Uncertainty Reduction

Communication Theory/Uncertainty Reduction
Introduction Propaganda and the Public

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Contents
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1 Advances in Interpersonal Communication: Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese and Key Uncertainty Theorists 2 The History of Interpersonal Communication Research: A Brief Overview 3 Defining Uncertainty 4 Early Influences
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4.1 Leon Festinger (1919-1989) 4.2 Fritz Heider (1896-1988) 4.3 Claude E. Shannon (1916-2001) and Warren Weaver (1894-1978)
5 Uncertainty in the Modern Era
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5.1 Charles R. Berger: Biography 5.2 Richard J. Calabrese: Biography 5.3 A Theory of Uncertainty Reduction: Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication (1975).
5.4 Expansions on Uncertainty Reduction
5.4.1 A. Charles Berger 5.4.2 B. Developments from Other Researchers 5.4.3 C. Criticisms of URT
6 Legacy and Influence 7 Appendix A: Axioms and Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
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7.1 Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 7.2 Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
8 References
[edit]Advances
in Interpersonal Communication: Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese and Key Uncertainty Theorists
Since the mid-twentieth century, the concept of information has been a strong foundation for communication research and the development of communication theory. Information exchange is a basic human function in
which individuals request, provide, and exchange information with the goal of reducing uncertainty. Uncertainty Reduction theory (URT), accredited to Charles R. Berger and Richard J. Calabrese (1975), recognized that reducing uncertainty was a central motive of communication. Through the development of URT, these scholars pioneered the field of interpersonal communication by examining this significant relationship in uncertainty research. Health and Bryant (2000) state: One of the motivations underpinning interpersonal communication is the acquisition of information with which to reduce uncertainty (p. 153). The study of information is basic to all fields of communication, but its relation to the study of uncertainty in particular advanced theoretical research in the field of interpersonal communication. URT places the role of communication into the central focus which was a key step in the development of the field of interpersonal communication. Berger and Calabrese (1975) note: When communication researchers have conducted empirical research on the interpersonal communication process, they have tended to employ social psychological theories as starting points (p. 99). The research underlying the theory and efforts made by other contemporaries marked the emergence of interpersonal communication research; with the development of URT, communication researchers began to look to communication for theories of greater understanding rather than theoretical approaches founded in other social sciences.
[edit]The
History of Interpersonal Communication Research: A Brief Overview

Traditionally, communication has been viewed as an interdisciplinary field. Interpersonal communication is most often linked to studies into language, social cognition, and social psychology. Prior to the 1960s, only a modest amount of research was completed under the label of interpersonal communication. Heath and Bryant (2000) marked this time as the origin of the field of interpersonal communication: Particularly since 1960, scholars adopted communication as the central term because they wanted to study it as a significant and unique aspect of human behavior (p. 59). The 1960s produced research that impacted the development of an interpersonal field. Research in psychiatry examined personality and the influence of relationships, finding that psychiatric problems were not only a result of self problems, but a result of relational problems as well. Research trends in humanistic psychology and existentialism inspired the idea that relationships could be improved through effective communication (Heath & Bryant, 2000). Research conducted under the title of interpersonal communication initially focused on persuasion, social influence, and small group processes. Theories explored the role of learning, dissonance, balance, social judgment, and reactance (Berger, 2005). Kurt Lewin, a forefather of social psychology, played a considerable role in influencing interpersonal research pioneers such as Festinger, Heider, Kelley, and Hovland.
By the 1970s, research interests began to shift into the realm of social interaction, relational development, and relational control. This was influenced by the research of such scholars as Knapp, Mehrabian, Altman, Taylor, Duck, Kelley, and Thibaut. During the later part of the decade and into the 1980s, the cognitive approaches of Hewes, Planalp, Roloff, and Berger became popular along with research into behavioral and communicative adaptation by Giles, Burgoon, and Patterson. Berger (2005) states: these early theoretical forays helped shape the interpersonal comm research agenda during the past two decades (p. 416). Today, interpersonal communication tends to focus on dyadic communication, communication involving faceto-face interaction, or communication as a function of developing relationships. Research into interpersonal communication theory typically focuses on the development, maintenance, and dissolution of relationships. It has been recognized that interpersonal communication is motivated by uncertainty reduction (Berger & Calabrese, 1975). Since its introduction in the 1970s, uncertainty has been recognized as a major field of study that has contributed to the development of the field of communication as a whole. This chapter strives to focus on those theorists who pioneered the research of uncertainty reduction in communication. Their work is crucial to the development of the field of interpersonal communication, and is central in our understanding of interpersonal processes.
[edit]Defining
Uncertainty
Since uncertainty has been identified as an important construct, necessary to the study of communication, it would be beneficial to know when the concept originated, and how it has been defined and studied. One way to consider uncertainty is through the theoretical framework of information theory. Shannon and Weaver (1949) proposed that uncertainty existed in a given situation when there was a high amount of possible alternatives and the probability of their event was relatively equal. Shannon and Weaver related this view of uncertainty to the transmission of messages, but their work also contributed to the development of URT. Berger and Calabrese (1975) adopted concepts from the information theorists as well as Heider's (1958) research in attribution. Berger and Calabrese (1975) expanded the concept of uncertainty to fit interpersonal communication by defining uncertainty as the number of alternative ways in which each interactant might behave (p. 100). The greater the level of uncertainty that exists in a situation, the smaller the chance individuals will be able to predict behaviors and occurrences. During interactions individuals are not only faced with problems of predicting present and past behaviors, but also explaining why partners behave or believe in the way that they do. Berger and Bradacs (1982) definition of uncertainty highlighted the complexity of this process when they stated: Uncertainty, then, can stem from the large number of alternative things that a stranger can believe or potentially say (p. 7). Uncertainty plays a significant role when examining relationships. High levels of uncertainty can severely inhibit relational development. Uncertainty can cause stress and anxiety which can lead to low levels of communicator
competence (West & Turner, 2000). Incompetent communicators may not be able to develop relationships or may be too anxious to engage in initial interactions. West and Turner (2000) note that lower levels of uncertainty caused increased verbal and nonverbal behavior, increased levels of intimacy, and increased liking. In interactions individuals are expected to increase predictability with the goal that this will lead to the ability to predict and explain what will occur in future interactions. When high uncertainty exists it is often difficult to reach this goal. Although individuals seek to reduce uncertainty, high levels of certainty and predictability can also inhibit a relationship. Heath and Bryant (2000) state: Too much certainty and predictability can deaden a relationship; too much uncertainty raises its costs to an unacceptable level. Relationship building is a dialectic of stability and change, certainty and uncertainty (p. 271). Therefore uncertainty is a concept that plays a significant role in interpersonal communication. The following theorists explore how communication can be a vehicle individuals utilize to reduce uncertainty.
[edit]Early
Influences
The following theorists significantly contributed to the examination of uncertainty in communication. The influence of their work can be seen reflected in the assumptions of Berger and Calabrese (1975).
[edit]Leon
Festinger (1919-1989)
Leon Festinger studied psychology at the University of Iowa under the direction of Kurt Lewin. Lewin, one of the founders of social psychology and a pioneer in the research of group dynamics, had a substantial influence on the development of interpersonal communication. After graduation, Festinger initially worked at the University of Rochester, but in 1945 he followed Lewin to Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Research Center for Group Dynamics. After Lewin's death, Festinger worked at the University of Michigan, Stanford University, and the New School for Social Research (Samelson, 2000). Much of Festingers research followed his mentor Lewin and further developed Lewins theories. Several of Festinger's theories were highly influential on the emerging field of interpersonal communication and on the development of URT. Festinger is best known for the theories of Cognitive Dissonance and Social Comparison. Cognitive Dissonance theory (CDT) attempted to explain how an imbalance among cognitions might affect an individual. Lewin foreshadowed CDT in his observations regarding attitude change in small groups (Festinger, 1982). CDT allows for three relationships to occur among cognitions: a consonant relationship, in which cognitions are in equilibrium with each other; a dissonant relationship, in which cognitions are in competition with each other; and an irrelevant relationship, in which the cognitions in question have no effect on one another (West & Turner, 2000). Cognitive Dissonance, like uncertainty, has an element of arousal and discomfort that individuals seek to reduce.
Social Comparison theory postulates that individuals look to feedback from others to evaluate their performance and abilities. To evaluate the self, the individual usually seeks the opinions of others who are similar to the self. This need for social comparison can result in conformity pressures (Trenholm & Jensen, 2004). Berger and Calabrese (1975) related social comparison to URT by stating that Festinger has suggested that persons seek out similar others who are proximate when they experience a high level of uncertainty regarding the appropriateness of their behavior and/or opinions in a particular situation (p. 107). Festinger received the Distinguished Scientist award of the American Psychological Association and the Distinguished Senior Scientist Award from the Society of Experimental Social Psychology. Festingers legacy is significant, and his theoretical influence can still be recognized in contemporary social science research. Aronson (in Festinger, 1980) stated, It was in this era that Leon Festinger invented and developed his theory of cognitive dissonance, and in my opinion, social psychology has not been the same since (p. 3).
[edit]Fritz
Heider (1896-1988)
Fritz Heider earned his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Graz. During his time in Europe, Heider worked with many renowned psychologists such as Wolfgang Khler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Lewin. Heider, like Festinger, recognized Lewin as a substantial impact on his life: I want to pay tribute to [Lewin's] stimulating influence, which has affected much of my thinking and which is still strong even in this book, although it does not derive directly from his work (Heider, 1958, p. vii). In 1929, Heider moved to the United States to work at Smith College and later the University of Kansas where he worked for the remainder of his life (Ash, 2000). Heiders 1958 publication, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, signified a major breakthrough in the study of interpersonal communication (Heath & Bryant, 2000). At this point, social psychologists like Heider expanded their research to focus on interpersonal relations as an important field of study. Though many social psychologists focused on behavior in interpersonal relations, their research served as a gateway for research examining communication in interpersonal relationships. Heiders text provided one of the first forums for discussing relational phenomena. Heiders work reflected Lewins cognitive approach to behavior. Heider (1958) focused on theories in cognitive consistency, emphasizing that individuals prefer when their cognitions are in agreement with each other. Heider examined how individuals perceive and evaluate the actions and behaviors of others, a focus reexamined in Berger and Calabreses development of URT. Heider stated: persons actively seek to predict and explain the actions of others (Berger & Bradac, 1982, p. 29). Heiders theory of nave psychology suggested that individuals act as observers and analyzers of human behavior in everyday life. Individuals gather information that helps them to predict and explain human behavior. The nave factor analysis of action permits man to give meaning to action, to influence the actions of others as well as of himself, and to predict future actions (Heider, 1958, p. 123).
When examining motivations in interpersonal relations, Heider (1958) found that affective significance is greatly determined by causal attribution. Heider states: Thus, our reactions will be different according to whether we think a person failed primarily because he lacked adequate ability or primarily because he did not want to carry out the actions (1958, p. 123). The condition of motivation becomes the focus and is relied on for making judgments and also interpreting the action. Heider was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, a Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association, and was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His influence continues to grow after his death in 1988.
[edit]Claude
E. Shannon (1916-2001) and Warren Weaver (1894-1978)
Claude E. Shannon received his B.S. from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor and his Ph.D. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Shannon worked for the National Research Council, the National Defense Research Committee, and Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he developed the mathematical theory of communication, now known as information theory, with Warren Weaver. Shannon went on to teach at MIT until his death in 2001. During his lifetime Shannon was awarded the Nobel Prize, Leibmann Prize, Ballantine Medal, Who's Who Life Achievement Prize, and the Kyoto Prize (Claude Elwood Shannon, 2002). Warren Weaver received his B.S. and Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. Weaver worked as faculty at Throop College, California Institute of Technology, University of Wisconsin, and served in World War One. Weaver was also an active member of the Rockefeller Foundation, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and Salk Institute for Biological Studies, serving in many leadership roles. He was awarded UNESCO's Kalinga Prize before his death in 1978 (Reingold, 2000). Shannon and Weaver significantly contributed to the systematic approach to the study of communication. Both theorists were engineers who sought to explain information exchange through cybernetic processes. They were the first to effectively model information, as they sought to explain how to attain precise and efficient signal transmissions in the realm of telecommunications. In their theory of information, Shannon and Weaver (1949) showed that the need to reduce uncertainty motivates individuals communication behavior. This concept was later extended by Berger and Calabrese (1975) in the development of URT. Information theory provided the connections from information to uncertainty and uncertainty to communication that facilitated the development of URT. Shannon & Weavers (1949) approach stressed the conclusion that information is the number of messages needed to totally reduce uncertainty (Heath & Bryant, 2000, p. 145). Individuals have a desire to reduce uncertainty and they are able to fulfill this need by increasing information. Individuals increase information through communication (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). These concepts are further explored in the examination of information-seeking strategies in URT.
[edit]Uncertainty
in the Modern Era
[edit]Charles
R. Berger: Biography
Charles R. Berger received his B.S. from Pennsylvania State University and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Michigan State University. After graduation, Berger worked at Illinois State University at Normal, Northwestern University, and the University of California at Davis, where he continues to work today as the chair of the Department of Communication. Berger has been involved with the International Communication Association since the 1970s, is an active member of the National Communication Association, and belongs to such professional groups as the American Psychological Society, the Society for Experimental Social Psychology, the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, and the Iowa Network for Personal Relationships (Charles R. Berger, 2001). Berger has published on a variety of topics in interpersonal communication including: uncertainty reduction, strategic interaction, information-seeking, attribution, interpersonal attraction, social cognition, and apprehension. In the past thirty-five years, Berger has published approximately forty articles appearing in the Communication Education, Communication Monographs, Communication Research, Communication Theory, Communication Quarterly, Communication Yearbook, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Human Communication Research, Journal of Communication, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Journal of Social Issues, Journal of Personality, Personal Relationship Issues, Speech Monographs, Western Journal of Communication, and the Western Journal of Speech Communication. Berger has coauthored five books and contributed to over thirty other texts. In 1982, Berger received the Golden Anniversary Book Award, presented by the Speech Communication Association, for his text: Language and Social Knowledge.
[edit]Richard
J. Calabrese: Biography
Richard J. Calabrese received his B.A. from Loyola University, two M.A. degrees from Bradley University, and his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. Calabrese has taught at Bradley University, the University of Illinois at Urban, and Bowling Green University. Calabrese became a professor in communication at Dominican University in River Forest, Illinois, in 1967, where he continues to work today. Currently, Calabrese is the director of the Master of Science in Organization Management Program at Dominican University and also a consultant for organizational communication (Richard Joseph Calabrese, 2001). Calabrese is a member of the International Association of Business Communicators, the Speech Communication Association, and is involved with the National Communication Association. Calabrese is the coauthor of Communication and Education Skills for Dietetics Professionals.
[edit]A
Theory of Uncertainty Reduction: Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication (1975).
In 1971, Berger became an assistant professor of communication at Northwestern University. During this time, Calabrese studied under Berger, receiving his Ph.D. in 1973. In 1975, Berger and Calabrese published Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication, which serves as the foundation of URT. This article inspired a wave of new research examining the role of uncertainty in communication. Berger and Calabrese (1975) formed URT, also known as initial interaction theory, to explain the role of communication in reducing uncertainty in initial interactions and the development of interpersonal relationships. The theory was developed, like other interpersonal theories before it (Heider, 1958), with the goal of allowing the communicator the ability to predict and explain initial interactions. Though Berger and Calabrese did not explore the realm of subsequent interaction, they did strongly recommend that future research should investigate the application of the framework of URT to developed relationships. Especially in initial encounters, there exists a high degree of uncertainty given that a number of possible alternatives exist in the situation (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). But individuals can use communication to reduce this uncertainty. Berger and Calabrese (1975) maintained that communication behavior is one vehicle through which such predictions and explanations are themselves formulated (p.101). Individuals have the ability to decrease uncertainty by establishing predictable patterns of interaction. Because of this, reducing uncertainty can help foster the development of relationships. Berger and Calabrese (1975) found that uncertainty was related to seven other communication and relationalfocused concepts: verbal output, nonverbal warmth, information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, and liking. From those concepts, the researchers introduced a collection of axioms, or propositions, supported by past uncertainty research. Each axiom states a relationship between a communication concept and uncertainty. From this basis of axioms, the theorists were able to use deductive logic to infer twenty-one theorems that comprise the theory of uncertainty reduction (West & Turner, 2000). The procedure used to develop the axioms and theorems was adopted from Blalock (1969). A complete list of the axioms and theorems of URT is available in Appendix A. Central to URT is the supposition that in initial interactions, an individuals primary concern is to decrease uncertainty and increase predictability regarding the behaviors of the self and the communicative partner. This idea is based on Heider's (1958) notion that individuals seek to make sense out of the events he perceives (Berger & Calabrese, 1975). Individuals must be able to engage in proactive and retroactive strategies to learn how to predict what will happen and also explain what has already happened. Heath and Bryant (2000) stated: Uncertainty-reduction theory is a powerful explanation for communication because it operates in all contexts to help explain why people communicate as they do (p. 271). The impact of Berger and Calabrese (1975) on the field of interpersonal communication was and continues to be prolific. In
the past thirty years, this article has generated a plethora of research, changing the way that relationships are explored and analyzed.
[edit]Expansions
on Uncertainty Reduction
Although URT was primarily formed to explain behavior in initial interactions, its application has since been expanded to incorporate all levels of interpersonal relationships. Uncertainties are ongoing in relationships, and thus the process of uncertainty reduction is relevant in developed relationships as well as in initial interactions (West & Turner, 2000, p. 141). The following section will examine uncertainty reduction research since its introduction in 1975.
[edit]A. Charles Berger

Since its conception, Berger has produced a plethora of research expanding URT to better fit the dynamic nature of interpersonal relations. Berger (1979) established that three predeceasing conditions must exist for an individual to reduce uncertainty. These motivations to reduce uncertainty include: a potential for costs or rewards, deviations from expected behavior, and the possibility of future interaction. In 1982, Berger teamed up with James J. Bradac, formerly of University of California at Santa Barbara (19802004), to publish a book devoted to uncertainty reduction research. Their text, titled Language and Social Knowledge: Uncertainty in Interpersonal Relations, was also edited by Howard Giles, originator of Communication Accommodation Theory and also faculty of UCSB. In this text, the authors focused on the function of communication, and specifically language, as a proponent for reducing uncertainty. Berger and Bradac (1982) proposed six axioms that built on URTs original seven axioms to extend the relationship between uncertainty reduction and language. Through the use of these axioms the authors specifically examined the role of language as an uncertainty reducing agent. The authors further arranged uncertainty into two categories: cognitive uncertainty and behavioural uncertainty (Berger & Bradac, 1982). Cognitive uncertainty refers to uncertainty associated with beliefs and attitudes. Behavioural uncertainty refers to uncertainty regarding the possible behaviors in a situation. This categorization helped researchers identify the origins of uncertainty, which resulted in an increased ability to address the discomfort produced by uncertainty. Berger and Bradac were cognitive that URT would be more useful if its influence was extended to include developed relationships as well as initial interaction. Berger and Bradac (1982) alleviated this by stating that uncertainty reduction was critical to relational development, maintenance, and dissolution as well. Berger again related his research to Heider (1958) by stating that individuals make casual attributions regarding communicative behavior. As relationships further develop, individuals make retroactive and proactive attributions regarding a partners communication and behavior (Berger & Bradac, 1982).
Berger (1987) highlighted the role of costs and rewards in relationships by stating that uncertainty reduction is a necessary condition for the definition of the currency of social exchange, and it is through communicative activity that uncertainty is reduced (Berger, 1987, p. 57). Berger (1987) also expanded URT by claiming that three types of information-seeking strategies are used to reduce uncertainty: passive, active, or interactive strategies. This is related to the concepts of information theory (Shannon & Weaver, 1949), emphasizing that increased information results in decreased uncertainty.
[edit]B. Developments from Other Researchers

The latter improvements made by Berger expanded the scope and value of URT. Other researchers also made contributions to further developments of URT. Since its introduction in 1975, URT has been expanded from a theory of relational development to one also important in established relationships. The following sections examine the contributions made by current interpersonal researchers to URT. William Douglas William Douglas was a student at Northwestern University while Berger was on faculty. The two scholars collaborated in their study of uncertainty in 1982, and Douglas continued in the same vein of research after graduation. Douglas research has appeared in major communication journals including: Communication Monographs, Communication Research, Human Communication Research, Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, and the Journal of Personal and Social Relationships. Douglas research in uncertainty accounts for individual differences when examining initial interactions. Much of his research expanded previous work in initial interaction, examined global uncertainty, self-monitoring, and the relationship of verbal communication to uncertainty reduction. Douglas (1987) examined one of the motivations to reduce uncertainty originally posited in Berger (1979): the anticipation of future interaction. In this study, question-asking in situations of varying levels of anticipated future interaction was analyzed. Douglas found that high levels of mutual question-asking occurred when the level of anticipated future interaction was moderate. This finding suggested that individuals seem to avoid negative consequences (Douglas, 1987). Douglas (1990) expanded this verbal communication to uncertainty relationship by discovering that question-asking resulted in uncertainty reduction which in turn resulted in increased levels of disclosure.
Douglas (1991) defines global uncertainty as uncertainty about acquaintanceship in general (p. 356). In this article, Douglas found that individuals with high global uncertainty are less likely to engage in question-asking, self-disclosure, and are evaluated as less competent communicators than individuals with low global uncertainty. Findings also suggested that high global uncertainty positively correlates to communication apprehension. This has a negative effect on relational development and can result in low levels of relational satisfaction. Uncertainty-Increasing Events Sally Planalp and James Honeycutt (1985) also made substantial contributions to uncertainty reduction research. Planalp and Honeycutt recognized that communication does not always function as an uncertainty reducing agent, but can also serve to increase uncertainty when information conflicts with past knowledge. The authors researched what specific events lead to increased uncertainty in interpersonal relationships and their effects on both the individual and the relationship. The results found that uncertainty-increasing events were very likely to result in relational dissolution or decreased closeness of the relational partners. This research was very beneficial because it led to better explanations regarding the role of communication in uncertainty reduction. Romantic Relationships Malcolm Parks and Mara Adelman (1983) sought to expand the breadth of URT to apply to romantic relationships. Data was collected from individuals in premarital romantic relationships through questionnaires and telephone interviews. Individuals who communicated more often with their romantic partner and their partners network (family and friends) perceived greater similarity to their partner. They also received greater support from their own network (family and friends), and experienced a lower degree of uncertainty (Parks & Adelman, 1983). These findings support URTs axioms that greater verbal communication and similarity serve to decrease uncertainty (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), and also extends the scope of URT to romantic relationships. Relational Maintenance In recent years, studies have begun to link uncertainty reduction to relational maintenance processes. Dainton and Aylor (2001) connected
relational uncertainty positively to jealousy and negatively to relational maintenance behaviors. These results suggested that individuals are less likely to engage in relational maintenance when high uncertainty exists in the relationship. Cultural Studies Research conducted by William Gudykunst and Tsukasa Nishida (1984) expanded URTs scope to intercultural contexts. Specifically the researchers examined the effects of attitude similarity, cultural similarity, culture, and self-monitoring on attraction, intent to interrogate, intent to self-disclose, attributional confidence, and intent to display nonverbal affiliative behaviors (Gudykunst & Nishida, 1984). Research conducted on individuals of the Japanese and American cultures found a positive correlation between each of the variables indicating that uncertainty varies across cultures.
[edit]C. Criticisms of URT

Berger (1987) recognized that URT contains some propositions of dubious validity (p. 40). Like many other successful theoretical approaches, Berger and Calabreses (1975) theory of uncertainty reduction has inspired subsequent research that served both as supporting evidence and in an oppositional role to the theory. These criticisms help to clarify the underlying principles of the theory and suggest ways for improvement for future research. Michael Sunnafrank (1986) argued that a motivation to reduce uncertainty is not a primary concern in initial interactions. His belief was that a maximization of relational outcomes (p. 9) was of more significant concern in initial encounters. Sunnafrank argued that the predicted outcome value (POV) of the interaction
had a greater effect on uncertainty. Berger (1986) combated Sunnafranks arguments by acknowledging that outcomes cannot be predicted if there is no previous history of interaction regarding the behavior of the individuals. Berger claims that Sunnafranks arguments simply expanded URT: that by predicting outcomes (using POV) individuals are actually reducing their uncertainty (Berger, 1986). Kathy Kellermann and Rodney Reynolds (1990) also tested the validity of URT. Their primary concern was axiom three, which related high uncertainty to high information seeking (see appendix A). Their study of over a thousand students found that a want for knowledge was a greater indicator than a lack of knowledge for promotion of information-seeking (Kellermann & Reynolds, 1990). These researchers emphasized that high uncertainty does not create enough motivation to result in information-seeking; rather a want for information must also exist. Canary and Dainton (2003) explored uncertainty reduction in terms of relational maintenance across cultural contexts and found that the applicability of URT may not hold to multiple cultures. Canary and Dainton (2003) focused on the concept of uncertainty avoidance in cultures stating: individuals from cultures with a high tolerance for uncertainty are unlikely to find the experience of uncertainty as a
primary motivator for performing relational maintenance (p. 314). This leads to a general questioning of validity of URT other cultures.
[edit]Legacy
and Influence
Research has found that communication plays a critical role in initial interactions and relational development. Berger and Calabrese (1975) were the first to investigate the role of communication in initial interactions with the development of a theory of uncertainty reduction. Its widespread influence led to its adoption in other relational and communicative contexts such as small group, mass communication, and computer-mediated communication. The influence of URT is well noted by others in the field: Postulates by Berger and Calabrese prompted more than two decades of research to prove, clarify, and critique uncertainty reductions explanation of how people communicate interpersonally (Heath & Bryant, 2000, p. 275). Berger and Calabrese (1975) generated additional studies on uncertainty reduction accomplished by such scholars as Hewes, Planalp, Parks, Adelman, Gudykunst, Yang, Nishida, Douglas, Kellerman, Hammer, Rutherford, Honeycutt, Sunnafrank, Capella, Werner, and Baxter. URT has withstood the test of time, proving itself as a heuristic theory
with utility that increases with subsequent research.
[edit]Appendix
A: Axioms and Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

[edit]Axioms
of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

1. Given the high level of uncertainty present at the onset of the entry phase, as the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication will increase. 2. As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease in an initial interaction situation. In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressiveness. 3. High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information seeking behavior. As uncertainty levels decline, information seeking behavior decreases. 4. High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the intimacy level of communication content. Low
levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy. 5. High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity. Low levels of uncertainty produce low reciprocity rates. 6. Similarities between persons reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities produce increases in uncertainty. 7. Increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking; decreases in uncertainty level produce increases in liking.
[edit]Theorems
of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

1. Amount of verbal communication and nonverbal affiliative expressiveness are positively related. 2. Amount of communication and intimacy level of communication are positively related. 3. Amount of communication and information seeking behavior are inversely related. 4. Amount of communication and reciprocity rate are inversely related. 5. Amount of communication and liking are positively related. 6. Amount of communication and similarity are positively related.
7.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and intimacy level of communication content are positively related.
8.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and information seeking are inversely related.
9.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and reciprocity rate are inversely related.
10. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and liking are positively related. 11. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and similarity are positively related. 12. Intimacy level of communication content and information seeking are inversely related. 13. Intimacy level of communication content and reciprocity rate are inversely related. 14. Intimacy level of communication content and liking are positively related. 15. Intimacy level of communication content and similarity are positively related. 16. Information seeking and reciprocity rate are positively related. 17. Information seeking and liking are negatively related. 18. Information seeking and similarity are negatively related.
19. Reciprocity rate and liking are negatively related. 20. Reciprocity rate and similarity are negatively related. 21. Similarity and liking are positively related.
[edit]References
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future prospects. Journal of Communication, 55, 415-447. Berger, C.R., & Bradac, J.J. (1982). Language and social knowledge. London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. Berger, C.R., & Calabrese, R.J. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112. Blalock, H.M. (1969). Theory construction: From verbal to mathematical formulations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Canary, D., & Dainton, M. (Eds.). (2003). Maintaining relationships through communication. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Charles R. Berger. Contemporary Authors Online. The Gale Group, 2001. Retrieved October 5, 2005 Claude Elwood Shannon. Contemporary Authors Online. The Gale Group, 2002. Retrieved October 15, 2005 Dainton, M. & Aylor, B. (2001). A relational uncertainty analysis of jealousy, trust, and maintenance in long-distance versus geographically close relationships. Communication Quarterly, 49, 172-189. Douglas, William. (1987). Question-asking in same- and opposite-sex initial interactions: The effects of anticipated
future interaction. Human Communication Research, 14, 230-245. Douglas, W. (1990). Uncertainty, information-seeking, and liking during initial interaction. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 54, 66-81. Douglas, W. (1991). Expectations about initial interaction: An examination of the effects of global uncertainty. Human Communication Research, 17, 355-384. Festinger, L. (Ed.). (1980). Retrospections on Social Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Gudykunst, William B., and Nishida, Tsukasa. (1984). Individual and cultural influences on uncertainty reduction. Communication Monographs, 51 23-36. Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Heath, R.L., & Bryant, J. (2000). Human communication theory and research. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kellerman, K., & Reynolds, R. (1990). When ignorance is bliss: The role of motivation to reduce uncertainty in uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 17, 5-35. Parks, Malcolm R., and Adelman, Mara B. (1983). Communication networks and the development of romantic
relationships. Human Communication Research, 10, 55-79. Planalp, Sally, and Honeycutt, James M. (1985). Events that increase uncertainty in personal relationships. Human Communication Research, 11, 593-604. Reingold, N. (2000). Weaver, Warren. American National Biography Online. Retrieved October 10, 2005 from http://www.anb.org/articles/14/1401999.html Richard Joseph Calabrese. Contemporary Authors Online. The Gale Group, 2001. Retrieved October 5, 2005 Samelson, F. (2000). Festinger, Leon. American National Biography Online. Retrieved October 10, 2005 from http://www.anb.org/articles/14/1400887.html Shannon, C.E. & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, I.L.: University of Illinois press. Sunnafrank, M. (1986). Predicted outcome value during initial interactions: A reformation of uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 13, 191-210. Trenholm, S., & Jensen, A. (2004). Interpersonal communication. New York: Oxford University Press. West, R., & Turner, L. (2000). Introducing communication theory. Mountain View, C.A.: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Whos Who in the Midwest 1992-1993. (1993). Wilmette, I.L.: Marquis Whos Who.
Introduction Communication Theory Propaganda and the Public

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Collaborative Networked Learning: A Guide/Communication Models

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Contents
[hide]
1 Communication Models
o o
1.1 Value-added learning involves purposeful intra-personal comunication. 1.2 Value-added learning involves purposeful interpersonal communication.
2 Support for intra-personal and interpersonal communication involves new models of electronic group communication.
o o o
2.1 New model involves symbolic communication rather than accuracy of signal. 2.2 Social dynamics are a critical factor in the new networked group model. 2.3 Facilitation in collaborative learning
[edit]Communication
Models
Collaborative Networked, therefore, would occurs in the context of a group with a mission or agree-uponpurpose. The work involves the structuring and restructuring of conceptual knowledge. The final product is a message, an external artifact of the group knowledge at a particular point in time,which communicates the knowledge of the group. The message might take the form of a program, a report, a strategy document, a diagram, a drawing etc. Learning-work involves the cognitive processes of assimilation--intake of information from the environment, accommodation--restructuring to fit new into the old, present structure, and integration-directly fitting information into existing structure. And most importantly it involves the resolution of conflict between old and new structures,which can lead to innovation. Two communication processes or type of dialogs are involved in learning-work: (1) Intra-personal communication--integration, and accommodation--involves processing within the individual. (2) Interpersonal communication involves assimilation-- the intake of information from the environment--and representation of one's knowledge structure in a form and medium that can be shared with another person. As one person,shares ideas with another person, the process becomes an on-going loop from assimilation through representation of knowledge structures. At any point the learner may represent his/her ideas in order to test out hypotheses to gain agreement or validation. When members of a mission oriented group create shared knowledge structure and produce an artifact such as a written report or a software program, for example, they engage in learning to created a product which is their collective knowledge. In this chapter, using this model of communication as a guide, I will focus on how to facilitate the communication processes necessary for value-added learning to occur in a collaborative networked setting. I focus attention on the interpersonal communication processes which relate to the creation and sharing of meaning and strategies to support the intra-personal processes.
[edit]Value-added
learning involves purposeful intra-personal comunication.
A guiding objective is to promote learning through purposeful communication. For instance, the learning that our hypothetical salesperson experienced, involved the intra-personal communication processes going on within the mind of the person and the interpersonal communication occurring among the group of salespersons. I use the term intra-personal communication to talk about the active internal involvement of the individual in
symbolic processing of messages. In intra-personal communication, each learner becomes his/her own sender and receiver, providing feedback to him/herself in an on-going internal process. It might be useful to envision intra-personal communication occurring in the mind of the learner in a model which contains a sender, receiver, and feedback loop.
[edit]Value-added
learning involves purposeful interpersonal
communication.
I distinguish intra-personal from the social aspect of learning between people and among groups, which I refer to as interpersonal communication. Both processes are intricately linked to each other in on-going learning.
[edit]Support
for intra-personal and interpersonal communication involves new models of electronic group communication.
[edit]New
model involves symbolic communication rather than accuracy of
signal.
In order to discuss support strategies for learning, I propose a model of intra-personal and interpersonal communication which is different from the engineering model of electronic communication. In this model, I assume that the signal has been transmitted accurately. The focus is on what learners do with the words and pictures that form the basis of their communication. Unlike the engineer's electronic signal, the words and pictures of the learning theorists are not the real thing, they are symbols. Humans use their symbols to create, re-create, and share meaning and understanding,i.e. to develop new concepts. (Intra-personal and Interpersonal Model of Networked Communication) We might imagine a two-personal interpersonal model with messages passing between two humans while the circular intra-personal processes occur within and back to the person.
[edit]Social
dynamics are a critical factor in the new networked group model.
In the networked group model, I call attention to the social dynamics of knowledge creation and learning. The group model includes the dimension of (context) or environment shared by the members of the group. In the framework of this discussion, I use (context) to talk about the shared psychological climate of the group, e.g. the electronic space and the degree of community or trust that the participants feel, not the physical connection. Learning in the social context of electronic networks involves, not only the communication of messages within and among members of the group, but it also involves (feedback). Feedback is the reactions, confirmations, or acknowledgments which one member shares with another in the networked group. The model also focuses attention on a shared group memory--a (database) of all the group's messages as well as data and information from external sources such as external databases or electronic communication with other networked groups.
[edit]Facilitation
in collaborative learning
In the past when knowledge was resident only in the expert and did not change rapidly, we hired teachers based on their knowledge of the content and their platform skills,i.e. their ability to transmit information to the student. While these criteria are still valuable for success of the individual instructor who is lecturing in front of a live class, they decrease in importance when we move into the electronic on-line environment. The communication setting is different and the types of skills, knowledge attitudes, values and beliefs are different in the collaborative networked environment. The role changes to one of facilitator/coordinator of a group rather than primarily a "giver" or transmitter of knowledge. Facilitation (1\I am not focusing on an individual per se but on a set of behaviors that could be provided by one member of a collaborative team or could be shared by a number of members over time. The term (facilitator) as used in this discussion does not imply one specific individual.) involves strategies for encouraging groups of individuals to learn with and from one another to create new levels of understanding and knowledge. In essence the role changes to one of drawing-out and drawing-together to form a community rather than transmitting a pre-defined, structured body of thoughts or knowledge. While much of the basic research relating to facilitation and interpersonal communication in inperson groups and many of the skills are relevant in the on-line environment, it is important for even the experienced facilitator to adapt to ( and carefully consider) the differences of the networked environment. For example, the lack of visual or verbal clues increases the demands on the facilitator in the on-line computer mediated collaboration. Furthermore, in audio supported networks, the ability to identify participants and their emotional state from voice tone alone is critical to successful facilitation. Likewise, the lack of physical presence special requirements on the otherwise skillful facilitator in the in-person group. While the many uniquenesses are important and deserve additional research, it is important to focus on essential characteristics of facilitation as a basic starting point. Return to CNL Guide Main Page Category: Collaborative Networked Learning: A Guide What do you think of this page? Please take a moment to rate this page below. Your feedback is valuable and helps us improve our website. Reliability: Presentation:
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Collaborative Networked Learning: A Guide/Conclusion

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[edit]
Conclusion
A collaborative networked learning environment is one promising response to the learning demands of the new age of connectivity. In this new age of connectivity, the human value-added is in the ability to learn quickly and constantly in the face of rapid change. Consequently, in this guide I have focused on how to facilitate and support the learning process in an on-line collaborative networked environment. I have focused on key characteristics of communication which go beyond simple data and information transmission to the symbolic communication necessary for value-added learning to occur in today's workplace. Value-added learning involves both intra-personal and interpersonal communication processes. In this guide, I discussed facilitation within the framework of a group communication model. The model and knowledge shared in this report can serve as the basis for developing guidelines for facilitators of collaborative networked learning. It is important to focus on the following summary statements as guidelines: learners form concepts based on perceived similarities and differences among examples, e.g. data and information from the work environment, sufficiently rich data and information is available on-line from co-workers and external databases to aid learning and knowledge creation, socio-emotional messages can establish and maintain a context where members trust one another, mutual trust supports learning and encourages the personal risk taking necessary to share ideas, articulate tentative constructs, and test out hypotheses about the world, representational tools and strategies that facilitate intra-personal message formulation need to be available for on-line interpersonal communication in order for the learner to validate personal constructs. communication strategies and tools which facilitate interpersonal message sharing need also to create and provide access to a record of group messages, a group database, as an aid to memory and an additional source of examples for other learners from other networks, and communication norms and a messaging structure which elicit and process feedback from participants are necessary to validate learning in the real world. Finally, I highlighted key features of software that will support on-line collaborative learning, not as a substitute for effective human communication but as tools to enhance and augment human intelligence in the workplace. As a means of helping the reader visualize how learning might be supported, I sighted examples of the following categories of support tools: personal construct elicitation, personal information management tools such as hyperinformation and information management with intelligent linkages, and visualization and modeling tools to facilitate externalization of constructs. I also highlighted features of groupware which could be included as part of the on-line interpersonal communication learning support system. I discussed the following features: knowledge worker tools which help groups share ideas and compare conceptual linkages, context building features of groupware, sharing feedback and refining ideas such as voting and annotation and simultaneous sending and receiving of feedback, hyperinformation for group concept formation, and sharing personal constructs with others in a network. All of these features taken together help us visualize how to support learning in a collaborative networked environment. The knowledge about software support for intra-personal and group learning form the basis for design of present and future electronic learning environments. Together they begin to call attention to design features which could enhance and support learning.
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Introduction to Sociology/Organizational Behavior

< Introduction to Sociology
TODO Per Future Chapters at Introduction to Sociology table of contents, this module is yet to be completed.
Organizational Behavior is the study of individual behavior and group dynamics in organizations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Flexible Working Conditions 2 Diversity in the Workplace 3 Job Insecurity 4 Personality, Perception, and Attribution
o o o o o
4.1 Individual Differences and Organizational Behavior 4.2 Social Perception 4.3 Personality 4.4 Application of Personality Theory in Organizations: The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument 4.5 Attribution in Organizations and Managerial Implications: Using Personality, Perception, and Attribution at Work
5 Communication
5.1 Interpersonal Communication
5.1.1 Reflective Listening
5.2 Affirming Contact
o o o o o o o
5.3 Paraphrasing the Expressed 5.4 Clarifying the Implicit 5.5 Reflecting "Core" Feelings 5.6 Silence 5.7 Eye Contact 5.8 One-Way Versus Two-Way Communication 5.9 Five Keys To Effective Supervisory Communication
5.9.1 Expressive Speakers 5.9.2 Empathetic Listeners 5.9.3 Persuasive Leaders 5.9.4 Sensitive to Feelings 5.9.5 Informative Managers
5.10 Barriers and Gateways to Communication
5.10.1 Physical Separation 5.10.2 Status Differences 5.10.3 Gender Differences 5.10.4 Cultural Diversity 5.10.5 Language
5.11 Defensive and Nondefensive Communication
5.11.1 Defensive Communication 5.11.2 Subordinate Defensiveness 5.11.3 Dominant Defensiveness 5.11.4 Defensive Tactics 5.11.5 Nondefensive Communication
5.12 Nonverbal Communication
o o
5.12.1 Proxemics 5.12.2 Facial and Eye Behavior 5.12.3 Paralanguage 5.12.4 How Accurately Do We Decode Nonverbal Cues?
5.13 Positive, Healthy Communication 5.14 Communication Through New Technologies
5.14.1 Written communication 5.14.2 Communication Technologies
6 Attitudes, Values, and Ethics
o o o o o o o
6.1 ABC Model of Attitude 6.2 How Attitudes Are Formed 6.3 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment 6.4 Source, Target, and Message 6.5 Instrumental and Terminal Values 6.6 Managing in Globalization 6.7 Ethical Behavior
7 Stress
o o o o
7.1 What is Stress? 7.2 The Four Approaches to Stress 7.3 The Stress Response 7.4 Work Stress
o o
7.4.1 Four Categories of Work Demands
7.5 Non-Work Demands 7.6 Stress-Strain Relationships
o o o o
7.6.1 Individual Differences in the Stress-Strain Relationships 7.6.2 Gender Differences 7.6.3 Type A Behavior Pattern 7.6.4 Personality Hardiness 7.6.5 Self-Reliance
7.7 Consequences of Stress 7.8 Performance and Health Benefits 7.9 Individual Distress 7.10 Organizational Distress
8 Motivation
o o o o
8.1 Expectancy Theory of Motivation 8.2 Theory Social Exchange and Equity 8.3 McClellands Need Theory 8.4 Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
9 The Concept of Power
o o
9.1 Symbols of Power 9.2 Sharing Power: Empowerment
o o
9.3 Political Behavior in Organizations 9.4 Effective Power
10 Leadership and Followership
10.1 Cultural Differences in Leadership
11 Conflict and Negotiation
o o
11.1 Forms of Conflict in Organizations 11.2 Conflict Management Strategies and Techniques
12 Career Management
o o o
12.1 Ways To Manage Conflicts Between Work and Home 12.2 The Psychological Contracts 12.3 Occupational Excellence
13 Organizational Design and Structure
o o o o
13.1 15.1 Key Organizational Design Processes 13.2 15.2 Basic Design Dimensions 13.3 15.3 Five Structural Configurations 13.4 15.4 Contextual Variables
14 References 15 External Links
edit]Flexible Working Conditions
A recent review by the Cochrane Collaboration has found that flexible working arrangements, such as flextime and telecommuting can have positive effects on health, but the effects are primarily seen when employees have some control over their new schedules.[1] Additionally, individuals who telecommute to work most of the work week are more satisfied with their jobs than are traditional employees who commute into a physical office location.[2]
edit]Diversity in the Workplace
Gender and racial diversity in the workplace actually increases sales revenue, brings more customers, results in greater market share, and greater relative profits.[3] Despite this fact, racial and ethnic minorities and women are still under-represented in management in U.S. corporations.[4] The figure below illustrates their underrepresentation:
The blue bars indicate the actual percentage of managers made up by that group. The red bars indicate the percentages of those people in the U.S. population. If the blue bar is larger than the red bar, than people in that group are over-represented among managers. If it is smaller, than that group is under-represented. One group is substantially over-represented, white males, while almost all other groups are under-represented, particularly black and Hispanic females. Current research suggests that two factors contribute to the under-representation of racial, ethnic, and gender minorities in the workplace: small social networks and lack of mentors. [4] Providing mentors for minorities is probably the best solution to address this problem.[4]
edit]Job Insecurity
Job insecurity has a deleterious effect on social capital and social involvement of workers.[5] Individuals who have experienced an involuntary job loss (through layoff, downsizing, etc.), are 35# less likely to be involved in their communities than are individuals who have never experienced an involuntary job loss.
edit]Personality, Perception, and Attribution

