 , a2 ) diaire to disthma BC se lgo 1:1, kai ap thn (1.3) qoume tic suntetagmnec tou b1 + c1 b2 + c2 a1 = a2 = . 2 2
Keflaio 1
25
Parmoia gia to B (b1 , b2 )
a2 + c2 . 2 To shmeo tomc twn AA kai BB qei dinusma jshc OA + AA kai epshc OB + mBB . Dhlad uprqoun pragmatiko arijmo kai m ttoioi ste OA + AA = OB + mBB . b1 = b2 =
Se suntetagmnec qoume
a 1 + c1 2
a1 + a2 +
a1 + c1 b1 + c1 a1 = b1 + m b1 2 2 b2 + c2 a2 + c2 a2 = b2 + m b2 2 2
kai sugkentrnontac touc moiouc rouc qoume to ssthma exissewn pou ikanopoion oi arijmo , m:
b1 c1 a1 c1 + + b1 m = b1 a1 2 2 2 2 b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 + + + b2 m = b2 a2 2 2 2 2 Ta diansmata AA, BB den enai parllhla kai sunepc oi suntelestc thc prthc exswshc den enai pollaplsia twn suntelestn thc deterhc exswshc. 'Ara oi 2 exisseic qoun monadik lsh, thn opoa mporome na upologsoume: = 3 , m = 2 . 3 Sumperanoume ti shmeo tomc twn eujein AA kai BB enai to shmeo G to opoo ikanopoie (AA G) = (BB G) = 2 a1 +
Me ton dio trpo deqnoume ti to shmeo tomc G twn AA kai CC ikanopoie
(AA G ) = (CC G ) = 2,
kai sunepc G = G . Tloc mporome na upologsoume to dinusma jshc kai tic suntetagmnec tou G:
2 OG = OA + AA 3 2 = OA + (OA OA) 3 1 2 1 = OA + ( (OB + OC)) 3 3 2 1 (OA + OB + OC) = 3 a 1 + b1 + c1 a 2 + b2 + c2 = , 3 3
26
Allag sustmatoc anaforc

Jewrome do diaforetik orjokanonik sustmata anaforc sto eppedo, (O, i , j ) kai (P, , ). To basik prblhma se autn thn perptwsh enai na brome tic sunu v
Sqma 1.24: Allag sustmatoc anaforc.
tetagmnec enoc shmeou wc proc to ssthma (P, , ) en gnwrzoume tic sunteu v tagmnec tou wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j ). Giat na jloume na to knoume aut? Suqn jloume na qrhsimopoisoume na ssthma anaforc prosarmosmno sta dedomna tou problmatoc, sto opoo ja mporome, gia pardeigma, na ekmetalleutome summetrec tou sqmatoc. Jewrome na shmeo A sto eppedo, me suntetagmnec (x, y) wc proc to (O, i , j ) kai (x , y ) wc proc to (P, , ). Aut shmanei ti u v OA = x i + y j kai P A = x + y u v
Parathrome ti
P A = OA OP
kai en oi suntetagmnec tou P wc proc to (O, i , j ) enai (p, q), tte v u x + y = (x p) i + (y q) j

(1.4)
Apomnei na brome th sqsh anmesa sta elejera diansmata i , j kai , . u v Jewrome antiprospouc twn i , j , u , v sto dio shmeo efarmogc, Sqma 1.25.
Keflaio 1
27
Sqma 1.25: Allag bshc.
Epeid kai ta do sustmata enai orjognia, h proshmasmnh gwna = enai sh me th gwna ( j , ), kai v
( i , ) u
= cos + sin u i j = sin + cos v i j

Antikajistntac sthn 1.4, qoume
x (cos i + sin j ) + y ( sin i + cos j ) = (x p) i + (y q) j kai exisnontac touc suntelestc tou i kai tou j qoume x cos y sin = x p x sin + y cos = y q .
En lsoume to ssthma wc proc x kai y , qoume (1.5)
x y
= (x p) cos + (y q) sin = (x p) sin + (y q) cos .
(1.6)
Oi exisseic 1.5 ddoun tic suntetagmnec (x, y) sunartsei twn x , y p kai q , en oi exisseic 1.6 ddoun tic suntetagmnec (x , y ) sunartsei twn x, y, p kai q . Prosxte thn allag sta prshma tou sunhmitnou, pou exhgetai ap to gegonc oti gia na pme psw ap to no ssthma sto arqik, strfoume touc xonec kat gwna . Qrhsimopointac to sumbolism twn pinkwn kai arijmhtikn dianusmtwn, ton opoo ja meletsoume sthn Eisagwg sth Grammik 'Algebra, h 1.6 grfetai
x y
cos sin sin cos
xp yq
Keflaio 2 Migadiko Arijmo

Sumplhrwmatik, diabste lo to Keflaio 2 twn Majhmatikn Jetikc Katejunshc thc 3hc Lukeou
Ta stoiqea tou sunlou twn migadikn arijmn enai ekfrseic thc morfc
a + ib
pou a, b R, kai i enai na smbolo,
C = {a + ib | a, b R} .
Me profan trpo mporome na tautsoume ta stoiqea tou C me diatetagmna zegh pragmatikn arijmn, a + ib (a, b) kai msw autn me ta shmea enc epipdou sto opoo qei epilege na orjokanonik ssthma anaforc, a + ib a i + b j . En z = a + ib, tte a = Re z onomzetai pragmatik mroc tou z , en b = Im z onomzetai fantastik mroc tou z . Prosxte ti Re z kai Im z enai pragmatiko arijmo. To uposnolo {z C | Im z = 0} to tautzoume me touc pragmatikoc arijmoc. Mtro tou migadiko arijmo z = a+bi enai o mh arnhtikc pragmatikc arijmc
|z| =
zz =
a2 + b2 .
Sto C orzontai prsjesh kai pollaplasiasmc tsi ste na sumfwnon me tic prxeic sto R tan perioriston sto snolo {z C | Im z = 0} kai na ikanopoietai 28
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
29
h sqsh i i = 1. prsjesh : (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i pollaplasiasmc : (a + bi) (c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i O migadikc arijmc a bi onomzetai Parathrome ti
suzugc tou z = a + bi, kai sumbolzetai z .
z + z = 2a = 2Re z z z = 2ib = 2iIm z z z = a2 + b2 = |z|2

Kje mh mhdenikc migadikc arijmc qei antstrofo. Parathrome ti afo z z = 1 2 |z| enai pragmatikc arijmc, z |z|2 z = 1, kai sunepc
z 1 =
1 z |z|2
(a + bi)1 =
a2
a b 2 i. 2 +b a + b2
Ap ed qoume kai ton kanna gia th diaresh
z zw = w |w|2
a + bi (a + bi)(c di) = c + di c2 + d2
Ekola elgqoume tic akloujec idithtec twn suzugn migadikn arijmn:
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z1 z2 = z1 z2 (z n ) = ()n z
Shmeinoume tic akloujec idithtec tou mtrou migadiko arijmo
|z| = || = | z| z |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | | |z1 | |z2 | | |z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |

Anaframe th dunatthta tatishc tou sunlou twn migadikn arijmn, C, me to eppedo, efodiasmno me na orjokanonik ssthma anaforc. Msw autc thc tatishc ja milme gia to migadik eppedo. Sto migadik eppedo qoume ton pragmatik xona, ton opoo tautzoume me to R, kai ton fantastik xona, ton opoo sumbolzoume Ri. Ja axiopoisoume aut th dunatthta, qrhsimopointac kai gewmetrikc nnoiec sth melth twn migadikn arijmn. 'Hdh qoume dei thn nnoia tou mtrou migadiko arijmo, to opoo profanc enai so me thn apstash ap to 0 sto migadik eppedo. Ma llh paratrhsh enai ti zegh suzugn migadikn arijmn apotelontai ap shmea summetrik wc proc ton pragmatik xona.
30
Sqma 2.1: Shmea tou migadiko epipdou
Trigwnometrik morf migadikn arijmn

Jewrome na migadik arijm z = 0, sto eppedo, kai upojtoume ti h hmieujea ap to 0 msw tou z , sqhmatzei gwna me th jetik hmieujea tou pragmatiko xona, pou 0 < 2 .
Sqma 2.2: Trigwnometrik morf migadiko arijmo
H gwna sundetai me ta x = Re z kai y = Im z msw twn sqsewn
cos =
x x2 + y2
sin =
y x2 + y2
(2.1)
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
31
En z = 0, h monadik tim h opoa ikanopoie tic exisseic 2.1 kai brsketai sto disthma 0 < 2 onomzetai prwteon risma tou migadiko arijmo z , kai sumbolzetai me Arg (z). Kje llh tim pou ikanopoie tic exisseic 2.1 onomzetai risma tou z kai sumbolzetai arg(z). Enai faner oti do orsmata tou z diafroun kat pollaplsio tou 2 . En gnwrzoume na risma tou z , kai thn apstash r tou z ap to 0, mporome na prosdiorsoume to z . To pragmatik mroc tou z enai x = r cos , en to fantastik mroc tou z enai y = r sin . Sunepc
z = x + iy = r cos + ir sin = r(cos + i sin ) .

Parathrome ti r =
x2 + y 2 = |z|.
11 6
Pardeigma 2.1 En =
kai r = 2, tte 11 11 + i sin 6 6
z = 2 cos = 2 =
3 1 +i 2 2
3i
Aut h trigwnometrik morf kfrashc twn migadikn arijmn mac epitrpei na perigryoume ton pollaplasiasm migadikn arijmn gewmetrik. Jewrome touc arijmoc z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) kai z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ), kai upologzoume to ginmeno
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r1 r2 [(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i(cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2 )] = r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )) .
Blpoume dhlad ti to jroisma twn orismtwn twn migadikn arijmn z1 kai z2 enai na risma tou ginomnou touc
arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 ,
(2.2)
kai to mtro tou ginomnou twn migadikn arijmn z1 kai z2 enai to ginmeno twn mtrwn touc |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | . (2.3)
32
Sqma 2.3: Gewmetrik ermhnea tou pollaplasiasmo migadikn arijmn
Sto Sqma 2.3, ta shmea A, B, C, D antistoiqon stouc migadikoc arijmoc z1 , z2 , z1 z2 kai 1 antstoiqa. Ap tic sqseic 2.2 kai 2.3 sumperanoume ti ta trgwna ODB kai OAC enai moia. O pollaplasiasmc me to z2 sto migadik eppedo enai ma omoiojesa, nac metasqhmatismc pou apeikonzei kje shmeo z1 tou epipdou se na shmeo z3 ttoio ste to trgwno pou sqhmatzoun ta z1 kai z3 me to 0, na enai moio me to trgwno pou sqhmatzoun ta 1 kai z2 me to 0. Me aut thn nnoia, to z1 z2 enai proc to z1 , pwc to z2 enai proc to 1,
z1 z2 : z1 = z2 : 1 .
pou wc analoga den ennoome aplc thn isthta tou lgou twn mhkn (pwc sthn eujea twn pragmatikn arijmn) all kai thn isthta twn antstoiqwn gwnin. Me rouc dianusmtwn, o pollaplasiasmc me to z2 , strfei to dinusma jshc tou z1 kat gwna Arg (z2 ), kai to pollaplasizei me ton arijm |z2 |. Parathrome ti o pollaplasiasmc me z ttoio ste |z| = 1, enai aplc strof tou migadiko epipdou kat gwna Arg (z). Eidiktera, o pollaplasiasmc me th fantastik monda i, enai peristrof kat /2. Ap aut thn poyh apokt gewmetrik nhma h idithta i2 = 1 : h epanlhyh thc peristrofc kat /2 ddei peristrof kat gwna , h opoa apeikonzei kje shmeo sto antjeto tou :
i2 z = z .
O antstrofoc noc migadiko arijmo z = 0, upologzetai ekola en o z enai se trigwnometrik morf.
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
33
'Estw z = r (cos +i sin ), kai upojtoume ti o antstrofoc qei trigwnometrik morf z 1 = t(cos + i sin ). 'Eqoume
1 = zw = r t (cos( + ) + i( + ))
all o migadikc arijmc 1 qei mtro 1 kai risma 0. Sunepc r t = 1 kai + = 0, kai katalgoume 1 z 1 = (cos() + i sin()) r 1 1 dhlad |z | = |z| , kai enai na risma tou z 1 , arg z 1 = . Eidiktera, gia to prwteon risma tou z 1 qoume
Arg z 1 =
2 Arg z 0
en Arg z = 0 en Arg z = 0
H trigwnometrik morf enai idiatera qrsimh gia ton upologism dunmewn migadikn arijmn. Jewrome ton arijm z = r (cos + i sin ) kai tic dunmeic tou
z 2 = r r (cos( + ) + i sin( + )) = r2 (cos(2) + i sin(2)) z 3 = r2 r (cos(2 + ) + i sin(2 + )) = r3 (cos(3) + i sin(3))

kai, pwc deqnoume ekola me epagwg sto n,
z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) .
Aut to apotlesma onomzetai Jerhma tou De Moivre. Efarmzontac to Jerhma sto z 1 , blpoume ti mpore na epektaje kai se arnhtikoc akraiouc. En n N,
z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) .
Jerhma 2.1 (Jerhma De Moivre) Gia kje migadik arijm z = 0, kai kje
akraio n Z, en z = r(cos + i sin ), tte
z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n))
'Askhsh 2.1 En z brsketai pnw sto monadiao kklo S 1 , tte

z 1 = z .
Sth sunqeia ja exetsoume klasmatikc dunmeic.
34
Rzec thc mondac

Sto snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn, gia kje fusik arijm n, o arijmc 1 qei ma monadik n-ost rza en n enai perittc, en qei do n-ostc rzec, 1 kai 1, en o n enai rtioc. Ja dome ti sto snolo twn migadikn arijmn o arijmc 1 qei akribc n n-ostc rzec gia kje fusik arijm n. Anazhtome tic lseic thc exswshc
zn = 1 .
Grfoume to z se trigwnometrik morf, z = r(cos + i sin ) kai qoume
z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) = 1 ,
sunepc rn = 1, cos(n) = 1 kai sin(n) = 0. Sumperanoume ti kje n-ost rza thc mondac grfetai sth morf cos + i sin , pou ikanopoie tic sqseic cos(n) = 1 kai sin(n) = 0. Ap tic sqseic autc qoume ti n = 2k gia k Z, kai sunepc ti k = 2, k Z . n Apomnei na dome poic ap autc tic timc tou orsmatoc ddoun diaforetikoc migadikoc arijmoc. En sumbolsoume k = 2k , qoume n
k+n = k + 2
kai sunepc cos k+n + i sin k+n = cos k + i sin k . Gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, qoume tic timc
2 2k 2(n 1) , . . . , k = , . . . , n1 = n n n oi opoec ddoun lec diaforetikoc migadikoc arijmoc. Sumperanoume ti uprqoun akribc n n-ostec rzec thc mondac sto migadik eppedo, oi arijmo 2k 2k + i sin cos n n gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. En tra orsoume wn = cos 2 + i sin 2 , qoume, gia k = 0, . . . , n 1 n n 0 = 0, 1 = 2k 2k + i sin . n n Po brskontai auto oi arijmo sto migadik eppedo? Gia k = 0 qoume to 1. 'Olec oi n-ostc rzec thc mondac brskontai sto monadiao kklo, S 1 = {z C | |z| = 1}, kai h gwna pou sqhmatzetai ap to 0 metax diaforetikn rizn enai pollaplsio tou 2 . Sumperanoume ti oi n-ostc rzec brskontai stic korufc enc kanoniko n polugnou, me n korufc, ma ek twn opown brsketai sto 1.
k wn = cos
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
35
Sqma 2.4: Trtec kai ttartec rzec thc mondac
Rzec tou a C
En a = 0, tte gia kje n, h monadik n-ost rza tou a enai 0:
zn = 0 z = 0 .
En a = 0, upojtoume ti a grfetai se trigwnometrik morf wc a = s(cos + i sin ). O pragmatikc arijmc s enai jetikc, kai sumbolzoume s1/n th jetik pragmatik n-ost rza tou s. Jtoume z0 = s1/n cos + i sin , kai parathrome n n n ti z0 = a, dhlad z0 enai ma ap tic n-ostc rzec tou a. En zk enai mia llh n-ost rza tou a, qoume zk = 1, kai sunepc z0 ma n-ost rza thc mondac. Katalgoume sto akloujo apotlesma.
n zk z0
enai
Jerhma 2.2 Kje migadikc arijmc a = 0, qei n diaforetikc migadikc n-ostc

rzec, kai en a = s(cos + i sin ) enai ma trigwnometrik morf tou a, oi n-ostc rzec enai 2k 2k zk = s1/n cos + + + i sin n n n n gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
Ekjetik morf migadiko arijmo

Jewrome touc arijmoc t + i kai s + i, kajc kai touc et (cos + i sin ) kai es (cos + i sin ). Parathrome ti
et (cos + i sin ) es (cos + i sin ) = et+s (cos( + ) + sin i( + ))
36 kai
et (cos + i sin )
dhlad ti h antistoqhsh
= ent (cos(n) + i sin(n)) ,
t + i et (cos + i sin )
qei tic idithtec thc ekjetikc sunrthshc, na apeikonzei ajrosmata se ginmena kai akraia pollaplsia se dunmeic. Me bsh aut thn paratrhsh ja orsoume th migadik ekjetik sunrthsh
et+i = et (cos + i sin ) ,
ez = eRe (z) (cos(Im z) + i sin(Im z)) .

