9.

AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)

9.1. Introduction
With computers developing at an ever-increasing pace, it was only a matter of time before their capabilities were harnessed to assist the mariner in resolving the continuing problem of tracking targets and analyzing movements when faced with heavy traffic. In the past, many semi-automatic devices were developed to assist in this task. The first device recognized by IMO and other regulatory bodies was called Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA). Performance Standards were provided for the ARPA and it was a requirement for there to be a navigator trained on ARPA on the bridge, if one was fitted. It gradually became a requirement that larger ships were fitted with ARPA, although they were often found on other ships. In the IMO Performance Standards of 1997, a slightly reduced specification was defined for smaller ships or for a second plotting device on larger ships. This was termed an AutoTracking Aid (ATA) which has many (but not quite all) of the features of an ARPA. At the same time the IMO specified the standards for an Electronic Plotting Aid (EPA) that aids manual plotting for installation on very small ships. The latest standards, which will apply to new vessels from 2008, have removed the previous separate terminology of ARPA and ATA and instead refer to both as Automatic Target Tracking (ATT). The EPA device mentioned in the 1997 regulations has also disappeared from the new regulations, as all SOLAS vessels are now required to have an ATT. The main difference is that ATT for larger vessels is required to have a trial maneuver facility and automatic acquisition. One suspect that the industry will continue to refer to the ATT and ATA devices as an ARPA for a significant time period. ATA has not entered into the standard seafarer vocabulary even after many years. It is therefore predicted that ARPA will remain the generic name for all ATT devices even if not strictly correct according to the performance standards. The original IMO Performance Standards for ATA and ARPA both state that they should: reduce the workload of observers by enabling them to automatically obtain information about plotted targets, so that they can perform as well with several separate targets as they can by manually plotting a single target. Although this statement is not in the latest IMO Performance Standards, it still remains a good description of the function of automatic radar plotting aids.

9.2. ARPA Legal Aspect

9.2.1. Plotting Carriage Requirements and Standards (1997 and 2001 standards) IMO Performance Standards define the standards for an ATA. These are almost identical to the IMO Performance Standards for an ARPA. The ATA is intended for smaller ships or as a second plotting device on larger ships. Table (4.1) summarizes the carriage requirements for
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radar and plotting devices on new vessels as stated by the IMO-SOLAS Chapter V as amended 2001. Table (4.1) Minimum IMO radar and plotting provision for new ships Ships size 300 499 grt (and all passenger ships below 300 grt) 500 2999 grt 3000 9999 grt 10 000+ grt Radar 1 X-band radar 1 X-band radar 1 X-band radar 1 S-band (or second X-band) 1 X-band 1 S-band (or second X-band Plotting Aids EPA or equivalent ATA 2 ATA 1 ARPA 1 ATA

The full-blown ARPA is only a requirement for vessels above 10 000 grt and even then the second radar can be fitted with an ATA. Ships between 500 grt and 10 000 grt are not required to carry an ARPA, but only one or two ATAs depending on their size. Vessels under 500 grt are not required to have auto tracking devices of any kind, but are required to have an electronic aid to manual plotting. New ships carrying ARPA and ATA also require an integrated input from a gyro and a water track speed log. The differences between the IMO Performance Standards of an ATA and ARPA are summarized in Table (4.2.) Essentially, the regulations for ATA are identical apart from a few omissions in the case of the ATA standard. Table 4.2 Differences between minimum ARPA and ATA standards for new ships Acquisition Minimum target capacity History dotes Trial maneuver ATA Manual 10 None None ARPA Manual and (optionally) Automatic 20 4 equally spaced past positions over time period suitable for range scale Yes, including with or without a time delay