Differences and Organizational Behavior
[edit]Individual
T.A. Judge and R. Ilies links the five factor model of personality in the workplace to the individual and overall satisfaction in the workplace. The Big Five personality traits; extraversion (assertiveness), agreeableness (cooperative), conscientiousness (dependable), emotional stability (self-confident), and openness to experience
(curious), make up the basic framework as a model of behavior in the workplace. Judge and Ilies performed extensive research at the universities of Florida and Iowa finding all the correlations these five factors have on the overall job satisfaction of a given professional environment. Although the control factors, methods, and results that Judge and Ilies came up with were impressive, there are many more studies that have produced varying results.
[edit]Social
Perception
Perception is used everyday. Perception is how we, as individuals, asses situations. A burning stove top is perceived to be hot. Traffic is perceived to be speeding up or slowing down. People are perceived to be friendly or threatening. Yet when it comes to perceiving people, there are many more perceptions that are made. These social settings and environments are what make up social perception. The same settings can be applied to a smaller scale. This scale can be school, family, or the work force. The work setting can be one of many challenging social perceptions. From the job interview, to leaving the company, and everything in between, employers are evaluating their employees job performances, and employees are not only assessing one another, but their employer as well. Perhaps the most important part of social perception is the first meeting of a person, or the first impression. When two people meet for the first time, an instant anchor is dropped. This is a mental anchor that gives a brief, and very general, view of the new individual. Clothes that are worn, the way the hair is combed, the way the person stands or sits, all create the impression a person gets when they are met for the first time. From this impression, an individual makes instant reactions to whether the person is friendly, outspoken, quite, etc. It allows one to make a brief judgment on the personality of an individual. This is necessary in order to be able to interact with people. Although a first impression does not provide an in depth characterization of an individual, it does allow one to be able to initially interact with them. This process allows employers in a job interview to make quick decisions that will either be positive or negative for both the employer and the employee. Mentally the decision is made in the first few moments of contact. As time goes on the employer can justify further, with continuous questions, that the interviewee will be good for the company, or if they employer needs to search for a new candidates. First impressions can be slowly swayed over time. It is not easy to change someones first impression, nor is it ever changed much. The anchor can only be pulled in one direction or another so far, and after much effort, in this case continuous interactions. Familiarity is the only way to obtain the truest sense of who a person really is. By learning the personality and tendencies of a person, one can better understand that persons behaviors and actions.
[edit]Personality
Each individual has their own unique personality. This personality can show how a person behaves and reacts to certain situations. There are many different factors to consider when determining personality, like
environment settings and heredity traits. A persons personality can also have an effect on self-esteem, which is an individuals general feeling of self-worth, as well as self-monitoring, the ability to base behavior on social cues. Different theories are used today to help measure a persons personality such as trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and integrative approach. In measuring self-esteem, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale can be used to help measure the trait self-esteem of individuals in a given environment or situation. This will help determine who could have high or low self-esteem and what caused them to have it. persons low in self-esteem are less likely to make effective use of selfprotection strategies, we hypothesized that this strategy of deflecting the threat involved in upward comparison would be used primarily by persons who are characteristically high in self-esteem. (Musssweiler, Gabriel, Bodenhausen, 2000) According to the social comparison research by Mussweiler, Gabriel, and Bodenhausen, the majority of the individuals tested used the gender and ethnicity to either separate themselves from another or to use this factor to help them achieve a higher self esteem, or it could have the opposite effect of putting down ones own self-worth. The overall outcome in all situations is that people will develop different methods to block out unpleasant feelings of being outperformed, the experience of inferiority.
[edit]Application
of Personality Theory in Organizations: The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument

As a follow up to Carl Jungs theory that every individual is fundamentally different, the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument, the MBTI, measures an individuals personality preferences in a variety of organizational settings, including: team building, management, decision making, leadership, career counseling, and many more. The MBTI examines four dichotomies: Extroversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. Each dichotomy has an explanation about the characteristics associated with each type. The MBTI is based on the Jungian theory of personality; meaning, it can be used in all populations, including non-clinical settings. Meyers and Briggs, authors of the MBTI, used Jungs theory to predict peoples patterns of behavior. Because the results of the MBTI are subject to a variety of environmental influences, such as work tasks and organizational climates and values, interpretations have to be treated with caution and individually verified (Michael, 2003). Many people use the MBTI test in a rigid fashion causing the results to be an inaccurate assessment of peoples personalities. If the weaknesses of the test were considered, and people would use the test with caution, adjustments can be made to determine an accurate assessment of any changes in an individuals behavior.
[edit]Attribution
in Organizations and Managerial Implications: Using Personality, Perception, and Attribution at Work
The attribution theory explains how individuals pinpoint the causes of their own behavior and that of other people. There are two sources of power that human beings believe are responsible for the outcome of their own actions. One source is internal; we normally relate success and elements under our control as an internal
attribution. The second source is external: we normally relate failure and elements out of our control as an external attribution. Success in the workplace can simultaneously alternate between internal and external. You might have been prepared and researched for a project and believed your success was internal. On the other hand, you may believe you were lucky to have done such a great job on a project, attributing your success to external forces. Perception of internal and external forces has resulted in the fundamental attribution error. The fundamental attribution error occurs when one views the bad behavior of others as internal and their own bad behavior as external. It is much more difficult for others to see the external forces surrounding the individual conducting the bad behavior, where as, it is clear to the individual conducting the bad behavior, to relate their own behavior to their surrounding forces. Managers who acknowledge the personality differences between themselves and other employees can begin to appreciate those personality differences and create a more effective communication environment.
edit]Communication
Everyday, we use communication to express our thoughts and feelings. There are many different types and styles of communication. From verbal to nonverbal communication and from face-to-face to electronic, every word said and move made is communicating different emotions and ideas to those around us.
[edit]Interpersonal
Communication
Interpersonal Communication contains four key elements: the communicator, the receiver, perceptual screens, and the message. The communicator is the person speaking or sending the message. The receiver is the person listening or receiving the message. Perceptual screens are window through which we interact with people in the world. They are the specifics rather: age, race, religion, value, beliefs, etc. These specifics have a large impact on how to send and receive messages. The message should have two working components. Perceptual components are the words and concepts used to deliver the message and the emotional component is the demeanor in which the individual receives the message. Feedback is also important in communication so the two parties are clear that they sent and received the same message and that one party is not under the wrong impression. Language has become increasingly important due to growing global relations in organizations. Because of language barriers, it is difficult to send and to receive messages. Data is the information intended to communicate a message to someone and the information is the data translated in the message already.
[edit]Reflective Listening
Reflective Listening focuses on personal elements of the communication and not the abstract ideas. Reflective listening should be feeling oriented and responsive. The listener should show empathy and concern for the person communicating. A good reflective listener would concentrate on the discussion at hand and worry about
the main components of focus while allowing the speaker to lead you in the communication. Verbal response is primary in reflective listening and there are four important parts of verbal response.
[edit]Affirming
Contact
When responding to the communicator, making contact is affirming contact. For example, use simple phrases such as "yes" or "I understand."
[edit]Paraphrasing
the Expressed
Paraphrase expressed thoughts and feelings by waiting for the appropriate time to tell them your thoughts and feelings about them and the message you received.
[edit]Clarifying
the Implicit
Clarify implicit thoughts and feelings by assuring your assumptions are correct and you received the implicit message accurately.
[edit]Reflecting
"Core" Feelings
Reflect core feelings with caution knowing that the core feelings could bring new awareness to the speaker they were not aware prior. When reflecting core feelings, be precise and assertive without being overly pushy.
[edit]Silence
Long silences may cause awkward feelings for both the communicator and receiver but shorter silences can be good for both parties to have time to think and sort out what is going on and what they want to say next.
[edit]Eye
Contact
Eye contact can also play a part by letting the other person know you can focused, listening, and want to communicate with them.
[edit]One-Way
Versus Two-Way Communication
These four levels of verbal response will help to insure two-way communication where both the communicator and the receiver are active in the communication. One-way communication can be good in the right circumstances. If someone needs to state a lot of information and a response is not necessary, then one-way would be a good form of communication.
[edit]Five
Keys To Effective Supervisory Communication
[edit]Expressive Speakers
It is important that both managers and supervisors are open communicators. They should feel comfortable in communicating to others their personal thoughts and feelings in relation to a subject so their employees, in turn, are fully educated on their total outlook.
[edit]Empathetic Listeners
Active listening is a key trait in many successful supervisors. Included in active listening are insightful listening skills. In other words, responding to problems brought to their attention by all individuals for and with which they work. Additionally, it is important the supervisors react to the worries of the individuals in a timely manner.
[edit]Persuasive Leaders
In order to attain goals, successful supervisors must be persuasive leaders. In other words, they are much more likely to obtain others to follow their ideas and beliefs if they can successfully persuade them to do so.
[edit]Sensitive to Feelings
When an employee needs to be corrected, it is important the supervisor does so while taking into consideration the feelings and esteem of the employee. Sometimes, an individual will seek correction when they know they have performed less than adequately; however when employees perform less than adequately and do not seek correction it is then the employee is trying to not only preserve their self-images, but also mange their impressions on others (Moss). A successful supervisor is both secure and positive in their feedback; never scolding in public, for public scolding does not reserve the esteem of the employee. Instead, a successful supervisor will use public areas in times of praise.
[edit]Informative Managers
Successful managers take the time to inform properly all employees in areas related to their job. Before a manager gives information, however, a successful one will be sure to sift through the information. As a result, the employee remains informed but not overwhelmed.
[edit]Barriers
and Gateways to Communication
There are five types of barriers of communication. These include Physical Separation, Status Differences, Gender Differences, Cultural Diversity, and Language.
[edit]Physical Separation
Physical Separation differs with technology but works best face-to-face.
[edit]Status Differences
Status Differences can vary if you are a low-income person talking to someone that looks wealthy, which occurs in a manager-employee situation.
[edit]Gender Differences
Gender Differences can be difficult because women and men communicate in different ways.
[edit]Cultural Diversity
Cultural Diversity can be a barrier of communication because other cultures have different morals and ways of life. In addition, dealing with stereotypes can be completing as well.
[edit]Language
Languages can be hard to get over if someone is speaking a different language that you do not understand.
[edit]Defensive
and Nondefensive Communication
[edit]Defensive Communication
Defensive communication is that which can be aggressive and attacking or passive and withdrawing. This form of communication will usually elicit a defensive response. Defensive communication can create barriers and conflicts within an organization and make it difficult to accomplish tasks
[edit]Subordinate Defensiveness
Subordinate defensiveness is withdrawing behavior and the attitude of the individual is commonly "you are right, and I am wrong." These individuals do not accurately show their thoughts and feelings and can have a low self-esteem. This kind of behavior can seem passive on the outside; however, the behavior fuels with hostility on the inside. Passive aggressive behavior for example is a form of defensiveness that begins as subordinate defensiveness and ends up as dominant defensive.
[edit]Dominant Defensiveness
Dominant defensiveness is an offensive behavior pattern with aggression and attacking attitudes. For example, people who are higher up on the ladder often want to get their point across but fail to do it accurately. Instead, they resort to telling people how to accomplish something with no room for support or advice. The attitude of the individual is commonly, "I am right and you are wrong."
[edit]Defensive Tactics
To act out the defensive communication, defensive tactics are used. Examples are labeling, put downs, deception, or hostile jokes. Not only are these defensive tactics but they will receive defensive responses.
[edit]Nondefensive Communication
Non-defensive communication is an assertive, direct, and powerful form of communication. It can open communication lines and help achieve goals quickly and appropriately. This kind of communication shows selfcontrol, helps others to understand you in working situations, and helps to reduce negative responses. Assertiveness is a key aspect in non-defensive communication because it is an accurate and informative statement. Additionally, it is self-affirming and gets your point across without seeming demanding.
[edit]Nonverbal
Communication
Nonverbal communication includes all the elements of communication that do not involve words or speech. It involves how you move your body, eyes, mouth, the expressions that you make, and all other ways of communicating without speaking. Nonverbal communication varies greatly with culture.
[edit]Proxemics
Proxemics deals with our territory, and the space around us. We form barriers and need a certain amount of space between us and other people in order to feel comfortable. We will be very close with our loved ones- with whom we have an intimate or personal relationship. Next, our friends will be farther away, followed by associates and acquaintances, and finally strangers or the public will be held at the farthest distance.
[edit]Facial and Eye Behavior

Facial and Eye Behavior is how we convey messages or feelings with our face and eyes. Many times we convey our feelings or true intent through our facial expressions, giving others cues as to what we are truly thinking or feeling. As humans, we tend to be much more observant and aware of emotions conveyed through the face than by other means, such as leg movements and arm movements (Frank and Ekman)
[edit]Paralanguage
Paralanguage are the variations that we put into our speech. For example, talking fast means we are in a hurry, yelling that we are angry, and using interruptions or interjections such as hey to convey that we want to say something.
[edit]How Accurately Do We Decode Nonverbal Cues?

Through study, general understandings of nonverbal cues were developed and interpreted with a decent amount of accuracy. Understanding nonverbal cues can be useful and important in an organization when trying to understand the full meaning of an interaction. Nonverbal cues are only a portion of the message; one should consider every aspect of the interaction.
[edit]Positive,
Healthy Communication
Communicating head-to-heart dialog and emotional competence is the way to achieve a positive and healthy communication. When we communicate it is suggested that we try to be heartfelt it shows well-being and a healthy way to express yourself. When not using this method one may tend to isolate and be lonely. In the work environment working together is it important to use positive and healthy communication because when speaking your ideas, feelings, and emotions it displays positive behaviors. In addition, this open communication shows a base for trust and truth. When honest it can bring out the best in the people when working together. When working together talking through challenging issue, personal or professional. We will be able to have a wider range of human relationships. The need to communicate through his or her various formal roles, the executive has a deeper interpersonal need for communication and relationship that is seated at the limbic or
emotional level of the brain. This deep interpersonal communication is the target of our coaching model as it reaches beyond the superficial mask of control, drive, and competition and develops within the executive awareness, understanding, and management of the emotions that are fundamental to his or her being(Quick and Macik-Fray). Finally, in positive and healthy communication is a display that you are ethical and have integrity.
[edit]Communication
Through New Technologies
[edit]Written communication
In written communication, we use letters outside the organization and inside the organization. We use memos, forms, manuals, and reports, which are important to the office.
[edit]Communication Technologies
With communication technologies, we have database, electronic mail, voice mail, faxes, and cell phone. With any organization you will need to use at least one of these on a day-to-day base, it is fast and easier. Technologies affect our behavior because there is not any real face-to-face communication and no emotion is involved. It will be hard to have a relationship that has trust. When using these methods of communication we are able to say anything.
edit]Attitudes, Values, and Ethics

Model of Attitude
[edit]ABC
An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. (dictionary.com) Our attitude affects the way we behave and react towards people. The ABC model breaks down the meaning of an attitude in three different components. The components are affect, behavioral intentions, and cognitions. All of these components greatly affect our attitudes. Affect has to do with how a person feels. Behavioral intentions are how a person acts, and cognition is how a person thinks. Attitudes are formed through life lessons, the people around, and personal experience.
[edit]How
Attitudes Are Formed
Cognitive dissonance is the tension that is produced when there is a conflict between attitudes and behavior. (Dictionary of the English Language) It motivates a person to change there attitude and behavior. The experimenter pressures or offers a reward to a person to persuade them to be part of an experiment. An example of this theory is, a professor persuades a student to be part of an experiment, and offers them twenty dollars. When the student hesitates the professor says It will only take a few minutes. The regular person that does it, is usually reliable. This is the first time she missed the experiment. If we need you we will call you in advance, and if you cant make if we wont expect you to come. (Cognitive Dissonance) Their point is to see how much of and effect they have on a persons thoughts, opinions, and behavior. [1]
[edit]Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment
Job satisfaction is a very important aspect into the amount of work and time a person is willing to put into a job. The five measurements to insure job satisfaction are: pay, the work itself, promotion opportunities, supervision, and coworkers. Different aspects are more important to different types of people. Managers in an organization can you different methods to test job satisfaction. Two possible ways are the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) or the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). There is a common thought that satisfied employees are more productive workers. Whether satisfied employees have better performance, or employees with good performance will have satisfaction, there has been no proven links between the two. There are plenty of high performers who are not satisfied with their jobs to prove these theories to be true. Rewards that are contingent on performance can also enhance satisfaction in a job. When a person goes above and beyond their call of duty to help a coworker out, it can be called an Organizational Citizenship Behavior (or OCB; see Bommer, Miles, and Grover 2003). Social information processing is predicated on the notion that people form ideas based on information drawn from their immediate environment, and the behavior of coworkers is a very salient component of an employees environment. Therefore, observing frequent citizenship episodes with in a workgroup is likely to lead to attitudes that such OCB is normal and appropriate. Consequently, the individual is likely to replicate this normal behavior. This is according to an article in the Journal of Organizational Behavior. This shows that people learn from their environments. Culture also has a big part to play in job satisfaction. People from different parts of the world may have a different view on the importance of work compared to family. In America, people tend to have their jobs as a central part of their life, as to Koreans who put family first.
[edit]Source,
Target, and Message
Organizational commitments are what will influence a person to remain at a job. There are three different types of organizational commitment: affective, continuance, and normative. The affective commitment has to do with a persons loyalty to their place of work. Continuance commitment is when a person might stay at a job because they have put so much into it, and feel that they might loose a great deal of investments if they leave. A normative commitment is when an employee feels obligated to stay with the company. When an employer involves their employees in decision making, and makes them feel needed, the chances of them leaving is less than if they did not. Affective and normative commitment people tend to have a lower absence at work. Employees want to know that their employers do care about their well being, and that they share their same values. The best way to make sure that employees are satisfied and committed is to talk to them, or give them job satisfaction tests, then change things in the organization accordingly.
[edit]Instrumental
and Terminal Values
There are two states of values, Instrumental and Terminal values. Instrumental values are different behaviors that are used to achieve a goal or end; Honesty, ambition, obedience, politeness and etcetera. Terminal values would be the end states attained through; ambition, quality, liberty, prosperity, social respect.
[edit]Managing
in Globalization
Just as there are different countries throughout the world, there are many different value systems. In todays world, globalization is taking a bigger and bigger role, making it very important for these different groups to recognize and thoughtfully respect those values of their customers or associates even though they do not have the same values. Managers must learn that when working with these adverse values in their company, to avoid pre-judging the adverse values that they come into contact with throughout the course of their work. Values are culturally based. In a global society, tolerance is one of the most important aspects. When tolerance is not thoughtfully recognized it has the potential to divide societies from one another.
[edit]Ethical
Behavior
First, ethics is the concept of having moral values and behaviors. Ethical behavior is conducting ones self in a way that is common with a certain set of values whether personal or institutional. Businesses are dependent on their reputations, so when a company withholds strong ethical values it brings positive results. One effect of ethical behavior is the retention and attraction of employees. Employee turnover tends to be lower as well as an increase in applicants resulting in higher qualified employees. Unethical behavior can hurt a company, so through technology businesses are able to monitor Internet content. In a business, there are individual and organizational influences that affect ethical behavior. The individual influences are value systems, which is a persons own set of moral values, locus control, which is a personality trait distinguishable between personal responsibility and fate or by chance, Machiavellianism, which is another personality trait where a person will do whatever it takes to get their way, and finally, cognitive moral development, which is a person stage of maturity. The organizational influences are a businesses own code of conduct, an ethics committee or officers, training programs, an ethics communication system, norms amongst the business, modeling, and a rewards and punishment system. The individual influences of a company are extremely important for running a business with ethical behavior. Value systems are vital because ones ethics may be different that that of the company. This could be a serious conflict of interest. For example is a dishonest person is presented with a situation to lie for financial reasons will he follow his own ethical behavior or the organizations? The individual might think why be honest if honesty doesnt pay? (A. Bhide & H. H. Stevens, 121) External locus of control where a individual believes that their actions are a result of an unknown force or chance can be damaging to ethical behavior because the individual doesnt accept responsibility like internal locus control. Machiavellianism is not a standard of ethical behavior because the main method is being able to manipulate others around you for your own benefit rather than the organization. Cognitive moral development affects ethical behavior amongst an organization depending on the
level an individual is at. Level 1 or premoral level, the individual bases their judgments on rewards and punishments. Level 2 is where the individual follows policy only if it is in their best interests. Level 3, people just perform to impress those close to them. Level 4 is where the individual starts to realize what the organization wants from them so they start to contribute in an all around positive way. Level 5, people are aware that others have different ways of thinking but hold onto their own. Finally, level 6, an individual will choose their own ethical behavior over a policy or law.
edit]Stress
is Stress?
[edit]What
Stress does not have an exact meaning. There are many different ways to look at it. Stress or the response to stress is defined as, the unconscious preparation to the flight or fight that a person experiences when faced with any demand (Peterson 1995). The demand on your body is known as the stressor. Once the stressor is applied there are many reactions, psychologically, physically, behaviorally, and organizationally.
[edit]The
Four Approaches to Stress
Homeostatic (also known as the medical approach) was researched by Walter B. Cannon. He determined that our bodies have an emergency response, the flight or fight. He found that when aroused, the body goes out of homeostasis, the balanced state. Cognitive Richard Lazarus emphasized that stress was caused by the environment that the person is in rather than the body itself. He found that people differ greatly in that respect. Person Environment Fit approach-Robert Kahn focused on how expectations in a persons life and their conflicting roles. The person becomes stressed when they arent able to meet the demands. Psychoanalytic Harry Levinson took that Freudian approach. He believed that there were two parts being: #1 Ego-ideal, how they feel about their perfect self. #2 Self image, how they feel about themselves in respect to their perfect self. If there is any wrong thinking then there is stress because they feel that they cannot obtain that.
[edit]The
Stress Response
What happens to the body when it is stressed? These are the steps that your nervous system goes through and how your body and mind are involved. 1. Blood from the skin, internal organs, and extremities, is directed to the brain and large muscles. 2. Your senses are heightened: vision and hearing. 3. Glucose and fatty acids are forced into the bloodstream for energy.
4. The immunes system and digestive system are virtually shut down to provide all the necessary energy to respond.
[edit]Work
Stress
Work stress is caused by demands and pressure from inside and outside the workplace.
[edit]Four Categories of Work Demands

1. Task Demands - the sense of not knowing where the job will lead you and if the activities and tasks will change. The uncertainty will cause stress: lack of control, concern of career progress, new technology, time pressures, are just some of the many that could cause stress.
2. Role demands -role conflict happens when there are inconsistent or difficult expectations put on the person resulting in: A. Interole conflict-when there are two or more expectations or separate roles: parent and employee. B. Intrarole conflict-more expectations of one role: fast paced and quality work. C. Person-role conflict-ethics are involved: challenging personal beliefs or principles. Role ambiguity occurs when a person is confused about their experiences in relation with the expectations of others.
3. Interpersonal Demands A. Emotional issues-abrasive personalities, offensive co-workers. B. Sexual Harassment-directed mostly toward women C. Poor Leadership-management, lack of experience, poor style, cannot deal with all the power
4. Physical Demands many environments offer physically demanding jobs and work. A. Strenuous activity B. Extreme working conditions C. Travel D. Hazardous materials E. Working in an office-tight quarters, loud, cramped
[edit]Non-Work
Demands
Creates stress for work and the other way around creating stress outside of work. Home Demands Marriage children and other family relationships can add stress and overload making it a role overload according to the Academy of Management Journal they state that when this happens this is, an individuals lack of personal resources needed to fulfill commitments obligations or requirements. Personal Demands They are demand brought on by the person themselves. When the person takes on too much outside of work or just brings on too much work.
[edit]Stress-Strain
Relationships
[edit]Individual Differences in the Stress-Strain Relationships

Individual differences play an important role in the stress-strain relationships. Different individuals respond differently to types of stress, there are both eustress (good stress) and distress (bad stress).
[edit]Gender Differences
Life expectancy for American women is approximately seven years longer than men, which suggests that women may be more resiliant to stress than men. Research (House, Landis, and Umberson 1988) has led to the suggestion that women not only respond to stress in a completely different way than men, they also encounter more stress - and are able to deal with it better.
[edit]Type A Behavior Pattern

Type A behavior are characteristics of personalities who are more affected by the stress-strain relationships than other personality types. Type A behavior includes; sense of urgency, quest for numbers, status insecurity, and aggression and hostility.
[edit]Personality Hardiness
Personality Hardiness is a personality trait that is hesitant to distress and characterized by commitment, control, and challenge. They are more capable to resist stressful events as opposed to those who are not hardy. Transformational Coping is an act used by hardy people that helps to change unhealthy stressful events, into ones that are less harmful to their life.
[edit]Self-Reliance
Self-reliance is a personality attribute that is an interdependent pattern of behavior related to how people form and maintain attachments with others. Two insecure patterns of attachment are counterdependence, and overdependence. Both of these patterns of attachment are unhealthy, and impair creating healthy relationships with others. Through self-reliance, individuals are able to gain understanding with themselves, which helps them in their relation to their coworkers.
[edit]Consequences
of Stress
Stress to the average person is usually looked at in a negative light. However, all stress is not bad stress. There are two very different forms of stress; distress and eustress. Some people thrive under pressure. Thats because they have figured out how to condition themselves for stressful situations. This conditioning requires recovering energy. When one practices what they know frequently, they most often perform well on a stress test. Distress and eustress are the consequences of how one responds to and uses the stress that is applied to them. There are benefits to eustress and there are costs to distress. A healthy person would exude eustress. The opposite would be true of an unhealthy person. (Loehr and T. Schwartz 2001)
[edit]Performance
and Health Benefits
A persons overall performance with a any given task will have an optimum. A point where the individual is most productive while still performing at a comfortable level. In order to attain this optimum performance a certain level of stress must be applied. Any amount of stress level leading up to the optimum point would be eustress. Stress that would cause the person to overload and their productivity to drop would be distress. If a person is training their body by lifting weights, they can only grow their muscles so fast before they reach their growing limit. Once past that limit, an injury is bound to take place.
[edit]Individual
Distress
Individual distress manifests in three basic forms known as Psychological disorders, Medical illnesses, and Behavioral problems. A persons extreme involvement with their work could reap an acute individual distress. Work - Related psychological disorders can lead to depression, burnout, and psychosomatic disorders. Psychosomatic disorders are physical problems that stem from a psychological root. A person could have a problem with public speaking; that problem would then be caused by so much stress that the persons brain would not allow the person to even speak. An individuals stress can manifest itself in other more physical manners. Back aches, strokes, heart disease, and peptic ulcers are just a few ways that surface when too much stress is applied. A person can also show behavioral problems as a sign of distress. Some examples include aggression, substance abuse, and accidents. This behavior could be cause by conflicts with others or with work. It could also be brought on by variables outside of the workplace. Psychological disorders, medical illnesses, and behavioral problems are extremely burdensome to the individual. And when not taken care of will result in organizational distress.
[edit]Organizational
Distress
Participation problems, Performance decrements, and compensation awards all have the ability to have very opposite affects upon an organization. Participation problems such as absenteeism, tardiness, strikes and work stoppages, and turnover bring serious costs to a company. Turnover, for example, can help or costs a company in a big way. An employee is not performing up to par. As a result he is fired and replaced with a more productive employee. Unfortunately, the new employee was hired on at a higher pay rate than the previous. The company has the productivity it needs, but at a cost.
edit]Motivation
Theory of Motivation
[edit]Expectancy
The basis of the expectancy theory of motivation is that people desire certain outcomes of behavior and performance, and that they believe there are relationships between the effort, performance and outcomes. The key points in the expectancy theory of motivation are the valence which is the value or importance someone places on a reward. The expectancy which is the belief that effort leads to performance and instrumentality which is the belief that performance is related to rewards. These are all important to a persons motivation. Motivation problems came from the expectancy theory. The causes are a disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance, a disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards and an overall lack of desire for the offered rewards. If a problem is with the persons effort or performance, the persons belief should be changed. If the problem is with the reward, then the value of the reward or the reward itself should be changed. The Expectancy theory has held a major position in the study of work motivation. (Van Eerde)
[edit]Theory
Social Exchange and Equity
This takes a look at what is behind our behavior, why are we motivated and why do we act the way we act. When studying behavior, it is important to study exchange. There are three types of exchange relationships that people have with organizations. The first type is a committed relationship, such as a club or a religious gathering. It is a relationship held together by moral obligation. A committed relationship is a high positive intensity. The second type of relationship, calculated, is a low positive intensity. These are relationships based on demands and contributions. A prime example would be business corporations who have a relationship based on their commercial and financial agreements. Each organization in this type of relationships makes demands. Demands are placed on the other organization in order to achieve an desired result. However, in most cases, a demanding organization must also contribute, therefore intertwining the responsibilities, thus making it a team effort.Finally, the third type of relationship, alienated, is of high negative intensity. Within these relationships is inequity. Inequity is roughly defined as a situation when a person thinks that they are receiving less than they are giving or vise versa. According to Adamss theory of Inequity, there are seven approaches to restore equity. 1) alter the persons outcomes, 2) alter the persons inputs, 3) alter the comparison others outcomes, 4) alter the comparison others inputs, 5) change who is used as a comparison other, 6) rationalize the inequity, and 7) leave the organizational situation. There are three types of people when categorizing them into their preferences for equity. Equity sensitive people prefer an equity ratio equal to their own comparison other. A benevolent person is content when the equity ration that is less than that of their comparison other. Lastly, an entitled person is content with a ration that is more than that of their comparison other.
[edit]McClellands
Need Theory
McClelland was intrigued by the thought of human needs and the reasons why one is successful. Before him though, Henry Murray had laid out most of the groundwork and made lists of motives and manifest needs. (H.A. Murray, 1938). McClellan took those ideas and organized them into three main categories of learned human behavior, which were called the manifest needs. The three main needs are the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation. Each need is different for each person and varies throughout individuals. Sometimes its for the better and sometimes for the worse. The need for achievement is important in the fact that those with a higher need for it will ultimately become more successful. People with this high need are very concerned with doing their best work and setting goals to help them get there. If one does not have a high need for achievement, there is usually a lack in motivation which can be detrimental not only in the workplace, but also in ones personal life as well. Next is the need for power. McClelland makes a very important distinction between socialized power and personalized power. Socialized power is normally benefiting to a group of people, benefiting to others, while personalized power is selfish and can be very destructive and self-consuming. With that in mind socialized power can be very helpful in the business area, specifically with managers. When a manager craves socialized power he is looking out for the benefit of the company and wants everything to be done correctly and quickly and in turn success is achieved. These type of managers themselves are also more likely to be promoted when a higher up member of the organization sees the hard work and influence the manager has made on employees. Last is the need for affiliation. The need for affiliation mostly deals with interpersonal relationships. People with a high need for it expect a more personalized relationship with everyone; such as people sharing their wants needs and feelings while the person will do the same. This high need can be good in relationships, for example, if there is some type of conflict between a person with a high need and another, than the person with the high need if more inclined to work through the problem until it is solved and everything is good in the relationship. Managers frequently commented that consistent definitions and formats are important aids to communication, especially between people in different organizational units such as divisions or departments. (McClelland)
[edit]Herzbergs
Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg conducted a study that describes the experiences that satisfy and dissatisfy people in the work place. He wanted to know what motivates people to do well at work. The two-factors that he found in this study were motivation and hygiene. He found motivation factors to be things like achievement, responsibility, advancement and growth. He also described the hygiene factors to be things such as working conditions, status, technical supervision, policy and
administration. The one thing that he did find in common with the two factors was salary, which makes perfect sense. With the two-factors combined in the work place it results in four different types of behavior. When both factors are high there is nothing to complain about and the motivation is very good. When both factors are low the person becomes very unmotivated and complains about everything. The two-factors are not always on the high or low at the same time. So, even if the motivation is high, there may still be a lot of complaining going on and vice versa (Herzberg).
edit]The Concept of Power

of Power
[edit]Symbols
When thinking about power one doesn't think about what represents power but, in every organization there are certain symbols of power. Bellow is some ideas of power and powerless symbols. Also, if someone that wants to over coming powerlessness the person that has power needs to share the power. The meaning of symbols, include an object or image that an individual unconsciously uses to represent repressed thoughts, feelings, or impulses. Power means, the possession of control or command over others. There are two different approaches associated with symbols of power.
George Bush has power; what that means is that he can call us at anytime of the day and we will answer. Along with if he wants to meet us and we have a very important engagement we will drop it and see him. The power symbols are all there too.
One approach Power
A person that helps someone else in distress has power
Giving someone a better procession in the organization constitutes a sign of power
A person that can go greater than budget limitations without warning A manager acquires raises beyond standards for employee's Raise issues for action Having information before anyone Top manager asking questions to lower level managers, hence The lower manager has power
Powerless
In doing something for someone else, one receives power
Excessively close administration Firm loyalty to regulations Doing a job themselves and not training an employee to do it People that have high profile positions Opposes change Safeguard their territory Focuses on cutting cost Penalizing others Overbearing others Better than communication Negative events result in accusations against others
Making external attribution of negative events, though often considered self- serving, also implies that the attributor is not in control of critical resource. We hypothesized that making external attributions for negative events will lead to impressions of powerlessness. (Lee and Tiedens 2001) The other approach Three symbols of power Michael Korda has ideas of what power looks like; he writes about three of them. Objects in organizations such as furniture, clocks, watches, cell phones, and pagers are all symbols of power. The proposal that he give on "Furniture" is that a manager that has filing cabinets that are locked, confirm a critical and restricted files in the office. Conference tables that are rectangular demonstrate that the most important person sits at the head of the table, instead of a round table. Also, desk size displays the quantity of ones power; most executives have large expensive desks.
The second approach, he calls it Time power what this suggest is that if an executive and or manager that removes their watch and puts it on your desk face down illustrates that he or she has their time. As well as managers that do not wear watches shows that no one will start anything with out them. If we look at this the other way by, a manager always wears a watch shows that they feel less powerful. Also, a full calendar is proof of power, along with a planner displayed on the desks. The third approach is call Standing by, what Korda proposes is that cell phones, and pagers, along with other communicating devises, explains that if a high top person can inflict on your time at any time of the day has power. In addition people that cause inconvenience to others; such as doing simple tasks for them.
[edit]Sharing
Power: Empowerment
Empowerment is a positive aspect within an organization that promotes shared power. In order to grasp the complete essence of empowerment, there are four separate necessities that must be met.
Meaning suggests that one must have a sense of passion put into their work in order to feel empowered.
Competence is a component in the work place that keeps an employee confident with the ability to do a job well done.
Self-determination gives employees a certain trust-worthiness to handle the job independently.
Impact is a contributing factor that enables the workers to believe that their job has a meaningful purpose. Without these four dimensions present, one cannot feel empowered.
Leaders within an organization can play a strong role in encouraging employees to put empowerment into practice. If leaders want to examine the possibility of an empowerment based company they need to have confidence in employees. This action should take place in order to set the bar at a high enough level. Employees should also be given the opportunities to make decisions. Rules and policies that get in the way of self-management need to become more lenient for a successful empowerment based organization. As well, leaders must set goals that can make one feel inspired. One particular example of an empowered company is run by David Zipper and Peter Murray. Their organization began as a small painting business in run down areas of Philadelphia started by the two former economics students in 1999. The idea of the company is to empower its employees to the point where they own the company themselves. Since the renowned success of Empowered Painters, Peter Murray was awarded the Eli Segal Entrepreneurship award, and David Zipper received the Truman Scholarship.(Natsu, Furuichi, 2000) Though the idea of empowerment can produce very successful results, the risks involved can be devastating. It is always safe to keep in mind, when giving up responsibility, there is a very real possibility of failure.
[edit]Political
Behavior in Organizations
Political behavior and organizations doesn't always have to be negative. However, most the time it is looked upon as such. It has been said that organizations are arenas in which people have competing interest. It is the manager's responsibility to be effective in reconcile competing interest. Political behavior refers to actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that are taken to influence others in order to meet one person's goals. Many people at the organizations are able to recognize and spot political behavior by their supervisor and at the top level of organizations. Many organizations encourage political activity these include unclear goals, autocratic decision making, ambiguous lines of authority, scarce resources, and uncertainty. Activity is often involved politics which includes performance appraisal process. Individuals who use power and organizations are organizational politicians. Political behaviors can way on the negative side when used to maximize self interest which can lead to being inattentive to the concerns of others. We the employees feeling as if the workplace are less helpful and more threatening. Several personal characteristics of effect of political actors; here are four of thirteen.
Articulate, must be able to clearly communicate ideas Popular, must be liked or admired by others at organization Extroverted, must be interested in what happens outside of his or her. Logical, must be capable of recently
Political organizational politicians can see the difference between ethical and unethical behavior. They understand that relationships drive the political process and use power with a sense of responsibility. Influence tactics There are three types of influence, upward referring to a boss, downward referring to an employee and lateral influence which refers to a coworker. Also, there are eight basic types of influence tactics. The four most frequently used are consultation, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and ingratiation. Consultation, the person seeks your participation in making a decision or planning how to implement a proposed policy, strategy, or change. Rational persuasion, the person uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade you that a proposal or requests is viable and likely to result in attainment of task objectives. Inspirational appeals, the person makes an emotional request for proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to your values and ideas or by increasing your confidence that you can do it. Ingratiation, the person seeks to eat you with a good mood or to think favorably of him or her before asked you to do something. There's proven evidence that men and women view politics that influence attempt differently. The intended geopolitics behavior were federally that women do with both men and women witnessed political behavior they view it more positively if the agent is of their gender and the target is of the opposite gender. Not all tactics
have negative affects there are some positivist be found. One example would be how small retailers often have incentive programs read get points for an amount of certain items you sell during that time. The person who sells the most usually wins a small gift or some type of bonus. For example, research has shown that various aspects of performance-appraisal process itself can influence the mood states of the raters, and in turn, their ratings of employee. (Hochwater)
[edit]Effective
Power
There is a fine line between using power effectively, over using the power, and being dependent upon power within an organization. A manager must maintain positive relationships with everyone involved with the given company yet cannot become dependent on them; superiors, subordinate, peers, outside suppliers, customer competitors, unions, regulating agencies, the list goes on. Being overly dependent can create vulnerabilities, and weaknesses, causing the organization to not run as smooth, or worse. The entire above list has their own agenda and their own behaviors which it is the managers job to be able to adapt to them, which may in fact be the cause for dependency on people on that list. Dependency should not be associated as a negative term; dependency simply needs to be in moderation. Managers should make sure all involved subordinates know exactly their roles, so he or she need not use generally ineffective tactics such as persuasion. Successful managers are sensitive cope with dependence by being sensitive to, avoiding unnecessary dependence, and establishing power. That power thus equals plans, organization, good staff, budgets, etc., etc. which good evaluations. Effective management essentially comes down to the manager feeling a sense of obligation which trickles all around the company, and there should be a defined trust in the expertise of the manager, that his decisions are the correct ones.
edit]Leadership and Followership

Differences in Leadership
[edit]Cultural
With different culture every where, leaders need to be aware of these always so that they are combatable for what ever organization. Also, for an effective leader one needs to understand the culture he or she is about to venture into. Here is an example of cultural differences with diversity. Cross-cultural researchers and international managers concur with the view that a diversity of management systems exist across contemporary Europe. In respect to predicting future developments, Calori and de Woot interviewed 51 chief executives of 40 large international organizations and concluded,that no advocate of diversity denied the existence of some common characteristic and no advocate of European identity denied some degree of diversity. On the basis of such observations, it would appear that Europeans will have to live with at least some diversity in management systems in the foreseeable future. Equally important to note is the fact that societal cultural diversity in Europe remains unquestioned. Indeed, it is frequently perceived to be preserved as much as possible. (F. C. Brodback et al)
edit]Conflict and Negotiation

of Conflict in Organizations
[edit]Forms
There are several different forms of conflict that can occur in an organization. These forms include interorganizational, intergroup/intragroup, and interpersonal/intrapersonal. One of these forms of conflict is very interesting, intergroup conflict. This is considered conflict that occurs within a group. This kind of conflict can have positive and negative outcomes. Some of the positives are increased loyalty and group cooperation. One negative to this form of conflict is that groups tend to be more competitive than individuals. When a group is formed, as a whole the group tends to be more hostile than than just one of the individuals may be alone. There have been two experiments done to delineate the domain of discontinuity. The first was done by demonstrating its occurrence in a non-matrix situation. This experiment, when implemented, did not show a significant difference than a matrix-only situation. The second experiment used an analysis of degree of noncorrespondence of outcomes. This experiment showed that as noncorrespondence increased, the rate of competitive responding by groups increased as well. Individuals, however, did not increase.(Schopler, 2001)
[edit]Conflict
Management Strategies and Techniques
Inevitably there will be conflicts surrounding and within an organization and how they are resolved can have a negative or positive effect. Ineffective Techniques Nonaction- This is when people do nothing in hopes that it will someday dissapear. Secrecy- This is when a certain group of the organization try to hide the problem from the majority. Administrative orbiting- This happens when people delay the conflict and tell others not to worry because it's being worked on. Due process nonaction- This happens when a problem is too costly, or it will take to long, or is a big risk. Character assassination- This action is to diminish an individuals/groups reputation and often leads to slander. Effective Techniques Superordinate goal- This is an organization goal that should be focused on by the conflicting parties rather than individual goals. Expanding resources- This is where the conflict is limited resources, so the simple solution is to provide more. Changing personnel- This happens when the conflict is pinpointed to an individual commonly with a low level emotional intelligence.
Changing structure- this is when the organization restructures and creates an integrator role, which becomes a moderator between the two conflicting parties. Confronting and negotiating- this is when the parties confront and engage in an open discussion. there are negotiations in hopes of a mutually agreed upon compromise. 2 major negotiating approaches 1)Distributive bargaining- Approach in which the goals of the parties are in conflict, and each party seeks to maximize its resources. 2)Integrative negotiation- This is when both parties want the outcome to be a win-win situation because both parties have wants.(Lewicki)
edit]Career Management
To Manage Conflicts Between Work and Home
[edit]Ways
Chapter seventeen, part six, discusses ways to manage conflicts between work and home. This section discusses how to manage a dual-career partnership. It talks about how difficult it is for a couple who both have important career goals, and who have the responsibility of taking care of children. When things get too hard for those in a dual-career partnership the text suggest that they ask family, friends, or professional help with childcare, or any other responsibility that they can not take care of themselves. When things get really complicated at work and home, like dealing with a mean boss or a sick child at home, the stress has a big effect on a person when they are at work and at home. It is very important for people who are in a dual-career partnership to have a flexible work schedule in order for them to be able to be there for there child when they are sick, or need to be picked up from school. We are making it less likely for people to have families. It is just too punitive. There is no formal childcare. There is no structural support. It is highly expensive.(Barnett, (p.2) it is almost impossible for both parents to manage a good career and to have a family.
[edit]The
Psychological Contracts
The psychological contract is an implied agreement between the employee and organization. The employee expects certain things from the organization like salary and advancement within the company. And the organization expects things like time and loyalty to the company. This is not a written contract, they exist between individuals. The psychological contract is important for newcomers in an organization. They need to work out something effective in order to make good relationships in the company
[edit]Occupational
Excellence
Years ago, many workers were able to begin working at a job at a young age and expect to remain in that career until retirement. Unfortunately, nowadays it sometimes takes many jobs until one can settle into a final career. This specified method of job hunting is most commonly referred to as occupational excellence. The
text Organizational Behavior: Foundations, Realities and Challenges defines occupational excellence as continually honing skills that can be marketed across organizations. Businesses used to from on job histories littered by frequent job hopping, but it can now be considered a part of an individuals personal training. According to Lee (1998): Career professionals agree that in terms of jobs, there are lots of opportunities worth taking risks for. However, one is advised by business professionals to have a specified plan and reason for job hopping that will lead to a final and fruitful career. By practicing organizational excellence, one can also help in their companys organizational empowerment. Organizational empowerment comes when an organization depends on and gives power to its employees to help remain competitive by being innovative and creative. When an employee has experience outside of a company doing a similar task or job, they can offer possible different methods that can help keep a business both competitive and innovative.
edit]Organizational Design and Structure