Kje mh mhdenikc migadikc arijmc mpore na ekfraste se
ekjetik morf
z = elog |z|+i arg z .

H migadik ekjetik sunrthsh qei tic idithtec a. ez ew = ez+w b. (ez )n = enz g. (ez )1 = ez
d. ez = ez
e. |ez | = eRe z kai arg(ez ) = Im z
'Askhsh 2.2 Epalhjesate tic parapnw idithtec thc migadikc ekjetikc sunrthshc.
Efarmogc
Pardeigma 2.2 Anaptgmata dunmewn twn cos , sin .
En z = cos + i sin , tte
1 z
= cos i sin kai 2 cos = z +
1 z 1 2i sin = z . z
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
37
Ap touc tpouc tou De Moivre, z n = cos n + i sin n kai z n = cos n i sin n. 'Ara
1 zn 1 2i sin n = z n n z 2 cos n = z n +
(2.4) (2.5)
Ja qrhsimopoisoume thn 2.4 gia na ekfrsoume to cos6 se pollaplsia thc :
2 cos =
1 z+ z
1 1 1 +6 4 + 6 z2 z z 1 1 1 = z 6 + 6 + 6 z 4 + 4 + 15 z 2 + 2 z z z = 2 cos 6 + 12 cos 4 + 30 cos 2 + 20 = z 6 + 6z 4 + 15z 2 + 20 + 15

kai katalgoume
+ 20
cos6 =
Anloga upologzoume ti
1 (cos 6 + 6 cos 4 + 15 cos 2 + 10) 32
(2i) sin = =
kai ap thn 2.5 qoume
1 z z z5 1 z5
5 z3
1 z3
+ 10 z
1 z
25 sin5 = 2(sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin )

kai
sin5 =
1 (sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin ). 16
Pardeigma 2.3 Anaptgmata twn cos n, sin n se dunmeic.

Ap thn tautthta
(cos 6 + i sin 6) = (cos + i sin )6 = cos6 + 6i cos5 sin + 15i2 cos4 sin2 +20i3 cos3 sin3 + 15i4 cos2 sin4 +6i5 cos sin 5 + i6 sin6 ,
38
qwrzontac to pragmatik kai to fantastik mroc, qoume
cos 6 = cos6 15 cos4 sin2 + 15 cos2 sin4 sin6

kai
sin 6 = 6 cos5 sin 20 cos3 sin3 + 6 cos sin5 .
Pardeigma 2.4 Oi diwnumiko suntelestc

oi suntelestc tou anaptgmatoc tou diwnmou
n
n k
, gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n orzontai wc
(1 + x) =
k=0
n k x , k
kai mporome na touc upologsoume ap ton tpo
n n! (n k + 1) (n k + 2) (n 1)n = = . k k!(n k)! 1 2k

Prosxte oti 0! = 1, kai sunepc Jewrome ta ajrosmata
n n 0
n k
= 1.
C =
k=0
n cos k k n(n 1) cos 2 + . . . + cos n 2
= 1 + n cos +
kai
n
S =
k=0
n sin k k n(n 1) sin 2 + . . . + sin n. 2
= n sin +
Parathrome ti C kai S enai to pragmatik kai to fantastik mroc, antstoiqa, tou anaptgmatoc tou (1 + ei )n :
n
(1 + e )
i n
=
k=0 n
n ik e k n (cos k + i sin k) k
=
k=0
= C + iS.
Keflaio 2
Migadiko Arijmo
39
'Eqoume
1 + ei
= (1 + cos + i sin )n n = 2 cos2 + 2i sin cos 2 2 2 n n = 2 cos cos + i sin 2 2 2 n n n cos . + i sin = 2 cos 2 2 2 2 cos 2 2 cos 2
n
Sumperanoume ti
C=
kai
cos
n
n 2 n . 2
S=
sin
Pardeigma 2.5 Exetzoume to jroisma twn nostn rizn thc mondac,

2 n1 Q = 1 + wn + wn + . . . + wn .
Parathrome ti
n1 wn Q = wn (1 + wn + . . . + wn ) 2 n1 n = wn + wn + . . . + wn + wn
= Q
Sumperanoume ti (wn 1)Q = 0, kai ef son wn = 1, qoume
2 n1 1 + wn + wn + . . . + wn = 0.
Keflaio 3 Gewmetrik diansmata sto qro

Upenjumzoume ti na gewmetrik dinusma enai na eujgrammo tmma pnw sto opoo diakrnoume ta do kra, thn arq kai to prac tou diansmatoc. Sto Keflaio 1 meletsame diansmata pou efptontai sthn epifneia tou epipdou E 2 . Sto parn keflaio ja meletsoume diansmata sto qro, E 3 . En tssera shmea tou qrou sqhmatzoun na parallhlgrammo, aut brskontai se na eppedo. H Prtash 1.1 isqei epshc gia parallhlgramma sto qro. Oi basikc nnoiec pou orsame gia ta diansmata tou epipdou, pwc
shmeo efarmogc mtro mkoc forac parallhla suggramikthta parllhlh metafor isodunama dianusmtwn omrropa antrropa diansmata
orzontai me ton dio akribc trpo kai gia diansmata tou qrou. Gia pardeigma, en AB enai na dinusma, kai A na shmeo tou qrou E 3 , lme ti to dinusma A B prokptei me parllhlh metafor tou AB sto A , en to shmeo B enai ttoio ste to tetrpleuro ABB A enai parallhlgrammo. Oi prxeic thc prsjeshc dianusmtwn me to dio shmeo efarmogc, kai tou pollaplasiasmo diansmatoc me pragmatik arijm, orzontai gia diansmata tou qrou, kai isqoun oi idithtec thc Prtashc 1.2. Gia thn apdeixh thc prosetairistikc idithtac (Prtash 1.2, 2), en ta shmea O, A, B, C den brskontai sto dio 40
Keflaio 3
Gewmetrik diansmata sto qro
41
eppedo, tte to Sqma 1.9 paristnei to parallhleppedo pou kataskeuzetai me akmc OA, OB, OC , kai efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.1. Oi prxeic enai sumbatc me thn parllhlh metafor se opoiadpote shmeo tou qrou, Lmma 1.3. Gia thn apdeixh arke na jewrsoume ti en to A den brsketai sto eppedo twn A, B, C , tte to Sqma 1.10 paristnei to parallhleppedo pou kataskeuzetai me akmc AB, AC, AA .
OA OB OC Prtash 3.1 En ta diansmata = , = kai = den brskontai u v w
sto dio eppedo, tte gia kje dinusma tou qrou, me arq sto O, = OD, z z uprqoun pragmatiko arijmo a, b, c R ttoioi ste = a + b + c . z u v w enai parllhlo proc to eppedo pou orzoun ta (mh suggrammik) diansmata kai u . Afo ta diansmata , , den brskontai sto dio eppedo, o forac tou v u v w w (dhlad h eujea OC ) tmnei to se na shmeo C . Orzoume ton pragmatik arijm c ap th sqsh OC = c OC . Me parmoio trpo orzoume ta shmea A kai B pnw stic eujeec OA kai OB antstoiqa, kai touc pragmatikoc arijmoc a kai b tsi ste OA = a OA kai OB = b OB . Apdeixh. Jewrome to eppedo to opoo pernei ap to prac D tou kai z
Sqma 3.1: Anlush diansmatoc se treic sunistsec
Ap thn kataskeu sqhmatzetai parallhleppedo me akmc OA , OB , OC , kai koruf D, Sqma 3.1.
42 Sumperanoume ti
OD = OA + OB + OC = a + b + c . u v w
H prtash deqnei ti en , , den brskontai sto dio eppedo, tte kje u v w dinusma tou qrou mpore na ekfraste wc grammikc sunduasmc twn , , . u v w Sumperanoume ti kje sullog pou periqei perisstera ap tra diansmata sto qro, enai grammik exarthmnh. Parathrome ti tra diansmata me koin shmeo efarmogc sto qro, ta opoa den periqontai se na eppedo enai grammik anexrthta. Jewrome do mh mhdenik diansmata sto qro, = OA kai = OB . H u v u v orjognia probol tou sto , pr , kai to eswterik ginmeno orzontai u v v u pwc kai gia diansmata tou epipdou: pr = OA , pou A enai to shmeo sto opoo h kjetoc ap to A tmnei v u thn eujea OB , = | |(pr ), pou h algebrik tim (pr ) enai wc proc ton u v v v u v u . prosanatolism thc OB pou orzei to dinusma v
Oi idithtec tou Lmmatoc 1.8 kai thc Prtashc 1.9 isqoun kai gia diansmata tou qrou. Tloc h gwna (, ) metax do mh mhdenikn dianusmtwn = OA kai u v u = orzetai wc h kurt gwna AOB sto eppedo pou orzoun ta shmea O, A, B . OB v Den ja orsoume proshmasmnh gwna gia do diansmata sto qro, kajc gi aut apaitetai na prosdiorsoume ton prosanatolism tou epipdou pou periqei ta diansmata, kai toto den mpore na gnei me kanonik trpo gia la ta eppeda tou qrou.
Exwterik ginmeno dianusmtwn sto qro

'Otan meletme diansmata sto qro apokt endiafron ma llh prxh, thn opoa mporome na orsoume me gewmetrik trpo wc exc. Jewrome ta diansmata = OA kai = OB , kai to parallhlgrammo me u v pleurc OA kai OB , OADB . To embadn tou parallhlgrammou enai nac jetikc arijmc, o opooc exarttai ap ta mtra twn dianusmtwn kai , kai th gwna u v
Keflaio 3
43
metax touc. Mporome na orsoume ma prxh h opoa, sto zegoc dianusmtwn , antistoiqe to embadn |OADB| tou parallhlogrmmou OADB . 'Omwc enai u v arket ekolo na dome ti, akma kai sto eppedo, aut h prxh den diajtei ma ap tic basikc idithtec pou ja jlame, thn epimeristikthta wc proc thn prsjesh.
Sqma 3.2: To embadn parallhlogrmmou den enai epimeristik
En OC enai na trto dinusma kai OG = OB+OC , h epimeristikthta ja smaine ti to jroisma twn embadn twn parallhlogrmmwn OADB kai OAEC ja tan so me to embadn tou parallhlogrmmou OAF G, |OADB| + |OAEC| = |OAF G|, prgma pou en gnei den isqei, Sqma 3.2. Gia na orsoume ma prxh me qrsimec idithtec prpei na lboume up yin mac, ektc ap to embadn, kai ton prosanatolism tou epipdou msa sto qro. Jewrome na eppedo pou periqei to shmeo anaforc O, kai ta mh suggrammik diansmata OA kai OB . Jewrome thn eujea h opoa pernei ap to O kai enai kjeth sto eppedo . Aut shmanei ti h enai kjeth se kje eujea tou pou pernei ap to O, eidiktera stouc forec twn OA kai OB . Ta mh mhdenik diansmata me fora thn diakrnontai se do kathgorec, anloga me th for touc. Epilgoume na mh mhdenik dinusma ON , me fora , kai orzoume ton prosanatolism tou epipdou pou antistoiqe sto ON na enai h for peristrofc tou epipdou pou prosdiorzoun ta dktula tou dexio qerio, tan o antqeirac deqnei sthn katejunsh tou ON . Enai faner ti o prosanatolismc tou epipdou pou antistoiqe se opoiod pote dinusma omrropo me to ON enai o dioc me autn pou antistoiqe sto ON , en o prosanatolismc pou antistoiqe se na dinusma antrropo proc to ON enai antjetoc.
44
Sqma 3.3: Prosanatolismoc epipdou ap kjeto dinusma
Parathrome ti ma ditaxh sto zegoc mh suggrammikn dianusmtwn (OA, OB) epshc prosdiorzei na prosanatolism sto eppedo : th for peristrofc tou epipdou h opoa metafrei to dinusma OA se na dinusma omrropo me to OB , met ap strof kat kurt gwna , me 0 < < , Sqma 3.4.
Sqma 3.4: Prosdiorismc prosanatolismnou epipdou ap diatetagmno zegoc dianusmtwn
H antjeth ditaxh twn dianusmtwn, (OB, OA), prosdiorzei ton antjeto prosanatolism.
Keflaio 3
45
Me autn ton trpo, sto diatetagmno zegoc dianusmtwn (OA, OB) antistoiqe ma for pnw sthn kjeto : h for twn dianusmtwn pou antistoiqon ston prosanatolism tou epipdou pou prosdiorzei to diatetagmno zegoc (OA, OB).
'Otan o prosanatolismc tou epipdou pou prosdiorzei to diatetagmno ze goc (OA, OB) sumpptei me ton prosanatolism pou prosdiorzei to kjeto sto eppedo dinusma ON , lme ti h diatetagmnh trida (OA, OB, ON ) apotele na dexistrofo ssthma, Sqma 3.5.
Sqma 3.5: Dexistrofa sustmata dianusmtwn
Jewrome to dinusma OX to opoo qei fora ton , for autn pou prosdiorze tai ap thn ditaxh (OA, OB), kai mtro so me to embadn tou parallhlogrmmou me akmc OA, OB . Orzoume to exwterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn OA, OB na enai to dinusma OA OB = OO en ta OX en ta OA, OA, OB enai suggramik OB den enai suggramik.
Prtash 3.2 Jewrome ta diansmata , , me koin shmeo efarmogc O, x y z

kai to arijm a: Tte
x y y x 1. = 2. (a ) = a( ) x y x y 3. ( + ) = ( ) + ( ) x y z x y x z
46
Apdeixh. Ta 1 kai 2 apodeiknontai ekola ap ton orism tou exwteriko ginomnou. To 3 ja apodeiqje tan orsoume to mikt ginmeno, sth selda 48.
Ssthma anaforc sto qro