Automatic acquisition has not been found as useful as first predicted when ARPA standards were first introduced. This omission from ATA standards reflects this low usage and usefulness. The logic for the lower minimum number of tracked targets follows mainly by removing this automatic acquisition option. There is also a school of thought that too many tracked targets simply clutter up the screen. Therefore, it would follow that ten tracked targets are more than adequate, provided the navigator selects the ten targets having the most potential threat. Many ATA models offer more than ten targets anyway. Similarly, the history dot option is one not often used in practice, especially as manufacturers provide a traditional smear snail trail (true or relative track) to show target progress. The biggest loss of function between the ATA and the ARPA is probably the lack of a trial maneuver facility. the differences between ARPA and ATA are actually quite small and one would consider that the difference in costs of production between a minimum specification ARPA and a
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minimum specification ATA is actually quite small (mainly software and computer memory). In practice, many ARPAs have additional facilities and the differences between an ATA model and an ARPA model may be that the ATA has significantly less (or none) of the optional features, in order to make a significant difference in cost between the two sets. Ever since ARPA was introduced, most maritime administrations have insisted that the operator should be specifically trained to use the ARPA and not just in radar observer manual plotting techniques. The ATA has no such provision and would come under the regulation for radar, not ARPA. 9.2.2. New Carriage Requirements and Standards (for vessels built after 1 July 2008) The carriage requirements for the IMO Performance Standards applicable to new installations from 2008 are listed in Table (4.3). Table (4.3) Differences in the performance requirements for various sizes of SOLAS ship Size of ship Auto acquisition Minimum acquired radar target capacity Minimum activated AIS target capacity Minimum sleeping AIS target capacity Trail maneuver < 500 gt None 20 20 100 None 500 to < 10 000 gt 10 000 gt and HSC < 10 000 gt None Yes 30 40 30 40 150 200 None Yes

One difference (already noted) is in the terminology, in that ATA and ARPA have been replaced by automatic target tracking (ATT). However, functionally the differences for small and large ships are very similar to the standards covered in the previous section. The two main functional differences from the previous standards are: The requirement for an automatic target tracker (ATT) on vessels less than 500 grt instead of the EPA device and the specific requirement to include information from AIS targets. The minimum number of radar tracked targets has been increased for all ship sizes and that the standards have split ship sizes into three categories not four. Effectively, the 500 to 3000 grt category has now been merged with the 3000 to 10 000 grt. 9.3. ARPA (ATT) Main Functions according to IMO Performance Standards The acquisition of targets

Acquisition is the term used to describe the process whereby target tracking is initiated. This may be manual, in which case the operator, using the screen marker indicates to the computer which targets are to be tracked, or may be automatic, when the computer is programmed to acquire targets which enter specified boundaries. When a target is acquired, the computer starts collecting data relating to that target. A graphic symbol known as the screen marker, controlled by a joystick or tracker ball, is positioned over the target. When the acquire button is pressed, an area centered on the screen marker is defined within the computer memory. This area is termed the tracking gate
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or tracking window. The gate is made to appear automatically on some ARPA displays; on others, the operator may display it if desired. Within the gate, the computer will expect to find evidence of a target, i.e. a binary 1 in the appropriate memory location Manual acquisition In this case, the operator specifies the target to be acquired and subsequently tracked. To do this, a joystick and screen marker or tracker ball and screen marker are used. The target is entered into (acquired) or removed from (cancelled) the computer memory when the acquire or cancel button is pressed. In some ARPAs, tracking can be initiated by touching the position of the target on a special touch sensitive screen. This is the only acquisition type in an ATA (vessels <10 000 grt). Manual acquisition can be very quick and also selective and hence the perceived need for automatic acquisition has not really materialized.

Figure (9.1) Manual Acquisition Fully automatic acquisition Every echo (up to some 200 maximum) which is detected in the receiver is tested against a set of published criteria. Large (land-sized) targets are rejected and the remainder prioritized according to the set criteria. (Note This may only be on the basis of range, e.g. the nearest 20, or, at the other extreme, it may involve tests of CPA, TCPA, range, bearing and other criteria).

Tracking is then initiated on the first 20 in the priority order. Targets at the bottom of the list are deleted or acquired as their ranking changes, e.g. a target moving away may be dropped when there are 20 nearer than it. Some ARPAs have more complicated priority criteria where parameters can be varied by the operator. Automatic acquisition by area In this type, an area around the ship is specified by the operator and any target that is detected within this area is acquired. Some prioritizing system must operate when the number of targets exceeds the number of tracking channels.

Figure (9.2) Automatic acquisition by area Guard zones In this system, zones (usually up to two) may be specified by arc and depth. Targets entering the zone will be acquired and an alarm activated. A tracks full warning will be given when all tracking channels are in use and it will then be up to the operator to decide which of the acquired targets can be cancelled. Note Target A may only be acquired at a late stage in the encounter and target B, which appears for the first time inside the inner zone, may not be acquired at all. Careful thought must be given when setting up guard zones and the display must be regularly observed. Guard zones/areas should be regarded as an additional, rather than an alternative means of keeping a proper lookout.