Key Organizational Design Processes
[edit]15.1
To eliminate confusion and to successfully complete the goals within an organization one has to us a design process which with bring together tasks, enhanced communication and superior relationships among employees in departments. Differentiation and Integration are essential in the foundation of an organizational design process. Differentiation has many dimensions which permit a decision on how to decide work loads. There are three different forms of differentiation; horizontal, vertical and spatial horizontal. Large organizations commonly use methods to create departments and specialized jobs. Integration is a process in which helps keep a dynamic balance within the organization. Integration has a vertical line which enables an individual to go up the hierarchical chart to get answers and find solutions to a problem. Vertical linkages will provide meaning and understanding to the individual and their job. Management information systems use vertical linkage between employee and manager to provide faster and more efficient communication. Information systems can definitely decrease the number of miscommunications and will allow the organization to focus more strongly on individuals, groups, departments and divisions to complete their tasks and goals. Horizontal integration provides links in organizations departments. Integration increases teams, roles and other integrator positions. Spatial differentiation gives organizations political and legal advantages within their country. In all horizontal, vertical, and differentiation are important structures for an organization because it shows the width, height, and breath or organization needs.
[edit]15.2
Basic Design Dimensions
There are six basic design dimensions of an organization. This is a way to establish a level of structural dimensions from high to low and also develops a form of structure that is desired. One of these six basic designs is formalization. This is basically an employees role that is written down, such as a job description. Second of these six basic designs is centralization. Centralization is a form decision-making through out an
organization. Third of these six basic designs is specialization. Meaning, when tasks are turned into separate jobs making job titles spell out the job description. Forth of these six basic designs is Standardization. When this is used, a job is the same thing everyday with little change. Fifth of these six basic designs is Complexity. This happens when there are multiple activities going on within the organization and job force is more complex. Lastly the six basic designs is hierarchy of authority. Hierarchy of authority is the different levels of management throughout an organization.
[edit]15.3
Five Structural Configurations
Organizational Structures are classified in 5 categories that were proposed by Mintzberg. The 5 Structural configurations propose by Mintzberg are: Simple Structure- centralized form of organization that emphasizes the upper echelon and direct supervision. Most small business is run this way. Machine Bureaucracy a moderately form of organization that emphasizes the technical staff and standardization of work processes. Professional Bureaucracy- decentralized form of organization that emphasized the operating core and standardization of skills. Hospitals are an example. Divisionalized form moderately decentralized of organization that emphasizes the middle level and standardization of outputs. This configuration is composed of divisions that have their organizations structure. Adhocracy a selectively decentralized form of organization that emphasizes the support of staff and mutual adjustment among people.
[edit]15.4
Contextual Variables
There are four contextual variables in the design process of an organization. The number of employees is considered to be the size of the organization. Size is an integral part in design process of an organization. The second variable that is technology is anything an organization can use to make the outputs of the organization less complicated. Organizations must be careful with the installation of technology because it usually increases the complexity of the organization and the difficulty of the task at hand. Third is every thing outside of the organization is which is considered to be the environment. Situations where circumstances are directly and indirectly associated with organization are also considered to environment. Last there are strategy and goals which are the plans and objectives of the organizational design. No one variable appears to be more important then the other that but they must all is utilized together in the design of an organization.
edit]References
1. Joyce, K, R. Pabayo, J.A. Critchley, and C. Bambra. 2010. Flexible Working Conditions and Their Effects on Employee Health and WellBeing. The Cochrane Collaboration: Cochrane
Reviews.http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab008009.html (Accessed February 19, 2010). 2. Fonner, Kathryn L., and Michael E. Roloff. 2010. Why Teleworkers are More Satisfied with Their Jobs than are Office-Based Workers: When Less Contact is Beneficial. Journal of Applied Communication Research 38:336. 3. Herring, Cedric. 2009. Does Diversity Pay?: Race, Gender, and the Business Case for Diversity. American Sociological Review 74:208-224. 4. a b c dobbin, frank, alexandra kalev, and erin kelly. 2007. diversity management in corporate america. Contexts 6:21-27. 5. Brand, Jennie E. and Sarah A. Burgard. 2008. Job Displacement and Social Participation over the Life Course: Findings for a Cohort of Joiners. Social Forces 87(1):211242.
Bhide, A. & H. H. Stevens, Why Be Honest if Honesty Doesnt Pay? Harvard Business Review (September-October 1990): 121-129.
Bommer W. H., E.W. Miles, and C.L. Grover. Does One Good Turn Deserve Another? Coworker Influences on Employee Citizenship. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 24. (2003): 181-196.
Burnstein, E. and Y. Schul, "The Informational Basis of Social Judgments: Operations in Forming an Impression of another Person,"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 18 (1982): 217-234.
Frank, M.G and P. Ekman, "Appearing Truthful Generalizes Across Different Deception Situations," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004): 486-495.
Green, Christopher D. Cognitive Dissonance journal. York University, Toronto, Ontario. (1959): 203-210.
Heider, F. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: Wiley, 1958).
Herzberg, F. Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland: World (1966). 19 November 2006.
House, J.S., K.R. Landis, and D. Umberson, "Social Relationships and Health," Science 241 (1988): 540-545
Judge, T.A. and R. Ilies, Relationships of Personality to Performance Motivation: A meta-Analytic Review, Journal of Applied Psychology 87 797807
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McClelland, D.C. and D. Burnham, Power is the Great Motivator. Harvard Business Review 54 (1976): 102. 19 November 2006.
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Morand, D.A. "Language and Power: An Empirical Analysis of Linguistic Strategies Used in Superior-Subordinate Communication," Journal of Organizational Behavior 21 (2000)235-249
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Mussweiler, T., S. Gabriel, and G. V. Bodenhausen, Shifting Social Identities as a Strategy for Deflecting Threatening Social Comparisons, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000): 398-409.
Nelson, Debra L., James Quick, "Organizational Behavior" 5t ed. Thompson Corporation, Mason, 2006
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F.Lee and L. Z. Tiedens,"Who's Being Served? 'Self-Serving' Attributions in Social Hierarchies," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 84, No. 2 (March 2001):254-287.
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F. C. Brodback et al.,"Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes across 22 European Countries," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 73 (2000): 1-29
Schopler, J et al." When Groups are More Competitive than Individuals: The Domain of Discontinuity Effect" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80 (2001): 632-644.
Lewicki, R.J. et al.Negotiation, 2nd Edition. (1994). B. Morris, "Is Your Family Wrecking Your Career? (And Vice Versa)," Fortune (March 17, 1997): 70-80.
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edit]External Links
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Collaborative Learning
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Collaborative learning has taken on many forms. One form is Collaborative Networked Learning for the selfdirected adult learner. Dr. Charles Findley,Ph.D., began exploring and coined the term Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL) in the mid 1980's as part of the work on designing the classroom of the future for the knowledge worker. Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL) is that learning which occurs via electronic dialogue between selfdirected co-learners and learners and experts. Learners share a common purpose, depend upon each other and are accountable to each other for their success. CNL occurs in interactive groups in which participants actively communicate and negotiation meaning with one another. Three important considerations motivate the focus on CNL in this resource.
Contents
[hide]
1 CNL is sound educational practice. 2 CNL is sound business practice.
3 Collaboration is a condition of learning in the information workplace. 4 Collaboration in Groups: Intra-personal and Interpersonal Communication 5 Collaboration--Across Time and Distance
o o o
5.1 Channel Selection 5.2 Feedback Strategy: Feedback messages without nonverbal clues 5.3 Eliciting and contributing Feedback

6 References 7 Appendix
5.3.1 Process Facilitationhow are we doing as a group 5.3.2 Feedback about group process is important. 5.3.3 Collaborative Group Productivity suggestions
7.1 JOBS IN THE FUTURE
7.1.1 LONG RANGE 7.1.2 MID RANGE 7.1.3 PRESENT
7.2 Information Technology: Communication and Computers(C sq.) become Utility
7.2.1 LONG RANGE 7.2.2 MID-RANGE 7.2.3 PRESENT
7.3 Characteristics of Information Society
o o
7.3.1 LONG RANGE 7.3.2 MID RANGE 7.3.3 PRESENT
7.4 Key trends in individual thoughts and Values 7.5 Long Range Goals:Key Themes in Learning Environments
[edit]
7.5.1 The learning environment knows about itself and the user within it
CNL is sound educational practice.
Researchers and educators have contrasted collaborative activities with two other categories-- competitive and individualistic. Competitive activities, for example, include those in which only one person can win, or where learners compete for grades, rank, or status, rather than when all members focus on achieving mastery or competence. Individualistic activities, for example, include working in isolation with no interaction with others, or
when a learner interacts only with a self-paced manual or CBI, rather than when all members share ideas with each other. The overwhelming conclusion of research in the goals of learning environments is that collaborative,cooperative goal directed activities lead to higher achievement. Overall higher achievement translates into higher productivity.
[edit]
CNL is sound business practice.
Much work in the information age enterprise involves collaborative, team oriented tasks. Learning workers share information with one another in order to accomplish common tasks in a small group. Professionals share information with each other, and learn something about each others' specialization in order to reach consensus on a common problem. Assembly line workers have increased productivity when workers learned from each other how their different individual parts of the task fit together to produce the whole. All of these different learning workers are engaging in activities which involve collaboration. Life-long learning in the workplace is becoming a necessity rather than an ideal. The need for collaboration is great and will continue. By facilitating collaborative methods of learning, we could help workers acquire individually and collectively the rapidly, changing knowledge required in the high-tech workplace.
Collaboration is a condition of learning in the information workplace.

[edit]
While the worker in the industrial era factory learned how to manipulate objects and memorized actions, the worker in the modern organization learns how to think, learn and apply information to a task. 1. Workers need to engage in activities that allow them to approach problems from different vantage points, testing out assumptions,and redefining meanings,i.e.creative thinking in order to develop new viewpoints. 2. Workers need to engage in the social,collaborative exchange of ideas in order to pose hypothetical problems, general hypotheses, conduct experiments and reflect on outcomes. Basically, workers are learning in groups to make meaning out of information. Not only do workers need to make meaning out of the information but in order to actually perform their jobs they need to be able to share that meaning with others.
This guide is to serve as a basic resource for individuals planning, implementing, and participating in
Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL) communities as co-learners. The general guidelines provided here draw upon published research and from experience with successful applications of different CNL models.
Collaboration in Groups: Intra-personal and Interpersonal Communication

[edit]
Collaborative Learning, therefore, would occur in the context of a group with a mission or agreed-uponpurpose. The work involves the structuring and restructuring of conceptual knowledge. The final product is a message, an external artifact of the group knowledge at a particular point in time, which communicates the knowledge of the group. The message might take the form of a program, a report, a strategy document, a diagram, a drawing etc. Learning-work involves the cognitive processes of assimilation--intake of information from the environment, accommodation--restructuring to fit new into the old, present structure, and integration-directly fitting information into existing structure. And most importantly it involves the resolution of conflict between old and new structures,which can lead to innovation. Two communication processes or type of dialogs are involved in collaborative learning: (1) Intra-personal communication--integration, and accommodation--involves processing within the individual. (2) Interpersonal communication involves assimilation-- the intake of information from the environment--and representation of one's knowledge structure in a form and medium that can be shared with another person. As one person shares ideas with another person, the process becomes an on-going loop from assimilation through representation of knowledge structures. At any point the learner may represent his/her ideas in order to test out hypotheses to gain agreement or validation. When members of a mission oriented group create shared knowledge structure and produce an artifact such as a written report or a software program, for example, they engage in learning to created a product which is their collective knowledge.
[edit]
Collaboration--Across Time and Distance

Selection
[edit]Channel
Electronically networked group involves different communication channels than when working one to one. Selecting an appropriate channel for the each tasks may accomplish the objectives. Adler and Elmhost (2005) consider five important factors to help one decide when, where and how to communicate, such as the time required to receive feedback, amount of information conveyed, senders control over the message, control over receivers attention and effectiveness for detailed message. In order to determine when to meet face-to-face or when to send e-mail or perhaps when to send a simple instant text message, consult Table 1.1 page 13 in Adler and Rodman, Understanding Human Communication 9th edition for guidance.
[edit]Feedback
Strategy: Feedback messages without nonverbal clues
As part of a face-to-face group individuals are constantly reading the nonverbal communication such as gestures, facial express, voice tone, and change in body position. In essence, the communicators are monitoring the interaction looking for feedback that says "how things are going." These feedback messages are both verbal and non-verbal. Communicators become accustomed to reading the nonverbal messages for level of understanding, agreement, or meaning that is shared among the participants in the interaction. In many collaborative networked environments, the non-verbal messages are reduced or non-existent. Participants develop special strategies for eliciting and sharing feedback in networked environments. For example, in an electronic network involving only text-based computer mediated communication (CMC) the feedback is more restricted than in other networks.
[edit]Eliciting
and contributing Feedback
[edit]Process Facilitationhow are we doing as a group

While any participant may assume responsibility for eliciting feedback and confirming meaning from other participants, all members of the learning group share the responsibility for clarification and confirmation. Each individual participates actively to let others know their current level of understanding or acceptance. David and Roger Johnson (1994) offer some general advice for providing feedback which will help create a group context which supports group communication. Based on their research in collaborative group learning environments, they offer the following ground rules for providing effective feedback: Effective feedback is as immediate as possible; rather than allowing misunderstandings to multiple and continue through a series of exchanges, members check for understanding regularly. Effective feedback focuses on description and personal interpretations of messages rather than judgment or evaluation. Effective feedback focuses on the particular message or behavior of the participant rather than imagined personality traits. Effective feedback is personal such as I perceive... or I understand rather than impersonal such as The general perception is..... or The level of understanding is ...... Effective feedback provides only the amount of information that can be understood or is meaningful at the time, rather than a dissertation. Effective feedback is specific and focused rather than general and abstract. It is meaningful within the present context of the group communication.
[edit]Feedback about group process is important.

One often neglected aspect of feedback is the collaborative process itself. The Johnsons suggest that members of a group who are attempting to engage in collaborative group work focus feedback on group
process as well as the specific content of the group efforts. Elaine Kerr (1985,p.16) " Small task-oriented groups need to occasionally pause to talk about the process itself: participant rates, the tone of the conversation, conflicts, feelings about the process, impacts, observations and problems of using the system, equipment..." Creating a special time or electronic space for this type of feedback is vital to the on-going success of the collaboration. If the team is to continue to collaborate and grow as a group, then it will need to focus on its own interaction as a group. Sharing observations about process in the group can help group members become aware of where the group is collectively and how individuals have contributed to that direction. Observation of this nature provides the feedback necessary for groups to improve their overall productivity and satisfaction.
[edit]Collaborative Group Productivity suggestions

Get to Know the members Review the background introduction profiles Share fears, success and concerns about collaborative team work Group Memory As part of the work process it is important to create a group memory or repository of content date. Use the chat room with record selected to archive the decisions and discussion. Use the discussion forum conference to post and discuss ideas rather than sending individual attachment emails. Project Management Hints Create time tables for different phases. Set expectations about individual and group deliverables. Follow-up discussion and meetings with summarized agreements and reminders of timelines.
[edit]
References
Adler, Ronald B. and J. M. Elmhorst. Communicating at Work: Principles and Practices for Business and the Professions, 8th ed. (New York, McGraw-Hill, 2005) Pp. 32-33.
Adler, Ronald B. and George Rodman. Understanding Human Communication. 9th ed. (New York, Oxford University Press, 2006) p. 13.
Bransford, John et al.1986. " Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving" American Psychologist. 41,10,pp.1078-1088.
Friedman, Thomas. 2005. The World is Flat: A brief History of the Twenty-first Century. New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Findley, Charles A. 1989. Open Communication Systems Beyond the Classroom. Presentation at World Future Society, July 16-20, Washington, D.C.
________________. 1989. Collaborative Learning-work. Presentation at the Pacific Telecommunications Council 1989 Conference, January 15-20, Honolulu, Hawaii.
_________________. 1988. Collaborative Networked Learning: On-line Facilitation and Software Support, Digital Equipment Corporation. Burlington, MA.
_________________. 1987. Integrated Learning and Information Support Systems for the Information Age Worker. Presentation at World Future Society Conference, Cambridge, MA., November 1987.
Johnson, David W. and Roger T. Johnson
Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic learning(4th edition) Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1994.
Kerr,Elaine. 1985. "Electronic Leadership:
A Guide to Moderating On-line Conferences," IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications, Vol. PC 29, No 1, p.16.
Levy, Frank and Richard J. Murnane. 2005. The New Division of Labor: How Computers Are Creating the Next Job Market Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.
Peters. Thomas J. and Robert Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York: Harper and Row.
Peters, Thomas J. (2006). Re-Imagine!: Business Excellence in a Disruptive Age (Paperback). New York: Dorling Kindersley Adult.
[edit]
Appendix
This provides some more substance and documentation for the general listing of trends.
[edit]JOBS [edit]LONG
IN THE FUTURE
RANGE
1) There will be a shortfall of approximately 50 million jobs by 2010. (Alan Porter, FUTURIST,Sept/Oct 1986) 2) The "job" is the cornerstone of our social structure. It provides for economic, social, and psychological needs. Take it away and society could collapse--unless we plan ahead.(Alan Porter, FUTURIST,Sept/Oct 1986) (3) Self-learning programs will be on the market in specific domains so that they can generalize from experience,i.e. learn new information; therefore, individual will not have to learn content but how to access new knowledge (information) from the learning machine supporting the work.
[edit]MID
RANGE
(1)The first jobs to be replaced will be the procedural since they are the easiest to be automated,e.g. robotics in manufacturing,assemble line work. (2) More and more intelligent, self-monitoring and self-diagnosing programs on microprocessors are being included in products. (3) New jobs will require workers who can make decisions, solve problem and think independently since the routine control, monitoring, and procedural tasks will be performed by intelligent machines.
[edit]PRESENT
Industrial era has ended; we have moved into a post-industrial era with a central focus on information and service. GM uses programmable controllers in manufacturing; GM is making a substantial long-term investment in Automation. American corporations reduce manufacturing staff. IBM offers early retirement options beginning at age 45. Bundled solutions with SW/HW products.
QUESTIONS: What trends do you see in product strategy, job descriptions, personnel policies etc that reinforce or contradict this trend?
[edit]Information
Technology: Communication and Computers(C sq.)
become Utility
[edit]LONG
RANGE
Csq. adapts to you, knows you, and adapts, intelligent C sq. becomes interactive partner in on-going dialog
(1)Knowledge processing schemes with parallel processing, associative memory, and inference/knowledge processing rather than stored-program schemes of von-Neumann computer architectures (2)Japanese Fifth Generation--smaller, more powerful, and more intelligent 1991 projections Report
1)Very High Performance Computer Systems--100gates/chip 2)Seven-Dimension VLSI 3) Biocomputers--modeling of Human brain, biochips, and new computer architecture using human brain as model [e.g. study of connectionist theory relevant at this level] (Hideo Aiso, Chair Fifth Generation Computer Systems Project, speech "Research Topics in Japanese national Projects for Information Technology" presented October 10, 1986 at Digital Equipment Corp. Hudson, Mass.
(3)New Computing machines could not only be much faster and cheaper, but could achieve the elusive goals of recognizing images, understanding speech, and exhibiting more intelligent behavior. (Michael L. Dertouzos, The Multiprocessor Revolution: Harnessing Computers Together, TECHNOLOGY REVIEW, February/March 1986)
[edit]MID-RANGE
1)mini-computers, micro-computers, to lap-top, to knee-top all with the same power,.e.g. more memory on a chip--more power and memory in smaller size (e.g. follow product strategy from floor model TV to hand held "Watchman.") 2)all data-types(including but not limited to real time audio,video, text, graphics) will be processed and transmitted as part of the home and office infospere. 3) "Whether you're talking about the office or the home, I don't think you'll be able to tell the difference between your telephone and your computer as time goes on." John Roach, Tandy Corporation Chairman, PERSONAL COMPUTING, Sept. 1985 4)Computer Aid Communication (CAC) becomes common place in organizations. (See Chandler Stevens,ELECTRONIC ORGANIZATION and EXPERT NETWORKS, report 5.41.011 from Management in the 1990's project at MIT.)
[edit]PRESENT
(1)"A revolution is taking place within the information revolution. It involves harnessing hundreds, thousands, or even millions of computers to work together on a single task. The technological and economic forces spurring this revolution arise form two important trends. On the one hand is the dramatic improvement over the past two
decades in very-large-scale-integrated (VLSI) circuits, which now incorporate some hundred-thousand components on a silicon chip. The cost of computational power has dropped an average of 30 percent annually. For less than $100 manufacturers can now fabricate a microprocessor--the computational core of a computer etched on a single chip-- capable of performing more than a million instructions per second." (Michael L. Dertouzos, The Multiprocessor Revolution: Harnessing Computers Together, TECHNOLOGY REVIEW, February/March 1986,p45.) (2)Local and wide-area networks marketed. ('Power,status' based on withholding information breaks down. (See discussion of information society.) (3)Video-phone's on the market using voice over internet or cable (4)Phone slave project at MIT (5)In 1984, 40% of the Fortune 500 Industry and Service companies had local area networks, projected to be 72% 1985. It is clear from the study that respondents have a good understanding of word processing equipment and personal computers. But there is a lot of confusion as to the linkage between these tools. (The Office Automation Challenge: American Business Responds prepared by the OMNI GROUP, reported in COMPUTER WORLD April,1984) (6)Electronic mail (e.g. mail and ateways to the world from office or home terminal) and electronic conferencing (e.g. Conferencing, public and private bulletin boards and collaborative information creation)
QUESTIONS (1)F. S. engineers working with networks need different type of problem-solving analysis, and independent thinking skills than their counterparts. (How was this addressed and are their other indicators that educaiton and training will change?) (2)Did training change to adjust to the market in 1984? Also the level of training required shifts from the clerical worker to the system administrator did it?
[edit]Characteristics [edit]LONG
of Information Society
RANGE
(1)Using Toffler's framework, the Third Wave, based on information and electronic technology with mature and become clearly dominate in the next 10 years. Another period of innovation and high growth will occur, lasting about 25 years. A third period of Third Wave innovation will take off and last us until about 2045, at which point the economy will decline until the next wave of technology comes into dominance: the Cybernetic Wave. (H. Alan Raymond. Management in the Third Wave. THE FUTURIST. Sept./Oct. 1986. p. 15-17. (2) The rate of change is increasing and continuous. (See Alvin Toffler. 1980. THE THIRD WAVE. Bantan Books,New York.)
[edit]MID
RANGE
(1)Individual's are becoming more specialized in their area of endeavor. Problem-solving and decision making require integration from number of specialized. (2)Multiple dissimilar databases can be searched without changing the structure of the representation within the individual databases. (See notes on Hudson seminar and I 3 work)
(3)" The increased adoption of knowledge-distribution technology, super- imposed on the geometrically increasing knowledge base, will necessarily result in a knowledge environment that is dramatically more munificent ( or burdening) than is that of today. " George Huber. The Nature and Design of Post-industrial Organizations. MANAGEMENT SCIENCE Vol 30, 8, Aug 1984, p.,931 (4)Corporations will invest in the workers and technologies that best extract and process information resources.
[edit]PRESENT
(1)The information age of the post-industrial era has replaced the industrial era. New demands for information, its creation, management, use and distribution are needed. (2)Providing access to more information is prevalent vs. right information to meet demand is waiting for solution. (3)Work is underway to design Collaborative Working environment tools
MCC conference in December 1986 Debbie Tatter's group at Xerox PARC GDSS ( Group Decision Support Systems) are being designed to help facilitate the need for shared information within organizations. AS typical GDSS consists of a meeting room with a conference table. Each seating position has a small CRT terminal. Input at these terminals is by keyboard, touchscreen, mouse, or some combination of these devices. The meeting's participants are able to create displays on their CRT's and to select portions of their 'personal' display for forwarding to a public display screen. George Huber, Issues in the Design of Group Decision Support Systems, MIS QUARTERLY, September 1984 p.195.
(4)Life-cycle of information--the information explosion is continuing at an every expanding rate. Product training is outdated before printed because of the faster rate and number of new products introduced into the marketplace. For example, training groups develop courses printed 1600 pages of material on products for new
hire training. It was outdated before delivered to the audience. (Reference key points from Huber and Ackoff about organizations, information, and post-industrial society).
QUESTIONS (1)What database solutions are people developing to handle information needs? What complaints are their about too much/or not enough information? (2)Is information being managed as a Corp. resource? (3)Are the right people getting the information they need to perform their tasks?
[edit]Key
trends in individual thoughts and Values
A premium was placed upon obedience and loyalty in the industrial organizational structure. Thinking and innovation only upset rigid, planned structures and were not highly valued. Tasks including management with simplified down to their lowest level so that almost anyone do do them. People, like parts, were interchangeable and standardized. A new monetary premium is being placed on the individual, on thinking and on innovation, and on the speed and precision of execution. Decision making and responsibility are again required of the individual who may less easily pass the buck and must be financially responsible for his area or product, as the corporate pyramid flattens, i.e. four levels of management from the bottom to top is goal of many organizations today. [Look at your organization and count the levels.] Decisions in a faster-paced economy cannot wait for endless committee meetings and analysis that would only allow the competition to win. Fast decisions require a maximum of information and instant and precise analysis. This, in turn, requires better and more highly educated personnel, who also must be innovative in using new technology. Individuals are becoming less easily interchanged and more intrinsic to the business. (H. Alan Raymond. Management in the Third Wave. THE FUTURIST. Sept./Oct. 1986. p. 15-17. Marilyn Ferguson. 1980. THE AQUARIAN CONSPIRACY:PERSONAL AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE 1980's. Sherry Turkle. 1984. THE SECOND SELF: COMPUTERS AND the HUMAN SPIRIT.
[edit]Long
Range Goals:Key Themes in Learning Environments
Holistic approach to person and process with less focus on product. Product will be more intelligent and will help you use it.
Needs analysis and problem definition tools such as decision support for manager and instructional design will become much, much more sophisticated than today taking into consideration all variables effecting total solution for client. Needs analysis becomes interactive and self monitoring rather than a discrete part of dead end process. Methods will not just be limited to text based but will include multiple sensory inputs with simulations. More sophisticated matching of means with ends in terms of "training" solution. New ways of testing/indicating knowing--suggest looking at paradigm such as (1)doesn't know (2)consciously aware of knowing (3) unconsciously conscious of knowing, DON'T TEST 'HOW TO' CONTENT instead PERFORMANCE defined in broad since related to job, not trivial performance as in behavioral objectives. ===More learning on job with intelligent systems that are adaptable and tolerable to individual=== Possibly less learning on the part of the individual and more learning from computer, so that computer monitors job tasks and strategies employed becomes more intelligent and thus becomes intelligent job aid for worker who just has to use the computer, e.g. self-referential programs. Need to consider not only the physical dimension, but the social and task/ knowledge requirements of any learning situation. Instructors can not possibly know everything about a particular area thus the "instructor" is not a disseminator of information but a facilitator, guide or coach for the learner, i.e. equality of learner with the human or machine manager of learning environment. Content has to change to help learner move beyond rote memorization, stress process, learning how to learn, visualization, decision making, thinking and problem solving. Social environment of designer of learning environments and experience has to change drastically because the social environment is reflected in the tools, e.g. top down, structured programming in an era of object- oriented programming, parallel processing, and networks. The user controls the learning process rather than the process being controlled by an outside designer, teacher or system.
[edit]The learning environment knows about itself and the user within it
System is maintained by a "maintenance librarian" program. Content (is process) is flexible and evolving, need processes in place to replace outdated information automatically, need ways to know what the learner doesn't need to be learning anymore.
There is a spectrum of solutions, for any learning problem--need to have way of analyzing situation and recommending solution. Subjects: Books to be broken into subpages | Books needing formatting | Collaborative Learning | Learning theory What do you think of this page? Please take a moment to rate this page below. Your feedback is valuable and helps us improve our website. Reliability: Presentation:
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Survey of Communication Study/Chapter 4 - History of Communication Study

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Contents
[hide]
1 Chapter 4
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1.1 The History of Human Communication Study 1.2 Old School: The Four Early Periods of Communication Study
1.2.1 The Classical Period (500 BCE-400 CE) 1.2.2 The Medieval Period (400 CE-1400 CE) 1.2.3 The Renaissance (1400-1600 CE) 1.2.4 The Enlightenment (1600-1800 CE)
1.3 New School: Communication Study in the 20th Century
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1.3.1 The Emergence of a Contemporary Academic Field 1.3.2 1900-1940 1.3.3 1940-1970 1.3.4 1970 to the Present Day
1.4 Communication Study Today and Tomorrow 1.5 Summary
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1.6 Discussion Questions 1.7 Key Terms and People 1.8 References
Chapter 4
History of Human Communication Study
[edit]The
Chapter Objectives:
C
ommunication is an increasingly popular major at colleges and universities. In fact, according The Princeton Review: Guide to College
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
Identify the four early periods of communication study. Explain the major changes in communication study in the 20th century. Identify major scholars who helped shape the field of Communication.
Discuss how Communication departments and professional organizations formed. Majors (2005), Communication is the 8th most popular major
in the U.S (p. 13). With increased demands placed on students to have excellent communication skills in their careers, many students choose to earn their degree in Communication. Most of us implicitly understand that humans have always communicated, but many do not realize that the intellectual study of communication has taken place for thousands of years. As with the rest of the book, this chapter is divided by events that preceded the industrial revolution (2500 BCE 1800s), and those that occurred after the industrial revolution (1850s-Present). Previous to the invention of the printing press, which pre-dated the industrial revolution by a few hundred years, the formal study of communication was relatively slow. However, as a result of the printing press and the rapid expansion of technology that followed during the industrial age that increased the amount of easily shared information, the formal study of communication gained considerable momentum, developing into what you now understand as Communication departments and majors at colleges and universities around the country. To keep our focus on the two time periods that greatly mark the development of communication study, we have divided this chapter into the Old School and New School. Part I focuses on Old School communication study by highlighting the origins of our field through the works of classical rhetorical scholars in ancient Greece and moving through the enlightenment period that ushered in the industrial age. Part II focuses on the New School of communication study by identifying how the four early periods influenced the development of communication study over the last 100+ years into what it is today.
[edit]Old
School: The Four Early Periods of Communication Study
T
o fully appreciate the current state of communication study, its important to have a historical perspectivenot only to understand the field itself, but also to know how you ended up in a Communication class or major. Over time, the study of communication has largely been prompted by the current social issues of particular time periods. Knowing this, well examine the pertinent questions, topics, and scholars of the Classical, Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment periods to find out what they learned about communication to help them, before highlighting the rapid growth of contemporary communication. There is a written historical bias that gives the accomplishments of male scholars in Ancient Greece the greatest recognition for the early development of our field. Because society favored and privileged males, it is often difficult to find written records of the accomplishments of others. We believe it is essential that you understand that many of the earliest influences on communication study also came from feminine and Eastern perspectives, not just the men of ancient Greek society. No doubt youve heard of Aristotle, but ancient Indian literature shows evidence of rhetorical theory pre-dating Aristotle by almost half a century. In fact, Indians were so attuned to the importance of communication, they worshipped the goddess of speech, Vach (Gangal & Hosterman, 1982). The Theosophical Society (2005) states: To call Vach speech simply, is deficient in clearness. Vach is the mystic personification of speech, and the female Logos, being one with Brahma.In one sense Vach is speech by which knowledge was taught to man..she is the subjective Creative Force whichbecomes the manifested world of speech. The Mypurohith Encyclopaedia (2005) tells us that: Vach appears to be the personification of speech by whom knowledge was communicated to man.who, created the waters from the world [in the form] of speech (Vach). Unfortunately, many of our fields histories exclude works other than those of Ancient Greek males. Throughout the book, we try to provide a balanced view of the field by weaving in feminine and Eastern traditions to provide you with a well-rounded perspective of the development of communication study around the world. Lets start by focusing on the earliest period of the Old School The Classical Period.
[edit]The
Classical Period (500 BCE-400 CE)
In the cult-classic 1989 movie, Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure, two air-headed teenagers use time-travel to study history for a school project. Along the way they kidnap a group of historical figures, including Socrates. During their encounter with Socrates, Ted tells Bill, "Ah, here it is, So-crates... 'The only true wisdom is in knowing that you know nothing. That's us, dude!" Unless you are able to time-travel, you will have to read about the early founders of Old School communication, such as Aspasia, Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato. It was at the Lyceum approximately 2,500 years ago that Aristotle and other rhetoricians taught public speaking and persuasion, which marks what we refer to as the Classical Period of communication study. If youve taken a college public-speaking class, youve probably learned and applied principles of public speaking developed during the Classical Period. During this time, people placed high value on the spoken word and argumentation skills; accentuated emotion and logic to persuade others; and developed guidelines for public presentations. It is largely agreed-upon that the formal study of communication began approximately 2,500 years ago in Greece and Sicily. It is here that we will begin our tour of Ancient Greece with the fantastic fourAspasia of Miletus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotlewho have come to be regarded as the foremother and forefathers of rhetoric and the field of Communication as a whole. Then, well turn to scholars who extended the work of the fantastic fourCorax, Tisias, Cicero, Quintilian and Pan Chao. The argument can be made that our field primarily emphasizes the contributions of men because women were routinely excluded from education as well as other public institutions during this time. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that several women actively contributed to this period (Harris, 1989), participating in and receiving educational opportunities not afforded to most women. This begs the question, If some women were receiving advanced education and producing work in philosophy and rhetoric themselves, then it becomes more puzzling to explain the absence of any surviving texts by them (Bizzell &
Herzberg, 1990, p. 26). So, who can we look to as an example of a prominent female scholar during this early period? Aspasia of Miletus (469 BCE) is an excellent example of an educated woman who is often credited as the mother of rhetoric (Glenn, 1995). Although relatively little is known about her scholarship because of her disappearance from history circa 401 BCE, Aspasia of Miletus is believed to have taught rhetoric and home economics to Socrates. Her influence extends to Plato as well who argued that belief and truth are not always interchangeable. Even Cicero used Aspasias lesson on induction as the centerpiece for his argumentation chapter in De Inventione (Glenn). Aspasias social position was that of a hetaera, or romantic companion, who was more educated than respectable women, and [was] expected to accompany men on occasions where conversation with a woman was appreciated, but wives were not welcome (Carlson, 1994, p. 30). Her specialty was philosophy and politics, and she became the only female member of the elite Periclean circle. In this circle she made both friends and enemies as a result of her political savvy and public speaking ability. Aspasia was described as one of the most educated women of her era and was determined to be treated as an equal to men (an early feminist to say the least!). She was born into privilege in Miletus, a Greek settlement on the coast of Western Turkey, and did not have many of the same restrictions as other women, working her way to prominence most often granted only to the men of her time. During this period Pericles, the Athenian ruler and Aspasias partner, treated Aspasia as an equal and allowed her every opportunity to engage in dialogue with the important and educated men of society. Socrates acknowledged Aspasia as having one of the best intellects in the city. With this intellect and the opportunities presented to her, Aspasia was politically progressive, influencing the works of many of the men who are mostoften credited with founding our field (PBS, 2005). With Aspasias work influencing his education, Socrates (469-399 BCE) greatly influenced the direction of the Classical Period. Most of what we know about Socrates comes from the writings of his student Plato (429-347 BCE) who wrote about rhetoric in the form of dialogues
where the main character was Socrates. This era produced much discussion regarding the best ways to write and deliver speeches, with a great deal of the debate focusing on the importance of truth and ethics in public speaking. From these writings, the idea of the dialectic was born. While this term has been debated since its inception, Plato conceptualized it as a process of questions and answers that would lead to ultimate truth and understanding. Think for a moment about contemporary situations where people use this process. Have you ever had a discussion with a professor where he/she questioned you about your interpretation of a poem? Consider the role that a therapist takes when he/she asks you a series of questions to bring greater clarity in understanding your own thoughts, motives, and behavioral patterns. These are just two examples of dialectic at work. What others can you think of? While Plato contributed a great deal to classical rhetorical theory he was also very critical of it. In Georgias, Plato argued that because rhetoric does not require a unique body of knowledge it is a false, rather than true, art. Similarly, Socrates was often suspicious of the kind of communication that went on in the courts because he felt it was not concerned with absolute truth. Ultimately, the legal system Socrates held in contempt delivered his fate. He was tried, convicted, and executed on charges of atheism and corrupting Athenian youth with his teachings (Kennedy, 1980). This same sentiment applies today when we think about lawyers in our courts. In the famous O.J. Simpson case in the 1990s, Johnnie Cochran became famous for his phrase If the glove doesnt fit, you must acquit. This received great criticism because it didnt really speak to the absolute truth of the facts of the case, while at the same time, was often credited as the reason O.J. Simpson was found not guilty.
The Classical Period flourished for nearly a millennium in and around Greece as democracy gained prominence in the lives of Greek citizens. During this time, people found themselves in the courts trying to regain family land that earlier tyrants had seized. As we have stated, social problems have guided the development of communication from the earliest periods. Trying to regain family through the court system became a primary social problem that influenced the focus of those studying communication during this time. Early communication practitioners sought the best methods for speaking and persuading. Although the concept of lawyers as we know them did not yet exist at this time in ancient Greece (Scallen, 2005), people needed effective persuasive speaking skills to get their family land back. Where did they learn these skills? They learned them from early speech teachers known as Sophists. Resourceful individuals such as Corax and Tisias (400s BCE) taught effective persuasive speaking to citizens who needed to use these skills in courts to regain land ownership (Kennedy, 1980).
Like Corax and Tisias, Sophists were self-appointed professors of how to succeed in the civic life of the Greek states (Kennedy, p. 25). The word sophist comes from the root sophos meaning wise and is often translated to mean craftsman. They taught citizens how to communicate to win an argument or gain influence in the courts, as well as governmental assemblies. Sometimes, the motivation of Sophists was in conflict with other rhetoricians like Plato and Aristotle. Plato and Aristotle were committed to using communication to search for absolute truth. When Sophists taught communication in ways that sought anything less than absolute truth, it upset rhetoricians like Plato and Aristotle. Plato even went so far as to label the work of Sophists invalid because it depended upon kairos, or the situation, to determine the provisional truth of the issue under contention.
Teaching and Learning Communication Then Sophists: The Original Speech Teachers
Historical records suggest that these two were among the first professional communication teachers that made use of the latest findings in communication for practical purposes. They also formed the basis of what we now recognize as professional lawyers (Scallen, 2005). Another Sophist, Isocrates (436-338 BCE), felt it was more important for a speaker to adapt to the individual speaking situation rather than have a single approach designed for all speaking occasions. It is likely that your public speaking teachers explain the importance of adapting to your audience in all communication situations. Arguably the most famous Greek scholar, Aristotle (384-322 BCE), believed rhetoric could be used to create community. As weve highlighted, dialectic allows people to share and test ideas with one another. Aristotle entered Platos Academy when he was 17 and stayed on as a teacher where he taught public speaking and the art of logical discussion until Platos death in 347 BCE. He then opened his own school where students learned about politics, science, philosophy, and rhetoric (communication). Aristotle taught all of these subjects during his lectures in the Lyceum next to the public gymnasium, or during conversations he had with his students as he strolled along the covered walkway of the peripatos with the Athenian youth. Aristotle defined rhetoric as the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever (Aristotle, trans. 1967, p. 15). We want to highlight two parts of this definition as particularly significant: the possible means and persuasion. The possible means indicates that Aristotle believed in the importance of context and audience analysis when speaking; a specific situation with a particular audience should influence how we craft our messages for each unique speaking situation. Say you want to persuade your parents to give you a little extra cash to make it through the month. Chances are you will work through strategies for persuading them why you need the money, and why they should give it to you. Youll likely reflect on what has worked in the past, what hasnt worked, and what strategy you used last time. From
this analysis, you construct a message that fits the occasion and audience. Now, lets say you want to persuade your roommate to go out with you to Mexican food for dinner. You are not going to use the same message or approach to persuade your roommate as you would your parents. The same logic exists in public speaking situations. Aristotle highlighted the importance of finding the appropriate message and strategy for the audience and occasion in order to persuade. For Aristotle, rhetoric occurs when a person or group of people engage in the process of communicating for the purpose of persuading. Aristotle divided the means of persuasion into three parts, or three artistic proofs, necessary to persuade others: logical reason (logos), human character (ethos), and emotional appeal (pathos). Logos is the presentation of logical, or seemingly logical, reasons that support a speakers position. When you construct the order of your speech and make decisions regarding what to include and exclude, you engage in logos. Ethosis when The orator persuades by moral character when his speech is delivered in such a manner as to render him worthy of confidencemoral characterconstitutes the most effective means of proof (Aristotle, trans. 1967, p.17). Ethos, in short, is speaker credibility. The final proof, pathos, occurs when a speaker touches particular emotions from the audience. Aristotle explains, the judgments we deliver are not the same when we are influenced by joy or sorrow, love or hate. (Aristotle, trans. 1967, p. 17). Super Bowl commercials are often judged as effective or ineffective based on their use of pathos. Many times we consider commercials effective when they produce an emotional response from us such as joy, anger, or happiness. Like Aristotle, Cicero saw the relationship between rhetoric and persuasion and its applicability to politics (Cicero, trans. 1960, p. 15). Quintilian extended this line of thinking and argued that public speaking was inherently moral. He stated that the ideal orator is a good man speaking well (Barilli, 1989). Cicero (106-43 BCE) and Quintilian (c. 35-95 CE) deserve recognition for combining much of what was known from the Greeks and Romans into more complete theoretical ideas.
Think of politicians today. Is your first impression that politicians are good people speaking well? How do Aristotles notions of ethos, logos, and pathos factor in to your perceptions of politicians? Cicero is most famous in the field of communication for creating what we call the five canons of rhetoric, a five-step process for developing a persuasive speech that we still use to teach public speaking today. Invention is the formulation of arguments based on logos--rational appeal or logic. Arrangement is ordering a speech in the most effective manner for a particular audience. Expression or style means fitting the proper language to the invented matter to enhance the enjoyment, and thus acceptability of the argument, by an audience (Cicero, trans. 1960, p. 21). Memory, a vital skill in the Classical Period is less of a requirement in todays public speaking contexts because we now largely believe that memorized speeches often sound too scripted and stale. Notes, cue cards, and teleprompters are all devices that allow speakers to deliver speeches without committing them to memory. Finally, deliveryis the use of nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice during a presentation. If you have taken a public speaking class, have you used some or all of these to construct your presentations? If so, you can see the far reaching effects of the early developments in communication on what we teach today. We want to round out our discussion of the Classical Period by highlighting the work of Pan Chao (c. 45 CE-115 CE). She was the first female historian in China and served as the imperial historian of the court of emperor Han Hedi. She was a strong believer in the benefits of education, and was another of the early female pioneers to argue for the education of girls and women. Writing, in Lessons for Women, on the four qualifications of womanhood (virtue, words, bearing, and work), she said that womanly words, need be neither clever in debate nor keen in conversation, but women should choose words with care; to avoid vulgar language; to speak at appropriate times; and to not weary others (with much conversation), [these] may be called the characteristics of womanly words (Swann, 1932, p. 86).
Even though it began 2500 years ago, the Classical Period was filled with interesting people who made great strides in the formal study of communication to help with the social problems of their day. The Classical Period laid the foundation of our field and continues to impact our modern day practice of studying and performing communication. You have likely learned concepts from the Classical Period in your public speaking classes. Lets examine the Medieval Period and its further development of our field.
[edit]The
Medieval Period (400 CE-1400 CE)
In contrast to the Classical Period, which saw tremendous growth and innovation in the study of communication, the Medieval Period might be considered the dark ages of academic study in our field. During this era, the Greco-Roman culture was dominated by Christian influence after the fall of the Roman Empire. The church felt threatened by secular rhetorical works they considered full of pagan thought. While the church preserved many of the classical teachings of rhetoric, it made them scarce to those not in direct service to the church. A secular education was extremely hard to obtain during the Medieval Period for almost everyone. Even though Christianity condemned communication study as pagan and corrupt, it embraced several aspects of the Classical Period to serve its specific purposes. The ideas from the Classical Period were too valuable for the church to completely ignore. Thus, they focused on communication study to help them develop better preaching and letter writing skills to persuade people to Christianity. Emphasis was placed on persuasion and developing public presentations, both oral and written. Like the Classical Period, those in power continued to stifle womens participation in communication study, keeping them largely illiterate while men served as the overseers of the church and the direction of academic inquiry. One of the most recognizable people from this era was Augustine (354 CE-430 CE), a Christian clergyman and renowned rhetorician who actually argued for the continued development of ideas that had originated during the Classical Period. He thought that the study of
persuasion, in particular, was a particularly worthwhile pursuit for the church. Augustine was a teacher by trade and used his teaching skills as well as knowledge of communication to move men toward truth, which for him was the word of God (Baldwin, 1965). With the exception of Augustine, the formal study of communication took a back seat to a focus on theological issues during the Medieval Period. Fortunately, the study of communication managed to survive as one of the seven branches of a liberal education during this period, but it remained focused on developing presentational styles apt for preaching. Boethius and the Archbishop Isidore of Seville made small efforts to preserve classical learning by reviving the works of Cicero and Quintilian to persuade people to be just and good. Nevertheless, aside from Augustines work, little progress was made during the remaining Medieval years; the formal study of communication literally plunged into the dark ages before reemerging during the Renaissance.
[edit]The
Renaissance (1400-1600 CE)
Powered by a new intellectual movement during this period, secular institutions and governments started to compete with the church for personal allegiances. As more people felt comfortable challenging the churchs approach to education, reinvigorated attention to classical learning and fresh opportunities for scholarly education reemerged. As with the two previous periods weve examined, obtaining education for women was still tough, as many social limitations continued to restrict their access to knowledge.
Teaching and Learning Communication Then Laura Cereta: Defense of the Liberal Instruction of Women
The following is an excerpt of a letter by Cereta to Bibulus Sempronius written January 13, 1488. In an earlier correspondence he praised her as a woman of
intelligence but insulted her as if she was unique among women. This is part of her impassioned response and defense of the education of women.
"All history is full of such examples. My point is that your mouth has grown foul because you keep it sealed so that no arguments can come out of it that might enable you to admit that nature imparts one freedom to all human beings equally - to learn. But the question of my exceptionality remains. And here choice alone, since it is the arbiter of character, is the distinguishing factor. For some women worry about the styling of their hair, the elegance of their clothes, and the pearls and other jewelry they wear on their fingers. Others love to say cute little things, to hide their feelings behind a mask of tranquility, to indulge in dancing, and to lead pet dogs around on a leash. For all I care, other women can long for parties with carefully appointed tables, for the peace of mind of sleep, or they can yearn to deface with paint the pretty face they see reflected in their mirrors. But those women for whom the quest for the good represents a higher value restrain their young spirits and ponder better plans. They harden their bodies with sobriety and toil, they control their tongues, they carefully monitor what they hear, they ready their minds for all-night vigils, and they rouse their minds for the contemplation of probity in the case of harmful literature. For knowledge is not given as a gift but by study. For a mind free, keen, and unyielding in the face of hard work always rises to the good, and the desire for learning grows in the depth and breadth.
So be it therefore. May we women, then, not be
endowed by God the grantor with any giftedness or rare talent through any sanctity of our own. Nature has granted to all enough of her bounty; she opens to all the gates of choice, and through these gates, reason sends legates to the will, for it is through reason that these legates transmit desires. I shall make a bold summary of the matter. Yours is the authority, ours is the inborn ability. But instead of manly strength, we women are naturally endowed with cunning, instead of a sense of security, we are naturally suspicious. Down deep we women are content with our lot. But you, enraged and maddened by the anger of the dog from whom you flee, are like someone who has been frightened by the attack of a pack of wolves. The victor does not look for the fugitive; nor does she who desires a cease-fire with
Despite the continued oppression, several brave women took advantage of the changes brought in by the Renaissance. Christine de Pisan (1365-1429) has been praised as Europes first professional woman writer writing 41 pieces over a 30-year period (Redfern, 1995, p.74). Her most famous work, The Treasure of the Cities of Ladies, provided instruction to women on how they could achieve their potential and create for themselves lives rich in meaning and importance. According to Redfern, while she neither calls herself a rhetorician nor calls The Treasure a rhetoric, her instruction has the potential to empower womens speech acts in both public and private matters. Her most important lesson is that womens success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively (Redfern, p. 74). Italian Laura Cereta (1469-1499) initiated intellectual
the enemy conceal herself. Nor does she set up camp
debates with her male counterparts through letter writing.