Sto qro E 3 jewrome na shmeo O, kai tra diansmata me shmeo efarmogc to O, ta opoa den periqontai sto dio eppedo, = OA, = OB , w = OC . Ta u v diansmata , , prosdiorzoun trec xonec, (, ), (, ), (, ), oi opooi u v w u v w ), (, ), (, ) onomzetai tmnontai sto O. H diatetagmnh trida axnwn (, u v w , , ). ssthma anaforc sto qro kai ja to sumbolzoume (O, u v w Opoiodpote dinusma sto qro me shmeo efarmogc sto O grfetai wc gramz mikc sunduasmc = a + b + c . z u v w Oi arijmo thc diatetagmnhc tridac (a, b, c) onomzontai suntetagmnec tou diansmatoc wc proc to ssthma anaforc (O, , , ). Ta diansmaz u v w , b, c onomzontai sunistsec tou wc proc to ssthma anaforc ta a u v w z , , ). Gia kje shmeo D tou qrou, to dinusma onomzetai dinus (O, u v w OD ma jshc ( dianusmatik aktna) tou D, kai oi suntetagmnec tou enai OD oi suntetagmnec tou shmeou D. Ja periorsoume thn prosoq mac se orjokanonik, dexistrofa sustma ta suntetagmnwn, dhlad sustmata suntetagmnwn (O, i , j , k ) sta opoa ta diansmata i , j , k qoun mtro 1, enai kjeta metax touc, kai h diatetagmnh trida ( i , j , k ) apotele dexistrofo ssthma dianusmtwn. Se na orjokanonik ssthma suntetagmnwn, oi suntetagmnec tou diansmatoc ddontai ap ta eswterik ginmena tou me ta diansmata tou sustmatoc: z z
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) , z z i i z j j z k k
kai to eswterik ginmeno do dianusmtwn ddetai ap to jroisma twn ginomnwn y twn antstoiqwn suntetagmnwn. En = z1 i + z2 j + z3 k kai = y1 i + y2 j + z y3 k , tte =z y +z y +z y z y
1 1 2 2 3 3
kai
| | = z
2 2 2 z1 + z2 + z3 .
Ja upologsoume tic suntetagmnec tou exwteriko ginomnou do dianusmtwn wc proc na orjokanonik, dexistrofo ssthma anaforc. En (O, i , j , k ) enai
Keflaio 3
47
orjokanonik kai dexistrofo, to parallhlgrammo pou prosdiorzoun ta i , j enai orjognio, me embadn 1, kai isqei h sqsh i j = k =j i
Anloga qoume
j k = i =k j k i = j =i k .
kai
Sunepc
= (z1 + z2 + z3 ) (y1 + y2 + y3 ) z y i j k i j k = z1 y1 i i + z1 y2 i j + z1 y3 i k +z2 y1 j i + z2 y2 j j + z2 y3 j k +z3 y1 k i + z3 y2 k j + z3 y3 k k = z1 y1 OO + z1 y2 k z1 y3 j z2 y1 k + z2 y2 OO + z2 y3 i +z3 y1 j z3 y2 i + z3 y3 OO ,

kai telik qoume
= (z2 y3 z3 y2 ) + (z3 y1 z1 y3 ) + (z1 y2 z2 y1 ) . z y i j k
(3.1)
Gia na upologsoume tic suntetagmnec tou exwteriko ginmnou, dieukolnei o sumbolismc twn 3 3 orizousn: En a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 kai c1 , c2 , c3 enai 9 posthtec, gia tic opoec orzontai prxeic pollaplasiasmo kai prsjeshc, qrhsimopoiome to sumbolism:
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
= a1 b2 c3 + b1 c2 a3 + c1 a2 b3 a3 b2 c1 b3 c2 a1 c3 a2 b1 .
(3.2)
Sthn perptwsh tou exwteriko ginomnou, sugkrnontac thn 3.1 me thn 3.2, qoume
= z y
i j k z1 z2 z3 y1 y2 y3
48
Mikt ginmeno
En , , enai tra diansmata, mporome na upologsoume ton arijm ( x y z x y ). z ( ) = (x1 + x2 + x3 ) x y z i j k (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) i + (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) j + (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) k = x1 y2 z3 x1 y3 z2 + x2 y3 z1 x2 y1 z3 + x3 y1 z2 x3 y2 z1 = x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3 .
Aut o arijmc enai to mikt ginmeno twn trin dianusmtwn , , . Gewmetrik, x y z h apluth tim tou mikto ginomnou enai sh me ton gko tou parallhleppedou me akmc ta diansmata , , . To mikt ginmeno enai jetik en to ssthma x y z ( , , ) enai dexistrofo, arnhtik en to ( , , ) enai dexistrofo, kai x y z x y z enai 0 en ta diansmata enai suneppeda. Ja dexoume ti ( ) = ( ) . x y z x y z (3.3)
Qrhsimopoiome thn antimetajetik idithta tou eswteriko ginomnou, kai idithtec thc orzousac, kai qoume:
( ) = ( ) x y z z x y = z1 z2 z3 x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3
= ( ) . x y z
Gia to mikt ginmeno qrhsimopoiome ton sumbolism
[ ] = ( ) = ( ) . x y z x y z x y z
Blpoume ti
[ ] = ( ) x y z x y z = ( ) x z y = [ ] . z y x
Keflaio 3
49
Apdeixh thc epimeristikc idithtac tou exwteriko ginomnou. Jewrome to
dinusma b = ( + ) . Ja dexoume oti b 2 = 0, x y z x y x z kai sunepc oti b = 0. Qrhsimopointac thn epimeristik idithta tou eswteriko ginomnou, kai thn 3.3 qoume b b = b ( ( + ) ) x y z x y x z = b ( + ) b b x y z x y x z = ( b ) ( + ) ( b ) ( b ) x y z x y x z = ( b ) (( + ) ) x y z y z = 0.
'Askhsh 3.1 Dexte ti

[ ] = [ ] = [ ] , x y z y z x z x y [ ] = [ ] = [ ] . z y x y x z x z y
Dic exwterik ginmeno

To ginmeno ( ) enai kjeto proc to , kai sunepc brsketai x y z y z , . O akloujoc upologismc ekfrzei to ( ) wc sto eppedo twn y z x y z grammik sunduasm twn kai . y z ( ) = x y z i j k x2 x3 x1 y2 z3 y3 z2 y3 z1 y1 z3 y1 z2 y2 z1
i (x2 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) x3 (y3 z1 y1 z3 )) + j (x3 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) x1 (y1 z2 y2 z1 )) + k (x1 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) x2 (y2 z3 y3 z2 )) = i (y1 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z1 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) + j (y2 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z2 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) + k (y3 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z3 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) = ( ) ( ) . x z y x y z =
50 Dhlad
( ) = ( ) ( ) x y z x z y x y z
kai parmoia
( ) = ( ) ( ) . x y z x z y y z x
Elejera diansmata sto qro

Akribc pwc kai sthn perptwsh tou epipdou, en enai na dinusma sto qro u orzoume to elejero dinusma [ ] na enai to snolo lwn twn efarmostn dianusu mtwn sto qro, ta opoa prokptoun me parllhlh metafor tou se kje shmeo u tou qrou. [ ] = { dinusma sto qro, ttoio ste } . u v v u
H parllhlh metafor enai sumbat me tic prxeic dianusmtwn sto qro pou qoume perigryei: prsjesh dianusmtwn, pollaplasiasm diansmatoc me arijm, probol diansmatoc se dinusma, eswterik ginmeno dianusmtwn, exwterik ginmeno dianusmtwn. Sunepc mporome na orsoume tic antstoiqec prxeic metax eleujrwn dianusmtwn. Gia pardeigma, en OC = OA OB , orzoume to exwterik ginmeno twn ele jerwn dianusmtwn [OA] kai [OB]
[OA] [OB] = [OA OB] = [OC] . En OA, OB kai OC , tte u v w [ ] [ ] = [ ] . u v w
Allag sustmatoc anaforc sto qro

Jewrome do orjokanonik sustmata anaforc sto qro, (O, i , j , k ) kai (P, , , ), kai jloume na exetsoume th sqsh metax twn suntetagmnwn enc u v w shmeou wc proc ta do diaforetik sustmata.
Arqik ja exetsoume thn perptwsh pou to shmeo anaforc twn do susth mtwn enai to dio. 'Eqoume loipn ta sustmata (O, i , j , k ) kai (O, , , ), u v w Sqma 3.6
Keflaio 3
51
Sqma 3.6: Sustmata anaforc sto qro
En X enai shmeo tou qrou, me suntetagmnec (x, y, z) wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ), to dinusma jshc tou X enai
OX = x i + y j + z k .
(3.4)
Jloume na upologsoume tic suntetagmnec (x , y , z ) tou X wc proc to ssthma (O, , , ), oi opoec ddontai ap thn sqsh u v w
w v u OX = x + y + z .
(3.5)
Gia na petqoume aut, qreizetai na ekfrsoume ta diansmata i , j , k wc grammik sunduasm twn , , . 'Estw u v w i = a1 + b1 + c1 u v w j = a2 + b2 + c2 u v w w v u k = a3 + b3 + c3
Tte antikajistntac tic 3.6 sthn 3.4 qoume
(3.6)
w v u OX = x(a1 + b1 + c1 ) w v u +y(a2 + b2 + c2 ) w v u +z(a3 + b3 + c3 ) = (xa1 + ya2 + za3 ) u +(xb1 + yb2 + zb3 ) v +(xc1 + yc2 + zc3 ) w
52 kai sugkrnontac me thn 3.5 qoume
x y z
= a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = c1 x + c2 y + c3 z
(3.7)
Mporome na parastsoume aut to apotlesma qrhsimopointac to sumbolism pinkwn, a1 a2 a3 x x y = b1 b2 b3 y
c1 c2 c3
o opooc shmanei ti o arijmc sthn prth gramm sthn arister pleur enai soc me to jroisma twn ginomnwn twn stoiqewn thc prthc grammc tou pnaka, me ta antstoiqa stoiqea tou diansmatoc suntetagmnwn, kai anloga gia th deterh kai thn trth gramm1 . Tra exetzoume thn perptwsh pou ta shmea anaforc twn do susthmtwn e nai diaforetik. Upojtoume ti ta do sustmata enai (O, i , j , k ) kai (P, , , ) u v w kai ti OP = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k , dhlad oi suntetagmnec tou P wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) enai (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Tte
P X = OX OP = (x x0 ) i + (y y0 ) j + (z z0 ) k . Oi suntetagmnec (x , y , z ) tou shmeou X wc proc to ssthma anaforc (P, , , ), u v w gia tic opoec PX = x + y + z , u v w
ddontai ap tic sqseic
x y z
= a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 ) = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 ) = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )
(3.8)
Apomnei na exetsoume pwc ekfrzoume ta diansmata i , j , k wc grammik sun duasm twn , , . Sunjwc gnwrzoume thn antstrofh sqsh, dhlad ta diu v w , , wc grammik sunduasm twn , , . ansmata u v w i j k
1
Keflaio 3
53
Sqma 3.7: Sunhmtona diejunshc enc diansmatoc
Ac exetsoume prta na dinusma, stw to . Oi suntetagmnec tou wc proc u u me ta tra to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) ddontai ap to eswterik ginmeno tou u diansmata i , j , k : = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) . u u i i u j j u k k All, efson ta diansmata i kai enai monadiaa, to eswterik ginmeno i u u enai aplc to sunhmtono thc gwnac 1 metax tou kai tou i , kai antstoiqa gia u ta j , k kai tic gwnec 2 , 3 metax tou kai twn j , k antstoiqa: u u u = cos 1 u i = cos 2 u j = cos 3 u k
(3.9)
Sugkrnontac thn 3.9 me thn 3.6, blpoume ti
a1 = i = i = cos 1 u u
kai anloga, a2 = cos 2 , a3 = cos 3 . Dhlad qoume
= a1 + a2 + a3 . k u i j
Oi suntetagmnec (a1 , a2 , a3 ) onomzontai sunhmtona aou diansmatoc wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ). u Parmoia brskoume ti
diejunshc tou monadi-
= b1 + b2 + b3 k v i j
54 kai
= c1 + c2 + c3 w i j k
Anakefalainoume : Jewrome to orjokanonik ssthma anaforc (O, , , k ), i j kai na detero orjokanonik ssthma anaforc (P, , , ), ta diansmata tou u v w opoou ddontai wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) ap th sqsh = a1 + a2 + a3 u i j k = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k v = c1 + c2 + c3 , w i j k
tic opoec mporome na ekfrsoume parastatik ston akloujo pnaka
i j u v w a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
k a3 b3 c3
o opooc onomzetai pnakac metbashc ap to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) sto ssthma (P, , , ). Upojtoume epshc oti oi suntetagmnec tou shmeou P u v w wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) enai (x0 , y0 , z0 ). En to shmeo X qei suntetagmnec (x, y, z) wc proc to ssthma (O, i , j , k ) tte oi suntetagmnec (x , y , z ) tou X wc proc to ssthma (P, , , ) ddontai u v w ap tic sqseic x y z = a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 ) = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 ) = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )
Keflaio 4 Gewmetriko Tpoi