Figure (9.3) Guard zone Advantages of automatic acquisition Automatic acquisition will reduce the operators workload, Can be useful on long ocean passages where the number of targets is small and there is the danger of loss of concentration by the officer of the watch due to boredom. When a target is automatically acquired in a guard zone, it is usual for an alarm to be activated to attract the operators attention. The target activating the alarm will be indicated on the screen by, for example, a flashing symbol. Disadvantages of automatic acquisition In practice there is a tendency for it to acquire sea clutter, rain clutter and interference, this spurious target cause over-acquire and so clutter the screen with unnecessary and unwanted vectors. Also, spurious targets (e.g. clutter), after having been acquired, are quickly lost and the lost target alarm can sound continually. Land echoes will very quickly fill up the available tracking channels. But Land echoes can be excluded by careful setting of the guard zone, Enquiries have indicated that it is not recommended in areas of high-density traffic The tracking of targets

Targets which are being tracked should be clearly indicated with the relevant symbol on the display. A target is being tracked by good quality of the fact that its predicted movement will be indicated by a graphic line known as a vector. The line originates on the target and its remote end indicates the predicted position of the target after an elapsed time selected by the observer.
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However, the need for tracked targets to be clearly indicated on the display is important because in the early stages (up to about one minute) of tracking a fresh target, in most systems the vector is suppressed because the available data is unlikely to be sufficiently accurate or stable. Furthermore, in certain cases, even when the vector is present it may have zero length (e.g. the true vector of a stationary target or the relative vector of a target on the same course and speed as the observing vessel). Once tracking is initiated, by whatever method, the tracker will continue to follow the target until tracking is cancelled (manually, or automatically because some other criterion has been met, e.g. more than 16 miles away and range increasing) or the target is lost. When the target is first acquired, a large gate is necessary since there is uncertainty as to the direction in which the target will move. The radius of the gate is really a measure of confidence in the tracking and the smaller this value becomes, the more precise the prediction will be.

Figure (9.4) radius of the tracking gate The advantages of a reduced tracking gate are: (a) A lower probability of target swap (b) An improved ability to track targets through rain and sea clutter. (c) An ability to continue tracking, even when target response is broken. One problem which can arise with reduced gate size is that if a target maneuvers and, as a result, is not found by the computer in the predicted position, the computer may continue to track and look in the predicted direction and end up by losing the target altogether. To avoid this possibility, as soon as the target is missed, i.e. not found in the predicted position, the gate size is increased (and the tracking duration reduced). If the target is still detectable and subsequently found, the tracking will resume and a new track will gradually stabilize. If, after six fruitless scans, the target is still not found then an alarm is activated and a flashing marker is displayed at the targets last observed position

The number of targets to be tracked The ARPA should be able to automatically track, process, simultaneously display and continuously update the information on at least 20 targets, whether manually or automatically acquired. The ATA Performance Standard is the same except 10 tracking channels are required and not 20. However, from 2008, the minimum requirement is 20 to 40 (see Table 4.3). It has been suggested that even 20 tracking channels might be insufficient in heavy traffic but from practical experience it has been found that ships officers can quickly identify the targets which need to be tracked and acquire them. (Although at times there will be some 40 plus targets on the screen, not all of them will need to be tracked.) In fact, it has been found that an excess of vectors can produce ARPA clutter and be counter-productive. Target loss The ARPA (or auto-tracking) should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly distinguishable on the display for 5 out of 10 repeated scans, provided the target is not subject to target swap. It should be noted here that if, for some reason, a response from a tracked target is not received on a particular scan, the ARPA must not immediately declare the target lost. Also it is implied that some form of search for it must take place, e.g. by opening the tracking gate rather than just looking in the limited area in which it was expected but failed to be detected. Target swap Target swap is likely when two targets respond within the tracking gate at the same time. When this happens, the tracker can become confused and the vector(s) may transfer to the wrong target. To minimize this problem, the gate should be made as small as possible, the movement of the target should be predicted and the gate moved on at each scan.

Figure (9.5) Target swap The display of data

The ARPA should present, in a period of not more than 1 minute, an indication of the targets motion trend and display, within 3 minutes, the targets predicted motion in accordance with the Performance Standard, a number of formats such as vector, alphanumeric and graphic areas can be used and moreover the potential accuracy is a function of the geometry of the OAW triangle. In each case two levels of accuracy are specified: A lower level relating to the targets motion trend, which is an early indication of the targets relative motion.