with courage and arms when the conditions are
Given the difficulties women had earning recognition in the

hopeless. Nor does it give the strong any pleasure to pursue one who is already fleeing (Robin, 1997, p. 78-9).
educational arena, many of her letters went unanswered (Rabil, 1981). Despite these obstacles, she continued her education with diligence and is considered one of the earliest feminists. Through her letters she questioned
womens traditional roles and attempted to persuade many to alter their beliefs about the role of women and education. Ideas surrounding issues of style in speaking situations received significant attention during the Renaissance period. Petrus Ramus (1515-1572) paid great attention to the idea of style by actually grouping style and delivery of the five canons together. Ramus also argued that invention and arrangement did not fit the canon and should be the focus of logic, not rhetoric. Ramus, who often questioned the early scholars, believed that being a good man had nothing to do with being a good speaker and didnt think that focusing on truth had much to do with communication at all. Needless to say, he had a way of making a name for himself by challenging much of what early scholars thought of truth, ethics, and morals as they applied to communication.
In contrast to Ramus, Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a contemporary of Shakespeare, believed that the journey to truth was paramount to the study and performance of communication. According to Bacon, reason and morality required speakers to have a high degree of accountability, making it an essential element in oration. Where do you think ethics, truth, and morality fit into communication today? Think about your concept of politicians or car salespersons. How do these notions fit when communicating in these contexts? Scholars like Cereta, de Pisan, Ramus, and Bacon all furthered the study of communication as they challenged, debated, and scrutinized well established assumptions and truths about the field developed during the Classical Period. Their works reflect the dynamic nature of the Renaissance Period and the reemergence of discussion and deliberation regarding the nature and uses of communication. The works of these scholars were a springboard back into a full-blown examination of communication, which continued into The Enlightenment.
[edit]The
Enlightenment (1600-1800 CE)
A maturing Europe continued to see a lessening of tension between the church and secular institutions, and the transformation of the Communication field was a reflection of broader cultural shifts. Modernizations like the printing press made the written word more readily available to the masses through newspapers and books thus, forever changing the ways people learned and communicated. This era was the precurser to the industrial revolution and began the rapid changes in the development of our field that were to come. Golden, Berquist, and Colemen (1989) point to four prominent trends during The Enlightenment. Neoclassicism revived the classical approach to rhetoric byadapting and applying it to contemporary situations. Second, the eclectic method of belletristic scholars offered standards of style for presenting and critiquing oration, drama, and poetry. Englishman Hugh Blair (1718-1800) advocated the notion of good taste and character in communication encounters, and a book of his lectures was so popular that his
publisher stated, half of the educated English-speaking world was reading Blair (Covino, p. 80). Third, the psychological/epistemological school of rhetoric applied communication study to basic human nature, knowledge, and thought. The Scottish minister and educator, George Campbell (17191796), tried to create convincing arguments using scientific and moral reasoning by seeking to understand how people used speech to persuade others. Finally, the elocutionary approach concentrated on delivery and style by providing strict rules for a speakers bodily actions such as gestures, facial expressions, tone, and pronunciation. Overall, the Enlightenment Period served as a bridge between the past and the present of communication study, the old and the new school. During this period, people used many of the early approaches to further explore communication in ways that would ignite an explosion in the Communication field in the 20th Century. While weve quickly covered 2400 years of communication study, lets look at the 20th century, which witnessed more advances in communication study than the previous 2400 years combined.
[edit]New
School: Communication Study in the 20th Century
I
ssues such as persuasion, public speaking, political debate, preaching, letter writing, and education guided communication study in the early periods as these were the pressing social matters of the day. With the industrial revolution in full effect, major world changes took place that impacted the continuing advancement of communication study. We have seen more changes in the ways humans communicate, and communication study, in the past 100 years than in any other time in history. Rapid advances in technology, and the emergence of a global village, have provided almost limitless areas to study communication. In this half of the chapter, we examine the development of the modern field of Communication, demonstrating how it has developed into the
departments of Communication that you may recognize on your campus today.
[edit]The
Emergence of a Contemporary Academic Field

Think about the different departments and majors on your campus. What about the department of Communication. How did it get there? You may not know it, but academic departments like Communication are a relatively recent phenomenon in human history. While there is evidence of speech instruction in the U.S. as far back as the colonial period, 100 years ago there were only a few departments of Communication in U.S. colleges and universities (Delia, 1987). From 1890 to 1920, the various aspects of oral communication were drawn together and integrated, under the common rubric of speech and generally housed in departments of English (Gray, 1954, p. 422). Some universities moved to create specific academic departments of communication in the late 1800s, such as De Pauw (1884), Earlham (1887), Cornell (1889), Michigan and Chicago (1892), and Ohio Wesleyan (1894), which led the way for the continued academic development of Communication study (Smith, 1954). The first large-scale demand to create distinct departments of Communication came at the Public Speaking Conference of the New England and North Atlantic States in 1913 (Smith, p. 455). Here, faculty expressed the desire to separate from departments of English. The art and science of oral communication went in different directions than traditional areas of focus in English, and those with these interests wanted the resources and recognition that accompanied this field of study. Hamilton College was an early pioneer of Speech instruction in the U.S. and had a recognized department of Elocution and Rhetoric as early as 1841. But, it was not until the early 20th century that Communication saw the emergence of 7 M.A. programs and the granting of the first Ph.D.s in the early 1920s. By 1944 the United States Office of Education used its own survey of speech departments to assure the educational world that the expressive arts have gained full recognition in college programs of study (Smith, p. 448).
Case In Point International, National, and Regional Organizations of Communication Study
A variety of professional organizations are devoted to organizing those interested in studying communication, organizing conferences for scholars to communicate about current research, and publishing academic journals highlighting the latest in research from our discipline. To find out more about what these organizations do, you can visit their websites.
The International Communication Association (ICA) was first organized in the 1940s by various speech departments as the National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC). By 1950 the NSSC had become the ICA and had the express purpose of bringing together academics and professionals around the world interested in the study of human communication. The ICA currently has over 3,400 members with over two-thirds of them working as teachers and researchers in educational settings around the world. International Communication Association (ICA) http://www.icahdq.org
A relatively new organization that takes advantage of computer technologies to organize its members is the American Communication Association (ACA). The ACA was founded in 1993 and actually exists as a virtual professional association that includes researchers, teachers, and professionals devoted to communication study in North, Central, and South America as well as in the Caribbean. American Communication Association (ACA)
As Communication scholars formed departments of Communication, they also organized themselves into associations that reflected the interests of the field. The first organization of Communication professionals was the National Association of Elocutionists, established in 1892 (Rarig & Greaves, 1954, p. 490), followed by The Eastern Public Speaking Conference formed in 1910. Within a year, over sixty secondary-school
http://www.americancomm.org
The largest United States organization devoted to communication is the National Communication Association (NCA). NCA boasts the largest membership of any communication organization in the world. Currently there are approximately 7,100 members from the U.S. and more than 20 foreign countries. The NCA is a scholarly society devoted to enhancing the research, teaching, and service produced by its members on topics of both intellectual and social significance (www.natcom.org). National Communication Association (NCA) http://www.natcom.org. There are also smaller regional organizations including the Eastern Communication Association (ECA) http://www.jmu.edu/orgs/eca, the Southern States Communication Association (SSCA) http://ssca.net, Central States Communication Association (CSCA) http://www.csca-net.org, and Western States Communication Association (WSCA) http://www.westcomm.org.
teachers of Speech attended a conference at Swarthmore (Smith, p. 423). Our current National Communication Association began during this time in 1914 as the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, and became the Speech Communication Association in 1970. It wasnt until 1997 that members voted to change it to its current name. As a result of the work of the early founders, a number of organizations are currently devoted to bringing together those interested in studying communication.
After 2400 years of study going in a variety of directions, the beginning of the 20th century showed the desire of communication teachers to formally organize and institutionalize the study of communication. These organizations have played a large part in determining how departments of Communication look and function on college campuses, including what curriculum is part of the field, and the latest in teaching strategies for Communication professors. To better understand the Communication department on your campus today, lets examine some of the important events and people that shaped the study of communication during the 20th century.
[edit]1900-1940
From the mid 1800s through the early part of the 20th century, significant changes occurred in politics, social life, education, commercialization, and technology creating the world of organizations, universities, colleges, and mass production that we know today. As a result of all of this change, new areas of communication research emerged to answer the relevant questions of the day presented by this onslaught of social changes. From 19001940, communication study focused on five primary areas that experienced rapid changes and advances: (1) work on communication and political institutions, (2) research concerned with the role of communication in social life, (3) social-psychological analyses of communication, (4) studies of communication and education, and (5) commercially motivated research (Delia, 1987, p. 25). Its likely that many of these areas are represented in the Communication department at your campus. This period brought many changes to the political landscape, with new technologies beginning to significantly alter the communication of political messages. When you think about our focus on politics, much of our assessment of the communication in this arena came from the work of scholars in the early 20th century. They focused on propaganda analysis, political themes in public communication (magazines, textbooks, etc.), and public opinion research that explored the opinions of society at large on major political and social issues. If you watch politics, youre obviously familiar with political polls that try to determine peoples beliefs and political values. This line of work was
influenced by the early works of Walter Lippman (1922) who is considered the father of public opinion analysis. Similarly, Harold Lasswells (1927) pioneering work on propaganda set the foundation for studying how mass communication influences the social conscious of large groups of people. All of us have been exposed to a barrage of public opinion polls and political messages in the media. Understanding these may seem quite daunting to the average person. Yet, through the work of scholars such as Lippman and Lasswell, analysis of public opinion polls and propaganda have been able to provide incredible insight into the impacts of such communication. For example, according to a CNN poll in 2003, 68% of Americans thought the war in Iraq was a good thing. Five years later, only 36% of Americans now believe the situation in Iraq was worth going to war over. Public opinion polls and analysis of propaganda messages allow us to follow the sentiment of large groups of people. During the early 20th century, society changed through urbanization, industrialization, and continued developments in mass media. As a result, there was a need to understand how these changes impacted human communication. A very influential group of scholars studied communication and social life at the Chicago School of Sociology. Herbert Blumer (1933), Charles H. Cooley (1902; 1909), John Dewey (1922; 1927), George Herbert Mead (1934), and Robert E. Park (1922; 1923; 1925) committed themselves to scientific sociology that focused on the sensitivity to the interrelation of persons experiences and the social contexts of their lives (Delia, 1987, p. 31). They focused on how people interacted; examined the effects of urbanization on peoples social lives; studied film and media institutions and their effects on culture; explored culture, conflict, and consensus; highlighted the effects of marketing and advertising; and researched interpersonal communication. This group of scholars, and their research interests, were pivotal in creating what you know as Communication departments because they moved the field from being solely humanistic (focused on public speaking performance and analysis), to social scientific (exploring the social impacts and realities of communication through scientific methods).
The third focus of communication inquiry during this time was the advancement of Social Psychology, which explored individual social behavior in communication contexts. If you have seen the Jacksass movies/show or the show Candid Camera, youve witnessed how the characters of these shows violate communication norms to get a reaction from others. Social Psychologists focused on issues such as communication norms and the impact of our communication in social contexts. In other words, where do we get ideas of normal communication behaviors and how does our communication impact social situations? Another area of focus in Social Psychology was the study of the effects of media on communication outcomes. A particular focus was movies. Movies developed rapidly as a source of entertainment for youth prior to World War I, and researchers wanted to understand what impact watching movies had on young people. Its likely that youve heard debate and discussion about the potential harm of seeing violence in movies, television, and video games. Much of this research began with the Social Psychologists of the early 20th century and continues today as we discuss the impact of mass media on society, culture, relationships, and individuals. The study of communication in education was the fourth important development in the field between 1900 and 1940. Do you have good professors? Do you have poor professors? What makes them good or poor? Think about your college classroom today. A great deal of the way it is organized and conducted can be traced back to early research in instructional communication. Early on, the possible impacts of every major new technology (radio, film, and television) on educational outcomes became a primary focus of this specialization. Many thought that these technologies would completely change how we received an education. Now, some people think that the personal computer will revolutionize classroom instruction. Instructional communication research in the early 1900s through the present day seeks to discover the best communicative techniques for teaching. The fifth important development in communication study during this period focused on commercialism and human communication. With an increase in national brands, marketing, and advertising, commercial
organizations were interested in influencing consumer habits. During this period, people began to understand mass medias ability to persuade (think advertising!). There were incredible financial implications for using mass media to sell products. These implications didnt escape those who could profit from mass media, and prompted lines of research that examined the impacts of advertising and marketing on consumer behavior. Paul Lazarsfeld (1939; 1940; 1944; 1949) studied mass communication to understand its commercial implications and was an early pioneer in understanding persuasion and advertising. Examine ads on television or in magazines. What makes them effective or ineffective? What advertising messages are most likely to influence you to purchase a product? These sorts of questions began to be explored in the early part of the 20th century. This line of research is so powerful that Yankelovich Inc. estimates that the average urban American now sees or hears 5,000 advertisements a day. While this number may seem impossible, think of the radio, TV, movie, billboard, and internet advertisements you encounter everyday. In fact, one of your authors was astounded when he went into a public bathroom and there were advertisements above and IN the urinal! While these early communication research areas actually emerged from other academic disciplines (sociology, psychology, anthropology, and politics), Communication scholars found it necessary to organize themselves to further advance the field. Continued changes in the world, including World War I and World War II, prompted even greater advances in Communication research and the development of the field from the 1940s through the 1960s.
[edit]1940-1970
World War II played a major role in shaping the direction of communication study during the 1940s. Two instrumental players in communication research during this era, Kurt Lewin (1936; 1941; 1947a; 1947b) and Carl Hovland et al. (1949; 1953; 1959) studied group dynamics and mass communication. Following World War II, scholars such as Lazarsfeld, Lasswell, Hovland, and Schramm wanted to bring more credibility and attention to their research. One approach they used to accomplish this was to call for Communication study to be
its own field of research at universities. They began using the terms mass communication and communication research more frequently in their writings, which helped begin the process of distinguishing Communication research and departments from other fields such as political science, psychology, and sociology (Rogers, 1994). This served as the big push to create departments of Communication that you are familiar with today. In 1949 Lazarsfeld and Stanton argued that, the whole field of communications research should be covered simultaneously (p. xi), which was an attempt to formalize communication study as a field that included not only the humanities, but the social science of communication aimed at theory development (Delia, 1987, p. 59). These Communication scholars began forming Communication into its own academic field by creating and adopting a vocabulary specific to the field, writing core subject matter into Communication textbooks, and agreeing to a relatively stable set of communication processes that could be taught in college and university classrooms. Of course, the continued formal organization of communication scholars we discussed earlier continued to help strengthen this move. Another notable contributor to the development of the field during this time was Wilbur Schramm. Schramm is often credited as the first person to create university classes with communication in the title, author textbooks for Communication-specific courses, be awarded a Ph.D. in Communication, and have the title Professor of Communication at the University of Illinois (Rogers, 1994, p. 446-447). After World War II, Schramm moved to the University of Illinois and founded the Institute of Communications Research in 1947 and its sister institute at Stanford University in 1956. He is often credited as being the modern father of communication study. As a result of his work, departments and colleges of Communication and Speech began to form around the country, particularly in the mid-west. Schools in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Washington, and North Carolina began to form departments and/or colleges that included communication as part of their title. In fact, if youre planning on getting a Ph.D. in Communication, it is very likely you will attend a
school in the mid-west or east because of the early developments of departments in these regions. Now, departments of Speech, Communication, and Speech Communication exist on colleges and universities both nationally and internationally. The 1950s saw two areas of research develop that are still a major focus in our field today--research on voting and mass media (Lazarsfeld, Hadley, & Stanton, 1939; Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944), and experimental studies on persuasion (Hovland, 1953; 1959). The move from mass media and political communication research in the early 1900s to a more theoretical approach in the 1940s and 50s brought together two areas that make Communication study such an important academic field today--theory and practice. Research in the 40s and 50s was conducted using experimental and survey methods with an emphasis on generating theories of how and why we communicate. As the field began to grow and emerge, Delia states that it struggled with the following question: Was the field to be interdisciplinary or autonomous; and if autonomous, on what terms? Communication study in the late 1940s embraced divergent and contradictory attitudes that leave this question unresolved after [50] years (p. 72).
Teaching and Learning Communication Now
In 2007, Denzel Washington played the late Melvin B. Tolson in the movie The Great Debaters. Melvin B. Tolson was an American Modern poet who taught Speech and English at the historically black Wiley College. While he is quite famous for his poetry, the movie depicts his success at forming and coaching the first debate team at Wiley College. The team achieved notoriety by participating in the first collegiate interracial debate in the U.S. and by defeating the champion debate team of USC in 1935.
Unfortunately, during this time, they were not allowed to call themselves the champions because African-Americans were not admitted into the debate society until after WWII. One of Tolsons students, James Farmer Jr. used his communication skills to found the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) which can be found athttp://www.core-online.org
Following World War II, other communication research focused on public speaking, instructional communication, communication anxiety, persuasion, group dynamics, and business communication. While the early 20th century saw major new approaches for studying communication, the 1960s and 70s saw renewed emphasis and focus on the works of those from the Classical Period. Thus, the 60s and 70s worked to bridge together the old and new school of
Communication study for the first time. While scholars in the 60s and 70s reconsidered classical approaches, others such as Burke (1962; 1966) pushed the boundaries of rhetorical study. Rather than focusing on the speeches of dead white guys, Burke wanted to analyze a much broader scope of communication events including protest rhetoric, film, television, and radio (Delia, 1987, p. 81). With this bridging of the old and new schools, Communication departments now have professors who study and teach classical rhetoric, contemporary rhetoric, empirical social science, and qualitative social science. As each era generated new research, previous knowledge laid the foundation for the innumerable challenges of studying communication in a rapidly changing technological, postmodern world. Since the 1970s, we have seen more technological and world changes than at any other time in history, guiding the ways in which we now study communication.
[edit]1970
to the Present Day
The emergence of the womens, civil-rights, and anti-war movements in the 1960s and 70s reintroduced old social questions and concerns that had gone largely ignored by society. Fortunately, the field of Communication was progressive enough to take on the challenge of responding to these questions and concerns from its own perspective. Thus, the 1970s saw a rise in feminist scholarship that contributed greatly to a field that has seen progressive and consistent development since 400 BCE by those not afraid to tackle the dominate social problems of the day.
Two pioneering organizations devoted to womens scholarship in Communication are the Organization for the Study of Communication, Language, and Gender (OSCLG) founded in 1972, and the Organization for Research on Women and Communication (ORWAC) founded in 1977. Over the course of the next decade, womens scholarship gained prominence in the various professional organizations devoted to teaching and researching communication. Feminist researchers like Donna Allen, Sandra A. Purnell, Sally Miller Gearhart, Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, Sonja K. Foss, Karen A. Foss and many others have been instrumental in the formation of a wellestablished and respected body of research that challenged the status quo of many of our theoretical assumptions and research practices established in past eras. (Their research will be discussed in more detail in Part II of the text.) Through the 1980s and 1990s the field of Communication continued to grow. The field maintains strong teaching and research interests in areas such as rhetoric, mass communication, instructional communication, interpersonal communication, group communication,
http://www.norc.org/NR/rdonlyres/C22A3F40-0BA24993-A6D35E65939EEDC3/0/06SRFinalVersion.pdf Remember our discussion earlier regarding the overwhelming exclusion of women in education, including communication study. In its report, Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities Summary Report 2006, The National Opinion Research Center Reported that 507 Ph.D.s were awarded in Communication. Of those, 287 were awarded to women. This means 56.6% of Ph.D.s earned in Communication in 2006 were earned by women. Weve come a long way from the Classical Period. Now, its more likely that you will have a female professor than a male professor! While change has been slow, it is happening.
organizational communication, intercultural communication, gender communication, health communication, and many more.
[edit]Communication
Study Today and
Tomorrow
T
oday, many colleges and universities have Communication as part of their curriculum with departments titled with names like Speech, Speech Communication, and Communication. Likewise, our professional organizations are still active in growing and strengthening the field through teaching and research. Even with the increased recognition, there is still considerable growth, change, and movement taking place in communication study. Those involved in the field actively and openly debate and discuss various theoretical and methodological approaches for studying human communication. The study of human communication continues to be a wide and diverse field, with each area increasing our understanding of how humans communicate.
If youre reading this book, you are learning about communication in an introductory communication course. Or, you are a major learning about communication and wondering what you are going to do with your degree. Well, Blythe Camenson wrote just the book for you. In Great Jobs for Communications Majors you can further explore how to take what you learned in your major and apply it to getting a good job. Or, try Fergusons Top Careers for Communications Graduates. There are many opportunities to learn, and even teach, the content of
what you studied in Communication in your professional life. Will you be the next Aspasia or Aristotle?
As history explains, changes in the world will continue to guide our approaches for understanding and researching communication. We have moved from an industrial age to an information age and have yet to fully understand the
communicative implications of this shift. Advances in communication and information technologies are forever changing the ways we research and teach communication in our colleges and universities. While it is difficult to predict the specific areas and phenomena of study for future communication research, it is safe to assume that continued global and social changes will shape the development of our field.
[edit]Summary
O
ur history tells us that men and women from all cultures have been interested in observing and theorizing about the role of communication in multiple contextsgovernment, politics, law, religion, technology, and education. The Old School of communication study consisted of four major periods of intellectual developmentClassical, Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment. The Classical Period (500 BCE-400 CE) gave birth to seminal figures who set the foundation for communication study. Plato (428-348 BCE) introduced the concept and practice of the dialectic. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) defined rhetoric and three necessary proofs for persuasion. Cicero (106-43BCE) contributed the canons of rhetoricinvention, arrangement, expression/style, memory, and delivery. As the church dominated public life in the Medieval Period (400-1400 CE), there was little intellectual development. St. Augustine is one who stands out for his continued development of rhetorical theory and its relationship to the church. The Renaissance (1400-1600 CE) was a rebirth of sorts as Christine de Pisan (1365-1429) and Laura Cereta (1469-1499) continued the tradition of Aspasia and Pan Chao in securing educational opportunities for women. Ramus further developed the canons by
combining style and delivery while Bacon continued his work following the classical tradition. The final period, the Enlightenment (1600-1800), is characterized by intellectual trendsneoclassicism, the eclectic method of belletristic scholars, psychological/epistemological study of rhetoric, and the elocutionary approach. The New School of communication study brought about more formal academic departments of Communication in the 1800-1900s. Along with these academic placements came the formation of professional organizations such as NCA and ICA that helped foster greater recognition and development of the study of communication on a national and international scale. As the U.S. and world was challenged by changes in technology, politics, and social life, Communication scholars sought to address them by focusing on five areas of researchpolitical institutions, the role of communication in social life, social-psychological analyses of communication, communication and education, and commercially motivated research. Following WWI and WWII scholars continued to be motivated by global and social issues such as the womens movement, the civil rights movement, and the anti-war movement. The trend continues as current scholars are driven by the prominent social and technological issues of the day such as technology and health care.
[edit]Discussion
Questions
1.
What are the specializations of the Communication professors at your school?
2.
How did your professor get started in the field of Communication?
3.
If you wanted to study some type of communication phenomenon, what would it be and why?
4.
With the increasing emphasis on communication and information technologies, what kind of communication research do you think will happen in the future?
5.
Why is knowing our history valuable for understanding the discipline?
[edit]Key
Terms and People
arrangement Aristotle audience analysis Aspasia Augustine canons of rhetoric Cicero classical period Corax delivery dialectic eclectic method of belletristic scholars enlightenment Francis Bacon invention Isocrates Laura Cereta medieval period memory neoclassism Petrus Ramus Plato psychological/epistemological school of rhetoric Quintilian renaissance rhetoric Socrates sophists style Tisias
Vach
[edit]References
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Lazarsfeld, P. F., Hadley, C., & Stanton, F. (1939). Current radio research in universities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 23, 201-204. Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Stanton, F. N. (Eds.). (1949). Communication Research, 1948-1949. New York: Harper. Lewin, K. (1936). Some social-psychological differences between the United States and Germany. Character and Personality, 4, 265-293. Lewin, K. (1941). Self-hatred among Jews. Contemporary Jewish Record, 4, 219-232. Lewin, K. (1947a). Frontiers in group dynamics I: Concept, method, and reality in social science, social equalibria, and social change. Human Relations, 1(1), 5-42. Lewin, K. (1947b). Frontiers in group dynamics II: Channels of group life, social planning and action research. Human Relations, 1(2), 179-193. Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mypurohith.com. (2005). Mypurohith Encyclopedia. Available: www.mypurohith.com/EncyclopeidaEnclopV.asp [2006, June]. Park, R. E. (1922). The immigrant press and its control. New York: Harper. Park, R. E. (1923). The natural history of the newspaper. American Journal of Sociology, 28, 273-289. Park, R. E., Burgess, E. W., & McKenzie, R. D. (1925). The city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. PBS. (2005). Aspasia of Melitus. PBS. Available: www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/htmlver/characters/f_aspasia.html [2005, October]. Plato. (1956). Phaedrus (W. C. Helmbold & W. G. Rabinowitz, Trans.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Rabil, A. J. (1981). Laura Cereta Quattrocento Humanist. New York: Center for Medieval & Early Renaissance Studies. Rarig, F. M., & Greaves, H. S. (1954). National speech organizations and speech education. In K. R. Wallace (Ed.), History of Speech Education in America (pp. 490-517). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.
Redfern, J. R. (1995). Christine de Pisan and the treasure of the City of Ladies: A medieval rhetorician and her rhetoric. In A. A. Lunsford (Ed.), Reclaiming rhetorica: Women in the rhetorical tradition (pp. 73-92). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Robin, D. (Ed.). (1997). Laura Cereta: Collected letters of a renaissance feminist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rogers, E. M. (1994). A history of communication study: A biographical approach. New York: The Free Press. Smith, B. L., Lasswell, H., & Casey, R. D. (1946). Propaganda, communication, and public opinion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Smith, D. K. (1954). Origin and development of departments of speech. In K. R. Wallace (Ed.), History of speech education in America (pp. 447470). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. Society, T. T. (2005). Collation of theosophical glossaries: V - Vd. Available: www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/ctg/v-vd.htm [2006, January]. Swann, N. L. (1932). Pan Chao [Ban Zhao]: Foremost Woman Scholar of China. New York: The Century.
Survey of Communication Study/Chapter 10 - Group Communication

Contents
[hide]
1 Chapter 10
o o
1.1 Group and Team Communication 1.2 Defining Groups and Teams
o o o o o o o o o o o o [edit]
1.2.1 Characteristics of Groups 1.2.2 Types of Groups
1.3 The Importance of Studying Communication in Groups and Teams 1.4 Forming Groups 1.5 Groups Roles 1.6 Leadership In Groups 1.7 Group Norms 1.8 Decision Making In Groups 1.9 Group Work and Time 1.10 Groups and Technology 1.11 Summary 1.12 Discussion Questions 1.13 Key Terms 1.14 References
Chapter 10
and Team Communication
[edit]Group
Chapter Objectives:
Define what constitutes a group and team. Understand cultural influences on groups. Explain how groups and teams form. Identify group roles and norms.
H
ave you ever had this happen to you in a college class? At the beginning of the semester your professor project is part of the course requirements. You, and others in the class, groan at the idea of this project because you have experienced the difficulties and frustrations of working in a group, especially when your grade depends on the work of others. Does this sound familiar? Why do you think so many students
Understand various approaches to leadership in groups. hands out the syllabus and explains that a group Recognize styles and options for decision making in groups. Explain the impact of computer-mediated communication on group communication.
react negatively to these types of assignments? The reality is that group work can be fraught with complications. But, the reality is, many companies are promoting groups as the model working environment. Chances are that a class assignment is not your first and only experience with groups. We are quite certain that you have already spent, and will continue to spend, a great deal of your time working in groups. You may be involved with school athletics in which you are part of a specialized group called a team. You may be part of a work or professional group. Many of you participate in social, religious, and/or political groups. The family in which you were raised, regardless of the configuration, is also a group. No matter what the specific focus sports, profession, politics, or familyall groups share some common features. While group communication is growing in popularity and emphasis, both at the academic and corporate levels, it is not a new area of study. The emergence of group communication study came about in the mid 1950s, following World War II and has been a focus of study ever since. Group communication is often closely aligned with interpersonal communication and organizational communication which is why we have placed it as a chapter in between these two areas of specialization. In your personal, civic, professional lives, you will engage in group communication. Lets take a look at what constitutes a group or team.
Dont think knowing how to participate in groups or teams really matters outside of college? Think again. The Atlanta Business Chronicle reports that many companies are using group incentives and team-based pay to reinforce and reward individuals who contribute to the success of the group as a whole. This kind of pay structure is meant to reward group outcome, not individual performance in a group. Next time you dont want to work in a group, remember you are practicing skills that may help you earn more money.
Case In Point
Group Communication Then
[edit]Defining
The first study that was published on group communication in the New School era of communication study was credited to Edwin Black in 1955. He studied the breakdowns in group
Groups and Teams
T
o understand group and team communication, we must first understand the definition of a group. Many people think that a group is simply a collection of people, but that is only part of it. If you walk out your front door and pull together the first ten people you see, do you have a group? No! According to Wood (2003) a group must have, three or more people who interact over time, depend on each other, and
interactions by looking at communication sequences in groups. However, it wasnt until the 1960s and 70s that a large number of studies in group communication began to appear. Between 1970 and 1978 114 articles were published on group communication and 89 more were published by 1990 (Salwen & Stacks, 1996, p. 360). Study in group communication is still important over a decade later
follow shared rules of conduct to reach a common goal (p. 274). Gerald Wilson defines a group as, a collection of three or more individuals who interact about some common problem or
as more and more organizations focus on group work
interdependent goal and can exert mutual influence over one