'Ena jemelidec prblhma thc Analutikc Gewmetrac enai na perigryoume, msw katllhlwn sunartsewn, difora uposnola tou epipdou tou qrou: snola shmewn kamplec sto eppedo, snola shmewn, kamplec epifneiec sto qro. Ap ti stigm pou qoume ma ttoia perigraf, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume tic mejdouc thc lgebrac kai thc anlushc gia na meletsoume aut ta gewmetrik antikemena. Uprqoun do basik diaforetiko trpoi perigrafc enc sunlou sto eppedo sto qro: me analutikc exisseic se parametrik morf. Autc oi do diaforetikc proseggseic odhgon, se pio proqwrhmno eppedo, se do diaforetikoc kldouc twn sgqronwn majhmatikn, thn Algebrik Gewmetra kai th Diaforik Gewmetra.
Analutikc exisseic
Jewrome to eppedo me dedomno ssthma anaforc, tsi ste kje shmeo tou epipdou antistoiqe se na diatetagmno zegoc (x, y). Ma sunrthsh f : R2 R prosdiorzei na snolo sto eppedo me ton akloujo trpo. Jewrome la ta shmea P (x, y) tou epipdou, oi suntetagmnec twn opown ikanopoion thn exswsh f (x, y) = 0, dhlad ta shmea tou epipdou me suntetagmnec sto snolo {(x, y) R2 : f (x, y) = 0}. Aut to uposnolo tou epipdou onomzetai gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc f (x, y) = 0. Suqn tautzoume to uposnolo tou epipdou me to snolo twn suntetagmnwn, kai anafermaste sto {(x, y) R2 : f (x, y) = 0} wc to gewmetrik tpo thc f (x, y) = 0.
Pardeigma 4.1 Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x, y) = ax + by + c. O gewmetrikc

tpoc thc exswshc ax + by + c = 0 enai to snolo (twn shmewn tou epipdou me suntetagmnec sto) {(x, y) : ax + by + c = 0}. Gnwrzoume oti aut to snolo enai 55
56
ma eujea, kai mlista h eujea me klsh = a/b h opoa tmnei ton y -xona sto c/b.
Pardeigma 4.2 Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 r2 , pou r > 0. O

gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc f (x, y) = 0 apoteletai ap ta shmea gia ta opoa x2 +y 2 = r2 , dhlad ta shmea pou apqoun stajer apstash r ap to shmeo (0, 0). Aut to snolo enai o kkloc me kntro O kai aktna r.
Pardeigma 4.3 Jloume na perigryoume ton kklo me kntro to shmeo C ,

me suntetagmnec (a, b), kai aktna 3. En to shmeo P , me suntetagmnec (x, y), brsketai se autn ton kklo, h apstash ap to P sto C enai 3: CP = 3, kai sunepc (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 3. Sumperanoume oti o dedomnoc kkloc mpore na perigrafe ap th sunrthsh f (x, y) = (x a)2 + (y b)2 3. Epeid h posthta (x a)2 + (y b)2 den gnetai arnhtik gia opoiesdpote timc twn x kai y , to dio akribc snolo shmewn ikanopoie thn exswsh (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 9. Sunepc ma aplosterh perigraf tou kklou ddetai ap th sunrthsh g(x, y) = (x a)2 + (y b)2 9.
Pardeigma 4.4 H exswsh (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 0 ikanopoietai mno ap to

shmeo P me suntetagmnec (a, b).
Pardeigma 4.5 En f (x, y) kai g(x, y) enai do sunartseic sto R2 , to ginmen

touc f (x, y)g(x, y) mhdenzetai akribc tan mhdenzetai toulqiston ma ap tic f kai g . 'Etsi o gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc f (x, y)g(x, y) = 0 enai h nwsh twn gewmetrikn tpwn twn exissewn f (x, y) = 0 kai g(x, y) = 0. Gia pardeigma, h exswsh y 2 x2 = 0 isoduname me (y + x)(y x) = 0, kai o gewmetrikc tpoc thc enai h nwsh do eujein.
Pardeigma 4.6 En f (x, y) kai g(x, y) enai do sunartseic sto R2 , to jroisma

twn tetragnwn touc f (x, y)2 + g(x, y)2 mhdenzetai akribc tan mhdenzontai kai oi do sunartseic f kai g . 'Etsi o gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc f (x, y)2 + g(x, y)2 = 0 enai h tom twn gewmetrikn tpwn twn exissewn f (x, y) = 0 kai g(x, y) = 0, dhlad o gewmetrikc tpoc tou sustmatoc exissewn
f (x, y) = 0 g(x, y) = 0
Anloga, jewrome to qro me dedomno ssthma anaforc, tsi ste kje shmeo P tou qrou antistoiqe se ma diatetagmnh trida (x, y, z). Ma sunrthsh
Keflaio 4
Gewmetriko Tpoi
57
f : R3 R prosdiorzei to snolo twn shmewn P (x, y, z) tou qrou, oi suntetagmnec twn opown ikanopoion thn exswsh f (x, y, z) = 0.
Pardeigma 4.7 H epifneia sfarac me kntro C(a, b, c) kai aktna r, enai o

gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc
(x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = r2
Pardeigma 4.8 H sunrthsh g(x, y, z) = ax + by + c, par th fainomenik

omoithta me th sunrthsh f (x, y) tou Paradegmatoc 4.1, den perigrfei ma eujea, all na eppedo. O gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc ax + by + c = 0 sto qro apoteletai ap ta shmea P (x, y, z) me suntetagmnec pou ikanopoion thn exswsh. H suntetagmnh z parnei opoiadpote tim sto R, afo h metablht z den ephrezei thn tim thc sunrthshc f (x, y, z). O gewmetrikc tpoc enai to eppedo pou enai parllhlo me ton z -xona kai tmnei to (x, y)-eppedo sthn eujea me exswsh ax + by + c = 0.
Pardeigma 4.9 O gewmetrikc tpoc tou sustmatoc exissewn

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r ax + by + cz = d
enai h tom miac sfarac kai enc epipdou, dhlad nac kkloc, na shmeo, to ken snolo.
Pardeigma 4.10 O gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc y 2 + z 2 = 4 sto qro,

dhlad to snolo twn shmewn me suntetagmnec sto {(x, y, z) R3 : y 2 + z 2 = 4}, enai nac klindroc sto qro, me xona ton x-xona, o opooc tmnei to (y, z)-eppedo ston kklo me kntro O kai aktna 2.
'Askhsh 4.1 Perigryte gewmetrik ta aklouja snola sto eppedo

a. {(x, y) R2 : 2x 3y + b. {(x, y) R2 : y = 1} g. {(x, y) R2 : (y 1)(2x y) = 0} d. {(x, y) R2 : x2 + y 2 2x 2y 2 = 0} e. {(x, y) R2 : x2 + y 2 = 2xy}
2 = 0}
58
'Askhsh 4.2 Perigryte gewmetrik ta aklouja snola sto qro

a. {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x 2y 2 = 0} b. {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x 2y + 2 = 0} g. {(x, y, z) R3 : 2x 3y = 0} d. {(x, y, z) R3 : y = 1} e. {(x, y, z) R3 : (y 1)(x2 + z 2 1) = 0}
Parametrik perigraf
Se aut thn perptwsh perigrfoume na uposnolo tou epipdou tou qrou wc thn eikna mac apeiknishc ap thn eujea sto eppedo to qro (kamplh) ap to eppedo sto qro (epifneia). En f : R R2 enai ma apeiknish, f (t) = (x(t), y(t)), tte kajc h parmetroc t parnei diaforetikc timc se kpoio disthma sto R, to shmeo P (x(t), y(t)) diagrfei ma kamplh sto eppedo. Parmoia, en f : R R3 enai ma apeiknish, f (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)), kajc h parmetroc t parnei diaforetikc timc, to shmeo me suntetagmnec (x(t), y(t), z(t)) diagrfei ma kamplh sto qro. En f : R2 R3 enai ma apeiknish, f (s, t) = (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)), tte kajc oi parmetroi (s, t) parnoun timc se kpoio uposnolo sto R2 , to shmeo P (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)) kinetai pnw se ma epifneia sto qro.
Pardeigma 4.11 H eujea sto eppedo pou pernei ap ta shmea A(1, 2) kai
B(1, 3) qei parametrik perigraf f (t) = (1 + 2t, 3 t).
Pardeigma 4.12 O kkloc me kntro (a, b) kai aktna r qei parametrik perigraf, gia 0 < 2 ,
f () = (a + r cos , b + r sin ) .
Pardeigma 4.13 To nw hmisfario thc sfarac me kntro sto O kai aktna 1,

perigrfetai se parametrik morf ap thn apeiknish g(s, t) = (s, t, 1 s2 t2 )
Keflaio 4
Gewmetriko Tpoi
59
gia s kai t ttoia ste s2 + t2 1. En gnwrzoume thn parametrik perigraf enc sunlou, mporome na brome tic analutikc exisseic me apaloif twn paramtrwn. Jewrome thn eujea sto eppedo, me parametrikc sunartseic x(t) = 1t kai y(t) = 23t. Lnontac wc proc t qoume t = 1 x kai t = y2 . Exisnoume tic do ekfrseic gia thn parmetro t kai qoume 3
1 1 x = (y 2) 3
ap pou parnoume thn exswsh thc eujeac 3x + y 5 = 0.
H exswsh |z w1| = |z w2|,
> 0.
Jewrome do dedomna shmea w1 kai w2 tou migadiko epipdou. Ja exetsoume to gewmetrik tpo twn shmewn z tou migadiko epipdou, ta opoa ikanopoion thn exswsh
|z w1 | = |z w2 |,
En = 1, h exswsh parnei thn morf
> 0.
(4.1)
|z w1 | = |z w2 |
kai ta shmea z pou thn ikanopoion brskontai sth mesokjeto tou diastmatoc w1 w2 . En = 1 exetzoume prta ta shmea z ta opoa ikanopoion thn exswsh kai brskontai pnw sthn eujea h opoa sundei ta w1 w2 . Uprqoun do ttoia shmea, na shmeo p pou diaire (eswterik) to disthma w1 w2 se apl lgo , kai na detero p pou diaire (exwterik) to disthma w1 w2 se apl lgo Me to sumbolism tou aplo lgou, Keflaio 1, sel.23,
(w1 , w2 , p) =
kai qoume
p w1 , w2 p
(w1 , w2 , p) = = (w1 , w2 , p) .
Ap to Keflaio 1, 1.3, ta shmea p kai p enai ta
p=
w1 + w2 1+
p =
w1 w2 1
Parathrome ti en na shmeo z ikanopoie th sqsh |z w1 | = |z w2 |, tte to summetrik tou z wc proc thn eujea pou dirqetai ap ta w1 , w2 epshc ikanopoie
60
Sqma 4.1: O gewmetrikc tpoc thc exswshc |z w1 | = 2|z w2 |.
th sqsh. Aut h paratrhsh mac odhge na exetsoume thn upjesh ti to snolo twn shmewn pou ikanopoion thn exswsh 4.1 brsketai se nan kklo, me dimetro ta shmea p kai p . En alhjeei aut, to kntro tou kklou ja enai
c = = =
kai h aktna tou ja enai
p+p 2 (w1 + w2 )(1 ) + (w1 w2 )(1 + ) 2(1 2 ) w1 2 w2 1 2

(4.2)
r = = =
|p p | 2 |(w1 w2 )(1 ) (w1 w2 )(1 + )| 2|1 2 | || |w1 w2 | |1 2 |

(4.3)
H exswsh tou kklou me kntro c kai aktna r enai
(z c)( c) = r2 z
kai antikajistntac ap tic 4.2, 4.3, qoume
z(1 2 ) w1 + 2 w2
z (1 2 ) w1 + 2 w2 = 2 (w1 w2 )(w1 w2 )
Keflaio 4
Gewmetriko Tpoi
61
h opoa aplopoietai sth morf
z z z w1 z w1 + w1 w1 = 2 (z z z w2 z w2 + w2 w2 )
dhlad
|z w1 |2 = 2 |z w2 |2 .
Sumperanoume ti to snolo twn shmewn twn opown oi apostseic ap dojnta shmea qoun stajer lgo = 1 enai nac kkloc.
Keflaio 5 Eppedo kai eujea sto qro

Sumplhrwmatik, diabste lo to Keflaio 2 twn Majhmatikn Jetikc Katejunshc thc 2ac Lukeou
'Ena eppedo kajorzetai ap 3 shmea
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) R(x3 , y3 , z3 ) . En X(x, y, z) enai tuqn shmeo tou epipdou, tte to P X enai grammikc sndu asmoc twn P Q, P R. Dhlad uprqoun arijmo s kai t ttoioi ste P X = sP Q + tP R
prosdiorzei na shmeo tou epipdou. 'Ara h parametrik morf thc exswshc tou epipdou enai
(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = s(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ) + t(x3 x1 , y3 y1 , z3 z1 )
dhlad
(x, y, z) = (1 s t)(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(x2 , y2 , z2 ) + t(x3 , y3 , z3 ) .

Gia na brome thn analutik exswsh tou epipdou skeptmaste wc exc: Ta dians mata P Q kai P R brskontai sto eppedo, ra to exwterik ginmeno P Q P R enai kjeto sto eppedo kai sunepc to mikt ginmeno mhdenzetai,
PQ PR PX = 0.
Antikajistntac tic suntetagmnec qoume
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 x3 x1 y2 y1 z3 z1 x x1 y y1 z z1
62
=0
Keflaio 5
Eppedo kai eujea sto qro
63
Jtoume
A = (y2 y1 )(z3 z1 ) (z2 z1 )(y3 y1 ) B = (z2 z1 )(x3 x1 ) (x2 x1 )(z3 z1 ) C = (x2 x1 )(y3 y1 ) (y2 y1 )(x3 x1 )
kai qoume thn exswsh
Ax + By + Cz (Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 ) = 0

En gnwrzoume na shmeo tou epipdou, P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) kai na dinusma kjeto sto eppedo, me suntetagmnec (k, , m) tte en X (x, y, z) enai tuqn shmeo tou n epipdou, to dinusma P X enai kjeto sto kai sunepc n
PX = 0, n
(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) (k, , m) = 0 ,
dhlad
kx + y + mz (kx1 + y1 + mz1 ) = 0 .
Blpoume ti kai stic do periptseic h analutik exswsh enai thc morfc
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .
Aut enai h genik exswsh epipdou. Prgmati en (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ikanopoie thn exswsh Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0 , tte gia kje llo shmeo (x, y, z) pou thn ikanopoie qoume
A(x x1 ) + B(y y1 ) + C(z z1 ) = 0 ,

dhlad to dinusma (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) enai kjeto sto (A, B, C) kai sunepc to (x, y, z) brsketai sto eppedo pou pernei ap to (x1 , y1 , z1 ) kai enai kjeto sto dinusma (A, B, C). En B = C = 0 kai A = 0, tte h exswsh gnetai
x=
D A
kai paristnei na eppedo parllhlo proc to eppedo O y z . En A = 0, BC = 0, tte h exswsh gnetai
By + Cz + D = 0
64
kai paristnei to eppedo pou enai parllhlo sto xona Ox kai tmnei to eppedo O y z sthn eujea By + Cz + D = 0. En D = 0, tte h exswsh
Ax + By + Cz = 0
paristnei eppedo pou pernei ap to O. En ABCD = 0, tte to eppedo tmnei touc xonec se tra shmea, ( D , 0, 0), A (0, D , 0), (0, 0, D ). B C Antstrofa, to eppedo pou tmnei touc x, y, z xonec sta , , antstoiqa, me = 0, qei exswsh z x y + + = 1.
Parametrik morf eujeac sto qro

Ma eujea kajorzetai ap na shmeo P (x1 , x2 , x3 ), kai na dinusma = (u, v, w) a sth diejunsh thc eujeac, kai qei parametrik parstash (x, y, z) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(u, v, w)
(5.1)
H analutik morf prokptei wc na ssthma do exissewn, kai paristnei thn eujea wc tom do epipdwn. Apalefontac to s ap tic 5.1 qoume, en uvw = 0,
x x1 y y1 z z1 = = u v w
pou ddei to ssthma exissewn
vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0 wy vz (wy1 vz1 ) = 0 .

