It is important to maintain the distinction between Instructional Methods (techniques) and Instructional Media (presentation-communication aides).

Instructional Methods What instructional techniques are needed to establish the conditions of learning, impart information, and help learners achieve performance outcomes? Information Display Presentation Demonstration Practice Exercises Simulation Feedback Prompting / Guidance Reinforcement All items relate to Gagne's

Instructional techniques include:

(Heres a refresher about Gagnes 9 Events from Module 1..) Gagn's Nine Events of Instruction 1. Gaining attention 2. Informing learners of objective 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning 4. Presenting stimulus material 5. Providing learning guidance 6. Eliciting performance (practice) 7. Providing feedback 8. Assessing performance Events of Cognitive/ Learning Process Reception / Motivation Establishment of expectancies Retrieval (from long-term memory) Selective perception Semantic encoding Response generation Reinforcement Metacognition

9. Enhancing retention and Generalization transfer Gagn, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. Principles of Instructional Design (4th Ed., 1992)

Now - to the Media Used for the Instruction ----Instructional Media What media will most efficiently and effectively transmit the required instructional methods? Instructor (presentation, facilitation, mentoring, peer interaction) Computer (screens, graphics, text, animation, audio, video)

Media Elements for Instruction include: human, print, and electronic

Printed workbook & books (text, graphics) Video & audio (for passive viewing and listening) Web-based training tutorials (emphasizing interactivity) And many other media forms The relationship between instruction, media and delivery system tasks are illustrated in this flow chart.

The important clarification is that Media is NOT Instruction and Media is NOT Delivery System. While use of Media can be an essential component of instructional or information presentation, the selection and crafting of media use is only one small part of either information presentation or instructional design. There is more to information architecture and instructional strategy than just the use of Media. In the past, the term "Media" was used synonymously with Delivery System because there were so few options: There were live classroom presentations, textbooks, educational film and television. Today, however, an enterprise's IT infrastructure is a conduit for a range of media providing KM, E-Learning, and Performance Support. Media Selection Clark & Mayer (2003) assert three key assumptions underlying a cognitive theory of multimedia learning: A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Assumption Dual Channels Limited Capacity (cognitive load) Active Processing Humans engage in active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with other knowledge Description Humans possess separate channels for processing visual and auditory information Humans are limited in the amount of information that they can process in each channel at one time

The following graphic was introduced in the Section on Instruction providing an overview definition of Instructional Strategy to define what is meant by an "instructionally sound" learning experience. Here emphasis highlights media element definition and production. This illustrates that Media Design decisions are powerfully determined by the preceding decisions about Objectives, Content, and Instructional Method while keeping in mind the realism of the Delivery System that is available. The "appropriateness" or justification for using of a particular type of media element depends upon its context in an Instructional Strategy which describes the desired learner experience. The "appropriateness" or soundness of a media element must also be evaluated in terms of production methods that are cost-efficient and logistically realistic.

Key Media Terms The following definitions describe the context in which media selection, design and development operates. Media Elements Text, graphics, animation, video, audio and dynamic User Interface components which are used to present content. Media elements may be printed (book, workbook), or electronic (computer, Internet, projection, CD-ROM, DVD, videocassette, audiocassette), or human (gestures and voice of an instructor, mentor, or peer). There are distinct production technique and best practices related to each

of these forms. Multimedia is the mixing, synchronizing and sequencing of several media elements together to enhance their communication, instructional or aesthetic value. It is important not to confuse the base Media Elements with the Delivery System through which they are presented, such as a classroom, internet, CD-ROM, DVD, videocassette, broadcast television, etc. In common language the term "Media" means both the content experience (the sensory package), and how it is delivered (the technology medium). Our goal is to explicitly define Media and Delivery System as distinct levels of technology, with specific production and implementation issues. Instructional Media Media Elements that are used as part of an instructional strategy; a delivery agent of instructional method. This may include electronic forms such as computers and internet, printed forms such as workbooks, and human forms such as instructors. Not all media can carry an instructional method with equal effectiveness. There is no one "best" media. Research has shown that instructional method is far more important than instructional media. The mixing of media, and the blending of instructional experiences within a course offer a tremendous range of Instructional Media choices. Instructional Methods Techniques used to help learners process new information in ways that lead to learning. Instructional methods include techniques such as presentation, demonstrations, models & examples, practice exercises, simulations, guidance, feedback, reinforcement, and group process interactions. Instructional Delivery System The list of Delivery Systems includes both physical and Physical and electronic infrastructure that enables delivery of information, instruction and media.