for achieving their goals.
another (2002, p. 14). He goes on to say that the three key components of a group are, size, goal orientation, and mutual
influence (p. 14). Interpersonal communication is often thought about in terms of dyads. That is, we often communicate interpersonally in pairs. Organizational communication might be thought of as a group that is larger than 12 people. While there are exceptions, for the most part, group size is often thought of in terms of 312 people. So, if the ten people you gathered outside of your front door were all neighbors working together as part of neighborhood watch to create safety in the community, then you would indeed have a group. For those of you who have participated on athletic teams youll notice that these definitions also fit the idea of a team. All of the qualities of groups hold true for teams, but teams have additional qualities not necessarily present for all groups. Wood explains that a team is a special kind of group characterized by different and complimentary resources of members and by a strong sense of collective identity (p. 275). While all members of a team share some athletic ability and special appreciation for a particular sport, members of a football team, for example, have highly specialized skills as indicated in the various positions on the team quarterback, receiver, and running back. Research suggests that members of an organized team feel and exhibit a strong sense of belonging and commitment to one another (Lumsden & Lumsden, 1997) as a result of combining these specialized skills to achieve particular outcomes. Besides athletic teams, work and professional teams also share these qualities. Now that you know how to define groups and teams, lets look at characteristics of groups and teams, as well as the different types of groups and teams.
[edit]Characteristics
of Groups
Interdependence. Groups cannot be defined as a number of people simply talking to each other or meeting together. Instead, a primary characteristic of groups is that members of a group are dependent on the others for the group to maintain its existence and achieve its goals. In essence, interdependence is the recognition by those in a group of their need for the others in the group (Cragon & Wright, 1999; Harris & Sherblom, 2008; Lewin, 1951). Imagine playing on a basketball as an individual against the five members of another team. Even if youre considered the best in the world, its highly unlikely you could win a game against five other people. You must rely on four other teammates to make it a successful game.
Interaction. It probably seems obvious to you that there must be interaction for groups to exist. However, what kind of interaction must exist? Since we all communicate every day, there must be something that distinguishes the interaction in groups from other forms of communication. Cragon and Wright (1999) state that the primary defining characteristic of group interaction is that it is purposeful. They go on to break down purposeful interaction into four types: problem solving, role playing, team building, and trust building (p. 7). Without purposeful interaction a true group does not exist. If youre put into a group for a class assignment, your first interaction probably centers around exchanging contact information, settings times to meet, and starting to focus on the task at hand. Its purposeful interaction to achieve a goal.
Synergy. One advantage of working in groups and teams is that they allow us to accomplish things we wouldnt be able to accomplish on our own. Remember back to our discussion of Systems Theory in Chapter 5. Systems Theory suggests that The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This is the very idea of synergy (Morris, 1981; Harris & Sherblom, 2008). Think of an orchestra or band. Each person is there to perform in order to help the larger unit make music in a way that cannot be accomplished without each member working together.
Common Goals. Having interaction and synergy would be relatively pointless in groups without a common goal. People who comprise groups are brought together for a reason or a purpose. While most members of a group have individual goals, a group is largely defined by the common goals of the group.
Think of the example at the beginning of the chapter. Your common goal in a class group is to learn, complete an assignment, and earn a grade. While there may be differences regarding individual goals in the group (what final grade is acceptable for example), or how to achieve the common goals, the group is largely defined by the common goals it shares.
Shared Norms. Because people come together for a specific purpose, they develop shared norms to help them achieve their goals. Even with a goal in place, random interaction does not define a group. Group interaction is generally guided by norms a group has established for acceptable behavior. Norms are essentially expectations of the group members, established by the group. Norms can be conscious and formal, or unconscious and informal. One example of norms that we often witness as professors is the expectation of our students groups that all members show up at group meeting times. When members of a group violate this norm, we notice how frustrated the other group members get. Well spend more time later in the chapter looking at group norms.
Cohesiveness. One way that members understand of the idea of communicating in groups and teams is when they experience a sense of cohesiveness with other members of the group. When we feel like we are part of something larger, it creates a sense of cohesion or wholeness, a purpose that is bigger than our own individual desires and goals. It is the sense of connection and participation that characterizes the interaction in a group as different from the defined interaction among loosely connected individuals. If youve ever participated in a group that achieved its goal successfully, you are probably able to reflect back on your feelings of connections with the other members of that group.
[edit]Types
of Groups
Not all groups are the same or brought together for the same reasons. Bilhart and Galanes (1998) categorize groups on the basis of the reason they were formed and the human needs they serve (p. 9). Lets take a look!
Primary Groups. Primary groups are ones we form to help us realize our human needs like inclusion and affection. They are not generally formed to accomplish a task, but rather, to help us meet our fundamental needs as relational beings like acceptance, love, and affection. These groups are
generally longer term than other groups and include family, roommates, and other relationships that meet as groups on a regular basis (Bilhart & Galanes).
Secondary Groups. We form secondary groups to accomplish work, perform a task, solve problems, and make decisions (Bilhart & Galanes; Harris & Sherblom; Cragan & Wright). Larson and LaFasto (1989) state that secondary groups have a specific performance objective or recognizable goal to be attained; and coordination of activity among the members of the team is required for attainment of the team goal or objective (p. 19). Bilhart and Galanes divide secondary groups into four different types.
Activity Groups. Activity Groups are ones we form for the purpose of participating in activities. Im sure your campus has many clubs that are organized for the sole purpose of doing activities. One example on our campus is the campus group devoted to disc golf.
Personal Growth Groups. We form Personal Growth Groups to come together to develop personal insights, overcome personal problems, and grow as individuals from the feedback and support of others (Bilhart & Galanes, p. 11). An example that is probably familiar to you is Alcoholics Anonymous. There are many personal growth groups available for helping us develop as people through group interaction with others.
Learning Groups. Learning Groups are concerned primarily with discovering and developing new ideas and ways of thinking (Harris & Sherblom, p. 12). If you have ever been assigned to a group in a college class, most likely it was a learning group whose purpose was to interact in ways that that help those in the group learn new things about the course content.
Problem-Solving Groups. These groups are created for the express purpose of solving a specific problem. The very nature of organizing people into this type of group is to get them to collectively figure out effective solutions to the problem they have before them. Committees are an excellent example of people who are brought together to solve problems.
After looking at the various types of groups, its probably easy for you to recognize just how much of your daily interaction occurs within the contexts of the various types of groups. The reality is, we spend a great deal of
time in groups, and understanding the types of groups youre in, as well as their purpose, goes a long way toward helping you function as a whole member.
[edit]The
Importance of Studying Communication in Groups and Teams
O
ne of the reasons communication scholars study groups and teams is because of the overwhelming amount of time we spend interacting in groups in professional contexts. More and more professional organizations are turning to groups and teams as an essential way of conducting business and getting things done. Even professions that are seemingly independent, such as being a college professor, are heavily laden with group work. Your authors spend a significant amount of time outside the classroom working on committees that make decisions about all aspects of the campus. The process of writing this book was a group effort as the authors worked with colleagues, then with a group from the publishing company to bring the book to you. Each of us had specific roles and tasks to perform to produce this textbook. Moreover, we were committed to each other and the project, making the decision to spend our weekends writing rather than hanging out with friends because we knew others were counting on us. Another vital area of group communication concerns the study of social change or social movement organizations. Groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the National Organization of Women (NOW) are all groups bound together by a shared social and political commitmentto promote the rights of nonhuman animals, African-Americans, and women respectively. While individuals can be committed to these ideas, the social, political, and legal rights afforded to groups like these would not have been possible through individual action alone. It was when groups of like-minded people came together with shared commitments and goals, pooling their skills and resources, that change occurred. The study of social movements reveals the importance of groups for accomplishing goals. Bowers and Ochs (1971) in The Rhetoric of Agitation and Control explain seven progressive and cumulative strategies through which movements progress as they move toward success. Three of the seven strategies focus explicitly on group communicationpromulgation, solidification, and polarization. Promulgation refers to the tactics designed to win social support for the agitators position. [For N]o movement can be successful unless it attracts a sufficient number of members (p. 20). Without a sufficient group the actions of individual protestors are likely to be dismissed. The strategy ofsolidification occurs mainly inside the agitating group and is primarily used to unite followers (p. 23-4). The point is to unite group members and provide sufficient motivation and support. The communication that occurs through the collective action of singing songs or chanting slogans serves to unite group members. Because the success of social movements
depends in part on the ability to attract a large number of followers, most employ the strategy ofpolarization, which is designed to persuade neutral individuals or fence sitters to join a group. The essence of this strategy is captured in the quote from Eldridge Cleaver, You are either part of the problem or part of the solution. Taken together these three strategies stress that the key to group success is the sustained effort of group members working together through communication. Not only do Communication scholars focus on work and social movements, we are also interested in the role that ones cultural identity and membership plays in our communicative choices and how we interpret the communication of others. This focus sheds interesting insights when we examine membership and communication in groups and teams. One reason for this is that different cultures emphasize the role of individuals while other cultures emphasize the importance of the group. For example, collectivist cultures are ones that place high value on group work because they understand that outcomes of our communication impact all members of the community and the community as a whole, not just the individuals in the group. Conversely,individualistic cultures are ones that place high value on the individual person above the needs of the group. Thus, whether we view group work as favorable or unfavorable may stem from our cultural background. The U.S. is considered an individualistic culture in that we value the work and accomplishments of the individual because of ideals of being able to pull yourself up by the bootstraps and create success for yourself. However, youve probably encountered the influence of collectivist cultures like Japan that value the collective group. For example, many of the ways we work in groups within organizations are borrowed from Japanese organizations that have long-valued group-based work environments. Given the complexity of group interaction, its short-sighted to try to understand group communication without looking at notions of power (think back to Critical Theories and Research Methods!). Power influences how we interpret the messages of others and determines the extent to which we feel we have the right to speak up and voice our concerns and opinions to others. Take a moment to reflect on the different ways you think about power. What images come to mind for you when you think of power? Are there different kinds of power? Are some people inherently more powerful than others? Do you consider
For more discussion on womens groups see Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future by Jennifer Baumgardgner and Amy Richards In the 1970s groups of women started gathering in private homes to discuss what they believed were shared personal frustrations. However, in the group setting they realized that their frustrations were shared by many and that the personal really had political and cultural roots; thus, the term the personal is political was born. Further, they came to understand that their personal problems were neither personal nor problems, but manifestations of living in a sexist culture. Together, they realized that collective action on the part of these consciousness raising groups all over the country could help transform a sexist society into a more egalitarian one. As a result, such consciousness raising groups became a hallmark of the 1970s womens movement or second wave feminism.
Case In Point The Power of Women's Groups
yourself to be a powerful person? We highlight three ways to understand power as it relates to group and team communication. The word power literally means to be able and has many implications. If you associate power with control or dominance, this refers to the notion of power as power-over. According to Starhawk (1987), power-over enables one individual or group to make the decisions that affect others, and to enforce control (9). Control can and does take many forms in society. Starhawk explains that, This power is wielded from the workplace, in the schools, in the courts, in the doctors office. It may rule with weapons that are physical or by controlling the resources we need to live: money, food, medical care; or by controlling more subtle resources: information, approval, love. We are so accustomed to power-over, so steeped in its language and its implicit threats, that we often become aware of its functioning only when we see its extreme manifestations. (9) When we are in group situations and someone dominates the conversation, makes all of the decisions, or controls the resources of the group such as money or equipment, this is power-over. Power-from-within refers to a more personal sense of strength or agency. Power-from-within manifests itself when we can stand, walk, and speak words that convey our needs and thoughts (Starhawk, p. 10). In groups, this type of power arises from our sense of connection, our bonding with other human beings, and with the environment (p. 10). As Heider explains in The Tao of Leadership, Since all creation is a whole, separateness is an illusion. Like it or not, we are team players. Power comes through cooperation, independence through service, and a greater self through selflessness (p. 77). If you think about your role in groups, how have you influenced other group members? Your strategies indicate your sense of power-from-within. Finally, groups manifest power-with, which is the power of a strong individual in a group of equals, the power not to command, but to suggest and be listened to, to begin something and see it happen (Starhawk, p. 10). For this to be effective in a group or team at least two qualities must be present among members: 1) All group members must communicate respect and equality for one another, and 2) The leader must not abuse power-with and attempt to turn it into power-over. Have you ever been involved in a group where people did not treat each others as equals or
with respect? How did you feel about the group? What was the outcome? Could you have done anything to change that dynamic? Obviously, communication is the central activity of every group because it is how we organize and maintain groups. While we can all tell positive and negative stories about being in groups, how are they formed in the first place?
[edit]Forming
Groups
S
ometimes we join a group because we want to. Other times, we might be assigned to work in groups in a class or at work. Either way, Lumsden and Lumsden (1986) give three reasons why we form groups. First, we may join groups because we share similar interests or attractions with other group members. If you are a certain major in college, chances are you share some of the same interests as others in your class groups. Also, you might find yourself attracted to others in your group for romantic, friendship, political, religious or professional reasons. On our campus, our majors have formed the Communication Club to bring together students in the major. A second reason we join groups is calleddrive reduction. Essentially, we join groups so our work with others reduces the drive to fulfill our needs by spreading out involvement. As Maslow (1970) explains, we have drives for physiological needs, security, love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Working with others helps us achieve these needs thereby reducing our obligation to meet these needs ourselves. For example, if you accomplished a task successfully for a group, its likely your group members complimented your work, thus fulfilling some of your self-esteem needs. If you had done the same work only for yourself, the building up of your self-esteem may not have occurred. A third reason we join groups is for reinforcement. We are often motivated to do things for the rewards they bring. Participating in groups provides reinforcement from others in the pursuit of our goals and rewards. Most groups go through a series of stages as they come together. These stages are called forming, storming, norming, and performing (Tuckman, 1965, 1977; Fisher, 1970; Harris & Sherblom, 2002). Groups formed to
achieve a task often go through a fifth stage called termination that occurs after a group accomplishes its goal. Lets look at each of the stages of group formation and termination.
Forming. Obviously, for a group to exist and work together its members must first form the group. During the forming stage, group members begin to set the parameters of the group by establishing what characteristics identify the members of the group as a group. During this stage, the groups goals are made generally clear to members, initial questions and concerns are addressed, and initial role assignments may develop. This is the stage when group norms begin to be negotiated and established. Essentially, norms are a code of conduct which may be explicit or assumed and dictate acceptable and expected behavior of the group.
Storming. The storming stage might be considered comparable to the first fight of a romantic couple. After the initial politeness passes in the forming stage, group members begin to feel more comfortable expressing their opinions about how the group should operate and the participation of other members in the group. Given the complexity of meeting both individual goals as well as group goals, there is constant negotiation among group members regarding participation and how a group should operate. Imagine being assigned to a group for class and you discover that all the members of the group are content with getting a C grade, but you want an A. If you confront your group members to challenge them to have higher expectations, you are in the storming stage.
Norming. Back to our romantic couple example, if the couple can survive the first fight, they often emerge on the other side of the conflict feeling stronger and more cohesive. The same is true in groups. If a group is able to work through the initial conflict of the storming stage, there is the opportunity to really solidify the groups norms and get to the task at hand as a cohesive group. Norming signifies that the members of a group are willing to abide by group rules and values to achieve the groups goals.
Performing. Performing is the stage we most often associate as the defining characteristic of groups. This stage is marked by a decrease in tensions, less conscious attention to norm establishment, and greater focus on the actual work at hand in order to accomplish the groups goals. While there still may be episodes of negotiating conflict and reestablishing norms, performing is about getting to the business at hand. When you are in a weekly routine of meeting at the library to work on a group project, you are in the performing stage.
Terminating. Groups that are assigned a specific goal and timeline will experience the fifth stage of group formation, termination. Think about groups you have been assigned to in college. Were willing to bet that the group did not continue once you achieved the required assignment and earned your grade. This is not to say that we do not continue relationships with other group members. But, the defining characteristics of the group established during the forming stage have come to an end, and thus, so has the group.
Group Communication Now
Technology is changing so many things about the ways we communicate. This is also true in group communication. One of the great frustrations for many people in groups is simply finding a time that everyone can meet together. However, computer technology has changed these dynamics as more and more groups meet in the virtual world, rather than face-to-face. But, what is the impact of technology on how groups function? For example, Flanagin, Tiyaamornwong, O'Connor, and Seibold (2002) examined how men and women communicated in computer mediated groups where each person was anonymous, and therefore, participants did not know one anothers gender. We have a lot to learn about the ways communication technologies are changing our notions of working in groups and individual
communication styles.
Now that you understand how groups form, lets discuss the ways in which people participate in groups. Since groups are comprised of interdependent individual people, one area of research that has emerged from studying group communication is the focus on the roles that we play in groups and teams. Having an understanding of the various roles we play in groups can help us understand how to interact with various group members.
[edit]Groups
Roles
T
ake a moment to think about the individuals in a particular group and the role each of them played. You may recall that some people were extremely helpful, organized and made getting the job done easy. Others may have been more difficult to work with, or seemed to disrupt the group process. In each case, the participants were performing roles that manifest themselves in most groups. An early study on group communication reports 25 commonly played roles in groups (Benne & Sheats, 1948) that can be divided into three typesgroup task roles, group building and maintenance roles, and individual roles. In later research, Ketrow (1991) uses only two categories of group rolestask and social/emotional roles, while Jensen and Chilberg (1991) describe thirty-four roles in groups. To simplify, we provide an overview of some of the more common roles. As you study group roles, remember that we usually play more than one role at a time, and that we do not always play the same roles from group to group. We organize group roles into four categoriestask, social-emotional, procedural, and individual. Task roles are those that help or hinder a groups ability to accomplish its goals. Social-emotional roles are those that focus on building and maintaining relationships among individuals in a group. The focus is on how people feel about being in the group. Procedural roles are concerned with how the group accomplishes its task. People occupying these roles are interested in following directions, proper procedure, and going through appropriate channels when making decisions or initiating policy. The final category, individual roles, includes any role that detracts from group goals and emphasizes personal goals (Jensen & Chilberg, p. 97). When people come to a group to promote their individual agenda above
the groups, they do not communicate in ways that are beneficial to the group. Lets take a look at each of these categories in more detail.
Task Roles. While there are many task roles a person can play in a group, we want to emphasize five common ones. The Task Leader is the person that keeps the group focused on the primary goal or task by setting agendas, controlling the participation and communication of the groups members, and evaluating ideas and contributions of participants. Your associated students president probably performs the task leader role. Information Gatherers are those people who seek and/or provide the factual information necessary for evaluating ideas, problem solving, and reaching conclusions. This is the person who serves as the liaison with your professor about what he/she expects from a group project. Opinion Gatherers are those that seek out and/or provide subjective responses about ideas and suggestions. They most often take into account the values, beliefs, and attitudes of members. If you have a quiet member of your group, the opinion gatherer may ask, What do you think? in order to get that persons feedback. The Devils Advocate is the person that argues a contrary or opposing point of view. This may be done positively in an effort to ensure that all perspectives are considered, or negatively as the unwillingness of a single person to participate in the groups ideas. The Energizer is the person who functions as the groups cheer-leader, providing energy, motivation, and positive encouragement.
Social-Emotional Roles. Group members play a variety of roles in order to build and maintain relationships in groups. The SocialEmotional Leader is the person who is concerned with maintaining and balancing the social and emotional needs of the group members and tends to play many, if not all, of the roles in this category. The Encourager practices good listening skills in order to create a safe space for others to share ideas and offer suggestions. Followers are group members that do what they are told, going along with decisions and assignments from the group. The Tension Releaser is the person that uses humor, or can skillfully
change the subject in an attempt to minimize tension and avoid conflict. The Compromiser is the one who mediates disagreements or conflicts among members by encouraging others to give in on small issues for the sake of meeting the goals of the group. What role do you find yourself most likely to enact in groups? Or, do you find you switch between these roles depending on the group?
Procedural Roles. Groups cannot function properly without having a system of rules or norms in place. Members are responsible for maintaining the norms of a group and play many roles to accomplish this. The Facilitator acts like a traffic director by managing the flow of information to keep the group on task. Gatekeepers are those group members that attempt to maintain proper communicative balance. These people also serve as the points of contact between times of official group meetings. The Recorder is the person responsible for tracking group ideas, decisions, and progress. Often, a written record is necessary, thus, this person has the responsibility for keeping, maintaining, and sharing group notes. If youre the person who pulls out a pen and paper in order to track what the group talks about, youre the recorder.
Individual Roles. Because groups are made of individuals, group members often play various roles in order to achieve individual goals. The Aggressor engages in forceful or dominating communication to put others down or initiate conflict with other members. This communication style can cause some members to remain silent or passive. The Blocker is the person that fusses or complains about small procedural matters, often blocking the groups progress by not letting them get to the task. They worry about small details that, overall, are not important to achieving the groups desired outcome. The Self-Confessor uses the group as a setting to discuss personal or emotional matters not relevant to the group or its task. This is the person that views the group as one that is there to perform group therapy. The Playboy or Playgirl shows little interest in the group or the problem at hand and does not contribute in a meaningful way, or at all. This is the person who does essentially no work, yet still gets credit
for the groups work. The Joker or Clown uses inappropriate humor or remarks that can steer the group from its mission. While we certainly do not have the space to cover every role you might encounter in a group, were sure you can point to your own examples of people who have filled the roles weve discussed. Perhaps you can point to examples of when you have filled some of these roles yourself. Its important for group members to understand what kinds of roles they play in groups in order to engage in positive roles that help the group along. One dynamic that these roles contribute to in the process of group communication is leadership in groups. Lets briefly examine how leadership functions in groups.
[edit]Leadership
In Groups
W
hile weve examined roles we can play in groups, the role that often gets the most attention is that of the leader. Like defining communication, many people have an idea of what a leader is, but cant really come up with a good definition for the term as there are many ways to conceptualize the role of leader. One way to do this is to think of leaders in terms of their leadership styles. Lets look at three broad leadership styles to better understand the communication choices leaders can make, as well as the outcome of such choices, in a group. First, lets visualize leadership styles by seeing them as a continuum. The position to the left (Laissez-faire) indicates a leader who exerts little to no control over a group, while the position on the right (Authoritarian) indicates a leader who seeks complete control. The position in the middle (Democratic) is one where a leader maintains a moderate level of control or influence in a group with the groups permission.
Laissez-faire is a French term that literally means let do. This leadership style is one in which the leader takes a laid back or handsoff approach. For a variety of reasons a leader may choose to keep her/his input at a minimum and refrain from directing a group. What do you think some reasons may be for selecting this leadership style? Perhaps a person feels uncomfortable being a leader. Perhaps a person
does not feel that she/he possesses the skills required to successfully lead the group. Or, perhaps the group is highly skilled, motivated, and efficient and does not require much formal direction from a leader. If the latter is the case then a laissez-faire approach may work well. However, if a group is in need of direction then a laissez-faire style may result in frustration and inefficiency.
An authoritarian leadership style is one in which a leader attempts to exert maximum control over a group. This may be done by making unilateral decisions rather than consulting all members, assigning members to specific tasks or duties, and generally controlling group processes. This leadership style may be beneficial when a group is in need of direction or there are significant time pressures. Authoritarian leaders may help a group stay efficient and organized in order to accomplish its goals. However, group members may be less committed to the outcomes of the group process than if they had been a part of the decision making process. One term that you may have heard on your campus is shared-governance. In general, faculty do not like working in groups where one person is making the decisions. Instead, most faculty prefer a system where all members of a group share in the leadership process. This can also be called the democratic style of leadership.
The democratic style of leadership falls somewhere in the middle of laissez-faire and authoritarian styles. In these situations, the decisionmaking power is shared among group members, not exercised by one individual. In order for this to be effective, group members must spend considerable time sharing and listening to various positions and weighing the effects of each. Groups organized in this fashion may be more committed to the outcomes of the group, be more creative, and be more participatory. However, as each persons ideas are taken into account, this can extend the amount of time it takes for a group to accomplish its goals.
While weve certainly oversimplified our coverage of the complex nature of group leaders, you should be able to recognize that there are pros and cons to each leadership style, and that there is not one right way to be a leader for every group. An effective leader is able to adapt his or her style to fit the
needs of the group. Furthermore, as a groups needs and members change over time, leadership styles can accommodate natural changes in the groups life cycle. Take a moment to think of various group situations in which each leadership style may be the most and the least desirable. What are examples of groups where each style of leadership could be practiced effectively?
[edit]Group
Norms
E
very group we participate in has a set of norms like we talked about in the norming stage of groups. Each groups rules and norms are different, and we must learn them to be effective participants. Some groups formalize their norms and rules, while others are less formal and more fluid. Norms are the recognized rules of behavior for group members. Norms influence the ways we communicate with other members, and ultimately, the outcome of group participation. Norms are important because, as we highlighted in the norming stage of group formation, they are the defining characteristics of groups. Brilhart and Galanes (1998) divide norms into two categories. General norms direct the behavior of the group as a whole (p. 130). Meeting times, how meetings run, and the division of tasks are all examples of general norms that groups form and maintain. These norms establish the generally accepted rules of behavior for all group members. The second category of norms is role-specific norms. Role-specific norms concern individual members with particular roles, such as the designated leader (p. 130). Not only are there norms that apply to all members of a group, there are norms that influence the behaviors of each role. Consider our brief discussion on leadership. If a groups members are self-motivated, and do not need someone imposing structure, they will set a norm that the group leader should act as a laissez-faire or democratic leader rather than an authoritarian leader. Violation of this norm would most likely result in conflict if the leader tries to impose his/her will. A violation like this will send a group back to the storming stage to renegotiate the acceptable norms of the group. When norms are violated, group members most often will work to
correct the violation to get the group back on task and functioning properly. Have you ever been in a group in which a particular group member did not do the task that was assigned to him/her? What happened? How did the group handle this situation as a whole? What was the response of the person who did not complete the task? In hindsight, would you have handled it differently? If so, how? As groups progress through the various stages, and as members engage in the various roles, the group is in a continual process of decision making. Since this is true, it makes sense to ask the question, How is it that groups make decisions?
[edit]Decision
Making In Groups
W
hen groups need to get a job done they should have a method in place for making decisions. The decision making process is a norm that may be decided by a group leader, or by the group members as a whole. Lets look at four common ways of making decisions in groups. To make it simple we will again use a continuum as a way to visualize the various options groups have for making decisions. On the left side are those methods that require maximum group involvement (consensus and voting). On the right are those methods that use the least amount of input from all members (compromise and authority rule). The decision-making process that requires the most group input is called consensus. To reach consensus group members must participate in the crafting of a decision and agree to adopt it. While not all members may support the decision equally, all will agree to carry it out. In individualistic cultures like the U.S., where a great deal of value is placed on independence and freedom of choice, this option can be seen by group members as desirable, since no one is forced to go along with a policy or plan of action to which they are opposed. Even though this style of decision making has many advantages, it has its limitations as wellit requires a great deal of creativity, trust, communication, and time on the part of all group members. It is often difficult to reach consensus, therefore, groups
may opt for the next strategy which does not require buy-in from all or most of the group. Voting by majority may be as simple as having 51% of the vote for a particular decision, or may require a larger percentage, such as two-thirds or three-fourths, before reaching a decision. Like consensus, voting is advantageous because everyone is able to have an equal say in the decision process (as long as they vote). Unlike consensus, everyone may not be satisfied with the outcome. In a simple majority, 49% of voters may be displeased and may be resistant to abide by the majority vote. In this case the decision or policy may be difficult to carry out and implement. For example, one of your authors was involved at a campus where a department was voting on whether or not they wanted to hire a particular person to be a professor. Three faculty voted yes for the person, while two faculty voted no. Needless to say, there was a fair amount of contention among the professors who voted. Ultimately, the person being considered for the job learned about the split vote and decided that he did not want to take the job because he felt that the two people that voted no would not treat him well. Toward the right of our continuum is compromise. This method often carries a positive connotation in the U.S. because it is perceived as fair since each member gives up something, as well as gains something. Nevertheless, this decision making process may not be as fair as it seems on the surface.
Even non-Communication majors need to develop effective group communication skills to succeed at work. Okay, youre a Communication major and this whole idea of working in groups really appeals to you and seems to come naturally. But perhaps youre not a Communication major and youre thinking to yourself that your future career isnt really going to require group or team work. Well, youre probably wrong about that. The College of Engineering at Michigan State University created a webpage called top ten things engineering employers want you to do. Among them are: Make a contribution to the company the minute you arrive, Show us you are a leader, Be able to clearly express your thoughts (verbally & in writing) Demonstrate you are a Team Player and Be goal oriented.
Group Communication and You
The main reason for this has to do with what is being given up and obtained. There is nothing in a compromise that says these two factors must be equal (that may be the ideal, but it is often not the reality). For individuals or groups that feel they have gotten the unfair end of the bargain, they may be resentful and refuse to carry out the compromise. They may also foster ill will toward others in the group, or engage in self-doubt for going along with the compromise in the first place. However, if groups cannot make decisions through consensus or voting, compromise may be the next best alternative. At the far right of our continuum is decision by authority rule. This decisionmaking process requires essentially no input from the group, although the groups participation may be necessary for implementing the decision. The authority in question may be a member of the group who has more power than other members, or a person of power outside the group. While this method is obviously efficient, members are often resentful when they feel they have to follow anothers orders and feel the group process was a faade and waste of valuable time. During the decision making process, groups must be careful not to fall victim to groupthink. Groupthink happens when a group is so focused on agreement and consensus that they do not examine all of the potential solutions available to them. Obviously, this can lead to incredibly flawed decision making and outcomes. Groupthink occurs when a group overestimates its power and morality, becomes closed-minded, and group members are pressured to conform and not raise serious objections to decisions being proposed (Brilhard & Galanes, 1998). Many have argued that the Bush administrations decision to go to war with Iraq is an example of groupthink. In fact, the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence: Report on pre-Iraq War Intelligence concluded that many of the decisions used to support the war in Iraq were a result of collective group think. As with leadership styles, appropriate decision making processes vary from group to group depending on context, culture, and group members. There is not a one way fits all approach to making group decisions. When you find yourself in a task or decision-making group it is best to first take stock of the task at hand before deciding as a group the best ways to proceed.
[edit]Group
Work and Time
B
y now you should recognize that working in groups and teams has many advantages. However, one issue that is of central importance to group work is time. When working in groups time can be both a source of frustration, as well as a reason to work together. One obvious problem is that it takes much longer to make decisions with two or more people as opposed to just one person. Another problem is that it can be difficult to coordinate meeting times when taking into account peoples busy lives of work, school, family, and other personal commitments. On the flip side, when time is limited and there are multiple tasks to accomplish, it is often more efficient to work in a group where tasks can be delegated according to resources and skills. When each member can take on certain aspects of a project, this limits the amount of work an individual would have to do if he/she were solely responsible for the project. For example, when one of your authors bought her first house the yard was a messthe lawn needed to be mowed and trimmed, trees needed to be pruned, and flower beds needed to be weeded and replanted. The thought of doing this alone was daunting in terms of the required labor and time. Hiring professionals was too expensive to consider. What to do? A friend suggested a yard warming party as an alternative to a traditional house warming party. Instead of bringing gifts each person brought a new plant or some sort of garden tool, came over in their work clothes, and donated a Saturday afternoon to cleaning up the yard. After only four hours of collective work the trees were trimmed, the lawn was neatly mowed, and the group of friends had planted fresh new daisy bushes. The group had set out on a task, divided work according to skill, and accomplished a huge project in a fraction of the time it would have taken a single person. The best part was being able to look at the yard as a reminder of ones community and the power of people working together. On the flip side, your other author chaired a committee in which a report had to be written and presented to the campus community. The committee took several multi-hour meetings to write a report that could have been written by your author in less than two hours. However,
the final report by the committee was much better and more detailed than your author could have written on his own. When deciding whether or not to work in groups, it is important to consider time. Is the time and effort of working in a group worth the outcome? Or, is it better to accomplish the task as an individual?
[edit]Groups
and Technology
I
f you havent done so already, it is likely that you will use technology at some point to communicate in a group. There is no doubt that technology is rapidly changing the ways we communicate in a variety of contexts, and group communication is no exception. Many organizations use technologies such as computers and cell phones as a primary way to keep groups connected given their ease of use, low cost, and asynchronous nature. In fact, when your authors set up course web pages for students, they also set up group forums for class groups to deal with the complexities of finding times to meet. Using these forums our students have live chats online, transfer documents back and forth, and form discussion threads to achieve the groups goals, all without ever having to meet in person. As you enter the workforce, youll likely find yourself participating in virtual groups with people who have been brought together from a variety of geographical locations. While communication technologies can be beneficial for bringing people together and facilitating groups, they also have drawbacks. When we lack face-to-face encounters, and rely on asynchronous forms of communication, there is greater potential for information to be lost and messages to be ambiguous. The face-to-face nature of traditional group meetings provides immediate processing and feedback through the interaction of group members. When groups communicate through email, threads, discussion forums, text messaging, etc., they lose the ability to provide immediate feedback to other members. Also, using communication technologies takes a great deal more time for a group to achieve its goals due to the asynchronous nature of these channels.
Nevertheless, technology is changing the ways we understand groups and participate in them. We have yet to work out all of the new standards for group participation introduced by technology. Used well, technology opens the door for new avenues of working in groups to achieve goals. Used poorly, technology can add to the many frustrations people often experience working in groups and teams.
[edit]Summary
W
e participate in groups and teams at all stages and phases of our lives, from play groups, to members of an athletic team, to performing in a band, or performing in a play. We form groups based on personal and professional interests, drive reduction, and for reinforcement. Through group and team work we can save time and resources, enhance the quality of our work, succeed professionally, or accomplish socio-political change. As you recall, a group is composed of three or more people who interact over time, depend on each other, and follow shared rules and norms. A team is a specialized group which possesses a strong sense of collective identity and compatible and complimentary resources. There are five general types of groups depending on the intended outcome. Primary groups are formed to satisfy our long-term emotive needs. Secondary groups are more performance based and concern themselves with accomplishing tasks or decision making. Personal growth groups focus on specific areas of personal problem solving while providing a supportive and emotionally positive context. Learning groups are charged with the discovery and dissemination of new ideas while problem solving groups find solutions. Once a group comes together they go through typical stages (forming, storming, norming, performing, and terminating) to develop roles, create a leadership strategy, and determine the process for decision making. While numerous specific group roles exit, the four categories of roles include: task, social-emotional, procedural, and individual roles. It is likely that members will occupy multiple roles simultaneously as they participate in groups. There are three broad leadership styles ranging from least to most controllaissez
faire, democratic, and authoritarian. Also related to power and control are options for decision making. Consensus gives members the most say, voting and compromise may please some but not others, and authority rule gives all control to the leader. None of the options for leadership styles and decision making are inherently good or badthe appropriate choice depends on the individual situation and context. It is important for groups not to become victims of groupthink as they make decisions. New technologies are continually changing how we engage in group communication. The asynchronous nature of communication technologies can facilitate group processes. However, they also have the potential to slow groups down and make it more difficult to accomplish group goals.
[edit]Discussion
Questions
1.
Compare and contrast the definition of team vs. group. Are there other differences you can think of?
2.
In a local, state, national, or international newspaper, find a recent story of group or teamwork. (Do not use a sport or athletic team for this example.) How do you think communication was relevant for this group?
3.
Given the fact that there are both advantages and disadvantages to working in a group, how would you decide if a particular situation was best served by working in a group versus working as an individual?
4.
Compare and contrast the three types of power. What might be some advantages and disadvantages of each in a group setting?
5.
Reflect back on a recent group or team experience. What roles did you play? How would you feel if you had to take on a new role or responsibility? How would your communication change or stay the same?
6.
Watch a feature length film and pay attention to the styles of leadership. (Whale Rider works well for this.) Does one person lead? Or, is leadership shared among group members? What styles of leadership do you notice? What are the suggested implications of a given style?
7.
How were/are decisions made in your family? Has the process changed over time? What kinds of communication surround the decision making?
[edit]Key
Terms
activity groups aggressor authoritarian authority rule blocker cohesiveness collectivist common goals compromise consensus democratic devils advocate drive reduction encourager energizer facilitator followers forming gatekeepers general norms group individualistic individual roles information gatherers interaction interdependence interests/attraction joker/clown laissez-faire
leadership learning groups norming norms opinion gatherers performing personal growth groups playboy/playgirl polarization power power-from-within power-over power-with primary groups problem solving groups procedural roles promulgation recorder reinforcement role-specific norms secondary groups self-confessor shared norms social-emotional roles social-emotional leader solidification storming synergy task leader task roles team tension releasers terminating
voting
[edit]References
Bowers, J. W. & Ochs, D. J. (1971). The rhetoric of agitation and control. New York: Random House. Brilhart, J. K., & Galanes, G. J. (1998). Effective group discussion (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Chilberg, A. D. & Jensen, J. C. (1991). Small group communication: Theory and application. Belmont: Wadsworth. Cragan, J. F., & Wright, D. W. (1999). Communication in small groups: Theory, process, skills (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Fisher, B. A. (1970). Decision emergence: Phases in group decisionmaking. Speech Monographs, 37, 53-66. Harris, T. E., & Sherblom, J. C. (2008). Small group and team communication (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Heider, J. (1997). The tao of leadership. Atlanta: Humanics New Age. Ketrow, S.M. (1991). Communication role specializations and perceptions of leadership. Small Group Research, 21 (2), 234-54. Larson, C. E., & LaFasto, F. (1989). Teamwork: What must go right/what can go wrong. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper. Lumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (1986). Communicating in groups and teams: Sharing leadership. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Richards, J. & Baumgardner, A. (2000). Manifesta: Young women, feminism and the future. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Salwen, M. B. & Stacks, D. W. (1996). An integrated approach to communication theory and research. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sheats, K. & Benne, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members." Journal of Social Issues, 4, 41-49. Starhawk. (1987). Truth or dare: Encounters with power authority, and mystery. San Francisco: Harper.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequences in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399. Tuckman, B. W. (1977). Stages in small group development revisited. Group and Organizational Studies, 2(419-427). Wilson, G. L. (2002). Groups in context: Leadership and participation in small groups (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Wood, J. T. (2003). Communication in our lives (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
A w a n h a s s n a i n
M y d i
s c u s s i o n
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M y w a t c h l i s t
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b u t i o n s
L o g o u t
B o o k D i s c u s s i o n R e a d E d i t V i e w
h i s t o r y
W a t c h
M a i n P a g e
H e l p
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D o n a t
i o n s
R a n d o m b o o k
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p o r t a l
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H e l p o u t !
P o l i c i e s a n d g u i
d e l i n e s
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T o o l b o x S i s t e r p r o j e c t s P r i n t / e x p o r t
Survey of Communication Study/Chapter 1 Foundations: Defining Communication and Communication Study

Contents
[hide]
1 Chapter 1
o o o o o o o o [edit]
1.1 Foundations: Defining Communication and Communication Study 1.2 Defining Communication Study 1.3 Defining Communication 1.4 Communication Study and You 1.5 Summary 1.6 Discussion Questions 1.7 Key Terms 1.8 References
Chapter 1
Defining Communication and Communication Study
[edit]Foundations:
Y
Chapter Objectives:
ou are probably reading this book because you are taking an introductory communication class at your college or university. Many colleges and
Explain Communication Study. Define Communication.
universities around the country require students to take some form of communication course in
Explain the linear and transactional models of communication. order to graduate. Introductory communication classes include courses on public speaking, Discuss the benefits of studying Communication.
interpersonal communication, or a class that combines both. However, a new trend is beginning to emerge. Many Communication departments are now offering an introductory course that explains what Communication is, how it is studied as an academic field, and what areas of specialization make up the field of Communication. That is our goal in this text. As professors, we hear a lot of people talk about communication both on and off our campuses. Were always surprised at how few people can actually explain what communication is, or what Communication departments are about. Even our majors sometimes have a hard time explaining to others what it is they study. Through this book we provide you with the basics for understanding what communication is, what Communication scholars and students study, and how you can effectively use the study of communication in your life, whether or not you
are a Communication major. We accomplish this by taking you on a journey through time. The material in the text is framed chronologically, and is largely presented in context of the events that occurred before the industrial revolution (2500 BCE-1800s), and after the industrial revolution (1800s-Present). In each chapter we include boxes that provide examples on that chapters topic in context of then, now, and you to help you grasp how the study of communication at colleges and universities impacts life in the "real world." To help you have a general understanding of communication study as an academic field, we have divided the book into two parts: Part I (Chapters 16) provides you with the foundations of Communication as an academic field of study. In this chapter you will learn the definitions of Communication and Communication study, as well as understand possible careers that result from studying communication. In Chapters 2 and 3 you will learn that verbal and nonverbal communication are the primary human acts we study as an academic field. By reading a brief history of Communication study in Chapter 4, you will learn the chronological development of the field, which determined our choices for how we ordered the chapters in Part II. Finally, Chapters 5 and 6 briefly highlight the different theories and research methods we use to study human communication. Part II (Chapters 713) highlights many of the prominent communication specializations that have shaped the field in the past 100 years. We present them in the chronological order in which they became part of the Communication discipline. While there are many more areas of specialization we would like to cover in this text, we have chosen to highlight the ones that have shaped what you likely recognize as part of the Communication departments at your colleges and universities. Because we cannot cover every specialization, we chose to include ones that were instrumental in the earlier development of the field that are still being explored today, as well as specializations we believe represent new directions in the field that examine communication in our every-changing society. Before we introduce you to verbal and nonverbal communication, history, theories, research methods, and the chronological development of communication specializations; we want to set a foundation for you in this chapter by explaining Communication Study, Communication, Models of Communication, and communication at work.
[edit]Defining
Communication Study
W
hen we tell others that we teach Communication, people often ask questions like, Do you teach radio and television? Do you teach public speaking? Do you do news broadcasts? Do you work with computers? Do you study Public Relations? Is that Journalism or Mass Communication? But, the most common question we get is, What is that? Its interesting that most people will tell us they know what communication is, but they do not have a clear understanding of what we study and teach as an academic discipline. In fact, many
professors in other departments on our campus also ask us what it is we study and teach. If youre a Communication major, youve probably been asked the same question, and like us, had a hard time answering it succinctly. If you memorize the definition below, you will have a quick and simple answer to those who ask you what you study as a Communication major. Bruce Smith, Harold Lasswell, and Ralph D. Casey (1946) provided a good and simple answer to the question, What is communication study? They state that communication study is an academic field whose primary focus is who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results (p. 121). Although they gave this explanation over 60 years ago, it still succinctly describes the focus of Communication scholars and professionals. As professors and students of communication we extensively examine the various forms and outcomes of human communication. In 1995, the National Communication Association (NCA), our national organization, stated that communication study focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels and media. The field promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication (NCA, 1995). Now, if people ask you what youre studying in a Communication class, you have an answer! We use Smith, Lasswell, and Caseys definition to guide how we discuss the content in this book. Part I of this book sets the foundation by explaining the historical development of how we came to this definition, the what and channels (verbal and nonverbal communication), and the whom and results (theories and research methods). Before we get into those chapters, it is important for you to know how we define the actual term communication to give you context for our discussion of it throughout the book.
Communication Study Who? What? What Channel? To Whom? What Are the Results?
[edit]Defining
Communication
N
ow that you know how to define communication study, are you able to develop a simple definition of communication? Try to write a one-sentence definition of communication!
Communication Study Then Aristotle The Communication Researcher
Aristotle said, Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three
classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three elements in speech-making -speaker, subject, and person addressed -- it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech's end and object.
Were guessing its more difficult than you think. Dont be discouraged. For decades communication professionals have had difficulty coming to any consensus about how to define the term
For Aristotle it was the to whom that determined if communication occurred and how effective it was. Aristotle, in his study of who says what, through what channels, to whom, and what will be the results focused on persuasion and its effect on the audience. Aristotle thought is was extremely important to focus on the audience in communication exchanges.
communication (Hovland, 1948; Morris, 1946; Nilsen, 1957; Sapir, 1933; Schramm, 1948; Smith, 1950; Stevens, 1950). Even today, there is no single agreedupon definition of communication. In 1970 and 1984 Frank Dance looked at 126 published definitions of communication in our literature and said that the task
What is interesting is that when we think of communication we are often, more concerned about ourselves as the communications source, about our message, and even the channel we are going to use. Too often, the listener, viewer, reader fails to get any consideration at all (Lee, 1993).
of trying to develop a single definition of communication that everyone likes is like trying to nail jello to a wall. Over twenty years later, defining communication still feels like nailing jello to a wall. We recognize that there are countless good definitions
Aristotle's statement above demonstrates that humans who have been studying communication have had solid ideas about how to communicate
of communication, but we feel its important to provide you with our definition. We are not arguing that this
effectively for a very long time. Even though people have been formally
definition of communication is the best, but you will

studying communication for a long time, it is still necessary to continue
understand the content of this text better if you

studying communication in order to improve it.
understand how we have come to define communication. For the purpose of this text we define
Lee, R. L. (1993). Developing Effective Communications [Website].
communication as the process of using symbols to