 A higher level relating to the targets predicted motion; this means the best possible estimate of the targets relative and true motion data. Tracking history The ARPA should be able to display on request with relevant symbols at least four equally time spaced past positions of any targets being tracked over a period appropriate to the range scale in use. The time scale of the past position plot should be indicated. This enables an observer to check whether a particular target has maneuvered in the recent past, while the observer was temporarily away from the display on other bridge duties. This is a feature not required by ATA standards. There are two types of tracking history: True history Is without doubt the only meaningful way in which this data can be displayed since the nature of the maneuver is readily apparent. A curve in the trail indicates an alteration of course by the target, whereas a change in the spacing of the dots will indicates a change in speed. Relative history Is not always provided but where it is, it is important to remember that any change in the direction or spacing of the dots can result from a change of course, a change of speed, or a combination of the two. It is therefore essential that the true maneuver is identified. Relative history should be used with great caution. Relative history will not be considered further.

Figure (9.6) Tracking history The new 2008 standards do not necessarily require the history dots as described above. Instead the display is required to show scaled trails of past positions. Such information should be available within the equivalent of two scans after a change of range or picture reset or picture presentation. All trails are artificial and therefore can be displayed on demand.
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Vectors

The course and speed information generated by both ATA and ARPA for acquired targets should be displayed in a vector or graphic form (e.g. predicted areas of danger) which clearly indicates the targets predicted motion. In this regard: ARPA (or auto-tracking) presenting predicted information in vector form and should have the option of true and relative vectors. Vectors displayed should be time adjustable; the displayed vector length is time related and normally can be adjusted by using a vector length control. An alternative approach is to have a fixed physical length which remains the same irrespective of the range scale, e.g. 3 minutes on the 6 n mile range scale, 6 minutes on the 12 n mile range scale, etc. Types of Vectors: There are two types of vectors, the two types can be displayed on a true- or relative-motion radar picture presentation, i.e. true vectors can be selected to appear on a relative-motion presentation and vice versa. It was originally considered in some quarters that this might result in confusion and at least one manufacturer provides a default condition where relative vectors are displayed when relative motion is selected and, likewise, true vectors on the truemotion presentation, with the alternative vector mode being temporarily selectable in each case by the user holding down a spring-loaded control. Relative vectors The ARPA or ATA must track the target(s) for a period of time, after which a vector can be displayed as in Figure 4.7(a). Using the vector length control, the vectors can be extended to determine the CPA by observation against the background of the range rings and the TCPA can be read off from the vector length control. True vectors As an alternative, the observer may request that the true vector(s) be displayed Figure 4.7(b). In this case, own ship will also have a vector which will increase in length as the time control is increased. The possibility of a close-quarters situation developing can be ascertained by running out the true vectors. It must be borne in mind that any evaluation of CPA/TCPA is a matter of trial and error and thus better avoided. It is essential to appreciate that the CPA is not represented by the point at which the targets true vector intersects own ships true vector, except in the case of zero CPA

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Figure (9.7) (a) Relative vector (b) True vector Trial maneuver

The ARPA should be capable of simulating the effect on all tracked targets of an own ship maneuver with or without time delay before maneuver without interrupting the updating of target tracking and display of actual target alphanumeric data. The simulation should be indicated with the relevant symbol on the display. The feature is not included in the standards for an ATA and nor is it a requirement for vessels below 10 000 grt in the new 2008 standards.

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When information relating to the proposed maneuver is fed in, the true or relative vectors which would result from such a maneuver are displayed on request. This, combined with the ability to adjust the vector length, can give a clear presentation of potential close-quarters situations between other vessels as well as with the observers vessel. It is important to select relative vectors when assessing the effect of a maneuver as this will give an indication of how far the target will pass clear (Figure 4.8). It is also possible to change the inputs while observing this display and note the effect on the CPA. There is a range of facilities available, when presenting the trial data. In the simplest form, it is possible to feed in only the intended course, speed and alteration time and observe their effect on the display. In some ARPAs it is possible for the vessels handling characteristics to be included in the evaluation, On some equipment, provision is made for two successive maneuvers to be displayed. This can be extremely helpful when endeavoring to assess the time for which an alteration must be held. In order that there should be no confusion between the trial data and the current situation, when trial is in operation the screen will display some distinctive indication such as the word SIM or TRIAL. The use of a T to indicate trial is frequently mistaken for an indication that true vectors are being displayed. The letter T as it stands is meaningless and has not been particularly helpful. There is the danger that one officer sets up the display and another officer (or the master) observes it without realizing the special nature of the display Some systems require the observer to hold down a button, which means that the observer has to make a positive decision to operate the switch and hold it over while he observes the display.