virtual classrooms, physical books and electronic books, educational broadcast television, and interactive multimedia via internet or CD ROM. A "Blended Learning" solution will utilize a realistic composition of delivery modes as part of a course offering. Instructional Method & Media: 10 Examples The following list of ten terms illustrates the intimate relationship between instructional method and instructional media. For instance, a "simulation," a "lecture," or a "drill & practice" can be each thought of as either method or medium, or both simultaneously. In colloquial use, the difference is not important. However, for an instructor or designer who is defining the tasks of instruction, the blurring of distinctions can set up a category error that can be damaging. Clarity is required to distinguish one category of tasks from another: Tasks of instructional development (define, design, develop & deliver) Tasks of media production (including technology use decisions, production technique, aesthetics, and cost management) Tasks of instructional technique, such as presentation, demonstration, practice, simulation, feedback, prompting, guidance & reinforcement (events of instruction). Events of interaction (between learner <--> teacher / coach, learner <--> content, learner <--> learner. and learner <--> community ) Often instructional development can become 'technologically driven' based on the instructor's past experience, preferences and current skill with a particular authoring tool. In these cases, there is inadequate planning of instructional design, and the greater focus is on media implementation details of a particular tool set. Effective instructional design requires that:

First, an instructional objective drives the choice of instructional method. Then, instructional method and environmental context drives the selection & development of appropriate instructional media. It is only in this way that the end result is instructionally sound and appropriate to the audience. What is meant by instructional "soundness" is the congruence between objective, method, media and learner. What appears good in theory may not turn out the same in practice. So application in a real world learning situation is that only way to empirically validate this "congruence" required for instructional effectiveness. The following chart is intended to contrast the difference between methods and media. It is meant to show that there are many options in how an instructional method is designed, and many options of how an instructional media is developed. In this chart the instructional media is electronic to emphasize online learning, but print and visual aids might also be used in a classroom context. Simulation Instructional Method: Approximates a real or imaginary experience where users' actions affect their outcomes. Users determine and input initial conditions that generate output that is different from and changed by the initial conditions. Instructional Media Options: Flash, DHTML,ToolBook (CBT), Java Applet, C++ Animation Instructional Method: Allows users to view the dynamic and visual representation of concepts, models, processes, and/or phenomena in space or time. This is typically a graphic presentation method users may be able to control their pace or movement through the presentation, but they cannot determine and/or alter the initial conditions or their outcomes/results. Instructional Media Options: Flash, DHTML, ToolBook, Java Applet, Gif Animation Tutorial Instructional Method: Users navigate through electronic workbooks designed to meet stated learning objectives, structured to impart specific concepts or skills, and organized sequentially to

integrate conceptual presentation, demonstration, practice, and testing. Instructional Media Options: Flash, DHTML ,ToolBook (CBT), Java Applet Drill & Practice Instructional Method: Requires users to respond repeatedly to questions or stimuli presented in a variety of sequences. Can be done in a group setting, in dyads, or individual practice on their own, at their own pace. The goal is to develop the learners' ability to reliably perform and demonstrate the target knowledge and skills. This environment is typically a directive learning mode. Instructional Media Options: Flash, DHTML,ToolBook (CBT), Java Applet Quiz/Test Instructional Method: Any assessment device intended to serve as a test or quiz. The goal is engage the learning in interactive tasks and challenges that will reveal the knowledge or skill that has been attained. Instructional Media Options: Flash, DHTML, ToolBook, Java Applet Lecture/Presentation Instructional Method: Oral presentation to a class. Use of lecture notes-handouts, audio visual materials, and presentation graphics such as PowerPoint slides do not stand alone, but require the sequencing and oral narrative of the instructor. Learning modes are typically receptive and/or directive learning. Most classroom lectures are a two-way flow of communication: the instructor asking questions and eliciting responses from the class, and learners interrupting the presentation by asking clarifying questions. Instructional Media Options: PowerPoint slides, Flash, Text & Graphic Handouts Collaboration Instructional Method: The learning process is often enhanced by its social context. Learners may

learn best in small groups, dyads, shared task assignments, project groups, or teams. The interaction with peers may be just as important to anchoring learning process as the interaction with an instructor or mentor. Intentional collaborative assignments can be used as a method of bringing an extended social network into the classroom, and/or introducing a process of learning that requires communication, cooperation, critical thinking, and empathy skills. Instructional Media Options: Virtual classroom, Blogs, Wikis, Groupware, Email, Internet and Intranet Case Study Instructional Method: Illustrates a concept or problem by using an example that can be explored in depth. Such case study materials can be used for receptive, directive, guided discovery and/or exploratory learning modes. Instructional Media Options: HTML, Flash, Audio & Video, Text & Graphics Collection Instructional Method: Any collection of learning materials such as web sites or subject specific applets that enable the user to engage in guided discovery and/or exploratory learning Instructional Media Options: HTML, Java applets, Flash, Tex & Graphics, Audio & Video Reference Material Instructional Method: Material with no specific instructional objectives and similar to that found in the reference area of a library. Subject specific directories to other sites, texts, or general information are examples. The environment enables the learner to engage in discovery learning, and problem-based learning activities. Instructional Media Options: HTML, Text & Graphics, Audio & Video

Instructional Decisions Affecting Media Selection Media decisions are based on the following criteria: Can the proposed media element present the required instructional method? Is the proposed media element cost-effective both in its development and delivery costs? Are there special administrative issues involved in the use of the proposed media element: location of trainees, availability of delivery platforms, logistics, and realism? Are there special technical issues involved in the use of the proposed media elements (related to Delivery System): hardware, operating system, application software, and environment? The following graphic is designed to provide a map of the instructional design decisions which affect media selection.