University of Missouri Extension.
exchange meaning.
Available:http://extension.missouri.edu/explore/comm/cm0109.htm [2008, March 31st].'
Lets examine two models of communication to help you further grasp this definition. Shannon and Weaver (1949) proposed a Mathematical Model of
Communication (sometimes called the Linear Model) that serves as a basic model of communication. This model suggests that communication is simply the transmission of a message from one source to another. Watching television serves as an example of this. You act as the receiver when you watch television, receiving messages from the source (the television program). To better understand this, lets break down each part of this model. The Mathematical or Linear Model of Communication is a model that suggests communication moves only in one direction. The Sender encodes a Message, then uses a certain Channel (verbal/nonverbal communication) to send it to a Receiver who decodes (interprets) the message. Noise is anything that interferes with, or changes, the original encoded message.
A sender is someone who encodes and sends a message to a receiver through a particular channel. The sender is the initiator of communication. For example, when you email a friend, ask a salesclerk a question, or wave to someone you are the sender of a message. A receiver is the recipient of a message. The receiver must decode messages in ways that are meaningful for him/her. For example, if you see your friend make eye contact, smile, wave, and say hello as you pass, you are receiving a message intended for you. When this happens you must decode the verbal and nonverbal communication in ways that are meaningful. A message is the particular meaning or content the sender wishes the receiver to understand. The message can be intentional or unintentional, written or spoken, verbal or nonverbal, or any combination of these. For example, as you walk across campus you may see a friend walking toward you. When you make eye contact, wave, smile, and say hello, you are offering a message that is intentional, spoken, verbal and nonverbal. A channel is the method a sender uses to send a message to a receiver. The most common channels humans use are verbal and nonverbal communication which we will discuss in detail in Chapters 2 and 3. Verbal communication relies on language and includes speaking, writing, and sign language. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, paralanguage, and touch. We also use communication channels that are mediated (such as television or the computer) which may utilize both verbal and nonverbal communication. Using the greeting example above, the channels of communication include both verbal and nonverbal communication. Noise is anything that interferes with the sending or receiving of a message. Noise is external (a jack hammer outside your apartment window or loud music in a nightclub), and internal (physical pain, psychological stress, or nervousness about an upcoming test). External and internal noise make encoding and decoding messages more difficult. Using our ongoing example, if you are on your way to lunch and listening to your ipod when your friend greets you, you may not hear your friend say hello, and you may not wish to chat because you are hungry. In this case, both internal and external noise influenced the communication exchange. Noise is in every communication context, and therefore, NO message is received exactly as it is transmitted by a sender because noise distorts it in one way or another. A major criticism of the Linear Model is that it suggests communication only occurs in one direction. It also does not show how context, or our personal experiences, impact communication. Television serves as a good example of the linear model. Have you ever talked back to your television while you were watching it? Maybe you were watching a sporting event or a dramatic show and you talked at the people in the television. Did they respond to you? Were sure they did not. Television works in one direction. No matter how much you talk to the television it will not respond to you. Now apply this idea to your relationships. It seems ridiculous to think that
this is how we would communicate with each other on a regular basis. This example shows the limits of the linear model for understanding communication, particularly human to human communication. Given the limitations of the Linear Model, Barnlund (1970) adjusted the model to more fully represent what occurs in most human communication exchanges. The Transactional Model demonstrates that communication participants act as senders AND receivers simultaneously. Communication is not a simple one-way transmission of a message: The personal filters and experiences of the participants impact each communication exchange. The Transactional Model demonstrates that we are simultaneously senders and receivers, and that noise and personal filters always influence the outcomes of every communication exchange. The Transactional Model of Communication adds to the Linear Model by suggesting that both parties in a communication exchange act as both sender and receiver simultaneously, encoding and decoding messages to and from each other at the same time. While these models are overly simplistic representations of communication, they illustrate some of the complexities of defining and studying communication. Going back to Smith, Lasswell, and Casey we may choose to focus on one, all, or a combination of the following: senders of communication, receivers of communication, channels of communication, messages, noise, context, and/or the outcome of communication. We hope you recognize that studying communication is simultaneously detail-oriented (looking at small parts of human communication), and far-reaching (examining a broad range of communication exchanges).
[edit]Communication
Study and You
I
f you think about Smith, Lasswell, and Caseys statement that those of us who study communication investigate, who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results you should realize how truly complex a task we perform (p. 121). While well explore many examples later in the book, we want to briefly highlight a few examples of what you might study if you are interested in communication.
Communication Study Now Aristotle and an Aardvark Go to Washington: Understanding Political Doublespeak Through Philosophy and Jokes? - Book by Thomas Cathcart and Daniel Klein.
Does Aristotles work still apply today outside of college classrooms? Of
Studying communication is exciting because there are so many possibilities on which to focus. For example, you might study celebrity gender images in magazine advertising (Stafford, Spears & Chung-Kue, 2003); the effect of political advertising and news on peoples perceptions of political candidates (Tasperson & Fan, 2004); the various ways teachers communicate power and credibility in the classroom (Teven & Herring, 2005); how sons and daughters communicate disappointment (Miller-Day & Lee, 2001); how power is communicated and challenged in corporations (Patel & Xavier, 2005); the impact of intercultural communication and its effects on the global village (Young, 2005); or how women make sense of, and enact, their role as both professional and mother (Buzzanell, Meisenbach, Remke, Liu, Bowers & Conn, 2005). The above examples demonstrate just a small taste of what we can examine through the lens of communication. In reality, studying communication has
course it does. In their new book "Aristotle and an Aardvark Go to Washington: Understanding Political Doublespeak Through Philosophy and Jokes," Cathcart and Klein use Aristotles work with persuasion to take a humorous look at how our politicians communicate.
For instance, Rumsfeld complained that there were no decent targets for bombing in Afghanistan and that we should consider bombing in Iraq, which, he said, had better targets. The authors of this text state that, "Rumsfeld is here employing the old con known as ignoratio elenchi (ignorance of the issue)."
Using jokes, cartoons, and insights from Aristotle and others, this book explains statements from politicians such as: The absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence. (Donald Rumsfeld), and It depends on what the meaning of the word is is. (Bill Clinton).
-BuzzFlash. (2008). BuzzFlash Reviews. [Website]. BuzzFlash. Available: http://www.buzzflash.com/store/reviews/937 [2008, March 31st].
almost limitless possibilities. Thats what makes this field so dynamic and exciting! When you think about the infinite number of variables we can study, as well as the infinite number of communication contexts, the task of studying who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results? is open to countless possibilities. The study of communication has proven helpful to us as social beings as we work to better understand the complexities of our interactions and relationships. As a student taking an introductory Communication course, you might be thinking, Why does this matter to me? One reason it is important for you to study and know communication is that these skills will help you succeed in personal, social, and professional situations. A survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers found that "College students who wish to separate themselves from the competition during their job search would be wise to develop proficiencies most sought by employers, such as communication, interpersonal, and teamwork skills." In fact, in 2004, three of the top six qualities employers looked for in employees were communication skills, interpersonal skills, and teamwork skills. Whether you major in Communication or not, the more you understand communication, the greater potential you have to succeed in all aspects of your life. Another important reason for studying communication is that in can lead to a variety of career opportunities.
[edit]Summary
Communication Study and You Careers with a Communication Degree
I
n this chapter you have learned that the purpose of this book is to introduce you to the academic field of Communication by setting a foundation of communication history and study in the first six chapters, followed by the chronological presentation of some of the major specializations that make up this academic field. Smith, Laswell, and Casey offer a simple definition of
The kind of skills developed by Communication majors are highly valued by all kinds of employers. Courses and activities in Communication departments both teach and make use of the skills ranked consistently high by employers. Students with a degree in Communication are ready to excel in a wide variety of careers. Below are listed some broad categories that most commonly come to mind:
Education (including elementary, high school, and college), Law, Dispute Resolution, Business Management, Marketing, Sales, Advertising, Public Relations, Social Advocacy, Communication Consulting, Computer Services, Radio Broadcasting, TV Broadcasting, Administration, Politics, Corporate Training and Development
communication study: who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results (p.121). Now you can provide an answer to those who ask you what Communication study is about. Our definition of communication, the process of using symbols to exchange meaning,
Copyright 2006 Humboldt State University :: Communication. All rights reserved.
allows you to understand how we use this term throughout the book. The linear and transactional models of communication act as a visual
representations of both communication study and communication. Finally, you are now aware of the importance of studying communication: that it impacts your personal, social, and professional life.
[edit]Discussion
Questions
1. According to our definition, what is communication? What do we not consider to be communication?
2.
Using our definition of communication study, explain how Communication is different from other majors such as Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology, etc?
3.
Name three people who you feel use communication effectively in their jobs? In what ways do they communicate effectively using verbal and nonverbal communication?
[edit]Key
Terms

channel communication communication study linear model message noise receiver sender transactional model
[edit]References
Atikinson, C. (2004). Aristotles Top Ten PowerPoint Tips, [Website]. Beyond Bullets. Available: http:// www.beyondbullets.com/2004/08/99_perspiration.html [2004, August 4th]. Barnlund, D.C. (1970). A transactional model of communication. In K.K. Sereno and C.D. Mortensen (Eds.), Foundations of Communication Theory. New York: Harper and Row. Buzzanell, P., Meisenbach, R., Remke, R., Liu, M., Bowers, V., & Conn, C. (2005). The good working mother: Managerial womens sensemaking and feelings about workfamily issues. Communication Studies, 56(3), 261-285. Dance, F. (1970). The "concept" of communication. The Journal of Communication, 20(2), 201-210. Dance, F. (1984). What is communication?: Nailing Jello to the wall. Association for Communication Administration Bulletin, 48(4), 4-7. Hovland, C. (1948, November 12). "Social communication," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
Lee, R. L. (1993). Developing Effective Communications [Website]. University of Missouri Extension. Available: http://extension.missouri.edu/explore/comm/cm0109.htm [2008, March 31st]. Miller-Day, M., & Lee, J. W. (2001). Communicating disappointment: The viewpoint of sons and daughters. Journal of Family Communication, 1(2), 111-131. Morris, C. (1946). Signs, language, and behavior. New York: PrenticeHall, Inc. Nilsen, T. R. (1957). On defining communication. Speech Teacher, 6(1), 10-17. Patel, A., & Xavier, R. (2005). Legitimacy challenged. Australian Journal of Communication, 32(1), 53-69. Sapir, E. (1933). "Communication," encyclopedia of the social sciences. New York: The Macmillan Company. Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). A mathematical model of communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Schramm, W. (Ed.). (1948). Communication in modern society: Fifteen studies of the mass media prepared for the University of Illinois Institution of Communication Research. Urbana, IL: The University of Illinois Press. Smith, M. (1946). Communicative behavior. Psychological Review. Smith, B. L., Lasswell, H., & Casey, R. D. (1946). Propaganda, communication, and public opinion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Stafford, M. R., Spears, N. E., & Chung-kue, H. (2003). Celebrity images in magazine advertisements: An application of the visual rhetoric model. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 25(2), 13-20. Stevens, S. S. (1950). Introduction: A definition of communication. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, XXII. Tasperson, A. E., & Fan, D. P. (2004). The news as molder of campaign ad effects. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 16(4), 417436. Young, Y. K. (2005). Inquiry in intercultural and development communication. Journal of Communication, 55(3), 554-577.
M y d i s c u s s i o n
M y
p r e f e r e n c e s
M y c o n t r i b u t i o n s
L o g
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B o o k D i s c u s s i o n R e a d E d i t V i e w h i s t o r y
W a t c
M a i n P a g e
H e l p
B r o w s e
C o o k b o o k
W i k i j u n i o r
F e a t u r e d b o o k s
D o n a t i o n s
R a n d o m b
o o k
C o m m u n i t y
C o m m u n i t y p o r t a l
B u l l e t
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H e l p o u t !
P o l i c i e s a n d g u i d e l i n e s
C o n t a
c t u s
T o o l b o x S i s t e r p r o j e c t s P r i n t / e x p o r t
Survey of Communication Study/Chapter 12 Intercultural Communication

Contents
[hide]
1 Chapter 12
o o
1.1 Intercultural Communication 1.2 What Do We Mean by Culture?
1.2.1 Understanding Race 1.2.2 Where Do You Come From? 1.2.3 Gender and Sexual Orientation 1.2.4 The Role of Money
1.3 Facilitating Discussions about Intercultural Communication Issues
1.3.1 Privilege 1.3.2 Ethnocentrism 1.3.3 Whiteness
1.3.4 Political Correctness
1.4 Knowing Where We Belong
1.4.1 Minority Identity Development 1.4.2 Majority Identity Development 1.4.3 Bi- or Multiracial Identity Development 1.4.4 Global Nomads 1.4.5 Language Shapes Cultural Perception
1.5 How Scholars Study Intercultural Communication: Theoretical Approaches and Concepts
1.5.1 Social Science 1.5.2 Interpretive 1.5.3 Critical Cultural
1.6 Important Concepts for Understanding Intercultural Communication
1.6.1 High and Low context 1.6.2 Speech Styles 1.6.3 Collectivist versus Individualistic
1.7 Where Intercultural Communication Occurs
o o o o [edit]
1.7.1 Media
1.8 Summary 1.9 Discussion Questions 1.10 Key Terms 1.11 References
Chapter 12
Communication
[edit]Intercultural
Chapter Objectives:
Identify your own cultural identity. Understand how communication, identity, and culture are related. Describe research methodologies specific to the study of
intercultural communication. Identify cultural representations in popular culture artifacts.
I
n his effort to explain the worlds population to young children, David J. Smith asks children to imagine the
world as a small village so they can understand the vast population figures in a more comprehensible way. For example, by January, 2002, the worlds population was 6,200,000,000 (Smith 7). Instead of talking about numbers of this magnitude he represents the world as 100 people; where 1 imaginary person represents 62,000,000 people from the real world. Using his model, we can more easily examine what nationalities make up the worlds population, what languages they speak, how old they are, and how statistics regarding wealth and education.
Here are some interesting facts from Smiths global village (8). Of the 100 people living in the village:
61 are from Asia 13 are from Africa 12 are from Europe 8 are from South and Central America 5 are from the United States and Canada 1 is from Oceania
So, how do these 100 people talk with one another? While there are nearly 6,000 languages spoken in this village, more than 50% of the villagers speak one of these eight (10):
22 speak a Chinese dialect (18 speak Mandarin) 9 speak English 8 speak Hindi 7 speak Spanish 4 speak Arabic 4 speak Bengali 3 speak Portuguese 3 speak Russian
Although there are 38 school-aged villagers (5-24 years), only 31 of them go to school, and there is only one teacher. Of the 88 people old enough to read, 71 can read at least a little while 17 cannot read at all. Male villagers are taught to read more than females (Smith 21). Seventy-six villagers have electricity, 24 do not
(Smith 25). Like literacy and electricity, access to money is disparate. If each villager earned a similar annual income, each one would have $6,200 per year. Instead, 20 people in the village earn more than $9,000 a year, another 20 villagers earn less than $365 a year, while the remaining 60 earn somewhere in between. As the average annual cost of food and shelter in the village is between $4,000-$5,000, many people go without these basic necessities (Smith 22). Moreover, it probably does not surprise you that the people with less money are also likely to have electricity and education. What may surprise you though is that these villagers are also more likely to be female and nonwhite? Besides simple cultural differences such as what language one speaks or the foods they prefer, cultural identity impacts individuals accessibility to certain resources such as shelter, electricity, running water, health care, education, and political and legal systems. If we return to the United States from our look at the global village we see that according to Moore (62-63, 14950):
About 20 percent of young black men ages 16-24 are neither in school nor working. Compare this to 9 percent of young white men.
Black women are four times more likely than white women to die in childbirth. Black levels of unemployment have been roughly twice those of white since 1954.
Women hold only 13 seats in Congress. 496 of the top 500 companies are run by men. Womens earnings average 76 cents for every $1 earned by menresulting in a lifetime loss of over $650,133.
To make the same annual salary as her male counterpart, a woman would have to work the entire year PLUS an additional four months.
The United States is one of the few countries in the world that puts to death both the mentally retarded and children. The other five countries in the world that execute their children are Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen.
The question of how this relates to communication is a complex one, and one that we will try to address throughout this chapter. For now, let us think about culture and communication as a reciprocal process: culture affects communication and communication affects culture. Both work together to shape how we identify as belonging to one culture or another, how we feel about belonging to a particular cultural group, how we communicate with other cultural groups, and how that group is regarded in the larger social system. In other words, what is the value and level of power afforded to various cultural groups? As you will see, this is often a
reflection of the language used to refer to a particular group of people, or the relative value placed on their communication practices.
[edit]What
Do We Mean by Culture?
B
efore going any further, let us spend some time discussing what we mean by culture. When you began reading this chapter what did you think we meant by the word culture? Your answer probably had something to do with people from different countries or of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. You are rightto a point. Culture does include race, nationality, and ethnicity, but goes beyond those identity markers as well. The following are various aspects of our individual identity that we use to create membership with others to form shared cultural identity: race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, and class. In addition to explaining the above identities, we will also discuss ethnocentrism, privilege, advantage, disadvantage, power, whiteness, co-culture and political correctness as these terms are relevant to understanding the interplay between communication and culture. When we talk about culture we are referring to belief systems, values, and behaviors that support a particular ideology or social arrangement. Culture guides language use, appropriate forms of dress, and views of the world. The concept is broad and encompasses many areas of our lives such as the role of the family, individual, educational systems, employment, and gender.
[edit]Understanding
Race
Race is often difficult to talk about, not because of the inherent complexity of the term itself, but because of the role that race plays in society. Race is what we call a loaded word because it can bring up strong emotions and connotations. Understandings of race fall into two camps: a biological versus a sociopolitical construction of what it means to belong to a particular racial group. A biological construction of race claims that pure races existed and could be distinguished by such physical features as eye color and shape, skin color, and hair. Moreover, these differences could be traced back to genetic differences. This theory has been debunked by numerous scientists and been replaced with the understanding that there are greater genetic differences within racial groups, not between them. In addition, there is no scientific connection with racial identity and cultural traits or behaviors. Instead of biology, we draw on a sociopolitical understanding of what it means to be of a particular race. This simply means that it is not a persons DNA that places them into a particular racial grouping, but all of the other factors that create social relationspolitics, geography, or migration. We can also examine the reality that the meanings of race have changed across time and space. Blacks were once considered property and counted as two-thirds of a person. This of course has changed and blacks are equally counted as U.S. citizens with access
to property ownership and voting rights. As dramatized in the 2002 film, Gangs of New York, the Irish were once considered a minority with little social or political status. Now, being Irish in America is considered part of the general majority group, white or Caucasian. Noting the change from the biological to the sociopolitical understanding, we refer to race as a largely socialyet powerful construction of human difference that has been used to classify human beings into separate value-based categories (Orbe and Harris 6). Related to race are three other distinct concepts: racial prejudice, racial discrimination, and racism. Racial prejudice refers to the practice of holding false or negative beliefs of one racial group for the purpose of making another racial group (usually ones own) appear superior or normative. Racial discrimination is the outward manifestation of racial prejudice: it is when people act upon their negative beliefs about other races when communicating or setting policy. Note, it is possible to be prejudiced without acting upon those beliefs and that all races can discriminate against other races. The final concept, racism, combines racial prejudice with social power. Racism is institutional, rather than individual, meaning it occurs in large institutional contexts such as the representations of particular groups within media or the fact that racial minorities do not have equal access to educational or legal opportunities(Orbe and Harris 7). Racism often involves the unequal accessibility to resources and power.
[edit]Where
Do You Come From?
Two other concepts that are often confused with race are ethnicity and nationality. Ethnicity refers to a persons or peoples heritage and history, and involves shared cultural traditions and beliefs. A person may identify as Asian-American racially while their ethnicity is Chinese. Nationality refers to a persons nation-state of residence or where he/she holds citizenship. Most often nationality is derived from the country where one was born, but on occasion people give up their citizenship by birth and migrate to a new country where they claim national identity. One of your authors father, for example, was born and raised in Canada, but eventually migrated to the United States and is now a U.S. citizen.
[edit]Gender
and Sexual Orientation
Are you male or female? Do you identify as heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bi-sexual, or transgendered? Ones gender and sexual orientation are two additional ways to think about culture. Gender is discussed in more detail in Chapter 13, but for now think of it as the recognition that one is male, female, or androgynous. Gender is part of culture in that every society has particular gender roles and expectations for males and females. In the United States, for example, the female gender is expected to wear make-up while it is most often considered inappropriate for a male to do so. However, in some Native American tribes it is customary for the males to adorn themselves with paint for hunting and ceremonial rituals. Sexual orientation refers to a persons preference for sexual or romantic relationships; one may prefer a partner of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both. Sexual orientation influences ones worldview or politics because while all societies include members who identify as gay or lesbian, these members do not always
receive the same benefits as heterosexual couples. Currently in the United States, same sex couples are prohibited from obtaining a legal marriage. Thus, they are denied many of the benefits that come with a marriage license such as income tax breaks, eligibility for health care benefits, and the legal right to make medical decisions for their partner. On top of these specific benefits, those with a nondominant sexual orientation must also contend on a daily basis that in the eyes of mainstream culture, they are deviant or somehow less than heterosexual people and couples. This may result in strained family relationships or discrimination in the workplace.
[edit]The
Role of Money
You are probably familiar with the concept of classwhat do the labels working class, middle-class, upperclass bring to mind? Money? Economic standing is only one variable that influences class or socioeconomic standing. As the label suggests, ones socioeconomic status is influenced by monetary and social factors. In essence, socioeconomic standing is your understanding of the world and where you fit in; its composed of ideas, behaviors, attitudes, values, and language; class is how you think, feel, act, look, dress, talk, move, walk (Langston 101). Your authors, for example, grew up in middle-class homes where it was expected the children would go to college just as their parents and grandparents had done. Also expected was that the children would attend reasonably priced state colleges and universities as opposed to Ivy League Universities as may be the norm in upper-class families. Once in college and living on our own however, our earnings fell below the poverty line and in purely economic terms we had lost our middle-class standing. But because socioeconomic status goes beyond dollars, and our lifestyles, clothing preferences, goals, and worldview did not change drastically; we could still be labeled part of the middle-class. By now you are probably able to think of some other identity markers that shape a persons culture or worldview. How about spirituality or religion, profession, hobbies, political persuasion, age, abilities? These too are aspects of cultural identity. Spend some time thinking about how these aspects would influence a persons culture as we have done above.
[edit]Facilitating
Discussions about Intercultural Communication Issues
P
erhaps you may have noticed the theme of inequality as we have as we have discussed topics like unequal access to resources and benefits, racial discrimination, and racism. You may have also thought, oh, my, this is going to be a touchy chapter to read and discuss in class or this is interesting and relevant, but I feel uncomfortable talking about this as I dont want to offend anyone. These are very common and understandable reactions and ones we hear when we teach this subject matter. Hopefully, your instructor has set up a safe, open, and respectful classroom environment to facilitate such discussions. The fact that you are
self-reflective of your feelings and how to express them to others is a great start! We too want you to be able to discuss this material both in and out of your class in a productive and self-reflective manner. To facilitate that goal we have included some additional concepts privilege, ethnocentrism, whiteness, and political correctnessthat are useful when considering your own cultural identity, your place in society, and your communication with others.
[edit]Privilege
Hopefully, you have been thinking about your own cultural identity as you have been reading this chapter. If so, then you have been thinking about labels that define you culturally. Maybe you have defined yourself as female, Latina, and heterosexual. Or maybe you have labeled yourself as gay, white, working-class, and male. When we give ourselves labels such as these, often we ask ourselves, Where do I fit in? This is a good question to ask and demonstrates a recognition of the fact that you belong to more than one culture and that your cultures intersect in various ways. The most significant manifestation of these intersections is powerthe ability to influence others and control our lives. From the statistics given earlier in the chapter and from your own experiences, you should realize that some groups have more power than others. These people are what we refer to as the dominant group: white, male, Christian, middle-class, able-bodied, educated, and heterosexual. People whose cultural identities do not conform to this model are the nondominant groups and have less sociopolitical and economic power. Peggy McIntosh uses the term privilege to refer to the power of dominant groups. She defines privilege as an invisible knapsack of advantages that some people carry around. They are invisible because they are often not recognized, seen as normative (i.e., thats just the way things are), seen as universal (i.e., everyone has them), or used unconsciously. Below is a list of some of the privileges McIntosh identifies. Can you think of others?
1. I can, if I wish, arrange to be in the company of people of my race most of the time. 2. If I should need to move, I can be pretty sure of renting or purchasing housing in an area that I can afford and in which I would want to live. 3. I can be pretty sure that my neighbors in such a location will be neutral or pleasant to me. 4. I can go shopping alone most of the time, pretty well assured that I will not be followed or harassed. 5. I can turn on the television or open to the front page of the paper and see people of my race widely represented. 6. When I am told about our national heritage or about "civilization," I am shown that people of my color made it what it is. 7. I can be sure that my children will be given curricular materials that testify to the existence of their race. 8. If I want to, I can be pretty sure of finding a publisher for this piece on white privilege. 9. I can go into a music shop and count on finding the music of my race represented, into a supermarket and find the staple
foods that fit with my cultural traditions, into a hairdresser's shop and find someone who can deal with my hair. 10. Whether I use checks, credit cards, or cash, I can count on my skin color not to work against the appearance of financial reliability. 11. I can arrange to protect my children most of the time from people who might not like them. 12. I can swear, or dress in second-hand clothes, or not answer letters without having people attribute these choices to the bad morals, the poverty, or the illiteracy of my race. 13. I can speak in public to a powerful male group without putting my race on trial. 14. I can do well in a challenging situation without being called a credit to my race. 15. I am never asked to speak for all the people of my racial group. 16. I can remain oblivious of the language and customs of persons of color, who constitute the world's majority, without feeling in my culture any penalty for such oblivion. 17. I can criticize our government and talk about how much I fear its policies and behavior without being seen as a cultural outsider. 18. I can be pretty sure that if I ask to talk to "the person in charge" I will be facing a person of my race. 19. If a traffic cop pulls me over, or if the IRS audits my tax return, I can be sure I haven't been singled out because of my race. 20. I can easily buy posters, postcards, picture books, greeting cards, dolls, toys, and children's magazines featuring people of my race. 21. I can go home from most meetings of organizations I belong to feeling somewhat tied in rather than isolated, out of place, outnumbered, unheard, held at a distance, or feared. 22. I can take a job with an affirmative action employer without having coworkers on the job suspect that I got it because of race. 23. I can choose public accommodation without fearing that people of my race cannot get in or will be mistreated in the places I have chosen. 24. I can be sure that if I need legal or medical help my race will not work against me. 25. If my day, week, or year is going badly, I need not ask of each negative episode or situation whether it has racial overtones. 26. I can choose blemish cover or bandages in "flesh" color that more or less match my skin.
As you think about privilege and the resulting advantages that some groups have over others, you should also keep in mind two facts. One, privilege is a relative concept that varies according to context. In some situations we may be more privileged than others, and in order to access some of that privilege one may decide to highlight or conceal parts of their identity. For example, unless a person tells you, you have no way of knowing his/her sexual orientation. Thus, a gay man might decide to pass as straight at a family reunion to avoid conflict from a heterosexist family. The fact that he can choose to pass and a black man cannot make the choice to pass as white is another example of privilege. Two, we may have aspects of our identities that are
simultaneously advantaged and disadvantaged. The gay, white, working-class, male above is advantaged by the fact that he has light skin and is male, and is disadvantaged by the fact that he is gay and working-class.
[edit]Ethnocentrism
One of the first steps to communicating sensitively and productively about cultural identity is to be able to name and recognize ones identity and the relative privilege that it affords. Similarly important, is a recognition that ones cultural standpoint is not everyones standpoint. Our views of the world, what we consider right and wrong, normal or weird, are largely influenced by our cultural position or standpoint: the intersections of all aspects of our identity. One common mistake that people from all cultures are guilty of is ethnocentrism placing ones own culture and the corresponding beliefs, values, and behaviors in the center; in a position where it is seen as normal and right, and evaluating all other cultural systems against it. Ethnocentrism shows up in small and large ways: the WWII Nazis elevation of the Aryan race and the corresponding killing of Jews, Gypsies, gays and lesbians, and other non Aryan groups is one of the most horrific ethnocentric acts in history. However, ethnocentrism shows up in small and seemingly unconscious ways as well. If there is a world map hanging on the wall in your classroom look at it. Where is the United States? In the center, of course. When one of your authors was teaching in Beijing, China she noticed that the map in the classroom looked different compared to the map with which she was familiar. On closer examination she realized why: China was in the center and the United States was off to the side. Again, of course, the United States is not the center of the world to the Chinese. Ethnocentrism is likely to show up in Literature classes as well as each culture decides on the great works to be read and studied. More often than not these works represent the given culture (i.e., reading French authors in France and Korean authors in Korea). This ethnocentric bias has received some challenge in United States schools as teachers make efforts to create a multicultural classroom by incorporating books, short stories, and traditions from nondominant groups. In the field of geography there has been an ongoing debate about the use of a Mercater map versus a Peters Projection map. The arguments reveal cultural biases toward the Northern, industrialized nations.
Case In Point The Greenland Problem

The Mercator projection creates increasing distortions of size as you move away from the equator. As you get closer to the poles the distortion becomes severe. Cartographers refer to the inability to compare size on a Mercator projection as "the Greenland Problem." Greenland appears to be the same size as Africa, yet
[edit]Whiteness
If you are White, how would you describe your culture? When we ask this question to our students we find that White students are often uncomfortable with the question, feel guilty about self-identifying as White, or claim that White people do not have a culture. These sentiments are common in our society and have lead an increasing amount of scholars in a variety of disciplines such as Sociology, Womens Studies, Anthropology, English, as well as Communication to study the concept of Whiteness. Orbe and Harris explain why exploring this concept is important. First, by studying Whiteness people create an increased awareness of how race and racism shapes the lives of European Americans. Doing so, we can then view communication as a racialized processmeaning that
Africa's land mass is actually fourteen times larger. Because the Mercator distorts size so much at the poles it is common to crop Antarctica off the map. This practice results in the Northern Hemisphere appearing much larger than it really is. Typically, the cropping technique results in a map showing the equator about 60% of the way down the map, diminishing the size and importance of the developing countries.
Greenland is 0.8 million sq. miles and Africa is 11.6 million sq. miles, yet the often look roughly the same size on maps.
This was convenient, psychologically and practically,
our communication is structured

through the eras of colonial domination when most of
by larger societal and racial

the world powers were European. It suited them to
dynamics. Second, understanding

maintain an image of the world with Europe at the
Whiteness sharpens our

center and looking much larger than it really was.
awareness of how racial

Was this conscious or deliberate? Probably not, as
categorization is used to reinforce

most map users probably never realized the
old hierarchies in which some

Eurocentric bias inherent in their world view. When
races are more superior than

there are so many other projections to choose from,
others. This helps us recognize

why is it that today the Mercator projection is still
how Whiteness can be used to

such a widely recognized image used to represent the
signify dominance, privilege, and

globe? The answer may be simply convention or
advantage in the United States.