En w = 0 kai uv = 0, h apaloif tou s ddei to ssthma exissewn
(5.2)
vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0 z = z1 .
Geniktera, jewrome do exisseic:
(5.3)
A 1 x + B1 y + C 1 z + D 1 = 0 , A 2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D 2 = 0 .
En
B1 C1 D1 A1 = = = A2 B2 C2 D2
Keflaio 5
65
oi do exisseic ikanopoiontai akribc ap ta dia shmea, dhlad ta eppeda sumpptoun. En A1 B1 C1 D1 = = = A2 B2 C2 D2 tte ta do eppeda enai parllhla: enai kai ta do kjeta sto dinusma (A1 , B1 , C1 ) = k(A2 , B2 , C2 ) En B1 A1 C1 A1 = = , A2 B2 A2 C2 tte ta do eppeda den enai parllhla, kai tmnontai se ma eujea. To dinusma diejunshc thc eujeac enai kjeto sta (A1 , B1 , C1 ) kai (A2 , B2 , C2 ), ra enai suggrammik me to dinusma
= (A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 ) u
kai h parametrik parstash thc eujeac enai
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 )

pou (x0 , y0 , z0 ) enai na shmeo thc eujeac, kai ikanopoie tic exisseic:
A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 z0 = D1 A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 z0 = D2 .
Gia pardeigma, en A1 B2 B1 A2 = 0, jtontac z0 = 0 kai lnontac tic exisseic
A1 x0 + B1 y0 = D1 A2 x0 + B2 y0 = D2
qoume
x0 =
(D1 B2 B1 D2 ) , A1 B2 B1 A2
y0 =
(A1 D2 D1 A2 ) . A1 B2 B1 A2
Apstash shmeou ap eppedo

Jewrome na eppedo, me exswsh Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, kai kjeto dinusma = (A, B, C). En X0 enai na shmeo tou epipdou, kai X1 shmeo tou qrou, h n proshmasmnh apstash tou X1 ap to eppedo enai h algebrik tim thc probolc tou diansmatoc X0 X1 sto . n
X0 X1 n d = (pr X0 X1 ) = | n |n
66
(x1 x0 )A + (y1 y0 )B + (z1 z0 )C A2 + B 2 + C 2 Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ) = A2 + B 2 + C 2 =

all Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 = D, ra
d=
Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D A2 + B 2 + C 2
(5.4)
H apstash d enai jetik en to X1 brsketai ston hmqwro proc ton opoo kateu jnetai to dinusma = (A, B, C), kai arnhtik sthn antjeth perptwsh. n
'Askhsh 5.1 Brete tic exisseic twn epipdwn pou diqotomon tic dedrec gwnec
metax do epipdwn.
Apstash shmeou ap eujea

'Estw eujea , me parametrik exswsh OX = OX0 + t dhlad (x, y, z) = a (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c), kai shmeo X1 , me OX1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ). Tte to dinusma X X enai kjeto sto eppedo pou periqei thn eujea a
0 1
kai to shmeo X1 , kai to dinusma
= ( 0 1 ) e XX a a
enai parllhlo proc aut to eppedo kai kjeto sthn eujea . Sumperanoume ti h apstash tou X1 ap thn eujea enai to mtro thc probolc tou X0 X1 pnw sto : e
0 1 XX e d = |pr X0 X1 | = e || e |(X0 X1 ) X0 X1 | a a = . |(X0 X1 ) | a a

Allzoume th jsh twn prxewn ston arijmht, en gia ton paranomast parathrome ti enai kjeto sto X0 X1 , kai qoume a a
|(X0 X1 ) ( X0 X1 )| a a d = |X0 X1 | | | a a |X0 X1 | a = . | |a
Keflaio 5
67
Asmbatec eujeec
Jewrome do eujeec 1 , 2 me parametrikc exisseic
OX = OX1 + t a1 OX = OX2 + s a2
tR sR
En oi eujeec brskontai sto dio eppedo, tte ta diansmata X1 X2 , kai enai a1 a2 suneppeda kai [X1 X2 , , ] = 0 . a1 a2
Sthn antjeth perptwsh oi eujeec onomzontai asmbatec. Asmbatec eujeec qoun monadik koin kjeto . To dinusma diejunshc thc enai kjeto sto u kai to , kai mporome na jewrsoume a1 a2
= . u a1 a1 H elqisth apstash twn do eujein enai to mtro thc probolc tou X1 X2 pnw sto u d = |pr X1 X2 | a1 a2 |X1 X2 | a1 a2 = | | a1 a2 |[X1 X2 , a1 , a2 ]| = . | | a1 a2
Gia na prosdiorsoume ta shmea tomc T1 kai T2 thc koinc kajtou me tic 1 kai 2 , ergazmaste wc exc: To shmeo T1 ankei sthn 1 , ra
OT1 = OX1 + t a1
kai parmoia gia to T2 kai thn 2 ,
(5.5)
OT2 = OX2 + s . a2 Epshc T1 T2 enai parllhlo proc to , kai ra a1 a2 T1 T2 = . a1 a2 Afo T1 T2 = OT2 OT1 , ap tic 5.5, 5.6 kai 5.7 qoume OX2 OX1 + s t = , a2 a1 a1 a2
(5.6)
(5.7)
68
to opoo enai na ssthma 3 exissewn (ma gia kje suntetagmnh) me 3 agnstouc (s, t, ), to opoo mporome na lsoume gia na prosdiorsoume ta t, s kai en suneqea ta T1 , T2 .
Pardeigma 5.1 Ddontai eujeec 1 kai 2 ttoiec ste h 1 pern ap to shmeo

A(2, 1, 0) kai enai parllhlh proc to dinusma = (1, 3, 1), kai h 2 pern ap u to shmeo B(0, 1, 3) kai enai parllhlh proc to dinusma = (2, 1, 1). v Upologzoume to mikt ginmeno [AB, , ] = u v 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 = 29 .
Sumperanoume ti oi eujeec enai asmbatec. H koin kjetoc qei th diejunsh tou diansmatoc
= (1, 3, 1) (2, 1, 1) = (4, 3, 5) , u v to opoo qei mtro | | = 5 2. u v Sunepc h apstash metax twn do eujein enai |[AB, , ]| u v | 29| 29 2 d= = = . | | u v 10 5 2
Gia na brome ta shmea tomc twn do eujein me thn koin kjeto, qrhsimopoiome to ssthma
OB OA + s t = ( ) , v u u v
dhlad
(2, 2, 3) + s (2, 1, 1) t (1, 3, 1) = (4, 3, 5) ,
2s t 4 s 3t + 3 s + t + 5 1 25
= 2 = 2 = 3 , 7 . 50
to opoo lnoume gia na prosdiorsoume ta s kai t:
t=
s=
'Ara ta shmea tomc me thn koin kjeto enai
T1 = (2, 1, 0) + T2 = (0, 1, 3)
7 (2, 1, 1) 50
1 (1, 3, 1) 25
Keflaio 5
69
kai h apstash metax twn do eujein enai
1 29 2 |T1 T2 | = |116, 87, 145| = . 50 10
Keflaio 6 Kamplec 2ou bajmo sto eppedo.

Sumplhrwmatik, diabste lo to Keflaio 3 twn Majhmatikn Jetikc Katejunshc thc 2ac Lukeou
Kwnikc tomc
Kkloc
O kkloc enai o gewmetikc tpoc twn shmewn tou epipdou pou apqoun stajer apstash r > 0 ap na shmeo C , to kntro tou kklou. H dianusmatik exswsh pou ikanopoie to genik shmeo X tou kklou enai
|CX| = r
En lboume to C wc shmeo anaforc, h exswsh tou kklou enai
x2 + y 2 = r 2
(6.1)
En to kntro qei suntetagmnec C : (x0 , y0 ) wc proc to ssthma anaforc (O, i , j ), h exswsh tou kklou enai
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r2
Ta shmea tou kklou qoun parametrik kfrash
(x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + r(cos , sin ) 0 < 2.

70
Keflaio 6
Kamplec 2ou bajmo sto eppedo
71
Ma enallaktik parametrik kfrash, me rhtc sunartseic, enai h akloujh:
(x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + r
1 t2 2t , 2 1 + t2 1+t
h opoa gia t (, ) ddei la ta shmea tou kklou ektc ap to shmeo (x0 r, y0 ). Aut to shmeo enai to rio kajc t .
'Askhsh 6.1 Epalhjesate ti ta shmea

shmeou msw thc
1 t2 2t , 2 1 + t2 1+t
brskontai se kklo.
'Askhsh 6.2 Dexte ti h parmetroc t sqetzetai me thn parmetro tou diou

t= sin . 1 + cos
Sth sunqeia ja perioristome sthn perptwsh pou to shmeo anaforc enai to kntro tou kklou. Oi exisseic gia th genik perptwsh ddontai wc askseic. Jewrome kklo aktnac r, kai ma eujea pou pernei ap to shmeo X1 : (x1 , y1 ). Tte na shmeo X : (x, y) thc eujeac , me parametrik parstash
(x, y) = (x1 , y1 ) + t(a, b)

brsketai ston kklo en
(x1 + ta)2 + (y1 + tb)2 = r2 ,

dhlad en
2 x2 + y1 + 2t(ax1 + by1 ) + t2 (a2 + b2 ) r2 = 0 . 1
(6.2)
Oi timc tou t pou ikanopoion thn 6.2 antistoiqon sta shmea sta opoa h eujea tmnei ton kklo. Jewrome thn diakrnousa
2 = (ax1 + by1 )2 (a2 + b2 )(x2 + y1 r2 ) . 1
(6.3)
En < 0 tte den uprqoun pragmatikc rzec thc 6.2, kai h eujea den tmnei ton kklo. En > 0 , tte h eujea tmnei ton kklo se do diaforetik shmea. Tloc en = 0, tte h 6.2 qei dipl rza, kai h eujea qei monadik koin shmeo me ton kklo, dhlad enai efaptomnh tou kklou. 2 Arqik upojtoume ti to shmeo X1 ankei ston kklo. Tte, ef' son x2 + y1 1 r2 = 0, h sunjkh gia na enai h efaptomnh tou kklou sto shmeo X1 gnetai
ax1 + by1 = 0 ,
72
dhlad h diejunsh thc prpei na enai kjeth sthn aktna tou kklou sto X1 . Mporome na upojsoume (a, b) = (y1 , x1 ), opte h efaptomnh qei parametrik kfrash
(x, y) = (x1 ty1 , y1 + tx1 )

ap' pou parnoume thn exswsh thc efaptomnhc sto shmeo X1 : (x1 , y1 ) ston kklo me kntro O kai aktna r:
x1 x + y 1 y = r 2
(6.4)
'Estw tra ti to shmeo X1 den ankei ston kklo. En to X1 brsketai sto 2 eswterik tou kklou, x2 + y1 r2 < 0 kai h diakrnousa 6.3 den mpore na mhdeniste 1 gia opoiesdpote pragmatikc timc twn a, b. Sunepc den uprqei efaptomnh.
2 En to X1 brsketai sto exwterik tou kklou x2 + y1 r2 > 0 kai uprqoun 1 timc twn a, b pou mhdenzoun th diakrnousa 6.3. Upojtoume ti X0 : (x0 , y0 ) enai to shmeo epafc mac efaptomnhc pou pernei ap to X1 . Tte ap thn 6.4 h efaptomnh sto X0 qei exswsh x0 x + y0 y = r2 , h opoa ikanopoietai ap to shmeo X1 . Dhlad to X0 ikanopoie thn x0 x1 + y0 y1 = r2 .
Sumperanoume ti ta shmea epafc me ton kklo twn efaptomnwn pou pernne ap to shmeo X1 , exwterik tou kklou, ikanopoion thn exswsh
xx1 + yy1 = r2 .
(6.5)
2 Me thn upjesh x2 + y1 r2 > 0, h eujea 6.5 qei do koin shmea me ton kklo 1 6.1, ta X0 kai X0 . Sunepc uprqoun akribc do efaptmenec proc ton kklo ap na shmeo exwterik tou kklou. Gia na brome tic exisseic touc brskoume prta ta X0 , X0 kai efarmzoume thn 6.4.
Gia opoiadpote shmeo X1 tou epipdou, diaforetik ap to kntro tou kklou, orzetai h eujea me exswsh
x1 x + y1 y = r2 ,
(6.6)
h opoa onomzetai polik eujea tou X1 wc proc ton kklo 6.1. En X1 enai shmeo tou kklou, h polik eujea enai h efaptomnh tou kklou sto X1 . En X1 enai shmeo sto exwterik tou kklou h polik eujea enai h eujea pou pernei ap ta shmea epafc twn efaptomnwn proc ton kklo pou pernon ap to X1 . En tloc X1 enai shmeo sto eswterik tou kklou, ja dome ti h polik eujea enai o tpoc twn shmewn twn opown h polik eujea pernei ap to X1 . Prgmati, mporome na jewrsoume thn 6.6 wc thn exswsh thc polikc eujeac tou shmeou (x, y), kai tte aut ikanopoietai ap to shmeo X1 : (x1 , y1 ). Antstrofa, opoiadpote eujea tou epipdou den pernei ap to kntro tou kklou, enai polik eujea enc shmeou X1 sto eppedo, to opoo onomzetai ploc
Keflaio 6
73
thc eujeac . An h qei exswsh
Ax + By + C = 0
tte o ploc thc enai to shmeo me suntetagmnec
(x1 , y1 ) =
Ar2 Br2 , C C
'Askhsh 6.3 Brete thn exswsh thc efaptomnhc ston kklo, thc polikc eujeac
enc shmeou kai tic suntetagmnec tou plou mac eujeac tan to kntro tou kklou brsketai sto C : (x0 , y0 ).
'Elleiyh
'Elleiyh enai o gewmetrikc tpoc twn shmewn tou epipdou pou qoun stajer jroisma apostsewn ap do stajer shmea. En F1 , F2 enai ta stajer shmea upojtoume ti to shmeo anaforc enai to mso F1 F2 tou diastmatoc F1 F2 , kai i = . Tte ta shmea F1 , F2 qoun suntetagmnec |F1 F2 | (C, 0) kai (C, 0) wc proc to (O, i , j ). En to jroisma twn apostsewn tou shmeou X thc lleiyhc ap ta F1 , F2 enai 2a, me a > c, qoume
|F1 X| + |F2 X| = 2a ,
dhlad (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x c)2 + y 2 = 2a ap' pou qoume (x c)2 + y 2 = c a2 c2 2 a x kai telik x + y 2 = a2 c2 . a a2 Ef' son a > c, a2 c2 > 0 kai en jsoume b2 = a2 c2 , qoume thn exswsh
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1. a2 b
Wc oriakc periptseic, blpoume ti en c = 0, tte a2 = b2 kai qoume nan kklo, en en a = c tte h lleiyh ekfulzetai sto eujgrammo tmma F1 F2 . c O lgoc e = onomzetai ekkentrthta thc lleiyhc. a Oi eujeec a2 a2 1 : x = kai 2 : x = c c onomzontai dieujetosec thc lleiyhc.
Jerhma 6.1 O lgoc twn apostsewn enc shmeou thc elleyhc ap ma esta
kai thn antstoiqh dieujetosa enai stajerc kai soc me thn ekkentrthta.
74
Apdeixh. An X enai shmeo thc lleyhc kai r1 , r2 oi apostseic tou X ap tic