Years of research has shown that there is no one best media. Different media are appropriate for different audiences and different circumstances. Research has shown that instructional method is far more important than instructional media. Artistic excellence or expensive media elements can not guarantee that learning will occur, whereas excellence in instructional method is directly related to demonstrations of learning and performance transferred to the work setting. The primary decisions of objectives and instructional methods will determine which media will be most appropriate for a lesson.

Secondarily, the instructional media is determined by the available skills of the designers and developers, and the availability of required resources. These instructional decision are optimally made during the early definition & design phases, prior to beginning actual media production. Principles of Multimedia Clark are explained in detail in the following sources: Clark, Ruth (1999). Developing Technical Training: A Structured Approach for Developing Classroom and Computer-based Instructional Materials. ISPI Richard Mayer (2001). Multi-Media Learning. Cambridge University Press Clark, Ruth and Richard Mayer (2002). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer Clark, Ruth and Chopeta Lyons (2004). Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials. Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer Multimedia Principles Affect on Learning Based primarily on Mayer's research (2001), Clark and Mayer (2003) provide the following overview of multimedia principles and their effect on learning: Multimedia Principles Multimedia best use of words & pictures

Effect on Learning

Adding graphics to words can improve learning. Students learn better from words and pictures, rather than from words alone.

Spatial Contiguity Placing text near graphics improves learning. Students best placement learn better when corresponding words and pictures are of words & pictures Temporal Contiguity of words & pictures Coherence "less is more" Using gratuitous visuals, text, and sounds can hurt learning. Students learn better when extraneous words, Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than presented near rather than far from each other.

best sequencing successively.

pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included. Less is more: eye or ear "candy" can distract and actually hurt instruction by causing cognitive overload. Visual: Student learning is hurt when interesting but irrelevant words and pictures are added to a multimedia presentation. Sound: Student learning is hurt when interesting but irrelevant sounds and music are added to a multimedia presentation. Words: Student learning is improved when unneeded words are eliminated from a multimedia presentation. Modality best use of visual and auditory channels Redundancy and audio Explaining graphics with audio and redundant text can learn better from animation and narration, than from animation, narration, and on-screen text. Individual Differences best use of prior knowledge Design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high-knowledge learners and for high-spatial learner than than for low-spatial learners. These learners are equipped to use cognitive strategy to work around cognitive overload, distraction, or other effects of poor design. Practice best interactions for learning Learner Control vs. Program Control best navigation scheme Personalization engaging the Use of conversational tone and pedagogical agents can Most students learn more under program control. Adult learners require a sense of control to be able to establish a self-paced learning process. Frequent, distributed, problem-solving, job-context practice improves learning and transfer. Explaining graphics with audio improves learning. Students learn better from animation and narration, than from animation and on-screen text.

best use of text hurt learning. Avoid reading on-screen text. Students

learner

increase learning

Content Presentation & Use of Graphics Ruth Clark has emphasized that graphic technique can be used to specifically support learning of different types of content presentation. Content Type Fact Graphic Support Realistic illustrations of specific forms, screens, and equipment Concept Realistic illustrations of multiple examples of a concept Pictures of excellent web pages to illustrate the concept of what makes an effective web page Process Animated diagrams illustrating Activities in a computer stages of process Procedure Video or animated demonstrations of neartransfer task being performed Principle Video or diagrams of fartransfer tasks being performed Video of effective sales closing techniques network Animation of how to use a software application Examples Illustration of a software screen

Clark and Mayer (2003) offer the following recommendations for graphic support:

Process Comparison

Explain a cause-and-effect chain Compare and contrast two or more elements along several dimensions

Flow chart Matrix

Explanation of how the human ear works Comparison of two theories of learning with respect to nature of the learner, teacher, and instructional methods

Generalization Describe main idea and supporting details

Branching tree

Presentation of thesis for the major causes of the American Civil War along with evidence

Enumeration

Present a list of items

List

List of the names of seven principles of multimedia design

Classification

Analyze a domain into sets and subsets

Hierarchy

Description of a biological classification system for sea animals

Use of Text & Graphics

General Multimedia Design Principles for Text and Illustrations Concentrated The key ideas are highlighted in the illustrations and in the text Concise Extraneous descriptions are minimized in the text and extraneous visual features are minimized in the illustrations Correspondent Corresponding illustrations and text segments are presented near each other on the page Concrete The text and illustrations are presented in ways that allow for easy visualization Coherent The presented material has a clear structure (e.g., a causeand-effect chain) Comprehensible The text and illustrations are presented in ways that are familiar and allow the learner to apply relevant past experience Codable Key terms used in the text and key features of the illustration are used consistently and in ways that make them more memorable

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