Figure (9.8) Trial maneuver display in the relative vector mode

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The display of alphanumeric data

At the request of the observer the following information should be immediately available from the ARPA in alphanumeric form in regard to any tracked target. (1) Present range to the target. (2) Present bearing of the target. (3) Predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA). (4) Predicted time to CPA (TCPA). (5) Calculated true course of target. (6) Calculated true speed of target. When trial maneuver is selected, modern systems continue to provide the real alphanumeric data while some older ARPA systems produce the trial values. In the case of any given ARPA, it is essential to establish exactly which data are being made available. Alarms and warnings

The ARPA (and auto-tracking) should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and/or audible signal of the following cases: i. ii. iii. iv. Guard zone violation Lost target Predicted CPA/TCPA Violation Where own ships heading marker intersects a predicted area of danger (PAD), a warning will be activated and will continue until such time as own ships course is altered to clear the PAD. The ARPA (or auto-tracking) should provide suitable warnings of ARPA (or autotracking) malfunction to enable the observer to monitor the proper operation of the system When an input from an external sensor is absent

v.

vi.

9.4. ARPA and ATA additional facilities With increased processing capability, manufacturers have been able to provide facilities additional to those specified in the IMO Performance Standards, some of which, in particular alerts, mariners had indicated would be of value. 9.4.1. Additional alarms and warnings In addition to the alarms and warnings specified, manufacturers have seen fit to provide alarms and warnings which they consider to be of benefit to the mariner. Time to maneuver

Where a delay facility is provided with trial maneuver, an alarm may be provided to warn the officer of the watch that it is, say, one minute until time to maneuver. Depending on the size of ship and its maneuverability, this warning can be used as an indication to apply helm and/or ring the telegraph, in order that a pre-planned maneuver is executed on time.

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Track change

This alarm is associated with an algorithm which quantifies departures from the predicted tracks of targets. The target(s) activating the alarm will be indicated by some graphic symbol. In some systems, the track change alarm will be activated by large or rapid maneuvers performed by the observing vessel. Anchor watch

This facility offer automatic warning of the observing vessel or other vessels dragging in an anchorage. If a known stationary target (for example, a small isolated navigation mark) is acquired and designated as such then an alarm will be activated if the designated target moves more than a preset distance from the marked position. If the stationary target appears to move, then it must be due to the observing vessel dragging her anchor. Alternatively, it will give a warning if another tracked vessel in the anchorage drags her anchor; it will, of course, be activated if such a vessel heaves up her anchor and gets under way. Tracks full

There is a limit to the number of targets which an ARPA is capable of tracking. In areas of high traffic density, there may well come a time when all the tracking channels are in use. This is particularly likely when automatic acquisition is in operation. An alarm will warn the operator to inspect the untracked targets for potential dangers and to transfer tracking from less important targets which are being tracked. This is a compulsory alarm in the future IMO Performance Standards. Wrong or invalid request

Where an operator feeds in incorrect data or data in an unacceptable form, e.g. course 370, an alarm and indicator will be activated and will continue until the invalid data is deleted or overwritten. Safe limit vector control

This facility, if selected, suppresses the vectors of targets whose predicted motion does not go against the safe limits and is an attempt to reduce ARPA clutter. The computer continues to track the targets whose vectors are suppressed. If any of them should maneuver in such a way as to violate the set safe limits, the vector of that target will reappear and the safe limit alarm will be activated. If a decision is taken to use this facility, considerable thought must be given to the implications of the selected values of safe limits. In general, it is advisable to switch the facility off before contemplating a maneuver. 9.4.2. Navigational lines and maps Most radar sets (even without ARPA or ATA) offer a graphics facility whereby electronic lines can be drawn on the screen. The position, length and orientation of the lines can be adjusted, thus making it possible to produce parallel indexing lines and to define navigational limits in channels, traffic separation schemes, poor-response coastlines etc. It may also be possible to indicate points of interest such as isolated rocks and floating marks with a specific symbol. The range of facilities available under the general heading of a navigation lines package, in simple facilities only some ten to fifteen lines may be available, thus simply allowing the construction of fairly simple patterns or maps. More advanced packages will
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allow the observer to prepare and store the pattern at a convenient time when planning the passage and subsequently to recall it when required. It will then be possible to move the pattern around the screen in order to align or realign it with displayed radar echoes and there will be provision for easy editing. A non-volatile memory allows the storage of several maps even when the equipment is switched off. The simpler packages tend to be referred to as navigation lines while the more comprehensive are usually described as mapping facilities. The facility will frequently be used in association with automatic ground-stabilization.

Figure (9.9) Navigational Lines and Maps

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