estec F1 , F2 , qoume
2 r1 = (x + c)2 + y 2
2 r2 = (x c)2 + y 2 .
2cx cx 2 2 'Ara r1 r2 = 4cx, lla r1 + r2 = 2a, ra r1 r2 = . Dhlad r1 = a + kai a a cx r2 = a . a H apstash tou X ap tic dieujetosec enai d1 = d(X, F1 ) =
ap' pou brsko0ume oti
a2 +x c
kai d2 = d(X, F2 ) =
a2 x, c
a2 + cx c c r1 = = =e 2 + cx d1 a a a
kai anloga gia
r2 . d2
An X1 : (x1 , y1 ) kai X2 : (x2 , y2 ) enai do shmea tou epipdou, kai X : (x, y) enai shmeo thc eujeac X1 X2 , tte oi suntetagmnec tou X ddontai ap
x=
x1 + tx2 1+t
y=
y1 + ty2 , 1+t
pou t = (X1 X2 X) enai o aplc lgoc
(X1 X) . (XX2 ) To (x, y) ankei sthn lleiyh en to t ikanopoie thn exswsh: (x1 + tx2 )2 (y1 + ty2 )2 + 2 = 1, a2 (1 + t)2 b (1 + t)2
, afo t = 1,
2 2 x2 + 2tx1 x2 + t2 x2 y1 + 2ty1 y2 + t2 y2 1 1 + = 1 + 2t + t2 , a2 b2
h opoa ddei
2 x2 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2 2 + 2 1 t2 + 2 + 2 1 t+ 2 a b a2 b
2 2 En jsoume L = a2 + b2 1, M = (6.7) qei monadik rza akribc tan
2 x2 y1 1 + 2 1 a2 b x2 1 a2 y2
=0
(6.7)
x2
y2
x1 x2 a2
y + y12 2 1 kai N = b
1 + b2 1, h exswsh
M 2 LN = 0 .
Keflaio 6
75
Sunepc aut enai ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh gia na enai h eujea X1 X2 efaptomnh sthn lleiyh. Eidiktera, tan X1 brsketai sthn lleiyh, h sunjkh gnetai
M =0
kai sunepc h exswsh thc efaptmenhc thc lleiyhc sto shmeo X1 enai x1 x y 1 y + 2 = 1. a2 b x2 y 2 1 En to X1 den brsketai pnw sthn lleiyh, kai 2 + > 1, h exswsh a b 2 2 x1 x y 1 y x2 y 1 x2 y 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 =0 a2 b a2 b a2 b paristnei 2 eujeec pou tmnontai sto X1 kai enai efaptmenec sthn lleiyh.
Jerhma 6.2 H kjeth sthn efaptomnh thc lleiyhc sto shmeo X1 , diqotome
thn gnia F1 X1 F2 .
Apdeixh.
'Askhsh: Jewrste to kjeto dinusma sthn efaptomnh thc n lleiyhc sto shmeo Q1 . Upologste ta sunhmtona cos (X1 F1 , n ) kai cos (X1 F2 , ) n kai dexte ti enai sa.
Jerhma 6.3 To ginmeno twn apostsewn twn estin ap ma efaptomnh thc

lleiyhc enai stajer.
Apdeixh. 'Askhsh: Upologste tic apostseic twn F1 , F2 ap thn eujea
x1 x + a2 y1 y = 1, gia (x1 , y1 ) sthn lleiyh, kai dexte ti to ginmeno touc enai so me b. b2
Parametrik parstash lleiyhc

Ma parametrik parstash thc lleiyhc
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1 enai h a2 b (x, y) = (a cos , b sin ) .
Gia la ta shmea thc lleiyhc ektc ap to (a, 0), qoume epshc thn parametrik parstash me rhtc sunartseic
(x, y) =
a(1 t2 ) 2bt , 1 + t2 1 + t2
'Askhsh 6.4 Epalhjesate ti ta shmea pou ddoun oi do parametrseic brskontai pnw sthn lleiyh. Brete th sqsh metax twn paramtrwn t kai .
76
Uperbol
Uperbol enai o gewmetrikc tpoc twn shmewn tou epipdou me thn idithta ti h apluth tim thc diaforc twn apostsewn ap do stajer shmea enai stajer. En F1 , F2 enai ta stajer shmea, mso tou diastmatoc F1 F2 , kai i = upojtoume ti to shmeo anaforc enai to F1 F2 . Tte ta shmea F1 , F2 qoun sunte |F1 F2 | tagmnec (c, 0) kai (c, 0) antstoiqa. An X enai na shmeo thc uperbolc kai
|F1 X| |F2 X| = 2a
tte c > a. Ap ton orism thc uperbolc qoume
(x + c)2 + y 2
ap' pou parnoume
(x c)2 + y 2 = 2a cx a a
(x c)2 + y 2 =
kai telik
a2 c2 2 x + y 2 = a2 c2 . 2 a
Ef' son c > a, mporome na jsoume b2 = c2 a2 , kai na katalxoume sthn exswsh
x2 y 2 2 = 1. a2 b
Afo
(6.8)
x2 y2 1 = 2 > 0, la ta shmea thc uperbolc ikanopoion th sqsh |x| > a. a2 b H exswsh y 2 x2 2 =1 (6.9) b2 a paristnei epshc ma uperbol, me estec ta shmea (0, c) kai (0, c). Oi uperbolc 6.8 kai 6.9 onomzontai suzugec. c O lgoc e = onomzetai ekkentrthta thc uperbolc. Oi eujeec a 1 : x =
onomzontai
a2 c
kai
2 : x =
a2 c
dieujetosec thc uperbolc
Jerhma 6.4 O lgoc twn apostsewn enc shmeou thc uperbolc ap ma esta
kai thn antstoiqh dieujetosa enai stajeroc kai soc proc thn ekkentrthta thc uperbolc.
Keflaio 6
77
Apdeixh. 'Askhsh
x1 + tx2 y1 + ty2 , 1+t 1+t thc eujeac pou pernei ap ta shmea X1 : (x1 , y1 ) kai X2 : (x2 , y2 ), brsketai sthn uperbol en to t ikanopoie thn exswsh X : (x, y) = (x1 + tx2 )2 (y1 + ty2 )2 2 = 1, a2 (1 + t)2 b (1 + t2 )
2 x2 y 2 x1 x2 y1 y2 2 2 1 t2 + 2 2 1 t+ 2 a b a2 b x2 y2 2 x2 y 1 1 2 1 a2 b x2 1 a2
To shmeo
= 0. 1, h exswsh
y 2 2 1 En jsoume L = a2 b2 1, M = xax2 y12 2 1 kai N = 2 b qei monadik rza tan M 2 LN = 0
2 y1 b2
Aut enai ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh gia na enai h eujea X1 X2 efaptomnh sthn uperbol. 'Otan X1 brsketai sthn uperbol, h sunjkh gnetai
M =0
kai h exswsh thc efaptomnhc thc uperbolc sto shmeo X1 enai x1 x y 1 y 2 = 1. a2 b 2 x2 y1 1 En to X1 den brsketai pnw sthn uperbol kai 2 2 < 1, h exswsh a b 2 2 2 2 x x1 x y1 y x1 y 1 y2 2 1 2 1 2 1 =0 a2 b a2 b a2 b
b paristnei do eujeec pou tmnontai sto X1 . En y1 = a x1 , tte oi do eujeec enai efaptmenec sthn uperbol. b Oi eujeec y = x enai asmptwtec thc uperbolc. Jewrome na shmeo a b b P : x, bx pnw sthn eujea y = a x, kai to shmeo Q : x, a x2 a2 to opoo a brsketai pnw sthn uperbol. H apstash metax tou shmeou sthn uperbol kai tou antstoiqou shmeou pnw sthn eujea enai b(x x2 a2 ) ab |P Q| = = . a x + x2 a 2 b b 'Etsi ta shmea x, bx kai x, bx plhsizoun ta x, a x2 a2 kai x, a x2 a2 a a b antstoiqa kajc x , en ta shmea x, bx kai x, bx plhsizoun ta x, a x2 a2 a a b kai x, a x2 a2 antstoiqa kajc x .
78
Parametrik parstash uperbolc

Sugkrnontac thn exswsh thc uperbolc
y2 x2 2 = 1 me thn uperbolik triga2 b 2 2 wnometrik tautthta cosh t sinh t = 1, blpoume ti ma parametrik parstash thc uperbolc enai h (x, y) = (a cosh s, b sinh s) , sR
gia ton dexi kldo, pou x > 0, kai
(x, y) = (a cosh s, b sinh s) ,
sR
gia ton arister kldo, pou x < 0. En antikatastsoume t = es , kai qrhsimopoisoume tic tautthtec cosh s = 1 (es + 2 1 es ) kai sinh s = 2 (es es ), qoume ma parametrik parstash thc uperbolc me rhtc sunartseic
(x, y) =
a 2
t+
1 t
b 2
1 t
t R {0}.
Parabol
Parabol enai o gewmetrikc tpoc twn shmewn tou epipdou pou apqoun sh apstash ap na stajer shmeo kai ma stajer eujea. En F enai to stajer shmeo kai h eujea, jewrome wc shmeo anaforc to OF mso tou kjetou diastmatoc ap to F sthn , kai jtoume i = . |OF | Tte to shmeo F qei suntetagmnec p , 0 , kai h eujea exswsh x = p . 2 2 En X enai na shmeo thc parabolc, tte qoume
p 2
+ y2 = x +
p 2
ap' pou parnoume thn exswsh thc parabolc
y 2 = 2px
(6.10)
H parabol enai summetrik wc proc thn eujea y = 0, all den qei kntro summetrac. H eujea pou pernei ap ta shmea X1 : (x1 , y1 ) kai X2 : (x2 , y2 ) tmnei thn x1 + tx2 y1 + ty2 parabol sta shmea , gia ta opoa h parmetroc t ikanopoie 1+t 1+t thn exswsh x1 + tx2 (y1 + ty2 )2 = 2p , (1 + t)2 1+t
Keflaio 6
79
2 2 (y2 2px2 )t2 + 2(y1 y2 p(x1 + x2 ))t + y1 2px1 = 0 .
Jtoume
2 L = y2 2px2 ,
M = y1 y2 p(x1 + x2 ) ,
2 N = y1 2px1 .
H exswsh qei monadik rza tan
M 2 LN = 0
(6.11)
Aut enai ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh gia na enai h eujea X1 X2 efaptomnh thc parabolc. 'Otan to X1 brsketai sthn parabol, h sunjkh gnetai
M =0
kai h exswsh thc efaptomnhc thc parabolc sto shmeo X1 enai
y1 y = p(x1 + x) <, .
2 'Otan y1 > 2px1 , h sunjkh 6.11 gnetai 2 (y1 y p(x1 + x))2 (y1 2px1 )(y 2 2px) = 0
kai paristnei do eujeec, efaptmenec sthn parabol kai temnmenec sto X1 .
Jerhma 6.5 H kjeth se na shmeo X0 thc parabolc diqotome th gwna pou

sqhmatzetai ap thn estiak aktna X0 F kai thn eujea pou pernei ap to X0 kai enai parllhlh proc ton xona parabolc.
c sto shmeo X0 , kai upologste ta cos (, X0 F ) kai cos (, i ). Dexte ti oi n n do gwnec enai sec.
Apdeixh. 'Askhsh. Brete na dinusma kjeto sthn efaptomnh thc parabolu
Parametrik parstash parabolc

En jsoume x = 2pt2 , tte h parabol 6.10 qei thn parametrik parstash
(x, y) = 2p(t2 , t) .
80
Genik exswsh 2ou bajmo

Ja exetsoume th genik exswsh 2ou bajmo,
f (x, y) = Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0
(6.12)
pou toulqiston na ap ta A, B, C den enai mhdn. Ja dome oti aut paristnei kklo, lleiyh, uperbol, parabol, ssthma 2 eujein, na shmeo to ken snolo sto eppedo. Diakrnoume 2 periptseic: a. h kamplh qei kntro summetrac, to opoo mpore na enai monadik (lleiyh, uperbol, temnmenec eujeec, na shmeo), na uprqoun peira ttoia shmea (parllhlec eujeec). b. h kamplh den qei kntro summetrac (parabol). En h kamplh qei kntro summetrac, to lambnoume wc shmeo anaforc. En (x, y) enai shmeo diaforetik ap to (0, 0), to opoo ankei sthn kamplh, tte to shmeo (x, y) epshc ankei sthn kamplh, kai qoume
Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = = A(x)2 + 2B(x)(y) + C(y)2 + 2D(x) + 2E(y) + F .

Sunepc
4Dx + 4Ey = 0 .
En aut isqei gia tra shmea (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ) pou den brskontai se ma eujea, qoume treic anexrthtec exisseic gia ta D kai E , kai h mnh lsh enai
D = E = 0.
(6.13)
'Ara, en lboume to kntro summetrac wc arq twn axnwn, mhdenzontai oi roi 1ou bajmo. En h kamplh qei xona summetrac, kai to lboume wc ton y -xona suntetagmnwn, tte, en to (x, y) ankei sthn kamplh, to dio isqei gia to (x, y):
Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = = A(x)2 + 2B(x)y + Cy 2 + 2D(x) + 2Ey + F

kai sunepc
4Bxy + 4Dx = 0 ,
Keflaio 6
81
ap pou sumperanoume ti
B = D = 0.
(6.14)
'Ara, en lboume nan xona summetrac wc xona suntetagmnwn, mhdenzetai o miktc roc 2ou bajmo. Upojtoume ti allzoume to ssthma suntetagmnwn ste na qei wc arq to shmeo P (x0 , y0 ), kai xonec pou na sqhmatzoun gwna me touc arqikoc. En (x, y) enai oi suntetagmnec enc shmeou wc proc to arqik ssthma kai (x , y ) oi suntetagmnec tou diou shmeou wc proc to no ssthma, qoume, ap to Keflaio 1, 1.6, x = x0 + x cos y sin (6.15) y = y0 + x sin + y cos . Antikajistntac sthn f (x, y), brskoume thn exswsh thc kamplhc wc proc to no ssthma,
f (x , y ) = A x 2 + 2B x y + C y 2 + 2D x + 2E y + F = 0 ,
pou ta A , B , . . . , F enai sunartseic twn A, B, . . . , F, x0 , y0 , .
(6.16)
Mporome na dexoume ti kpoioi sunduasmo twn suntelestn den metabllontai kat thn allag suntetagmnwn. Sugkekrimna:
J1 = A + C = A + C J2 = A C B 2 = AC B 2
kai
(6.17) (6.18)
J3 =
A B D
B C E
D F F
A B D B C E D E F
(6.19)
Oi posthtec J1 , J2 , J3 onomzontai anallowtec thc kamplhc, kai ja dome ti kajorzoun to edoc thc kamplhc. Sth sunqeia ja exetsoume qwrist tic periptseic J2 = 0 kai J2 = 0.
'Askhsh 6.5 Upologste ta A kai C antikajistntac tic 6.15 sthn 6.12, kai
epalhjeste oti A + C = A + C .
H perptwsh J2 = 0.
Lmma 6.6 H kamplh qei monadik kntro summetrac en kai mnon en J2 = 0
82
Apdeixh. Ap thn antikatstash twn 6.15 sthn 6.12, brskoume

D E = (Ax0 + By0 + D) cos + (Bx0 + Cy0 + E) sin = (Ax0 + By0 + D) sin + (Bx0 + Cy0 + E) cos
En mporome na epilxoume ta x0 , y0 tsi ste D = E = 0, tte h kamplh ja qei kntro summetrac to shmeo (x0 , y0 ). Afo sin kai cos den mhdenzontai tautqrona, gia na isqei D = E = 0, prpei na qoume
Ax0 + By0 + D = 0 Bx0 + Cy0 + E = 0