habit. The inertia of habit is a powerful force.
And, third, through studying and recognizing the effects of Whiteness, each person plays a role in race relations. White people can no longer sit on the sidelines and claim its a black problem when discussing interracial conflict. (82-83) Overall, it removes the White race from the often-unidentified normative group and provides a context for studying, talking about, and hopefully improving race relations.
The above discussion about privilege and Whiteness is not meant to suggest that those people with sociopolitical privilege should feel ashamed or guilty. This is often a trap that people fall into and it can shut down important thinking and conversations about intercultural communication. We want everyone to realize that they have a racial identity and thus are an important part of improving race relations. Race relations is not just a subject that concerns minoritiesit concerns everyone as we all play a part and benefit whether consciously or unconsciously.
[edit]Political
Correctness
Another claim or label that may be used to discount such difficult discussions is Political Correctness, or PC as it has been dubbed in the popular press. Opponents of multiculturalism and diversity studies try and dismiss such topics as thats just PC. Luckily, some of the heated debate about PC have quieted in recent years but the history lingers. In short, political correctness refers to the elimination of speech that often works to exclude, oppress, demean, or harass certain groups (Orbe and Harris 48, Remar). The debate largely focused around competing interpretations of the First Amendment right to free speech and the Fourteenth Amendments right to equal access to education. No matter what your position on this issue, we want to simply recognize two facts. One, that much of the PC debate and fury was largely misrepresented and hyped in the mainstream media by the use of extreme examples and a slippery-slope argument. Rush Limbaugh, for example, became famous for claiming that an awareness and sensitivity of language choice would lead to the thought Police or PC police. Two, that words and labels have great power to create perceptions, realities and identities. Toward that aim, we will discuss the power of language in greater detail in the following section.
[edit]Knowing
Where We Belong
A
t this point, you are probably aware of the cultural groups to which you belong (i.e., I am a white, middle-class, (almost) college-educated male). Do you remember the process of coming to awareness of your cultural
identitywhen did you know you were white and what that meant? Was it during childhood, as a teenager, or reading this chapter? Has your understanding, or acceptance, of your racial heritage changed during the course of your lifetime? For most people it does. Just as Piaget organized the growth of children according to various stages of development, cultural scholars have similarly organized racial awareness along models and stages. Before explaining the various models, let us make a couple general comments about models. One, a model is not the thing it represents. Is the model car you played with as a child the same as the actual automobile? What were the differences? Size, time, maneuverability, details? These same kinds of differences exist between the model of racial identity development and the actual personal process. But just like the car model gives a fairly accurate picture of the actual automobile so do the racial identity models. Two, these models are general and not meant to fit perfectly to every individuals experience. With that said, let us examine the process of coming to an understanding of our racial identity. To better understand this complex process, and in recognition of the above discussion regarding the distinctions in experiences for various cultural groups, we will present four racial identity modelsMinority, Majority, Biracial, and Global Nomads.
[edit]Minority
Identity Development
Because people who identify as members of a minority group in the United States tend to stand out or get noticed as other or different, they also tend to become aware of their identity sooner than individuals who are part of the majority group. Since White is considered normative in the United States, White people may take their identity (and the corresponding privilege for granted). While we are using the following four stages of development to refer to racial and ethnic identity development, they may also be useful when considering other minority aspects of our identity such as gender, class, or sexual orientation (Ponterotto and Pendersen 1993). Moreover, there is no set age or time period that a person reaches or spends in a particular stage, and not everyone will reach the final stage.
Stage 1: Unexamined Identity. As the name of this stage suggests, the person in stage 1 of Phinneys model has little or no concern with
ethnicity (1993). They may be too young to pay attention to such matters or just not see the relationship between racial identity and their own life. One may accept the values and beliefs of the majority culture even if they work against their own cultural group.
Stage 2: Conformity. In stage two the individual moves from a passive acceptance of the dominant cultures value system to a more active one. They consciously make choices to assimilate or fit in with the dominant culture even if this means putting down or denying their own heritage. They may remain at this stage until a precipitating event forces them to question their belief system.
Stage 3: Resistance and Separation. The move from stage two to stage three can be a difficult process as it necessitates a certain level of critical thinking and self-reflexiveness. If you have ever tried to wrestle with aspects of your own belief system then you can imagine the struggle. The move may be triggered by a national event such as the beating of Rodney King and the corresponding L.A. riots. Or, it may be fostered on a more individual scale such as enrolling in a Womens Studies class and learning about the specifics of womens history in America. Martin Luther King Jr. moved to this stage around age six after the mother of his White neighborhood friends told him that he could not play with her children anymore because he was Black. A person in this stage may simply reject all of their previously held beliefs and positive feelings about the dominant culture with those of their own group, or they may learn how to critically examine and hold beliefs from a variety of cultural perspective, which leads to stage four.
Stage 4: Integration. The final stage is one where the individual reaches an achieved identity. They learn to value diversity; seeing race, gender, class, and ethnic relations as a complex process instead of an either/or dichotomy. Their aim is to end oppression against all groups, not just their own.
[edit]Majority
Identity Development
The following model was developed by Rita Hardiman in 1994 and contains some similarities with Phinneys minority identity development model.
Stage 1: Unexamined Identity. This stage is the same for both minority and majority individuals. While White children may notice that some of their playmates have dark skin they do not fear or feel superior to them.
Stage 2: Acceptance. The move to stage two signals a passive or active acceptance of the dominant ideologyeither way the individual does not recognize that he or she has been socialized into accepting it. When a person goes the route of passive acceptance they have no conscious awareness of being White although they may hold some subtly racist assumptions such as People of color are culturally different, whereas Whites are individuals with no group identity, culture, or shared experience of racial privilege. Or, White art forms are classical whereas works of art by people pf color are considered ethnic art, folk art or crafts (Martin and Nakayama 132). People in this stage may minimize contact with minorities or act in a let me help you fashion toward them. If a person in this stage follows the active acceptance path then they are conscious of their White identity and may act in ways that highlight it. Refusing to eat food from other cultures or watch foreign films, for example.
Stage 3: Resistance. Just as the move from stage two to stage three in the minority development model required a great deal of critical thought, so does this juncture. Here the members of the majority group cease blaming the members of minority groups for their conditions and see socioeconomic realities as a result of an unjust and biased sociopolitical system. There is an overall move from seeing ones station in life as a purely individual event or responsibility to a more systemic issue. Here, people may feel guilty about being White and ashamed of some historical actions taken by some White people, they may try to associate with only people of color, or they may attempt to exorcise aspects of White privilege from their daily lives.
Stage 4: Redefinition. In this stage, people attempt to redefine what it means to be White without the racist baggage. They are able to move beyond White guilt and recognize that White people and people of all cultures contain both racist and nonracist elements and that there are many historical and cultural events of which White people can be proud.
Stage 5: Integration. In the last phase individuals are able to accept their Whiteness or other majority aspects of their identity and integrate it into other parts of their lives. There is a simultaneous self-acceptance and acceptance of others.
[edit]Bi-
or Multiracial Identity Development
Originally, people thought that bi-racial individuals followed the development model of minority individuals, but given that we now know that race and the meanings about race are socially constructed, it makes sense to realize that a person of mixed racial ancestry is likely to be viewed differently (from both the dominant culture and the individuals own culture) than a minority individual. Thus, they are likely to experience a social reality unique to their experience. The following five-stage model is derived from the work of W.S. Carlos Poston (1990).
Stage 1: Personal Identity. Postons first stage is much like the unexamined identity stage in the previous two models. Again, children are not aware of race as a value-based social category and derive their personal identity from individual personality features instead of cultural ones.
Stage 2: Group Categorization. In the move from stage one to two, the person goes from no racial or cultural awareness to having to choose between one or the other. In a family where the father is Black and the mother is Japanese, the child may be asked by members of both families to decide if he or she is Black or Japanese. Choosing both is not an option in this stage.
Stage 3: Enmeshment/Denial. Following the choice made in stage two, the individual attempts to immerse him or herself in one culture while denying ties to the other. This process may result in guilt or feelings of distance from the parent and family whose culture was rejected in stage two. If these feelings are resolved then the child moves to the next stage. If not, they remain here.
Stage 4: Appreciation. When feelings of guilt and anger are resolved the person can work to appreciate all of the cultures that shape their identity. While there is an attempt to learn about the diversity of their
heritage, they will still identify primarily with the culture chosen in stage two.
Stage 5: Integration. In the fifth and final stage the once fragmented parts of the persons identity are brought together to create a unique whole. There is integration of cultures throughout all facets of the persons lifedress, food, holidays, spirituality, language, and communication.
[edit]Global
Nomads
People who move around a lot may develop a multicultural identity as a result of their extensive international travel. International teachers, business people, and military personnel are examples of global nomads (Martin and Nakayama 138). One of the earlier theories to describe this model of development was called the U-curve theory because the stages were thought to follow the pattern of the letter U. This model has since been revised in the form of a W, or a series of Ws as in WWWWWW; this pattern is thought to better represent the up and down nature of this process.
Stage 1: Anticipation and Excitement. If you have ever planned for an international trip, what were some of the things you did to prepare? Did you do something like buy a guide book to learn some of the native customs, figure out the local diet to see if you would need to make any special accommodations, or learn the language, or at least some handy phrases perhaps? All of these acts characterize stage one in which people are filled with positive feelings about their upcoming journey and try to ready themselves.
Stage 2: Culture Shock. Once the excitement has worn off or you are confronted with an unexpected or unpleasant event you may experience culture shock. This is the move from the top of the U or W to the bottom. Culture shock can result from physical, psychological, or emotional causes often correlating with an unpleasant and unfamiliar event. When one of your authors was teaching in Beijing for the first time, she had planned her syllabus and class to begin on the day that she was told was the start of the semester. Upon arrival, she was told that the start of the semester was pushed back a few days for reasons that were unclear to her. Never having experienced the delay of a semester in the United
States, not knowing why such an event would occur, on top of feeling a little anxious about teaching in a new country caused her to move from stage one into stage two.
Stage 3: Adaptation. The final stage at the top of the U and W is a feeling of comfortableness: of being somewhat familiar with new cultural patterns and beliefs. Upon her second excursion to Beijing, for example, your author was fully prepared for a delay in the semester both logistically and mentally. And when it did occur a second time she looked upon the event not as anxiety provoking, but as a gift of time to sight see.
After exploring the identity development models for minority, majority, biracial individuals, and global nomads, we hope you have some understanding that a persons identity development is a process, occurs in stages, and is specific to the individual and cultural groups. We also hope you noticed that identity development is a social processit occurs within our relationships with other people and the larger society. Not surprisingly, language is a key factor in shaping our own self-perception as well as the attitudes and beliefs we hold about other cultural groups. In the next section, we will explore the role that language plays in intercultural communication.
[edit]Language
Shapes Cultural Perception
Saying that language plays a vital role in intercultural communication and relationships probably seems obvious to you at this point. But do you know how and why? Let us now turn to a more detailed explanation of the power of language. Specifically, we will discuss ascription and avowal, the SapirWharf hypothesis, labels and stereotypes, and reclaiming. As you have been reflecting on your own identity, do you think it matches up with how others see you? The way a person presents her- or himself is referred to as the avowal process. The opposite of that is ascription, how others see us: the qualities or attributes that are ascribed to us. Part of your avowed identity is probably that of college student and you hope that others see you this way too. Perhaps one of your hobbies is fashion and you enjoy paying attention to your clothes. You may then see yourself as fashionable and stylish. But do others? Might some of your classmates think you trendy, superficial, or fiscally irresponsible? The qualities that others may ascribe to
you based on your fashion sense may in turn affect how you see yourself. This is yet another way that identity is shaped through communication in a social context. In Part I of this book you were introduced to the idea that language shapes reality; the vocabulary we use to discuss an idea or person influences how we think about our subject. Likewise, if we have no words for a phenomenon then we are discouraged from talking about it or bringing it into our reality. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf believed that the structure of language was a necessary component for producing thought. You have probably heard that Eskimos have numerous words for snow. How many do you have? Snow. Ice. If you ski or snowboard then you probably have a few more. Powder. Moguls. Depending on the extent of your snow vocabulary you can look at the frozen water and perceive it in numerous ways. But if your vocabulary is limited then so is the way you can think and talk about snow. If you have studied languages such as Spanish or French then you are familiar with the concepts of a formal and informal you. Depending on the relationship between you and your audience you will use a different word for you and consequently conjugate your verbs accordingly. If you are talking with a child, for example, you would use the informal version, but if you were speaking with someone of higher social status such as your Professor you would use the formal you. As you speak and write, this language structure demands that you be consciously aware of social relations. This awareness then becomes part of your social reality. If you have ever been on the receiving end of a stereotype or derogatory label in reference to your culture, religion, race, gender, sexual orientation, or other aspect of your identity, then you are acutely aware of the power of language. You know that such language is not a neutral conveyor of ideas, but is designed to hurt and shape the way the audience thinks about a particular person or group. Think about the list of terms that historically have been used to refer to persons of African dissentAfrican, Colored, Negro, Black, Afro-American, African American, and the harshest, Nigger. When you read each term, what are the different images or connotations connected with them? Do they bring up different historical periods, varying degrees of sociopolitical power, a variety of relationships to the dominant group? The
range of emotions and images that each of these terms produces is further testament to the subjectivity of language as well as its temporal nature. A more recent linguistic strategy among historically oppressed groups is called reclaiming. When a group reclaims a word they are attempting to take it back from the dominant group. If the dominant group has used a word or phrase as an insult then the oppressed group reclaims it for their own, positive meaning. Can you think of some examples? How about bitch, queer, nigga, or cunt? Hopefully, you are thinking, hey, those words may still be insulting to some people; theyre not necessarily positive. True. Part of the process in reclaiming is that only certain people can use them in a reclaimed fashion, most simply, the members of the oppressed groups at which the term was designed to hurt. If a woman is walking down the street and a man yells out, Hey Bitch, watch where youre going! that is not reclaiming as the term is used as an insult. But the magazine, BITCH: A Feminist Response to Popular Culture, is reclaiming this term. The books, Cunt and Nigger, provide histories of these traditionally derogatory terms and attempt to reclaim them.
[edit]How
Scholars Study Intercultural Communication: Theoretical Approaches and Concepts
B
y now you should be familiar with the three general research approaches social science, interpretive, and critical. Thus, this chapter will highlight a few specific approaches within these three general categories that have particular relevance to the study if intercultural communication.
[edit]Social
Science
Describe and predict behavior. These are the goals of the social scientist. One particular theory useful for this kind of research is communication accommodation theory (CAT) that was developed by Giles and his colleagues. This model focuses on the 'ways in which individuals adjust their communication with others. When you tell the story of a college party to a friend or to a parent do you tell it the same way? Do you leave out or
highlight certain details? The kinds of decisions you make when telling a story reflect the ways in which you accommodate your communication to your specific audience. In general, there are two types of accommodation: convergence and divergence. When we converge our communication we make it more like the person or persons with whom we are speaking. We attempt to show our similarity with them through our speech patterns. When we diverge, we attempt to create distance between our audience and ourselves. Here, we want to stress our difference from others or our uniqueness. Using social scientific approaches as applied to communication accommodation theory, researchers may attempt to define, describe and predict what sorts of verbal and nonverbal acts can produce the desired convergent or divergent effects.
[edit]Interpretive
Like the social scientists, interpretive scholars want to describe behavior, but because of the importance of the individual context, they do not assume accurate and generalizeable predictions can be made. As they are particularly relevant to intercultural communication research, we will discuss the following two methodologies in this sectionethnography and co-cultural research. Since interpretivists believe in the subjective experience of each cultural group, it makes sense that they would select to study intercultural communication as used in particular speech communities. A speech community, according to Hymes is a community sharing rules for the conduct and interpretation of speech, and rules for the interpretation of at least one linguistic variety (54). This method is also referred to ethnography. A prolific ethnographer, Gerry Philipsen has identified four assumptions of this method: 1. 2. 3. Members of speech communities create meanings. Each distinct culture possesses a unique speech code. The rules for interpreting actions and meanings are limited to a given culture and cannot be universally applied. 4. Within each speech community there are specific procedures and sources for assigning meaning.
Using ethnography guided by these four assumptions, researchers are able to understand the culture, its participants, and its communication on its own terms.
[edit]Critical
Cultural
Originating in the legal arena, Critical Race Theory explores the role of race in questions of justice, equal access, and opportunity. Borrowing from the work of Matsuda et.al, Orbe and Harris summarize six key assumptions helpful for understanding critical race theory (125-6). 1. Critical race theory recognizes that racism is an integral part of the United States. 2. Critical race theory rejects dominant legal and social claims of neutrality, objectivity, and color blindness. 3. Critical race theory rejects a purely historical approach for studying race for a contextual/historical one to study interracial communication. 4. Critical race theory recognizes the importance of perspectives that arise from co-cultural standpoints. 5. Critical race theory is interdisciplinary and borrows from Marxism, feminism, critical/cultural studies, and postmodernism. 6. Critical race theory is actively focused on the elimination of the interlocking nature of oppression based on race, gender, class, and sexual orientation. As this methodology is inherently complex and multifaceted it lends itself to producing a rich understanding of interracial and intercultural communication. A method focused solely on the interests of Africans is referred to as Afrocentricity. The foremost scholar in this field is Molefi Kete Asante and this functions as an interdisciplinary approach to questions of race relations. Instead of assuming a Eurocentric frame as normative for understanding the world and its people, this perspective embraces African ways of knowing and interpreting the world (Orbe and Harris 127). Similarly, there are also Asiacentric frameworks for understanding intercultural communication.
[edit]Important
Concepts for Understanding Intercultural Communication
I
f you decide to take a class on intercultural communication you will learn a great deal about the similarities and differences across cultural groups. Since this chapter is meant to give you an overview or taste of this exciting field of study we will discuss four important concepts for understanding communication practices among cultures.
[edit]High
and Low context
Think about someone you are very close toa best friend, romantic partner, or sibling. Have there been times when you began a sentence and the other person knew exactly what you were going to say before you said it? When this occurs between Dr. Hahn and her sister, the sister exclaims, Get off! short for get off my wavelength. This phenomenon of being on someones wavelength is similar to what Hall describes as high context. In high context communication the meaning is in the people, or more specifically, the relationship between the people as opposed to just the words. When we have to rely on the translation of the words to decipher a persons meaning then this is said to be low context communication. The American legal system, for example, relies on low context communication. While some cultures are low or high context, in general terms, there can also be individual or contextual differences within cultures. In the above illustration between Dr. Hahn and her sister, they are using high context communication, however, America is considered a low context culture. Countries such as Germany and Sweden are also low context while Japan and China are high context.
[edit]Speech
Styles
Other variations in communication can be described using Gudykunst and Ting-Toomeys four communication styles. We find it is helpful to think about these descriptors as a continuum rather than polar opposites because it allows us to imagine more communicative options for speakers. They are not fixed into one style or another but instead, people can make choices about
where to be on the continuum according to the context in which they find themselves. This first continuum has to do with the explicitness of ones talk, or how much of their thoughts are communicated directly through words and how much is hinted at. Direct speech is very explicit while indirect speech is more obscure. If I say, Close the window my meaning is quite clear. However, if I were to ask, Is anyone else cold in here or, Geez, this room is cold, I might also be signaling indirectly that I want someone to close the window. As the United States is typically a direct culture, these latter statements might generate comments like, Why didnt you just ask someone to shut the window? or Shut it yourself. Why might someone make a choice to use a direct or indirect form of communication? What are some of the advantages or disadvantages of each style? Think about the context for a moment. If you as a student were in a meeting with the President of your university and you were to tell him or her to Shut the window, what do you think would happen? Can you even imagine saying that? An indirect approach in this context may appear more polite, appropriate, and effective. Remember the fairy tale of Goldilocks and the Three Bears? As Goldilocks tasted their porridge, she exclaimed, this is too hot, this one is too cold, but this one is just right. This next continuum of communication styles can be thought of this way as well. The elaborate style uses more words, phrases, or metaphors to express an idea than the other two styles. It may be described as descriptive, poetic or too wordy depending on your view. Commenting on a flower garden an American (Exact/Succinct) speaker may say, Wow, look at all the color variations. Thats beautiful. An Egyptian (Elaborate) speaker may go into much more detail about the specific varieties and colors of the blossoms, This garden invokes so many memories for me. The deep purple irises remind me of my maternal grandmother as those are her favorite flowers. Those pink roses are similar to the ones I sent to my first love. The succinct style in contrast values simplicity and silence. As Dr. Hahns mother used to tell her as a child, If you cant say anything nice, then dont say anything at all. Cultures such as Buddhism and the Amish value this form. The exact style is the one for Goldilocks as it falls between the other two and would be in her words, just right. It is not overly descriptive or too vague to be of use.
Remember when we were talking about the French and Spanish languages and the fact that they have a formal and informal you depending on the relationship between the speaker and the audience? This example also helps explain the third communication style: the personal and contextual. The contextual style is one where there are structural linguistic devices used to mark the relationship between the speaker and the listener. If this sounds a bit unfamiliar, that is because the English language has no such linguistic distinctions; it is an example of the personal style that enhances the sense of I. While the English language does allow us to show respect for our audience such as the choice to eliminate slang or the use of titles such as Sir, Madame, President, Congressperson, or Professor, they do not inherently change the structure of the language. The final continuum, instrumental/affective, refers to who holds the responsibility for effectively conveying a message: the speaker or the audience? The instrumental style is goal- or sender-orientated, meaning it is the burden of the speaker to make him or herself understood. The affective style is more receiver-orientated thus, places more responsibility on the listener. Here, the listener should pay attention to verbal, nonverbal, and relationship clues in an attempt to understand the message. Asian cultures such as China and Japan and many Native American tribes are affective cultures. The United States is more instrumental. Think about sitting in your college classroom listening to your Professor lecture. If you do not understand the material where does the responsibility reside. Usually it is given to the professor as in statements such as My Math Prof. isnt very well organized. Or By the end of the Econ. lecture all that was on the board were lines, circles, and a bunch of numbers. I didnt know what was important and what wasnt. These statements suggest that it is up to the professor to communicate the material to the students. As your authors were raised in the American educational system they too were used to this perspective and often look at their teaching methods when students fail to understand the material. When Dr. Hahn was teaching in China and her students encountered particular difficulty with a certain concept she would often ask the students, What do you needmore examples? Shall we review again? Are the terms confusing? Her students, raised in a more affective environment responded, No, its not you. It is our job as your
students to try harder. We did not study enough and will read the chapter again so we will understand. The students accepted the responsibility as listeners to work to understand the speaker.
[edit]Collectivist
versus Individualistic
In addition to the four speaking styles that characterize cultures so do value systems. One of particular importance to intercultural communication is whether the culture has a collectivist or individualistic orientation. When a person or culture has a collective orientation they place the needs and interests of the group above individual desires or motivations. In contrast, the self or ones own personal goals motivate those cultures with individualistic orientations. Thus, each person is viewed as responsible for his or her own success or failure in life. From years of research, Geert Hofstede organized 52 countries in terms of their orientation to individualism. His results are displayed in Table 10.1. Are you surprised at the ranking of the United States? When looking at Hofstedes research and that of others on individualism and collectivism, it is important to remember is that no culture is purely one or the other. Again, think of these qualities as points along a continuum rather than fixed positions. Individuals and co-cultures may exhibit differences in individualism/collectivism from the dominant culture and certain contexts may highlight one or the other. Also remember that it can be very difficult to change ones orientation and interaction with those with different value orientations can prove challenging. In some of your classes, for example, does the Professor require a group project as part of the final grade? How do students respond to such an assignment? In our experience we find that some students enjoy and benefit from the collective and collaborative process and seem to learn better in such an environment. These students have more of a collective orientation. Other students, usually the majority, are resistant to such assignments citing reasons such as its difficult to coordinate schedules with four other people or I dont want my grade resting on someone elses performance. These statements reflect an individual orientation.
[edit]Where
Intercultural Communication Occurs
T
hus far, we have shared with you a bit about what intercultural communication is, some important concepts, and how scholars study this phenomenon. Now we want to spend the final part of the chapter looking at a major context for intercultural communicationthe media. There are other contexts as well, such as interpersonal relationships and organizations, but we will leave these to your own investigation or in a class devoted to intercultural communication.
[edit]Media
Looking at texts or media artifacts (these are specific television shows, films, books, magazines, musical artists, etc.) is both a fun and important area of study for intercultural communication. Since most people spend much of their free time taking in some form of media, such as going to the movies with friends or turning on the T.V. at the end of a stressful day, it is an arena that has a great deal of influence and impact over its audience. As you also remember, the media is also the location and source for much of the critical cultural research. Specifically, what critical theorists tend to look at are the artifacts of popular, or pop culture? At the time of this writing, bands such as Creed and Wilco; the television programs Friends, West Wing, and Sex and the City; and the films Bowling for Columbine and The Two Towers were all pop culture artifacts. Popular culture is defined as those systems or artifacts that most people share and that most people know about (Brummett 21). So, while you may not listen to or watch the examples listed, chances are that you are at least aware of them and have a basic idea of the plot or content. Popular culture is distinct from high culture, which includes events such as the ballet or opera, visiting the Metropolitan Museum of Art or the Lourve, or listening to classical music at the symphony. These activities, unlike the artifacts mentioned earlier all require something to have access. Namely money. Attending the ballet or opera takes considerably more money than playing the latest Creed CD. Moreover, one must live in or have access to an urban area where these events are typically held. For example, if Dr. Hahn and Dr. Paynton want to go to the Opera, they have to travel
nearly 300 miles. This requires both a lot of time and money. Because most people do not have an abundance of either, these events or artifacts tend to be associated with the elite. The fact that most of us participate to some degree in consuming popular culture is one reason to study it. Another is that it is an area of struggle for representationspecifically about cultural identity issues. By looking at the numbers and characterizations of ethnic minorities in television and film we can see the dominant cultures attitudes about them. This is because the dominant culture is the group in control of media outlets and represents groups in particular ways.Representation refers to the portrayal, depiction, or characterization of particular cultural groups. A related term is that of symbolic annihilation which refers to the fact that women and minorities are underrepresented in media content and that when they are represented they are marginalized, trivialized, or victimized (Valdiva 243). Let us walk through an analysis of a scene in the 2001 film, Spiderman, to illustrate these concepts. The female character, Mary Jane, is walking home from work one dark and rainy night. She has neither an umbrella nor proper rain gear so her white shirt and clothes are drenched and cling to her. (Prior to this scene she has been portrayed as the girl next door with little or no sexuality.) Her path home takes her through an alleyway where she is quickly surrounded by a group of men of color. One of the men pulls a knife and there is the threat of rape or other violent attack. She does not attempt to fight back but is frozen with fear. But as is the case with superheroes, Spiderman arrives just in the nick of time to save the damsel in distress. After he saves her, she and Spiderman, who, while hanging upside down from a building, share their first kiss. So, what is going on in this scene? Can you identify examples of representation or symbolic annihilation? There are issues concerning both gender and race in this scene. First, she is portrayed as weak, unable to take care of herself, and in need of a man to save her. This is characteristic of images of women in film. Second, in terms of race, the good guys or innocent victims are White and the potential attackers are nonwhite. This too represents a stereotyped portrayal of young men of color as criminals or gang members. Finally, and perhaps the most dangerous message in this
scene, is the equation of female sexuality, violence, and romance. As her white shirt clings to her, her breasts are revealed in a sexual manner, next she is almost attacked, and then she is sweetly and romantically kissing Spiderman. If you were nearly raped by a group of strangers would you be feeling romantic? Thus, this short scene illustrates how images (we did not even discuss the dialogue) work to unfairly and inaccurately portray groups of people. By looking to the media scholars can discover what images of various cultural groups are prevalent in a society and the stories that are told about various cultures. As active citizens we can make choices about what media images we decide to consume, accept, or reject. As knowledgeable communicators we can critique the images we see rather than accept constructed and artificial media images as normative or just the way things are. For as you learned in the first section of the book, language, symbols, and images are not neutral, but are subjective interpretations of a persons or group of peoples interpretation of reality.
[edit]Summary
A
fter reading this chapter, you should have a greater understanding about how culture influences communication. We began with an overview and description of the various aspects of personal identity and how they work together to determine a persons and co-cultures relative power and privilege. Next, we traced the process of coming to an understanding of ones individual identity through the use of the identity models for minorities, Bi-racial individuals, Majority members, and those whom identify as global nomads. Turning to specific communication styles we discussed the differences between high and low context cultures and the continuums of direct/indirect, elaborate/exact/succinct, personal/contextual, and instrumental/affective styles. Finally, we examined a particular site for intercultural communicationthe media. We hope this chapter has increased your knowledge base as well as your enthusiasm and interest in this exciting area of the Communication discipline. Moreover, we encourage you to think about the importance of culture when studying the other subdisciplines of
communication such ad gender, organizational, interpersonal, rhetorical theory and criticism and health communication.
[edit]Discussion
Questions
1.
What are some ways that you see to support Hofstedes claim that the U.S. is the most individualistic society? Are there ways in which we display attributes of collectivism?
2.
Describe a situation in which you attempted to diverge or converge you communication with others? What did you do? What were you attempting to accomplish by doing so? What was the result?
3.
What are some examples of representation and symbolic annihilation can you locate and analyze in contemporary texts of popular culture?
[edit]Key
Terms
Afrocentricity Critical race theory Collectivism/Individualism Communication Styles Culture Ethnicity Ethnocentrism Gender High and low context Identity Popular Culture Privilege Race Representation Symbolic Annihilation Whiteness
[edit]References
The Peters Projection an Area Accurate Map. Available: http://www.petersmap.com/index.html. January 8 2003. Asante, Molefi Kete. The Afrocentric Idea. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. ---. Afrocentricity. Trenton: Africa World Press, 1988. Brummett, Barry. Rhetoric in Popular Culture. New York: St. Martin's Press Inc., 1994. Giles, Howard and Kimberly A. Noels. "Communication Accommodation in Intercultural Encounters." Readings in Intercultural Communication. Eds. Judith N. and Thomas K. Nakayama and Lisa A. Flores Martin. 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002. Goodykunst, William B. and Stella Ting-Toomey. Culture and Interpersonal Communication. Newbury Park: Sage, 1988. Hall, Edward T. Beyond Culture. Garden City: Doubleday, 1976. Hofstede, Geert. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill, 1991. Hrdiman, Rita. "White Racial Identity Development in the United States." Race, Identity and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective. Ed. E.P. and D.R. Koslow Salett. Washington, D.C.: National Multicultural Institute, 1994. Hymes, D. "Models of the Interaction of Language and Social Life." Directions Is Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication. Ed. J. and D. Hymes Gumperz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. 35-71. Langston, D. "Tired of Playing Monopoly?" Race, Class, and Gender: An Anthology. Ed. M.L. Anderson and P.H. Collins. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1995. 100-09. Martin, Judith N. and Thomas K. Nakayama. Intercultural Communication in Contexts. Mountain View: Mayfield, 2002. McIntosh, Peggy. "White Privilege Amd Male Provilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Corespondences through Work in Women's Studies."., 1988. Moore, Michael. Stupid White Men. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Orbe, Mark P. and Tina M. Harris. Interracial Communication: Theory into Practice. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2001.
Philipsen, Gerry. "A Theory of Speech Codes." Developing Communication Theory. Ed. Gerry and T. Albrecht Philipsen. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997. Phinney, J.S. "A Three-Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development in Adolescence." Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transformation among Hispanics and Other Immigrants. Ed. Bernal M.E. and G.P. Knight. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993. 61-79. Ponterotto, J.G. and Penderson, P.B. Preventing Prejudice: A Guide for Counselors and Educators. Newbury Park: Sage, 1993. Poston, W.S. Carlos. "The Biracial Identity Development Model: A Needed Addition." Journal of Counseling and Development 69 (1990): 152-55. Remar, P. "Should College and Universities Prohibit 'Hate Speech' on Campus?" Speech Communication Assiciation. Atlanta, GA, 1991. Smith, David J. If the Worls Were a Global Village: A Book About the World's People. Tonawanda: Kids Can Press, 2002. Valdiva, Angharad N. Big Hair and Bigger Hoops: Rosie Perez Goes to Hollywood. Readings in Cultural Contexts. Eds. Judith N. Martin, Thomas K. Nakayama, and Lisa A. Flores. Mountain View: Mayfield, 1998.
Disclaimer
Survey of Communication Study/Chapter 5 Communication Theory

Contents
[hide]
1 Chapter 5
o o o o
1.1 Communication Theory 1.2 Defining Theory 1.3 Functions of Communication Theory 1.4 How We Develop Communication Theories
1.4.1 Developing Good Theories
1.5 Theoretical Paradigms
o o o o [edit]
1.5.1 Empirical Laws Paradigm 1.5.2 Human Rules Paradigm 1.5.3 Systems Theory Paradigm 1.5.4 Rhetorical Theories Paradigm 1.5.5 Critical Theories Paradigm
1.6 Summary 1.7 Discussion Questions 1.8 Key Terms 1.9 References
Chapter 5
Theory
[edit]Communication
Chapter Objectives:
H
topic for centuries. A common place for this debate occurs in school textbooksshould they teach creationism or the big bang theory? How you answer this question depends on the
After reading this chapter you should be able to: ow did the universe begin? Where did it all come from? Scientists, theologians, and educators have been debating this Define theory and explain its functions. Demonstrate how theories are developed. Explain what makes a useful theory.
Understand the idea of Theoretical Paradigms. theoretical perspective you hold. In either case your theoretical perspective includes some common featuresreasons to justify Explain the Empirical Laws Paradigm. Explain the Human Rules Paradigm. Explain the Systems Theory Paradigm. Explain the Rhetorical Theory Paradigm. Explain the Critical Theory Paradigm.
your theory, and evidence you use to prove that it is correct. Creationists cite the Bible or other religious texts as proof of their theoretical perspective. Advocates of the big bang theory argue that the earth emerged 13.7 billion years ago and cite the continued expansion of space (Hubbles Law) as verifiable proof that this theory is correct. But how do we know which theory is right? Lets apply this same reasoning to communication. Think about the many ways you develop, and try to answer, questions about the right ways to communicate. We want to leave the intricacies of the theoretical debate between creationism and the big bang theory to our colleagues in the physical sciences, religious studies, and philosophies. However, well use this chapter to explore theoretical issues relevant to the study of Communication. By the end of this chapter you should understand what communication theories are, their functions, how we evaluate them, and the five major
theoretical paradigms shaping Communication study today. Youll also discover just how important communication theory is to your everyday life.
[edit]Defining
Theory
W
hen we mention the word theory to our students, we often watch their eyes glaze over as if it is the most boring thing we could talk about. Students sometimes have the misperception that theory has absolutely no relevance in their lives. But, did you know that you use and test theories of communication on a daily basis? Really! Whether you know it or not, your theories guide how you actually communicate. For example, you may have a theory that attractive people are harder to talk to than less attractive people. If you believe this is true, you are probably missing opportunities to get to know entire groups of people. While our personal theories guide our communication, there are problems with them. They generally are not complete or sophisticated enough to help us fully understand the complexities of the communication in which we engage. Therefore, it is essential that we go beyond personal theories to develop and understand ones that guide both our study and performance of communication. Before we get into what function theories perform for us, lets define what we mean by theory. Hoover (1984) defines theory as a set of inter-related propositions that suggest why events occur in the manner that they do (p. 38). Foss, Foss and Griffin (1999) define theory as, a way of framing an experience or event an effort to understand and account for something and the way it functions in the world (p. 8). Take a moment to reflect on the elegant simplicity of these two definitions. Any thoughts or ideas you have about how things work in the world or your life are your personal theories. Your theories are essentially your framework for how the world works, and therefore guide how you function in the world. You can begin to see how important it is that your theories are solid. As youll see, well-developed Communication theories help us better understand and explain the communicative behaviors of ourselves and others.
[edit]Functions
of Communication Theory
W
hile theories in many disciplines can be hard for some to understand, in a field like Communication, our theories are important to understand because they directly impact our daily lives. In this respect, they serve several functions in guiding our communication. The first function theories serve is that they help us organize and understand our communication experiences. We use theories to organize a broad range of experiences into smaller categories by paying attention to common features of communication situations (Infante, Rancer
& Womack, 2003). For example, Deborah Tannen (2001) argues that men and women talk in significantly different ways and for significantly different reasons. As you well know, these differences cannot be applied to all men and women. We all have our own unique style of communication. But, theories on gender communication help us organize and understand the talk of the different genders in a more simplified context so we can understand general patterns of communication behavior. This helps us make appropriate decisions in gendered communication situations. A second function of theories is that they help us choose what communicative behaviors to study. Theories guide where we choose to look, what we look at, and how we look at communicative phenomenon. Remember back to Chapter 1 where we defined communication study. Theories focus our attention on certain aspects of that definition. Lets look again at our example from above. If you find that Tannens theories regarding how men and women talk differ from your own perceptions, you might choose to more closely study the talk of men and women to see if you can somehow rectify the difference in theoretical perspectives. Were sure you do this on a personal level almost every day. If you want to persuade someone to do something for you, you probably have a theory about what strategies you can use to get them to do what you want. Your theory guides how you approach your persuasive attempts, and what you look for to see if you were successful or not. A third function of theories is that they help us broaden our understanding of human communication. Scholars who study communication share theories with one another through books, journal articles, and at conferences. The sharing of theories generates dialogue, which allows us to further the theories developed in this field. Again, using Tannens example above, she chose to write her theoretical conclusions for a non-academic audience in order to help dispel many of our common misperceptions (theories) about how men and women communicate. For many in the public, this was the first time they encountered theories that contrasted their own personal theories about the communication of men and women. Interestingly, Tannen received some criticism about her choice to take her theories to the public, despite the tremendous benefit it has had for broadening the cultures perceptions of gendered communication. Its likely that you discuss your personal theories of communication with others on a regular basis to get their feedback. A fourth function of theories is that they help us predict and control our communication. When we communicate, we try to predict how our interactions will develop so we can maintain
Go to the self-help section of any bookstore, or type in a search at Amazon.com, and youll find countless books explaining how men and women communicate. In cross-gendered romantic relationships, people have long been theorizing how communication should work in these relationships. These books come and go, some with greater popularity than others. But, they do have the impact of altering our best representation of how these relationships work. What are some of your theories about how to communicate in a cross-gendered romantic relationship? How confident are you that your perspectives are correct?
Communication Theory and You
a certain level of control. For example, you can use Tannens theories of gendered communication to help you predict and control social situations in which people of different genders communicate. Imagine being at a party and you want to talk to someone of the opposite sex that you find attractive. You will use some sort of theory about how to talk to the opposite sex to approach this situation in order to make it more likely to be successful. As in all situations, the better your theoretical perspectives, the better chances for success when communicating. While theories do not allow us to predict and control communication with 100% certainty, they do help us function in daily interactions at a more predictable and controlled level. A fifth function of theories is that they help us challenge current social and cultural realities and provide new ways of thinking and living. People sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the ways we communicate are innate rather than learned. This is not true. In order to challenge the communicative norms we learn, people use critical theories to ask questions about the status quo of human communication, particularly focusing on how humans use communication to bring advantage and privilege to particular people or groups. For example, Tannen argues that when men listen to women express their troubles, they listen with the purpose of wanting to provide a fix, or give advice. Tannen argues that many times, women are not looking for advice or a fix, but rather empathy or sympathy from their male conversational partners. With this understanding, its possible to begin teaching men new strategies for listening in cross-gendered conversations that serve to build stronger communication ties. Critical theories challenge our traditional theoretical understandings, providing alternative communicative behaviors for social change. While theories serve many useful functions, these functions dont really matter if we do not have welldeveloped theories that provide a good representation of how our world works. While we all form our personal theories through examining our experiences, how are communication theories developed?
[edit]How
We Develop Communication Theories
N
ow that you understand the functions of communication theories in our lives, you may wonder where these theories come from. We cannot completely rely on our personal theories for accurately understanding the complexities of human communication. Therefore, people like your professors form communication theories by starting with their own personal interests, observations, and questions about communication (Miller & Nicholson, 1976). Those of us who study communication are in a continual process of forming, testing, and reforming theories of communication (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005). There are three essential steps for developing Communication theories: 1) Ask important questions, 2) look for answers by observing communicative behavior, and 3) form answers and theories as a result of your observations (Littlejohn & Foss).
Asking important questions is the first step in the process of discovering how communication functions in our world. Tannens work grew out of her desire to find out answers to questions about why men and women cant seem to communicate, a commonly held theory by many. As a result of her line of questioning, she has spent a career asking questions and finding answers. Likewise, John Gottman has spent his career researching how married couples can be relationally successful. Many of his theories contradict common beliefs about long-term romantic relationships. However, simply asking questions is not enough. It is important that we find meaningful answers to our questions in order to continue to improve our communication. In the field of Communication, answers to our questions have the potential to help us communicate better with one another, as well as provide positive social change. If youve ever questioned why something is the way it is, perhaps youre on your way to discovering the next big theory by finding meaningful answers to your questions. When we find answers to our questions, we are able to form theories about our communication. Remember our definition of theories? Theories are an effort to understand and account for something and the way it functions in the world (Foss, Foss & Griffin, 1999). Answering our questions helps us develop more sophisticated ways of understanding the communication around us theories! You may have a theory about how to make friends. You use this theory to guide your behavior, then ask questions to find out if your theory works. The more times you prove that it works, the stronger your theory becomes about making friends. But, how do we know if a theory is good, or not?
[edit]Developing
Good Theories
Take a moment to compare Newtons theory of gravity to communication theories. Simply put, Newton theorized that there is a force that draws objects to the earth. We base our physical behaviors on this theory, regardless of how well we understand its complexities. For example, if you hold a pen above a desk and let go, you know that it will fall and hit the desk every time you drop it. In contrast, communication theories change and develop over time (Infante, Rancer & Womack, 2003; Kaplan, 1964; Kuhn, 1970). For example, you might theorize that smiling at someone should produce a smile back. You speculate that this should happen most of the time, but it probably would not surprise you if it does not happen every time. Contrast this to gravity. If you dropped a pen, and it floated, you would likely be very surprised, if not a little bit worried about the state of the world. If Communication theories are not 100% consistent like theories in the physical sciences, why are they useful? This question initiates much debate among those of us who study communication. While there is no definitive answer to this question, there are a number of criteria we use to evaluate the value of communication theories. According to Littlejohn and Foss (2005), scope, parsimony, heuristic value, openness, appropriateness, and validity are starting places for evaluating whether or not a theory is good.
Scope refers to how broad or narrow a theory is (Infante, Rancer & Womack 2003; Shaw & Costanzo,1970). If a theory is too broad, it may not account for specific instances that are important for understanding how we communicate. If it is too narrow, we may not be able to understand communication in general terms.
Parsimony refers to the idea that, all things being equal, the simplest solution takes precedence over a more complicated one. Thus, a theory is valuable when it is able to explain, in basic terms, complex communicative situations.
Heuristic Value means that a theory prompts other theorists to engage in further study and theorizing about a given problem. The Greeks used the term heurisko, meaning I find to refer to an idea, which stimulates additional thinking and discovery. This is an important criterion that facilitates intellectual growth, development, and problem solving.
Openness is the quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes, multiple options and perspectives. In essence, a good theory acknowledges that it is tentative, contextual, and qualified (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005, p.30) and is open to refinement.
Appropriateness refers to the fit between the underlying theoretical assumptions and the research question. Theories must be consistent with the assumptions, goals, and data of the research in question. Lets say you want to understand the relationship between playing violent video games and actual violence. One of your assumptions about human nature might be that people are active, rather, than passive agents, meaning we dont just copy what we see in the media. Given this, examining this issue from a theoretical perspective that suggests people emulate whatever they see in the media would not be appropriate for explaining phenomenon.
Validity refers to the worth and practical nature of a theory. The question should be asked, is a theory representative of reality? If, according to Littlejohn and Foss, no single theory will ever reveal the whole truth or be able to totally address the subject of investigation, how do we know if a given theory is right for a given problem? (p. 17). There are three qualities of
validity value, fit, and generalizability. Is a theory valuable for the culture at large? Does it fit with the relationship between the explanations offered by the theory and the actual data? Finally, is it generalizable to a population beyond the sample size? In our example of the relationship between violent video games and actual violence, lets say we studied 100 boys and 100 girls, ages 12-15, from a small rural area in California. Could we then generalize or apply our theories to everyone who plays video games? The above criteria serve as a starting point for generating and evaluating theories. As we move into the next section on specific theoretical paradigms, you will see how some of these criteria work. Lets now turn to look at ways to more easily conceptualize the broad range of communication theories that exist.
[edit]Theoretical
Paradigms
O
ne way to simplify the understanding of complex theories is to categorize multiple theories into broader categories, or paradigms. A paradigm is a collection of concepts, values, assumptions, and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality for a community that shares them, especially an intellectual community. According to Kuhn (1962), intellectual revolutions occur when people abandon previously held paradigms for new ones. For example, when Pythagoras in the 6th century B.C. argued the earth was a sphere, rather than flat, he presented a paradigm shift. In the field of Communication there are numerous ways to categorize and understand theoretical paradigms. No single way is more valuable than another, nor is any paradigm complete or better in its coverage of Communication. Instead, paradigms are a way for us to organize a great number of ideas into categories. For our purposes, weve divided communication theories into five paradigms that we call the Empirical Laws, Human Rules, Rhetorical, Systems, and Critical Paradigms.
[edit]Empirical
Laws Paradigm
Theories in the Empirical Laws Paradigm approach Communication from the perspective that there are universal laws that govern how we communicate. Other names for Empirical Laws include: hard science, the positivist approach, the covering-laws approach, and the classical approach. Physical scientists look for universal laws to understand and explain our world. Using our example of gravity, we know that objects fall to the earth 100% of the time when we drop them. This is a universal law. As Chapter 2 showed, in the late 1950s scholars began studying human communication using approaches developed in the physical sciences (aka the Scientific Method). Thus, early proponents of Empirical Laws theories studied communication to see if there were universal communication laws similar to those in the physical world.
Laws and Communication
Communication Theory Now The Environmental Paradigm Shift

Physical laws at work in our world influence every moment of our lives. Every time you fly in an airplane
Not long ago those concerned about environmental issues were considered minority or fringe groups and, as a result, many of their concerns were dismissed. Yet today environmental concerns have so infiltrated the mainstream that it is now trendy to be an environmentalist. Thanks to scientists asking difficult theoretical and practical questions about consumption of scarce resources, awareness about air and water quality, food safety, and global warming has become part of global public discourse and environmentalism has caught on everywhere. According to Jackson, There's been a paradigm shift in society away from thinking of the Earth as an unending source of resources to instead looking at it as a wider living ecosystem that we are slowly killing. The shift is evident in everything from popular movies to eco-friendly products. From international political treaties regarding environmental policies to waste management strategies within small communities. Brian Jackson Oct. 22. 2006
or cross a bridge you trust that the people who designed and built the plane and bridge followed the physical laws that allow a plane to fly and a bridge to span a distance without collapsing. Every time you press the brakes on a car you trust them to slow you down based on the laws explaining how long a mass, traveling at a certain speed, takes to stop. Even if you do not understand all of these laws, you live by them and believe the laws themselves hold true 100% of the time. Are there laws you follow about communication with this kind of regularity? Are there laws of communication that are applicable 100% of the time, in all situations, and with all people? What happens if someone breaks one of these laws? Are the consequences similar to when you break physical laws? For example, is the consequence for calling
someone by the wrong name comparable to that of hitting your brakes and them not working?
Those who approach communication from an empirical laws perspective believe there are laws that govern human communication. The premise of this approach can be stated as a simple equation of causation: If X, then Y. For example, if I greet a person with Hi, how are you? then I anticipate a response, Fine, how are you? Its likely that you conduct much of your communication using this equation. But, does that mean that it works all of the time?
Communication Theory Then The Empirical Revolution (19501970): Theory In A Test Tube
Speech departments in the 1950s promoted the ancient rhetorical wisdom that persuasive discourse was a matter of an ethical speaker using logical argumentsthe good man speaking well."11 But younger faculty with
training in the social sciences were no longer willing to accept this truth" by faith. Armed with a scientific skepticism and new methods to assess attitudes, they put rhetorical principles to the test
Aristotle, for example, wrote that ethos was a combination of a speakers intelligence, character, and goodwill toward the audience. Empirically oriented speech researchers subsequently discovered that audience rankings of "communicator credibility" did indeed include factors of competence (intelligence) and trustworthiness (character).12 But they found no evidence that audiences regarded goodwill or positive intentions as traits separate from character.
Scholars interested in this kind of study adopted the media-effects term communication research to distinguish their work from the historical-critical textual analysis of rhetoricians. In 1950 a group of communication researchers founded what is now the International Communication Association (ICA) as a science-based professional organization to rival the Speech Association of America, which was grounded in the humanities. Traditional speech teachers of this era often accused communication researchers of succumbing to the law of the hammer." This was a not-sosubtle dig at those who would pound away with newly acquired statistical tools no matter what the job required.
But irony did little to slow the radical transformation within the communication discipline.The empiricists continued to borrow their core ideas from other disciplinesespecially social psychology. Indeed, five of the thirty-three communication theories in this book come from that specialized branch of psychology. Their common methodology and unity of world view gave social scientists in the communication field a greater impact than their numbers alone would indicate. In 1969, the SAA changed its name to the Speech Communication Association (SCA). The term communication in the title was tacit evidence that the scientific approach now dominated the discipline. At the start of the 1960s few departments that taught speech had the word communication as part of their title. By the mid 1970s there were few that didnt.
There are three characteristics that help us understand empirical laws theories: causation, prediction, and generalization (Infante, Rancer & Womack, 2003). Causation states that there is a cause and effect relationship for all actions. In the physical world, if someone drops a pen it will fall. In human communication, if someone says hello to someone, that person responds. Prediction suggests that once someone determines a particular law is at work, he/she will use it to predict outcomes of communication situations. Have you ever rehearsed how you will ask someone out on a date and tried to predict the outcome? What evidence did you use to make your prediction? In this example, you are using the if X, then Y equation to predict the outcome of the interaction. Generalization suggests that if a prediction shows that a behavior produces a certain outcome, we can generalize our predictions to include a wide variety of people, situations, and contexts. We make generalization such as, If Im friendly to others, they will be friendly to me based on our past experiences with this type of behavior. In the physical sciences, laws are absolute. This is comforting because it allows us to make informed decisions based on what we know about the laws that govern the world around us. In our example of gravity, we know that dropping an object will produce the same result every time. We could spend the rest of our lives testing this theory, but we dont have to. We know what the result will be without having to continuously drop an object. Now, imagine what it would be like to always know what the outcome would be of every communication situation! Would that be comforting to you, or make your life boring? Unlike the physical world, laws that govern human communication are not absolute and are most often bound by culture and context. Empirical laws theories are generally approached from the perspective of probability rather than absoluteness (Miller & Berger, 1978). Probability states that under certain conditions it is highly likely that we can predict communication outcomes. For example, when you greet someone with hello it is probable, not absolute, they will respond back with a greeting of their own. If they do not, you might run through a variety of reasons why the other person did not respond in accordance with the laws that govern greetings in our culture. Even though empirical laws theories do not produce absolutes about communication, we still use them in our everyday interactions with one another. Businesses, advertisers, schools, and other organizations use this approach to predict consumer, educational, and behavioral habits of particular demographic groups. While their approaches never produce a 100% cause-effect relationship, the information they gather helps them determine what actions to take to be successful in their communicative behaviors. Empirical Laws in Action Empirical laws theories are a relatively new approach for understanding communication. We have only been developing empirical laws theories of communication for the past 100 years. To date, none of this research has come to the conclusion that, given a certain circumstance, a particular communicative behavior will ALWAYS
www.afirstlook.com/archive/talkabout.cfm?source=archther
produce a particular outcome. However, working under an empirical laws approach that accepts probability, we have many research examples that demonstrate probable laws that govern human communication. The area of leadership in group and organizational communication has
Communication Theory Then
a body of well-established empirical laws theories called the trait approaches. These theories suggest that there are certain physical,
Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (1953) were some of the first to use empirical laws theories to explain communication. Their interests in mass communication and propaganda during World War II led them to study effective persuasion in mass communication and propaganda campaigns. They theorized that the more attractive a communicator, along with other traits, the more likely people would be persuaded. Their empirical laws theories still influence how a great deal of mass media is produced today. Think about movies, television shows, and advertisements you see. Are most of the people you watch in these mediums considered attractive and intelligent? Those who produce mass media use tremendous resources to research probabilistic empirical laws of human behavior before making decisions about what and who to include in their messages. On a smaller scale, we all use probabilistic empirical laws to govern, predict, and control our communication with others.
personality, and communicative characteristics that make one person more likely to be a leader over another (Northouse, 2004). Trait theories propose that people in western societies who are physically tall, charismatic, intelligent, white, and male are more likely to be leaders, be perceived as leaders, be placed in more leadership positions, and make better leaders than those who dont exhibit these characteristics. You may be thinking, But what about people like Mother Theresa, Mohatma Ghandi, Martin Luther King, Jr., or Caeser Chavez? This question brings up two important points. First, it shows that communication theories are not absolute. Second, it shows that some theoretical viewpoints may work to promote a certain worldview of those in positions of power, an idea well explore more thoroughly when we look at the Critical Theories Paradigm. Despite feeling uncomfortable with some of the assumptions of trait theories, if you look at those in the highest levels of leadership in the U.S., the vast majority have characteristics described in trait theories. Strengths A particular strength of empirical laws theories is that they helps us determine cause and effect relationships in our communication with others. Understanding communication using these theories helps us predict the outcomes of our interactions with others. While we know
that not all outcomes can be determined with 100% reliability, prediction and control allows us to more easily navigate our encounters. Think about the number of encounters you have each day in which you quickly predict and control your interaction with others. While not 100% conclusive, its comforting that a great number of our interactions have a certain level of probable outcomes.
Communication Theory Now Trait Theories of Female Leadership

What is the relationship between personality profiles
and leadership styles? This is the central question Blema Steinberg takes up in her new book, Women in Power: The Personalities and Leadership Styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher. Using a mixture of politics and psychology she seeks to understand personality and leadership of the three prominent female leaders. According to Zamprellis review of the book:
The three female leaders were categorized on the basis of 10 different personality traits and classified as "normal," "prominent," or "mildly dysfunctional." Those results were then crossed against five areas of behavior reflecting leadership styles expressive behavior, interpersonal relationships, cognitive style, self-image and mood/temperament allowing the analyst to understand how different scores in personality traits might translate into specific leadership behaviors. A leader who scores in the normal range on the "dominance" personality trait, for example, would exhibit expressive behavior that is assertive and strong-willed, while a leader who scores at the prominent level may get into the territory of being controlling and overbearing.
That dominant trait, it turned out, was particularly important to Steinberg's research, because all her subjects scored highest in that category. So how does a prominent dominant trait manifest itself in leadership style? "Individuals scoring high on this trait are tough and competitive," Steinberg said. "They are very controlling and, cognitively, what emerges is that they are inflexible in terms of their thinking. The implication of this kind of a trait is the view that one knows better than others. They pride
Weaknesses A criticism of empirical laws theory is that while it is useful for understanding relatively simple interactions, it can oversimplify or fail to explain situations where a number of variables exist. Your classroom environment serves as a good example. While there are certain predictions you can make about how communication will occur in your classes, why is it that each classroom experience is unique? In your classrooms, it is impossible to predict, control, and generalize how a class will go with 100% accuracy because it is impossible to replicate classes in exactly the same ways. This approach does not account for the variety of human choices and behaviors that are brought into every communication context. It operates under the assumption that, given the same context, people bring the same things to the context each time. Obviously, this is not the case. Human behaviors are complex and cannot be predicted at a 100% accuracy rate. However, empirical laws theories work well for showing us patterns of behavior that guide our communication.
themselves on being unsentimental and often it expresses itself in terms of being intimidating."
So does that mean there is only one successful mould for female politicians? Steinberg feels it is difficult to draw any definitive conclusions since her sample was so small. "I do think that the notion that women speak in a different voice may well be true," she said, but conceded that "I don't think it applies to women leaders. Successful female leaders may be more dominant, and the reason these traits are more in evidence than in male leaders is that women have always had to prove themselves."
But make no mistake, these traits are innate a woman without them seeking to fit this mould would have a hard time doing so. "It's not that they get a primer on how to be tough and controlling," Steinberg said. "It's because of the fact that in order to accomplish their political goals they need to be strong." Pascal Zamprelli. New book explores the impact of personalities in politics. McGill Reporter April 3. 2008 Vol. 40 N. 15
[edit]Human
Rules Paradigm
Some Communication scholars believe that we cannot, and should not, try to study communication with an approach that will never work as accurately as it does in the physical sciences (Winch, 1958). Because they believed empirical laws theories could not explain communication effectively, scholars began developing theories around the idea of rules rather than laws. You are probably aware that we all follow rules that guide our communication. If we didnt, human communication would be
total chaos and confusion. Theories in the Human Rules Paradigm approach communication from the perspective that we all follow shared rules of communication, not strict laws (Shimanoff, 1980; 1992). While Human Rules theories share similar assumptions with empirical laws, they promote a more adaptable approach to communication by suggesting that we follow general rules of communication rather than absolute laws that apply 100% of the time. The Difference Between Rules and Laws There is an old saying, rules are meant to be broken. This simple statement highlights the fundamental difference between empirical laws and human rules approaches to communication. If you break a law in the physical world there is always a consequence. For example, no two objects can occupy the same space at the
same time. A car accident is often a disastrous example of an attempt to break this law. If you break a rule, it likely does not have the same consequences as breaking a law. For example, your parents may have set a curfew for you when you were younger. Imagine you were on your way home at night but stopped to help a friend change a flat tire. Your parents may choose not to punish you after you explained to them the reason you violated the rule. Those who approach communication using human rules theories believe that communication rules are created by people, and are thus always open to change. Put another way, empirical laws theories seek absolute Truth that we can discover through careful observation and testing. Human rules theories see truth as subjective and created by humans, not set by the universe in which we live. Rules are dynamic, whereas laws are not. Rules are contextually and culturally dependant and change as we change. Take for example Social Exchange Theory, which theorizes that people participate in relationships when there is a fair exchange of costs and rewards (Roloff, 1981; Walster, Walster & Berscheid; 1978). When the rules of exchange are violated, participants may choose to terminate the relationship. For example, youve likely had a friend who began dating a new boyfriend or girlfriend. When this happens, you probably realized quite quickly that your friend suddenly, did not have time for you anymore. If you were upset over this, you were most likely upset that your friend violated the rules of social exchange; in this case the exchange was time spent together. In this example, you may feel like the change in relationship results in you not having your needs met by your friend, while he/she is likely getting his/her needs met by the new relationship. Thus, a violation of social exchange has occurred. Using human rules theories we are still able to predict how people might communicate, much like empirical laws theories. However, unlike empirical laws theories, rules are bound by context and not universal to all situations. For example, we predict that most people abide by posted speed limits on roadways. While we know that there are always exceptions to this (sometimes we are the exception!), we can predict a certain type of driving experience based on rules. Not all places approach speed limits from this perspective. One of your authors had an exchange student who came to class one day extremely upset. When asked what was wrong, the student stated he had received a speeding ticket. To this student, the speeding ticket made no sense at all. In the U.S. we approach speed limits as a maximum speed, and risk a ticket when we exceed it. Its a law. However, this student stated that in his country, speed limits are considered guidelines for how fast to drive. The student went on to explain that police officers in his country are not interested in determining if people accidentally or purposefully drive above the posted speed limit. Instead, they let people make their own decisions regarding the guidelines of the posted speed limits. In this example, the U.S. approach to speed limits is one of law; break the law and there are consequences. The students country approached speed limits from a rules perspective; there is flexibility to interpret and act according to the interpretation of the rules based on the current driving conditions, or context.
Think of rules you choose to follow or break every day. Sitting in a classroom, taking notes, listening to your instructor, and doing homework are all rules of how to communicate being a student. However, no one is really standing over your shoulder enforcing these rules. You can choose to follow them or not. If you choose to follow them, you probably do so for a variety of reasons. Each rule we choose to follow is a choice. As with all things, there are outcomes as a result of our choices, but unlike empirical laws theories, human rules theories suggest that our experiences are socially constructed in ways that make it easier to organize experience into collectives of general rules that we follow. That way, we are not overly surprised when our interactions do not produce predicted outcomes 100% of the time. Strengths One of the primary strengths of human rules theories is that they account for choice in communication behaviors. They suggest that we are not controlled by external laws when it comes to our communication. Instead, we develop rules to help facilitate and understand our interactions, while at the same time not being bound to abide by these rules at all times (remember, rules are sometimes meant to be broken). Thus, we can take comfort in following rules of communication to guide our interactions, but also know that we have flexibility to play with the rules because they are dynamic and contextual. Weaknesses The primary criticism with human rules theories is that they cannot fully predict behavior or outcomes. However, as of now all theories fail to do this when applied to human communication. Another criticism of human rules theories is that they are culturally and contextually bound. So, when we develop theories about something like communication anxiety as it relates to public speaking, we do so under the framework of our cultural perspective. These same theories often do not apply to other cultures.
[edit]Systems
Theory Paradigm
The Systems Theory Paradigm represents a dramatic theoretical shift from empirical laws and human rules approaches for understanding communication. Systems thinking began in the social and physical sciences in the 19th century with Georg Hegel (Kaufmann, 1966), and was more fully developed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 20th century. von Bertalanffy argued that everything is interconnected and therefore, we should study the interconnectedness as a means of understanding the world. This departs from empirical approaches that traditionally study phenomena by looking at individual components. Conversations surrounding global warming are among the most recognizable ideas of systems theory. In effect, those that warn us of global warming tell us that all of our actions have an impact on one another and our environment, and thus, we must be mindful of what we do, or we will continue to cause harm to everything on earth.
Case In Point Bike and Surf California -- as written for www.Phoresia.org