Aut to ssthma qei monadik lsh mnon en J2 = AC B 2 = 0, kai tte h lsh enai:
x0 =
DC BE AC B 2
y0 =
AE DB . AC B 2
(6.20)
Upojtoume ti metafroume to shmeo anaforc sto (x0 , y0 ), ste D = E = 0, kai h exswsh thc kamplhc parnei th morf
A x 2 + 2B x y + C y 2 + F = 0
En upojsoume ti oi xonec suntetagmnwn tou nou sustmatoc sumpptoun me touc xonec summetrac thc kamplhc, tte ja qoume epshc B = 0. Jloume loipn na prosdiorsoume th gwna gia thn opoa mhdenzetai to B .'Alla ap thn antikatstash twn 6.15 sthn 6.12 qoume
B = A sin cos + B(cos2 sin2 ) + C sin cos

kai tan B = 0 parnoume,
B(cos2 sin2 ) = (A C) sin cos
2B cos 2 = (A C) sin 2
kai a. en A = C kai B = 0, qoume cos 2 = 0, dhlad = . 4 b. en A = C qoume
tan 2 =
2B AC
(6.21)
Keflaio 6
83
Mporome na upojsoume ti h gwna strofc twn axnwn , brsketai sto disthma < , sunepc < 2 . 4 4 2 2 Se aut to disthma, h 6.21 kajorzei th gwna . Parathrome ti to prshmo 2B thc gwnac enai to dio me to prshmo tou AC . To sunhmtono cos enai jetik, 2B en to hmtono sin qei to prshmo tou AC . Gia na prosdiorsoume ta cos , sin qrhsimopoiome tic tautthtec:
cos2 2 =
kai
1 , 1 + tan2 2 1 cos 2 . 2
(6.22)
1 + cos 2 , sin = 2 Antikajistntac thn 6.21 sthn 6.22 qoume cos = cos 2 = |A C|
(6.23)
(A C)2 + 4B 2
thn opoa antikajistome stic 6.23. Met ap aut thn allag sustmatoc anaforc, h exswsh thc kamplhc parnei th morf
Ax2 +C y2 +F = 0
All J2 = AC B 2 = A C B 2 = A C , kai ra A C = 0. En F = 0, h 6.24 grfetai sth morf
(6.24)
A 2 C 2 x y =1 F F
F Jtoume a2 = F , b2 = C kai grfoume x, y ant gia x , y , opte, anloga me A ta prshma twn A , C kai F qoume ma ap tic morfc:
AF , C F <0
x2 y 2 + 2 =1 a2 b
lleiyh, kkloc en a2 = b2
AF , C F >0
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1 fantastik lleiyh, to ken snolo a2 b x2 y 2 2 =1 a2 b

uperbol pou tmnei ton x-xona
A F < 0, C F > 0
A F > 0, C F < 0
x2 y 2 2 = 1 uperbol pou tmnei ton y -xona a2 b
En F = 0, h 6.24 gnetai
A x2 + C y 2 = 0
84 ap pou qoume
y=
pou qei ma ap tic morfc
A x C
AC <0
y = x
zegoc temnomnwn eujein
A C > 0 y = ix fantastik zegoc eujein, na shmeo

To edoc thc kamplhc mporome na to kajorsoume kai ap thn arqik exswsh, F en ekfrsoume ta F , C sunartsei twn J1 , J2 , J3 . A 'Eqoume F F F2 F2 F2 = = = . A C AC AC B 2 J2 kai J3 = A C F = J2 F 'Ara, en J3 = 0 kai J2 > 0 qoume lleiyh, pragmatik en J1 J3 < 0 kai fantastik en J1 J3 > 0. En J3 = 0 kai J2 < 0 qoume uperbol. En J3 = 0 kai J2 > 0 qoume fantastik zegoc eujein. En J3 = 0 kai J2 < 0 qoume zegoc eujein.
Pardeigma 6.1 Jewrome thn exswsh

f (x, y) = x2 4xy + y 2 + 10x 8y + 7 = 0
'Eqoume
A = 1, B = 2, C = 1, D = 5, E = 4, F = 7
kai
J1 = A + C = 2 J2 = AC B 2 = 3 A B D B C E D E F 1 2 5 2 1 4 5 4 7
J3 =
= 18.
Parathrome ti J2 = 0, ra qoume kntro summetrac (x0 , y0 )
x0 =
DC BE = 1 AC B 2
y0 =
AE DB =2 AC B 2
Keflaio 6

4
85 kai sunepc cos = sin =

2 . 2
kai A C = 0, ra h gwna strofc enai = Antikajistntac
2 2 2 x = 1 + x y = (x y 2) 2 2 2
kai
2 2 2 y =2+ x + y = (x + y + 2 2) 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 (x y 2) 4 (x y 2) (x + y + 2 2)+ 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 + (x + y + 2 2) + 10 (x y 2) 8 (x + y + 2 2) + 7 = 0 , 2 2 2
qoume
kai knontac tic prxeic brskoume
x 2 + 3y 2 6 = 0 ,
ap' pou parnoume thn kanonik morf uperbolc pou tmnei ton y -xona:
x2 y2 = 1 . 6 2
En mac endiafrei aplc h kanonik morf, kai qi h sugkekrimnh allag tou sustmatoc anaforc pou thn ddei, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume tic sqseic
J1 = A + C ,
J2 = A C
ap tic opoec sumperanoume oti oi A , C enai rzec tou triwnmou
t2 J1 t + J2
Sto pardeigma, h exswsh gnetai
t2 2t 3 = 0
dhlad
(t + 1)(t 3) = 0
kai qoume A = 1, C = 3 A = 3, C = 1.
86
H perptwsh J2 = 0
Sthn perptwsh pou J2 = 0 h kamplh den qei kntro summetrac, kai den mporome na apaleyoume touc rouc prtou bajmo. Mporome mwc, me strof kat katllhlh gwna na apaleyoume to mikt ro xy . Tte qoume B = 0, kai afo J 2 = A C = 0, na ap ta A , C mhdenzetai.
En C = 0 h exswsh gnetai
A x 2 + 2D x + 2E y + F = 0 .
(6.25)
En E = 0, sumplhrnontac to tetrgwno sthn 6.25 qoume thn exswsh

x + D A
2
2E A
y +
F D2 2E 2A E
(6.26) , xona thn eujea
h opoa paristnei parabol me koruf to shmeo D , A
D 2 A F 2A E
, kai parmetro . Knoume ma deterh allag sustmatoc anaforc, x= ste to shmeo anaforc na enai h koruf thc parabolc:
D A
E A
x =x +
D , A
y =y
D2AF . 2A E
Jtoume p = E , kai grfoume x, y ant gia x , y , kai qoume A
x2 = 2py
(6.27)
Parathrome ti, epeid B = C = 0, qoume J3 = A E 2 kai J1 = A . Sunepc
p2 =
J3 E2 . 2 = A J1 3
En E = 0, tte h 6.25 gnetai

x= D D2AF A
kai paristnei na zegoc eujein, oi opoec enai pragmatikc kai paralllec en D 2 A F > 0, sumpptoun en D 2 A F = 0, kai enai fantastikc en D 2 A F < 0.
En A = 0, parmoia, h exswsh gnetai

C y 2 + 2D x + 2E y + F = 0 .
(6.28)
Keflaio 6
87
En D = 0 h exswsh gnetai
E y + C
2
2D = C
F E2 x + 2D 2C D
E 2 C F 2C D
h opoa paristnei parabol me koruf sto shmeo
, E , xona thn eujea C
y = E kai parmetro p = D . Me parllhlh metafor tou sustmatoc anaforc C C sthn koruf thc parabolc, h exswsh parnei th morf y 2 = 2px .
J Parathrome ti qoume p2 = D 2 = J133 . C En D = 0 qoume thn exswsh E E 2 C F y= C
2
h opoa paristnei na zegoc eujein, oi opoec enai pragmatikc kai parllhlec en E 2 C F > 0, sumpptoun en E 2 C F = 0, kai enai fantastikc en E 2 C F < 0. Ta sumpersmata thc parapnw anlushc parousizontai sunoptik ston akloujo pnaka.
J2 < 0 J3 = 0 uperbol
J2 = 0 J3 = 0 parabol
J2 > 0 J1 J3 < 0 lleiyh J1 J3 > 0 fantastik lleiyh J3 = 0 fantastikc eujeec
J3 = 0 pragmatikc temnmenec eujeec
J3 = 0 parllhlec eujeec
Keflaio 7 'Alla sustmata suntetagmnwn

Polikc suntetagmnec
Sto eppedo jewrome na shmeo O, kai na hmixona OA, pou sunjwc ton sqedizoume orizntia. 'Ena shmeo X tou epipdou prosdiorzetai ap thn apstash r ap to O, kai thn proshmasmnh gwna = (OA, OX). To zegoc (r, ) enai oi polikc suntetagmnec tou shmeou X . H suntetagmnh den enai monadik kajorismnh: (r, + 2k) enai polikc suntetagmnec tou diou shmeou, gia kje k Z. H sqsh metax polikn kai kartesiann suntetagmnwn ddetai ap tic akloujec exisseic
x = r cos y = r cos
kai antstrofa
x2 + y 2 y = arctan , x r =
pou h sugkekrimnh tim thc kajorzetai ap ta prshma twn x kai y kai thn epilog mac kriac timc, gia pardeigma sto disthma (, ]. Pardeigma 7.1 To shmeo me kartesianc suntetagmnec ( 3, 1) qei polikc suntetagmnec 1 = arctan = . r = 3+1=2 , 6 3 Ta shmea me kartesianc suntetagmnec ( 3, 1), ( 3, 1) kai ( 3, 1) qoun antstoiqa polikc suntetagmnec 2, 5 , 2, 5 kai 2, . 6 6 6 88
Keflaio 7
'Alla sustmata suntetagmnwn
89
Pardeigma 7.2 H exswsh tou kklou me kntro O kai aktna a, se polikc

suntetagmnec enai
r = a.
Pardeigma 7.3 H lika tou Arqimdh enai h kamplh pou pargetai ap na

shmeo pou kinetai me stajer taqthta u se nan xona, o opooc tautqrona peristrfetai, me stajer gwniak taqthta . En arqik to shmeo brsketai sto O, met ap qrno t oi polikc suntetagmnec tou shmeou ja enai
r = ut kai = t
Me apaloif tou t parnoume thn exswsh thc likac tou Arqimdh se polikc suntetagmnec u r = .
Sfairikc suntetagmnec
Jewrome ma sfara me kntro sto shmeo anaforc O kai aktna . H exswsh thc sfarac enai: x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2 En X : (x, y, z) enai na shmeo thc sfarac, jewrome thn probol X tou X sto eppedo Oxy , dhlad to shmeo X : (x, y, 0), kai tic gwnec pou sqhmatzei h OX me ton x-xona kai me thn OX :
= =
(Ox, OX ) (OX , OX) ,
2 2
H onomzetai gewgrafik pltoc tou X kai h onomzetai gewgrafik mkoc tou X. H diatetagmnh trida (, , ) kajorzei plrwc to shmeo X , kai enai oi sfairikc suntetagmnec tou shmeou. H sqsh twn kartesiann suntetagmnwn me tic sfairikc suntetagmnec ddetai ap tic exisseic
x2 + y 2 + z 2
90
= arctan = arcsin
kai antstrofa
y , x
< z , 2 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2
x = |OX | cos = cos cos y = |OX | sin = cos sin z = (X X) = sin
Pardeigma 7.4 H exswsh mac sfarac me kntro O kai aktna a se sfairikc

suntetagmnec enai
=a
Pardeigma 7.5 H exswsh

= 0
gia 0 = 0 paristnei to eppedo (x, y), en gia 0 = 0 paristnei nan kno, me xona summetrac ton z -xona, kai gwna 0 en 0 > 0, kai + 0 en 0 < 0. 2 2 To ssthma exissewn =a , = 0 paristnei nan kklo, ton gewgrafik parllhlo pltouc 0 pnw sth sfara me ektna a.

= 0
paristnei na hmieppedo me snoro ston z -xona, en to ssthma
=a ,
= 0
paristnei na hmikklio, ton gewgrafik meshmbrin mkouc 0 pnw sth sfara me aktna a.

sin = 3
paristnei to eppedo z = 3.

cos = 3
Keflaio 7
'Alla sustmata suntetagmnwn
91
paristnei ton klindro me xona ton xona twn z , kai aktna 3, pwc fanetai ap thn cos = x2 + y 2 .
Kulindrikc suntetagmnec
Jewrome na shmeo X me kartesianc suntetagmnec (x, y, z), kai thn probol X tou X sto eppedo (x, y) me suntetagmnec (x, y, 0). Sto eppedo (x, y) orzetai ssthma polikn suntetagmnwn wc proc to opoo to shmeo X qei polikc suntetagmnec (, ): r = x2 + y 2 , = (Ox, OX ) H diatetagmnh trida (r, , z) kajorzei plrwc to shmeo X , kai enai oi kulindrikc suntetagmnec tou shmeou. H sqsh twn kulindrikn suntetagmnwn me tic kartesianc suntetagmnec ddetai ap tic isthtec
x2 + y 2 y = arctan , x z = z r =
kai antstrofa,
<
x = |OX | cos = r cos y = |OX | sin = r sin z = z
Pardeigma 7.9 H exswsh enc kulndrou me xona ton z -xona kai aktna a se
kulindrikc suntetagmnec enai
r = a.

z=c
se kulindrikc suntetagmnec paristnei (pwc kai se kartesianc suntetagmnec) na eppedo parllhlo me to (x, y)-eppedo, se apstash |c| ap aut.
92

= 0
paristnei na hmieppedo me snoro ton z -xona, en to ssthma exissewn
= a,
= 0
paristnei ma eujea parllhlh me ton z -xona

= az , a=0
paristnei ma elikoeid epifneia, thn epifneia pou diagrfei ma eujea kjeth ston z -xona, pou kinetai me stajer taqthta kata mkoc tou z -xona kai tautqrona peristrfetai me stajer gwniak taqthta grw ap ton z -xona.
Keflaio 8 Epifneiec sto qro

Epifneiec sto qro mporon na perigrafon me polloc trpouc. H melth touc apotele antikemeno thc diaforetikc gewmetrac. Ja dome orismna paradegmata.
Epifneiec ek peristrofc
Ma epifneia kaletai epifneia ek peristrofc en mpore na paraqje ap thn peristrof mac kamplhc grw ap nan xona. Kat thn peristrof, kje shmeo thc kamplhc diagrfei na kklo me kntro ston xona, o opooc brsketai se eppedo kjeto ston xona. H kamplh onomzetai genteira thc epifneiac.
Pardeigma 8.1 En h genteira enai ma eujea parllhlh proc ton xona, h epifneia enai (orjc kuklikc) klindroc. En jewrsoume wc xona ton z xona, tte h epifneia apoteletai ap ta shmea (x, y, z) tou qrou pou ikanopoion thn exswsh
x2 + y 2 = a 2 .
Parathrome ti h apousa tou z sthn exswsh, shmanei oti aut h suntetagmnh mpore na prei opoiadpote tim sto R.
Pardeigma 8.2 En h genteira enai eujea h opoa tmnei ton xona, h epifneia enai (orjc kuklikc) knoc. En jewrsoume wc xona ton z -xona, kai wc
genteira thn eujea z = x, y = 0, tte h epifneia apoteletai ap ta shmea tou qrou pou ikanopoion thn exswsh
x2 + y 2 =
z2 . 2
93
94
Kpwc pio genik, en o xonac peristrofc enai o z -xonac kai h genteira brsketai sto (x, z)-eppedo, me exswsh
f (x, z) = 0 ,
y = 0,
x 0,
tte h epifneia ek peristrofc apoteletai ap ta shmea (x, y, z) R3 pou ikanopoion thn exswsh (8.1) f ( x2 + y 2 , z) = 0. Prgmati, en to shmeo (x0 , 0, z0 ) brsketai pnw sth genteira, tte ap thn peristrof, brskontai pnw sthn epifneia la ta shmea sto eppedo z = z0 , ta opoa apqoun apstash x0 ap ton z -xona, dhlad la ta shmea me suntetagmnec (x, y, z0 ) ttoiec ste x2 + y 2 = x0 .
Pardeigma 8.3 Elleiyoeidc ek peristrofc ( sfairoeidc) kaletai

h epifneia pou pargetai ap thn lleiyh
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1, z = 0 a2 b tan peristrafe grw ap nan ap touc xonec thc, (Sqma 8.1). En h peristrof enai grw ap ton x-xona, h epifneia, smfwna me thn 8.1, qei exswsh x2 y 2 + z 2 + =1 a2 b2
.
Sqma 8.1: Elleiyoeidc ek peristrofc.
Pardeigma 8.4 Spera ( troc) kaletai h epifneia pou pargetai ap thn

peristrof enc kklou grw ap nan xona pou den tmnei ton kklo, (Sqma 8.2). Jewrome wc xona ton z -xona kai wc genteira ton kklo
(x a)2 + z 2 = r2 ,
y = 0,
a > r > 0.
Keflaio 8
Epifneiec sto qro
95
Tte h exswsh thc sperac enai
x2 + y 2 a
+ z 2 = r2
Sqma 8.2: Spera.
Pardeigma 8.5 H epifneia me exswsh

x2 + y 2 2pz = 0
enai epifneia ek peristrofc, giat qei exswsh thc morfc f ( x2 + y 2 , z) = 0. Sumperanoume ti mpore na prokyei me peristrof thc kamplhc x2 = 2pz , y = 0 grw ap ton z -xona. Aut h epifneia kaletai paraboloeidc ek peristrofc, (Sqma 8.3) .
Elleiyoeidc
Sth sunqeia ja meletsoume orismnec genikterec epifneiec oi opoec perigrfontai ap exswsh deterou bajmo wc proc x, y kai z . Se kje perptwsh ja jewrsoume to ssthma anaforc pou ekmetalleetai tic summetrec thc epifneiac, ste na lboume thn aplosterh morf thc exswshc. Elleiyoeidc kaletai h epifneia h opoa, se katllhlo orjognio ssthma anaforc, qei exswsh
x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 + 2 = 1, a, b, c > 0 . a2 b c x2 y 2 z 2 En f (x, y, z) = 2 + 2 + 1, parathrome ti a b c f (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z)
96
Sqma 8.3: Paraboloeidc ek peristrofc.
kai epomnwc to elleiyoeidc enai summetrik wc proc ta eppeda (y, z), (x, z) kai (x, y). Sunepc enai epshc summetrik wc proc touc trec xonec suntetagmnwn, kai wc proc to shmeo anaforc, (Sqma 8.4).
Sqma 8.4: Elleiyoeidc.
To elleiyoeidc periqetai se na orjognio parallhleppedo me pleurc 2a, 2b, 2c, kai tmnei touc xonec sta shmea A : (a, 0, 0), A : (a, 0, 0), B : (0, b, 0), B : (0, b, 0), C : (0, 0, c), C (0, 0, c). To elleiyoeidc tmnei to (x, y)-eppedo sthn lleiyh
x2 y 2 + = 1, a b
z = 0.
Keflaio 8
Epifneiec sto qro
97
'Ena eppedo parllhlo proc to (x, y)-eppedo, me exswsh z = k gia c k c, tmnei to elleiyoeidc sto snolo
x2 y 2 k2 + 2 = 1 2, z = k a2 b c
, to opoo enai na shmeo tan |k| = c, en tan |k| < c enai ma lleiyh, me hmixonec
k2 , c2
k2 . c2
Parmoia isqoun gia tic tomc tou elleiyoeidoc me eppeda parllhla proc ta eppeda (x, z) kai (y, z). Geniktera, mporome na dexoume ti kje eppedo, efson tmnei to elleiyoeidc, to tmnei se na shmeo se ma lleiyh. To elleiyoeidc ek peristrofc enai h eidik perptwsh elleiyoeidoc tan do ap tic stajerc a, b, c enai sec.
Monqwno uperboloeidc
Monqwno uperboloeidc kaletai h epifneia h opoa, se katllhlo orjognio
ssthma anaforc, qei exswsh
x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 = 1, a2 b c
a, b, c > 0 .
To monqwno uperboloeidc enai summetrik wc proc ta eppeda (x, y), (x, z) kai (y, z), kajc kai wc proc touc xonec x, y, z kai to shmeo anaforc, (Sqma 8.5). To eppedo (x, y) tmnei thn epifneia sthn lleiyh
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1, a2 b
z = 0.
To eppedo (x, z) tmnei thn epifneia sthn uperbol
x2 z 2 + 2 = 1, a2 c
en to eppedo (y, z) sthn uperbol
y = 0,
y2 z2 + 2 = 1, b2 c
x = 0.
Geniktera, kje eppedo me exswsh z = k , tmnei thn epifneia se ma lleiyh
k2 x2 y 2 + 2 =1 2 , a2 b c
z = k.
98
Sqma 8.5: Monqwno uperboloeidc.
Kje eppedo me exswsh x = m, tmnei thn epifneia se ma uperbol en |m| = a, h opoa qei exisseic
y2 z2 m2 2 =1 2 , b2 c a
'Otan |m| = a, 1
m2 a2
x = m.
= 0 kai h exswsh gnetai y z = , x = m, b c
h opoa paristnei do eujeec pou tmnontai sto (m, 0, 0). Sthn eidik perptwsh pou a = b, qoume to monqwno uperboloeidc ek peristrofc.
Dqwno uperboloeidc
Dqwno uperboloeidc kaletai h epifneia h opoa, se katllhlo orjognio
x2 y 2 z 2 2 + 2 = 1, a2 b c
a, b, c > 0 .
To dqwno uperboloeidc enai summetrik wc proc ta eppeda (x, y), (x, z) kai (y, z), kajc kai wc proc touc xonec x, y, z kai to shmeo anaforc, (Sqma 8.6).
Keflaio 8
Epifneiec sto qro
99
Sqma 8.6: Dqwno uperboloeidc.
To eppedo (x, y) den tmnei thn epifneia. 'Ena eppedo me exswsh z = k tmnei thn epifneia se ma lleiyh en |k| > c, kai se na shmeo en |k| = c. Ta eppeda (x, z) kai (y, z), kajc kai eppeda parllhla proc aut, tmnoun thn epifneia se ma uperbol. Sthn eidik perptwsh pou a = b qoume to dqwno uperboloeidc ek peristrofc.
Elleiptik paraboloeidc
Elleiptik paraboloeidc kaletai h epifneia h opoa, se katllhlo orjognio
x2 y 2 + 2 = 2cz , a2 b
a, b > 0 , c = 0 .
To elleiptik paraboloeidc enai summetrik wc proc ta eppeda (x, z) kai (y, z), kajc kai wc proc ton z -xona, (Sqma 8.7). To (x, y)- eppedo sunantei thn epifneia mno sto shmeo anaforc. Kje eppedo parllhlo proc to (x, y)- eppedo me exswsh z = k , gia k > 0 tmnei thn epifneia se ma lleiyh me exisseic
x2 y 2 + 2 = 2ck , a2 b
z = k.
En k < 0, to eppedo z = k den tmnei thn epifneia.
100
Sqma 8.7: Elleiptik paraboloeidc.
Eppeda parllhla proc to (x, z) to (y, z) eppedo, tmnoun thn epifneia se ma parabol. Gia pardeigma, to eppedo (x, z) tmnei thn epifneia sthn parabol
x2 = 2a2 cz ,
y = 0,
en to eppedo y = m tmnei thn epifneia sthn parabol
x2 m2 = 2cz 2 , a2 b
y = m.
Uperbolik paraboloeidc
Uperbolik paraboloeidc kaletai h epifneia h opoa, se katllhlo orjognio ssthma anaforc, qei exswsh
x2 y 2 2 = 2cz , a2 b
a, b > 0 , c = 0 .
H epifneia enai summetrik wc proc ta eppeda (x, z) kai (y, z), kajc kai wc proc ton z -xona, kai sunantei touc xonec mno sto shmeo anaforc, (Sqma 8.8). To eppedo (x, y) tmnei thn epifneia kat mkoc do temnomnwn eujein, me exisseic x2 y 2 2 = 0, z = 0, a2 b
Keflaio 8
Epifneiec sto qro
101
Sqma 8.8: Uperbolik paraboloeidc.
en kje eppedo parllhlo proc to (x, y)-eppedo, me exswsh z = k , sunantei to uperbolik paraboloeidc se ma uperbol, me exisseic
x2 y 2 2 = 2ck , a2 b
z = k.
Eppeda parllhla proc to (x, z) to (y, z) eppedo, tmnoun thn epifneia se ma parabol. Gia pardeigma, to eppedo x = m tmnei thn epifneia sthn parabol me exisseic
y2 m2 = 2cz + 2 , b2 a
x = m.
'Allec epifneiec 2ou bajmo

Ektc ap ta pnte edh epifanein 2ou bajmo pou perigryame, uprqoun ekfulismnec periptseic, pou qoume ma kwnik kulindrik epifneia, eppeda, eujea to ken snolo. Paraktw ddoume qarakthristik paradegmata autn twn periptsewn.
102
elleiptikc knoc parabolikc klindroc uperbolikc klindroc elleiptikc knoc do tmnomena eppeda do parllhla eppeda na eppedo ma eujea na shmeo to ken snolo
x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 =0 a2 b c y 2 = 2cz, c = 0 y2 z2 2 =1 b2 c y2 z2 + 2 =1 b2 c x2 y 2 2 =0 a2 b x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 =0 a2 b c z2 = 0 x2 y 2 + 2 =0 a2 b
x2 a2
y2 b2
z2 c2
=0
x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 a2 b c
Pardeigma 8.6 Gia na brome thn epifneia pou paristnei h exswsh

x2 y 2 z 2 + 4x 8y + 2z 17 = 0
sumplhrnoume ta tetrgwna, kai qoume
(x + 2)2 4 (y + 4)2 + 16 (z 1)2 + 1 17 = 0
(x + 2)2 (y + 4)2 (z 1)2 = 4 .

En metafroume to shmeo anaforc sto (2, 4, 1), exswsh gnetai
x2 y2 z2 = 1. 4 4 4 Sumperanoume oti h exswsh paristnei na dqwno uperboloeidc ek peristrofc, me kntro sto shmeo (2, 4, 1), kai krio xona parllhlo proc ton x-xona. H epifneia tmnei ton krio xona sta shmea (0, 4, 1) kai (4, 4, 1).
Keflaio 8
Epifneiec sto qro
103
'Askhsh 8.1 Gia tic akloujec exisseic,

a. onomste thn epifneia thn opoa paristnoun b. brete tic exisseic twn tomn thc epifneiac me ta eppeda (x, y), (x, z), (y, z). g. brete tic exisseic twn tomn thc epifneiac me ta eppeda x = 4, y = 4 kai z = 4.
i. 9x2 + 4z 2 = 36y ii. 4y 2 + 4z 2 x2 = 0 iii. 9x2 y 2 = 4z iv. 2y 2 + 4z 2 = x2 v. x2 + vi.

y2 4
z2 9
=1
x2 y 2 z 2 + =1 9 16 4
x2 y 2 vii. + z2 = 1 4 9 viii. x2 y 2 = 0. 4 9
'Askhsh 8.2 Frete tic akloujec exisseic se kanonik morf sumplhrnontac

ta tetrgwna, kai onomste tic epifneiec pou paristnoun: a. x2 + y 2 + z 2 6x + 4y 8 = 0 b. 2x2 + y 2 4z 2 + 4z 6y 2 = 0 g. y 2 x2 4z 2 = 2x + 8z d. x2 4y 2 + 2x z + 8y 3 = 0 e. x2 + z 2 + 2x + 3 y + 2z 3 = 0 2 . x2 + z 2 4x y 5 = 0 z. x2 z 2 y 2 4x + 4z 1 = 0

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Shmeiseic majmatoc M100

Analutik Gewmetra kai Migadiko Arijmo

Qrstoc Kourounithc TMHMA MAJHMATIKWN PANEPISTHMIO KRHTHS 2008

Keflaio 1 Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Sqma 1.1: Diansmata.

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Sqma 1.2: Forac diansmatoc.

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Sqma 1.3: Parllhla suggrammik diansmata.

Sqma 1.4: Parallhlgramma.

Prtash 1.1 En ta sqmata ABCD kai CDEF enai parallhlgramma, tte

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Sqma 1.5: Prtash 1.1.

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Sqma 1.8: 'Ajroisma dianusmtwn.

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Sqma 1.9: H prosetairistik idithta.

Apdeixh. H apdeixh twn perissotrwn idiottwn enai apl. Ja dsoume mno

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Sqma 1.10: Prsjesh kai parllhlh metafor

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Apdeixh. Gia thn prsjesh, (Sqma 1.10), arke na dexoume ti en ABB A ,

Grammiko sunduasmo, grammik anexarthsa

OB Prtash 1.4 En = kai = brskontai sthn dia eujea, tte uprqei u OA v

= a v u Tte, en kai u enai omrropa, = a , en en kai enai antrropa, = a . v v u u v v u

Apdeixh. 'Estw a o lgoc twn mhkn twn kai : a = v u

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Sqma 1.11: Grammiko sunduasmo twn kai . u v

Sqma 1.12: Anlush tou OC se grammik sunduasm.

Apdeixh. Ap to kro C tou , froume parllhlo proc thn OB , (Sqma w

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

'Axonac, algebrik tim diansmatoc

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Lmma 1.6 (Kannac tou Chasles) En A, B, C enai suggrammik shmea pnw se

Probol diansmatoc, eswterik ginmeno

Apdeixh. Parapmpoume sto Sqma 1.14. Apodeiknoume to 1. Jtoume pr = v u

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Sqma 1.13: Orjognia probol diansmatoc se xona.

Sqma 1.14: Probol ajrosmatoc.

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Lmma 1.8 En , enai mh mhdenik diansmata me koin shmeo efarmogc u v

|pr | |OA | | | u |OA| v u = = = | | v |pr | |OB| |OB | u v

Ton pragmatik arijm | | (pr ) onomzoume v v u , kai to sumbolzoume kai tou v

eswterik ginmeno tou u

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Gwna metax do dianusmtwn

u u v (pr ) = | | cos (, ) v u = | || | cos ( , ) . u v u v u v

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

tagmnec (a, b) enc diansmatoc = a i + b j ddontai ap to eswterik ginmeno w

Lmma 1.10 'Estw (O, , ) orjokanonik ssthma anaforc. Tte oi suntei j

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

tou me ta antstoiqa diansmata tou sustmatoc anaforc: w a= i , w b= j w

Apdeixh. Se na orjokanonik ssthma = = 1 kai = 0. i i j j i j

Sqma 1.18: Suntetagmnec wc proc orjokanonik ssthma anaforc.

Gewmetrik diansmata sto eppedo

Pardeigma 1.1 Ma fusik ermhnea twn dianusmtwn enai h metatpish, Sqma

Sqma 1.19: Snjesh metatopsewn.

1.19. To dinusma AB perigrfei th metatpish enc antikeimnou ap to shmeo A

Analutik Gewmetra Migadiko Arijmo

Pardeigma 1.2 Ma llh fusik ermhnea twn dianusmtwn enai h taqthta.

Sqma 1.20: Sqetik taqthta tou A wc proc to B .