It started off as a simple idea. My friend Mike and I wanted to go on a surf trip. Nothing strange about that! However, we have grown increasingly alarmed at how much we drive around looking for surf and the environmental impact this has. Its been much easier to recognize the amount of gas we burn as fuel prices have now pushed $5.00 a gallon in our area. As a result of our increasing awareness and concern, Mike and I wanted to do our trip with minimal environmental impact. How close to a zero-carbon footprint could we come? I wondered if it would be possible to tow boards and gear behind bikes. We began to plan out all of the details of our trip, preparing to do the ride from Fort Bragg, CA to Santa Barbara, CA over a nine day period in May, 2008. All seemed perfectly simple as we began to put together the pieces for a successful trip. Then, at 4:00 a.m. on a February morning I woke up and thought, I wonder if we can get sponsors? We began a letter writing campaign to environmentally friendly gear manufacturers letting them know what we were doing, why we were doing it, and asked if they would like to donate sustainable gear to help us on our journey. While having new gear is great, it was our intent and promise to use the donated gear to educate others about our environmental impacts as consumers and sports enthusiasts, and to demonstrate the alternatives that are available. To our surprise, we received sponsorships from 22 organizations! Going back to systems theory, each of our sponsors actions
impacted Mike and me. We can never fully realize the full scope of our actions. We can only hope that our actions do more positive than negative. What we were seeing taking place was a real-world example of systems theory. Systems theory is easily summed up with a simple definition: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Put another way, anything we do as individuals impacts others around us, as well as the environment in which we exist. Discussions about global warming are, in reality, debates about a global version of systems theory. We are becoming
When applied to communication, the Systems Theory Paradigm seeks to understand the interconnectedness of human communication rather than looking at just one part. The basic idea behind Systems Theory is, The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. An easy example of this is baking a cake. If you were to lay out all of the ingredients of a cake, you would not have a cake. Instead, you would have the ingredients of cake. But, combine those ingredients in a particular way, you produce a cake. Not only that, you produce an experience surrounding the cake (think birthday, anniversary, wedding, etc.). What is produced by making a cake equals so much more than the simple combination of ingredients. Another example is an automobile engine. If you have all the pieces of
increasingly aware that none of us truly exist as
an automobile engine on a garage floor, you do not have an engine.

individuals without impacting others. Many cultures
You have parts of an engine. But, if you put the engine parts together in
have long-recognized the importance of thinking
the right way, you get something much greater than the parts; you get a
from a collectivist perspective, looking out for the
working engine that has the ability to transport you. These examples
good of the whole rather than pursuing the good of
demonstrate the idea that, what makes a cake or automobile engine is

the individual. For those of us born and raised in
the actual interaction or combination of their parts, not the simple sum
cultures that value the experience of the individual,
of the parts themselves.

we are beginning to learn the larger consequences of trying to exist outside the scope of systems theory. We can never fully realize the full scope of our actions. We can only hope that our actions do more positive than negative. For more information see www.bikeandsurfcalifornia.com
One area of communication study that utilizes systems theory extensively is the study of Organizational Communication. Scholars in this specialization are interested in the interaction of people to see how they create what we know as organizations (Bavelas & Segal, 1982; Katz & Kahn, 1966). For example, what makes Wal-mart different than Target? Its not simply their products or prices. Instead, these two mega-retail stores have a certain personality and way of functioning that is different from the other. Those who look at communication from
a systems perspective believe that it is the interaction of the participants that makes organizations what they are. One characteristic of the Systems Theory Paradigm is that systems are teleological (Infante, Rancer & Womack, 2003), meaning that they seek to achieve a particular goal or outcome. The goal of combining the ingredients of a cake is to produce a cake and facilitate an occasion. The goal of a working automobile engine is transportation. The goal of having a family is love and support. The goal of a business is to produce products and profit. Communication researchers examine the interactions of those that make up systems to understand the systems goals, as well as how they attempt to achieve goals.
Another characteristic of systems is they are always trying to achieve homeostasis, or balance. Using the idea of a family, most families attempt to fit in with their neighbors, co-workers, friends, city, country, culture, etc. Systems are always in a process of trying to achieve a level of homeostasis with their environment that is acceptable to them. When changes occur in either the environment or a system, system participants will adapt in order to maintain balance. For example, if you moved away from your immediate family to attend college your move had an impact on the homeostasis of your family. As a result, everyone in your family had to adjust in some way to the change brought about by your move in order to create a new sense of homeostasis. Even though you are still part of the family system, the system changed as a result of your move, and must respond in order to adapt to the change. The power of looking at communication from a systems perspective is that every communicative act impacts the system as a whole. When there is a change in one part of a system, it changes the entire system to some degree. Lets revisit our example of an automobile engine. One day, the truck of one of your authors started making a terrible noise. He shuddered at the idea of possibly paying hundreds of dollars to fix the problem. However, a mechanic quickly found that a small bolt had fallen out. Fifty-three cents later (tax included), and five minutes of time, the engine no longer made the terrible noise. Homeostasis was reached once again. Like a car engine, we form systems with whom we interact. One of the reasons each of your college classes is unique is that each person (component) is unique, and thus, the interaction among the components is unique and cannot be duplicated. When we apply this approach to our communication exchanges we can learn many things about the impacts that our interactions have in the systems in which we interact. Think about systems you belong to like family, work, church, friends, etc. How do your communicative acts, whether big or small, impact the dynamics of these systems? Strengths A strength of the Systems Theory Paradigm is that instead of looking at isolated people or communication acts, it seeks to understand a more complete picture by examining multiple layers of communication as interconnected. This paradigm does not try to predict human behavior, but instead explain it in ways that highlight the interconnectedness of people and their communicative acts. Because much of our communication is culturally and contextually specific, this approach does not seek to make universal generalizations about human communication, but instead, explain the totality of our interactions. Weaknesses One of the primary criticisms of the Systems Theory Paradigm is that it can be too broad in its focus. If everything is interconnected, how do we know what to study? What do we focus on when trying to understand communication interactions? This can prove challenging considering the dynamic and changing nature of systems, particularly human systems built on changing relationships. It can be difficult to answer why things happen when we use this approach, making it problematic for generating further theories of human
communication. Finally, because it is a relatively new approach for understanding communication, this paradigm has yet to produce a definitive body of research. Studies from this perspective tend to take significant time and money to accomplish.
[edit]Rhetorical
Theories Paradigm
As you learned in the Chapter 4, rhetoric is the oldest tradition of the Communication field. An effective definition of rhetoric is, any kind of human symbol use that functions in any realmpublic, private, and anything in between(Foss, Foss & Trapp, 2002, p. 7). Remember that one of our definitions for theory is, a way of framing an experience or eventan effort to understand and account for something and the way it functions in the world (Foss, Foss, & Griffin, 1999, p. 8). If we combine these two definitions, we can define the Rhetorical Theories Paradigm as, a way to understand and account for the way any kind of human symbol use functions in any realm. Scholars have historically used rhetorical theories as a way to produce and evaluate messages. Theories of Message Production If you have taken a public speaking course, you were likely exposed to rhetorical theories of message production. In public speaking classes students are taught methods for organizing presentations, building credibility with audience members, making messages more entertaining, informative, and/or persuasive, etc. You probably intuitively understand that there are effective ways for putting together messages. How do you know what is truly effective or ineffective? Whether you are preparing a public presentation, an advertising campaign, or a persuasive appeal to a friend, rhetorical theories guide the ways you produce messages. When companies devote millions of dollars to putting together an advertising campaign, you can bet that significant research has gone into what messages will work the best. Audience analysis, context, goals, etc., are all considered before producing and delivering these messages. Over the centuries Communication scholars have devoted entire careers to the study what it takes to produce effective messages. Aristotle gave us his ideas of ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos (emotions) as fundamental components for constructing persuasive messages. Cicero gave us the five canons of rhetoric, or the five necessary steps for putting together an effective message. In the modern era, Stephen Toulmin (2003) developed the Toulmin modelas a means for constructing persuasive arguments. Toulmins model of message production includes a claim, grounds, warrant, backing, modal qualifier, and rebuttal. A claim is the conclusion or argument being made. The groundsare the data and facts offered to support the claim. To logically connect the grounds to the claim, a warrant is given. The backing is used to support the warrant and the qualifiers make a statement about the strength of the claim. Words such as possible, certainly, and definitely are examples of qualifiers. Any exception to the claim is the rebuttal. Even if you are unfamiliar with rhetorical theories of message production, you likely have a good idea of what makes an effective message. For Toulmin, effectiveness was based on issues of practicalityto find a claim that is of
interest to people and the ability to justify it. The greater understanding you have of rhetorical theories of message production, the greater potential you have for producing effective messages in a variety of contexts. Theories of Message Evaluation Super Bowl Sunday is a day that many people gather together to watch a big football game on television. It is also a day that many people give special attention to watching commercials. It has become a popular pastime for people to evaluate the quality of commercials shown during the Super Bowl. In fact, all of the commercials from the Super Bowl are put on the internet for people to watch and evaluate. Many people spend a considerable amount of time discussing the effectiveness of commercials. Those who engage in these conversations are, at a basic level, engaging in message evaluation. If you make a comment about these commercials such as, that was funny or that was stupid you are using some kind of criteria to come to those conclusions. A person approaching these messages using rhetorical theories would ask why was that funny or stupid? In other words, what works, or doesnt work, about certain messages? There are many ways we can use rhetorical theories to evaluate messages. We might choose to use a feminist approach, an ideological approach, or a narrative approach to evaluate message effectiveness. For example, Kenneth Burke (1969) argues that we can evaluate messages by understanding them as a dramatic play. He contends that all messages contain acts, scenes, agents, purposes, and agencies. If you were to evaluate your relationships with your friends from this perspective, who are the agents, what is the scene, and what act of the play are you in? Jean Baudrillard (2003) states that we can evaluate messages from the perspective that messages are commodities that we exchange. Michel Foucault (2003) asserts that we can evaluate messages by looking at how power is enacted in them. Rhetorical theories give us different lenses for us to understand messages. No interpretation is right or wrong. Instead, each interpretation allows us to have a more comprehensive understanding of communication. As with message production, we are constantly in the process of evaluating messages. The greater understanding you have of rhetorical theories for both putting together and evaluating messages, the greater potential you have to be an effective communicator in a variety of contexts. For rhetorical theorists, the message is the primary focus of inquiry when approaching the study of communication. Strengths The primary strength of the Rhetorical Theories Paradigm is its ability to help us produce and evaluate effective messages. Rhetorical theories provide a way for us to take context into consideration as we examine messages. Unlike empirical laws theories, rhetorical theories highlight the importance of considering context as essential for understanding messages. Finally, rhetorical theories provide a way for us to foster multiple perspectives in the evaluation and construction of messages. Weaknesses
A primary weakness of rhetorical theories comes from one of its strengths. With such an intense focus on messages, it is possible to overlook alternative interpretations of messages. Also, some theories of message evaluation are not critical enough to reveal power dynamics at work in message exchanges. Finally, rhetorical theories are often not generalizable across a variety of communication contexts. While some rhetorical theories can be generalized, rhetorical theories are most often highly contextualized.
[edit]Critical
Theories Paradigm
At this point you have learned about four different theoretical paradigms we use to understand communication. One criticism of these approaches is they often lack an explicit critique of the status quo of communication. Put another way, they serve as a general approach to understand communication norms rather than challenge them. We all realize that there are communication realities in the world that are hurtful and oppressive to particular people, and that there are people in the world that use communication to serve their own needs and interests. How do we bring these to the forefront of conversation and work to change communication practices that are hurtful? The Need for Critical Theories The Critical Theories Paradigm helps us understand how communication is used to oppress, and provides ways to foster positive social change(Foss & Foss, 1989; Fay, 1975). Critical Theories challenge the status quo of communication contexts, looking for alternatives to those forms of oppressive communication. Critical theories differ from other theoretical approaches because they seek praxis as the overarching goal. Praxis is the combination of theory and action. Rather than simply seeking to understand power structures, critical theories actively seek to change them in positive ways. Easily identifiable examples of critical approaches are Marxism, postmodernism, and feminism. These critical theories expose and challenge the communication of dominant social, economic, and political structures. Areas of inquiry include language, social relationships, organizational structures, politics, economics, media, cultural ideologies, interpersonal relationships, labor, and other social movements. Cultural Studies focus on understanding the real-life experiences of people, examining communication contexts for hidden power structures, and accomplishing positive social change as a result of the revelation of hidden power structures (Dines and Humez, 2003; Kellner, 2003). According to Kellner, cultural studies involves three interconnected elements necessary for understanding, evaluating and challenging the power dynamics embedded in communicationpolitical economy, textual analysis, and audience reception.
Byron Hurt is a modern theorist who uses film to critique how sexism impacts both men and women in our society. His cutting-edge film Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes looks at the Hip-Hop industry from a critical perspective, focusing on how it enables sexism against women while keeping men in narrowly defined gendered roles.
Communication Theory Now
Political economy focuses on the macro level of communication. Specifically, this part of cultural studies looks at the way a media text, People magazine for example, is situated in a given cultural context and the political and economic realities of the cultural context. In the U.S., we would note that the political economy is one marked with gender, racial, and class inequities.
Case In Point
Textual analysis involves the
process of deconstructing and analyzing elements of a media text. So, if we were going to look at People magazine with a critical eye, we
Today, Marxist thought influences critical theories in two ways. First, Marxist theory critiques power structures in media, focusing on how media owners construct media messages, as well as how media consumers interpret those messages (Grossberg, 1984; Croteau & Hoynes, 2003; Dines & Humez, 2003). In fact, the field of Communication has an entire journal devoted to the critical evaluation of the media entitled Critical Studies in Mass Communication. Second, Marxist theory examines how dominant cultural ideologies weaken other ideological perspectives in social institutions such as political organizations, schools and universities, religious institutions, and media organizations. For example, dominant ideology in the U.S. endorses heterosexual marriage. Critical perspectives challenge this ideological framework and argue that same-sex partners should have the same rights and benefits as cross-sex partners. At the time of writing this book, California just recognized same-sex marriage. This is an example of how critical theories can change the world around us.
would pay attention to the visual elements (the pictures in the ads; the celebrity photos, and any other drawings, cartoons or illustrations), the verbal messages (the text of the ads, the copy, captions that accompany the photographs), and the relationship between the advertisements and the copy. For example is there an ad for Clinique eye shadow next to an article on the hot new beauty tips for fall? We would also pay attention to the representation of gender, race, and class identities as well. Are there any differences or similarities between the portrayal of white women and women of color? What sort of class identity is being offered as the one to emulate?
Audience reception asks us to
consider the role of the text for the audience that consumes it. We would thus try to learn why people read People magazinewhat purpose does it fill, what is the social function of this text? Origins of Critical Theories in Communication Marxism is one of the earliest origins of critical theory. In addition, postmodernism feminism, and postcolonialism have greatly influenced how critical theories have grown and expanded to challenge a greater number of social power structures. While each of these approaches examines a different area of oppression, all have used critical approaches to enact great social changes, not only in western societies, but in cultures worldwide.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Karl Marxs ideas challenged the status quo of newly emerging industrial societies. As societies moved from agrarian-based economies to ones based in industrial manufacturing, there became an increasing division between the rich and the poor. Marx, in two of his most
well-known works, The Communist Manifesto and Capital, argued that working class laborers were being oppressed by those in power, specifically the owners of manufacturing plants. In any discussion of Postmodernism, another critical theoretical perspective, the difficulty of defining the term is invariably part of the discussion. Part of that problem can be located in the entomology of the word itself. Modern refers to just now (from modo in Latin) and post means after. Thus, this term translates into after just nowan idea that can be difficult to wrap our heads around. How do you, for example, point to or mark the period after just now? (Covino & Jolliffe, 1995, p. 76). Some qualities that characterize postmodernism are that of fragmentation, nonlinearity, and instability. In discussing the postmodern condition, Lyotard (1984) explains the relationship between those who have and dont have social power: The [decision makers] allocate our lives for the growth of power. In matters of social justice and scientific truth alike, the legitimation of that power is based on optimizing the systems performanceefficiency (p. 27). A third major influence on the development of the Critical Theories Paradigm comes from feminist theories. Feminist theories explore power structures that create and recreate gendered differentiations in societies (Foss & Foss, 1989; Dervin, 1987; MacKinnon, 1988). Critical feminist theories contend that gender relations are often oppressive to both men and women, and that they support an institution based on patriarchal values. Thus, critical feminist theories challenge dominant assumptions and practices of gender in ways that foster more equal and egalitarian forms of communication and social structures in society.
When discussin Communication Theory Now g feminism and feminist theories we refer to a set of multiple and diverse theories. Feminist theories include a wide range of philosoph ical argument s, economic structure s, and political viewpoint s. Some of these include Marxist feminism, which focuses on the division of labor as a source of gender inequality, and liberal feminism, which asserts that men and women should have equal status in the culturesuch as voting rights, educational and professional opportunities, and equal pay. Eco-feminism recognizes that all parts of the universe are interconnected and
Mona Struthers June 12, 2007 The Brock Press http://media.www.brockpress.com/media/storage/paper384/news/2007/06/12/Opinion/Critical.Theory.Sucks.Life.From.Pop.Culture.Classes2914291.shtml What do you think? The problem is that many theories merit entire courses, and cannot be crammed into the spaces between novels, film, or poems in an English class. Many professors only have time to present a vague, paint-by-number summary of one topic, one idea, out of context. For people like me, who are actually interested in learning more about these theorists, these incomplete forays into literature/critical theory are irritating because they are too specific and reductive to be useful outside of the course. But, more often than not, there isn't time to explain - only to summarize books of innovative thought into three or four fatally reductive bullets on an overhead or handout. It's in these cases that I feel frustrated, because I'm being taught a Dummies version. Teach it or don't. That's what I want. When a class on culture consists of little more than using bits of theory, I get the feeling that the professor is still trying to convince herself/himself that pop culture deserves to be studied. Unfortunately, pop culture study has a dark side. It has the potential to be downright excruciating. This happens when cultural texts are hammered into frames for literary, psychological, or sociological theories. Suddenly a film's mise en scene, a novel's mention of the colour red or a musical track's white space cease to exist as independent acts of creative expression and become expressions of a cultural theory. Interpreting text using the work of theorists like Foucault or Lacan (just to name two who seem fairly well used in academia) is neato. When a professor actually took the time to explain Lacan's ideas about lack to me, I felt really excited. Suddenly I had a new perspective that I could apply to things.
Critical Theory Sucks Life From Pop Culture Classes - A Students Perspective
The Phoenix (UBC Okanagan) (CUP) KELOWNA, B.C. - As an English student with a focus on the contemporary, I've always looked to pop culture classes as a means to easier credit. There are a number of reasons for this: I feel like I might recognize the texts studied in pop classes. I'd rather study Toni Morrison and Timothy Findley than William Shakespeare. I can relate to characters and grasp thematic concepts more quickly. Perhaps, most importantly, I enjoy reading about places and things, and then connecting those places and things to Kevin Bacon, and eventually, to myself.
that oppression of women and other minorities is analogous to the oppression of the natural environment such as in the cutting down of natural forests to meet consumer demands for paper goods, or the killing of animals for the eating of meat. Critical Theories in Action Whether we listen to our ipod, watch TV, go to the movies, or read a magazine, most of us consume media. Have you ever stopped to think about who puts together those messages? Have you wondered what their goals might be and why they want to send the messages they do? One way we can use critical theories is to examine who owns what media to determine what they are trying to accomplish (Croteau & Hoynes, 2003). For example, why does General Electric want to own companies like RCA and NBC? Why does a company like Seagrams want to buy MCA (Universal Studios) and Polygram records? What world-views are these companies creating in the media they produce? These are all questions for which we might consider using theories from the Critical Theories Paradigm. Did you know that by 1996 two companies (Borders/Walden and Barnes & Noble) sold 1/3 of all books, five movie companies accounted for over 75% of box office ticket sales, five companies distributed 95% of all music sold in the U.S., and television was still dominated by only four major networks (Croteau & Hoynes, 2003)? Other examples from the critical paradigm include works that examine gender, consumerism, advertising, and television. In her work, Who(se) Am I? The Identity and Image of Women in Hip-Hop, Perry (2003) examines the potential danger and damage to African-American women through their objectification in Hip-Hop videos. Carole A. Stabile (2003) examines the labor and marketing practices of Nike in her article, Nike, Social Responsibility, and the Hidden Abode of Production. Clint C. Wilson II and Felix Gutierrez (2003) discuss the portrayal of people of color in advertising in their article, Advertising and People of Color, while Jackson Katz (2003) explores violence in advertising with his piece, Advertising and the Construction of Violent White Masculinity: From Eminem to Clinique for Men. We use critical theories to reveal a vast range of possible ideological structures that create and foster dominant world-views, and to challenge and change those ideologies that oppress others. Strengths A significant strength of the Critical Theories Paradigm is that it combines theory and practice, seeking to create actual change from theoretical development. Rather than seeking prediction and control, or explanation and understanding, critical theories seek positive social change. The intent behind these theoretical perspectives is to help empower those whose world-views and ideological perspectives have not found equality in social contexts. At their best, critical theories have the potential to enact large-scale social change for both large and small groups of people. Weaknesses
A potential weakness of critical theories is their dependence on social values. While empirical laws theories seek an objective reality, critical theories highlight subjective values that guide communication behaviors. When values conflict the question of, whose values are better? emerges. Because values are subjective, answering this question is often filled with much conflict and debate. The example of gay marriage highlights a current debate taking place over ideological values. How do we define marriage? And, whose definition is best?
[edit]Summary
T
heories are lenses for understanding the world around us. It is possible to use multiple theories to examine our communication. Theories allow us to organize and understand communication experiences, select communication behavior to study, broaden our understanding of human communication, predict and control communication situations, challenge current social and cultural relationships, and offer new ways of thinking and living. Forming theories is a three step process of asking important questions, looking for answers through observation, and forming answers or theories as a result of observation. Are all theories alike in their usefulness? Of course not. Evaluating the usefulness or value of a theory is important. Six qualities are crucial for evaluating theoriesscope, parsimony, heuristic value, openness, appropriateness, and validity. As you recall, scope refers to the breadth of the theory, parsimony to its level of simplicity, and heuristic value is the theorys ability to generate other theories. When a theory is open this means that it recognizes other perspectives and options. Appropriateness refers to the fit between the research question and theory used to answer it. Finally, validity is the overall worth or practicality of a theory which includes value, fit, and generalizability. When these characteristics are present we can be confident of our choice of theory. You have also learned five major paradigms for understanding, explaining, and changing the communication around you. It is important to recognize that no theoretical perspective is the right perspective, although most Communication scholars do favor particular theoretical approaches over others, and conduct communication research from their preferred perspectives. Those that believe there are universal laws which govern human communication conduct research from the empirical laws perspective. Those that think communication is a result of shared, adaptable rules utilize the human rules paradigm. The systems perspective recognizes the interconnectedness of people, relationships and communication. If the use of symbols for message creation and evaluation is the focus, then rhetorical theory is the corresponding paradigm. For scholars who are action oriented and desire social change as an outcome of their research, the critical perspective is the one of choice.
[edit]Discussion
Questions
1.
How does understanding communication theory help you in your daily life?
2.
Pick a theoretical paradigm. Now pick a communication phenomenon. How does that paradigm help explain that phenomenon to you?
3.
What would you focus on using critical theories? What questions would you try to answer?
4.
Think of a system in which you are a member? What communicative action could you change that would change the system? What do you think the effect would be?
5.
What criteria do you use for constructing or evaluating a good persuasive message? How did you establish these criteria?
[edit]Key
Terms

appropriateness audience reception causation critical theories cultural studies empirical laws explain feminist theories generalization heuristic value homeostasis human rules Marxism openness paradigm paradigm shift parsimony political economy postmodernism praxis prediction
[edit]References
probability rhetoric rhetorical criticism rhetorical theories scope social criticism social exchange theory systems theory teleological textual analysis theory Toulmins model trait theory validity
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Dines, G., & Humez, J. M. (Eds.). (2003). Gender, race, and class in ,media: A text-reader (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fay, B. (1975). Social theory and practice. London: Gearge Allen and Unwin. Foss, K. A., & Foss, S. K. (1989). Incorporating the feminist perspective in communication scholarship: A research commentary. In C. Spitzack & K. Carter (Eds.), Doing Research on Women's Communication: Alternative Perspectives in Theory and Method (pp. 64-94). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K., & Griffin, C. L. (1999). Feminist rhetorical theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Foss, S. K., Foss, K. A., & Trapp, R. (2002). Contemporary perspectives on rhetoric. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. Foss, S. K., & Foss, K. K. (1989). Rhetorical criticism: Exploration and practice. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Foucault, M. (2003). The birth of the clinic. London: Routledge. Griffin, E., & Langan, E. (2006). A first look at communication theory, [web page]. McGraw-Hill. Available: www.afirstlook.com/archive/talkabout.cfm?source=archther [2006, November 3rd]. Grossberg, L. (1984). Strategies of Marxist cultural interpretation. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1, 392-421. Hoover, K. R. (1984). The elements of social scientific thinking (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. Hovland, C. I., Janis, I., & Kelley, H. (Eds.). (1953). Communication and persuasion: Pschological studies of opinion change. New Haven: Yale University Press. Infante, D. A., Rancer, A. S., & Womack, D. F. (2003). Building communication theory (4th ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry. San Francisco: Chandler. Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1966). The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley. Katz, J. (2003). Advertising and the construction of violent white masculinity: From Eminem to Clinique for men. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed., pp. 349-358). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kaufmann, W. (Ed.). (1966). Hegel: Texts and commentary. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. Kellner, D. (2003). Cultural studies, multiculturalism, and media culture. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed., pp. 9-20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2005). Theories of human communication (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Lyotard, J. F. (1984). The postmodern condition. In S. Siedman (Ed.), The postmodern turn: New perspectives on social theory. (pp. 27-38). New York: Cambridge University Press. MacKinnon, C. A. (1988). Desire and power: A feminist perspective. In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 105-122). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Marx, K. (1888). The communist manifesto. London: Reeves. Marx, K. (1909). Capital. Chicago: Kerr. Miller, G. R., & Berger, C. R. (1978). On keeping the faith in matters scientific. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 42, 44-57. Miller, G. R., & Nicholson, H. (1976). Communication inquiry. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Perry, I. (2003). Who(se) Am I? The identity and image of women in HipHop. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed., pp. 136-148). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rolof, M. E. (1981). Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Shaw, M. E., & Costanzo, P. R. (1970). Theories of social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Shimanoff, S. (1980). Communication rules: Theory and research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Shimanoff, S. (1992). Group interaction via communication rules. In R. S. Cathcart & L. A. Samovar (Eds.), Small group communication: A reader (6th ed.). Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown.
Stabile, C. A. (2003). Nike, social responsibility, and the hidden abode of production. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed., pp. 196-203). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tannen, D. (2001). You just dont understand: Women and men in conversation. New York: HarperCollins. Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Walster, E., Walster, G. W., & Berscheid, E. (1978). Equity: Theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Wilson II, C. C., & Gutierrez, F. (2003). Advertising and people of color. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, Race, and Class in Media: A Text-Reader (2nd ed., pp. 283-292). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Winch, P. (1958). The idea of social science and its relation to philosophy. Atlantic Highland, NJ: Humanities Press.
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Communication Theory/Uses and Gratifications

Propaganda and the Public The Frankfurt School
< Communication Theory
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction 2 Origin and History 3 Needs and Gratifications 4 Gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO) 5 Media Dependency Theory 6 Uses and Gratifications Research in a New Era 7 Criticisms of Uses and Gratifications Research 8 References 9 More Information
[edit]Introduction
Uses and gratifications ejon approach is an influential tradition in media research. The original conception of the approach was based on the research for explaining the great appeal of certain media contents. The core question of such research is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? (McQuail, 1983). There exists a basic idea in this approach: audience members know media content, and which media they can use to meet their needs. In the mass communication process, uses and gratifications approach puts the function of linking need gratifications and media choice clearly on the side of audience members. It suggests that peoples needs influence what media they would choose, how they use certain media and what gratifications the media give them. This approach differs from other theoretical perspectives in that it regards audiences as active media users as opposed to passive receivers of information. In contrast to traditional media effects theories which focus on what media do to people and assume audiences are homogeneous, uses and gratifications approach is more concerned with what people do with media (Katz, 1959). It allows audiences personal needs to use media and responds to the media, which determined by their social and psychological background. Uses and gratifications approach also postulates that the media compete with other information sources for audiences need satisfaction (Katz et al., 1974a). As traditional mass media and new media continue to provide people with a wide range of media platforms and content, it is considered one of the most appropriate perspectives for investigating why audiences choose to be exposed to different media channels (LaRose et al., 2001). The approach emphasizes audiences choice by assessing their reasons for using a certain media to the disregard of others, as well as the various gratifications obtained from the media, based on individual social and psychological requirements (Severin & Tankard, 1997). As a broader perspective among communication researches, it provides a framework for understanding the processes by which media participants seek information or content selectively, commensurate with their needs and interests (Katz et al., 1974a). Audience members then incorporate the content to fulfill their needs or to satisfy their interests (Lowery & Nabila, 1983). This is Uses and Gratifications.
[edit]Origin
and History
It is well accepted that communication theories have developed through the realms of psychology and sociology over the past 100 years. With illumed by valuable ideas as well as exploring more untilled fields in these two disciplines, researchers elicit a series of higher conceptions of understanding media. As a subtradition of media effects research, uses and gratifications approach is suggested to be originally stemmed from a functionalist paradigm in the social sciences (Blumler & Katz, 1974).
To some extent, however, functional theory on communication agrees with medias effects towards people. For example, a model often used in the theory, the Hypodermic Syringe model, discusses that the mass media have a direct, immediate and influential effect upon audiences by injecting information into the consciousness of the masses (Watson & Hill 1997, p. 105). Functional theory influenced studies on communication from the 1920s to the 1940s. After that, a shift which rediscovered the relationship between media and people occurred and led to establishment of uses and gratifications approach. The exploration of gratifications that motivate people to be attracted to certain media is almost as old as empirical mass communication research itself (McQuail, 1983). Dating back to the 1940s, researchers became interested in the reasons for viewing different radio programmes, such as soap operas and quizzes, as well as daily newspaper (Lazrsfeld & Stanton, 1944, 1949; Herzog, 1944; Warner & Henry, 1948; etc.). In these studies, researchers discovered a list of functions served either by some specific content or by the medium itself (Katz et al., 1974b). For instance, radio soap operas were found to satisfy their listeners with advice, support, or occasions for emotional release (Herzog, 1944; Warner and Henry, 1948); rather than just offering information, newspaper was also discovered to be important to give readers a sense of security, shared topics of conversation and a structure to the daily routine (Berelson, 1949). For these diverse dimensions of usage satisfaction, psychologist Herzog (1944) marked them with the term gratifications. Uses and gratifications approach became prevailing in the late 1950s till 1970s when television has grown up. Some basic assumptions of the approach were proposed when it was rediscovered during that era. Among the group of scholars who focus on uses and gratifications research, Elihu Katz is one of the most well-known and contributed greatly to establishing the structure of the approach. Elihu Katz is served both as a sociologist and as a communication researcher. He received his Ph.D. in Sociology in 1956 from Columbia University and began teaching at the University of Chicago until 1963. During the next thirty years, he taught in the Department of Sociology and Communication at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In the late 1960, invited by the Government of Israel, Katz headed the task force charged with the introduction of television broadcasting. This experience led to his subsequent academic work about broadcasting and television in leisure, culture and communication from the 1970s to1990s (UPENN, 2001). In 1992, he joined the faculty of the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania, and also directed its experimental Scholars program for post-doctoral study. Katzs mentor in Columbia University is Paul Lazarsfeld, who is one of the pioneers of gratifications research. Their cooperating work produced important outgrowths that connect the concept of gratifications with the functional theory model. Later, Katz introduced uses and gratification approach when he came up with the notion that people use the media to their benefit. In a study by Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973), a subject which is known as the uses and gratifications research were explored. They viewed the mass media as a
means by which individuals connect or disconnect themselves with others and found that people bend the media to their needs more readily than the media overpower them (Katz, Gurevitch and Haas, 1973). Along with colleague Jay G. Blumler, Katz published a collection of essays on gratifications in 1974 which were entitled The Uses of Mass Communication. They took a more humanistic approach to looking at media use. They suggest that media users seek out a medium source that best fulfills the needs of the user and they have alternate choices to satisfy their need. (Blumler & Katz, 1974). They also discovered that media served the functions of surveillance, correlation, entertainment and cultural transmission for both society and individuals (Blumler and Katz, 1974). Five basic assumptions were stated in a study of Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch in 1974 as follows. They provide a framework for understanding the correlation between media and audiences: 1. The audience is conceived as active, i.e., an important part of of mass media use is assumed to be goal oriented patterns of media use are shaped by more or less definite expectations of what certain kinds of content have to offer the audience member. 2. In the mass communication process much initiative in linking need gratification and media choice lies with the audience member. This places a strong limitation on theorizing about any form of straight-line effect of media content on attitudes and behavior. 3. The media compete with other sources of need satisfaction. The needs served by mass communication constitute but a segment of the wider range of human needs, and the degree to which they can be adequately met through mass media consumption certainly varies. 4. Methodologically speaking, many of the goals of mass media use can be derived from data supplied by individual audience members themselves- i.e., people are sufficiently self-aware to be able to report their interests and motives in particular cases, or at least to recognize them when confronted with them in an intelligible and familiar verbal formulation. 5. Value judgments about the cultural significance of mass communication should be suspended while audience orientations are explored on their own terms. (p. 15-17).
In addition, Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch also commented that, although previous researches on gratifications detected diverse gratifications that attract people on the media, they did not address the connections between these gratifications (Katz et al., 1974a). They suggested that uses and gratifications research concern with following aspects: (1) the social and the psychological origins of (2) needs which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or other sources which lead to (5) differential exposure (or engaging in other activities), resulting in (6) need gratification and (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones (Katz et al., 1974b, p. 20). The studies of Katz and his colleagues laid a theoretical foundation of building the uses and gratifications approach. Since then, the research on this subject has been strengthened and extended. The current status of uses and gratifications is still based on Katzs first analysis, particularly as new media forms have emerged in such an electronic information age when people have more options of media use.
[edit]Needs
and Gratifications
Uses and gratifications approach emphasizes motives and the self-perceived needs of audience members. Blumler and Katz (1974) concluded that different people can use the same communication message for very different purposes. The same media content may gratify different needs for different individuals. There is not only one way that people uses media. Contrarily, there are as many reasons for using the media as there are media users (Blumler & Katz, 1974). Basic needs, social situation, and the individuals background, such as experience, interests, and education, affect peoples ideas about what they want from media and which media best meet their needs. That is, audience members are aware of and can state their own motives and gratifications for using different media. McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972) proposed a model of media-person interactions to classify four important media gratifications: (1) Diversion: escape from routine or problems; emotional release; (2) Personal relationships: companionship; social utility; (3) Personal identity: self reference; reality exploration; value reinforces; and (4) Surveillance (forms of information seeking). Another subdivided version of the audiences motivation was suggested by McGuire (1974), based on a general theory of human needs. He distinguished between two types of needs: cognitive and affective. Then he added three dimensions: active versus passive initiation, external versus internal goal orientation, and emotion stability of growth and preservation. When charted, these factors yield 16 different types of motivations which apply to media use (Figure 1). Figure 1. A structuring of 16 general paradigms of human motivation (McGuire, 1974). Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) developed 35 needs taken from the social and psychological functions of the mass media and put them into five categories:
1.
Cognitive needs, including acquiring information, knowledge and understanding;
2. 3. 4. 5.
Affective needs, including emotion, pleasure, feelings; Personal integrative needs, including credibility, stability, status; Social integrative needs, including interacting with family and friends; and Tension release needs, including escape and diversion.
Congruously, McQuails (1983) classification of the following common reasons for media use: Information
finding out about relevant events and conditions in immediate surroundings, society and the world

Personal Identity
seeking advice on practical matters or opinion and decision choices satisfying curiosity and general interest learning; self-education gaining a sense of security through knowledge
finding reinforcement for personal values finding models of behavior identifying with valued others (in the media) gaining insight into oneself
Integration and Social Interaction

Entertainment
gaining insight into the circumstances of others; social empathy identifying with others and gaining a sense of belonging finding a basis for conversation and social interaction having a substitute for real-life companionship helping to carry out social roles enabling one to connect with family, friends and society
escaping, or being diverted, from problems relaxing getting intrinsic cultural or aesthetic enjoyment
filling time emotional release sexual arousal (p. 73)
These dimensions of uses and gratifications assume an active audience making motivated choices. McQuail (1994) added another dimension to this definition. He states: Personal social circumstances and psychological dispositions together influence both general habits of media use and also beliefs and expectations about the benefits offered by the media, which shape ... specific acts of media choice and consumption, followed by ... assessments of the value of the experience (with consequences for further media use) and, possibly ... applications of benefits acquired in other areas of experience and social activity (p. 235). This expanded explanation accounts for a variety of individual needs, and helps to explain variations in media sought for different gratifications.
[edit]Gratifications
sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO)
The personal motivations for media use also suggest that the media offer gratifications which are expected by audiences. These gratifications can be thought of as experienced psychological effects which are valued by individuals. Palmgreen and Rayburn (1985) thus proposed a model of the gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO) process shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. An expectance-value model of media gratifications sought and obtained (Palmgreen and Rayburn, 1985). The model distinguishes between GS and GO. Thus, where GO is noticeably higher than GS, we are likely to be dealing with situations of high audience satisfaction and high ratings of appreciation and attention (McQuail, 1983). To investigate the relationship between GS and GO, Palmgreen et al. (1980) conducted a study of gratifications sought and obtained from the most popular television news programs. The results indicated that, on the one hand, each GS correlated either moderately or strongly with its corresponding GO; on the other hand, the researchers found that the gratifications audiences reportedly seek are not always the same as the gratifications they obtain (Palmgreen et al, 1980). A later study conducted by Wenner (1982) further showed that audiences may obtain different levels of gratifications from what they seek when they are exposed to evening news programs.
[edit]Media
Dependency Theory
Media dependency theory, also known as media system dependency theory, has been explored as an extension of or an addition to the uses and gratifications approach, though there is a subtle difference between the two theories. That is, media dependency looks at audience goals as the origin of the dependency while the uses and gratifications approach emphasizes audience needs (Grant et al., 1998). Both, however, are in agreement that media use can lead to media dependency. Moreover, some uses and gratifications studies have discussed media use as being goal directed (Palmgreen, Wenner & Rosengren. 1985; Rubin, 1993; Parker & Plank, 2000). Media dependency theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) described dependency as the correlating relationship between media content, the nature of society, and the behavior of audiences. It examines both macro and micro factors influencing motives, information-seeking strategies, media and functional alternative use, and dependency on certain media (Rubin and Windahl, 1982). As DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) suggested, active selectors use of the media to achieve their goals will result in being dependent on the media. Littlejohn (2002) also explained that people will become more dependent on media that meet a number of their needs than on media that provide only a few ones. If a person finds a medium that provides them with several functions that are central to their desires, they will be more inclined to continue to use that particular medium in the future (Rossi, 2002). The intensity of media dependency depends on how much people perceive that the media they choose are meeting their goals. These goals were categorized by DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) into three dimensions which cover a wide range of individual objectives: (1) social and self understanding (e.g., learning about oneself, knowing about the world); (2) interaction and action orientation (e.g., deciding what to buy, getting hints on how to handle news or difficult situation, etc.); (3) social and solitary play (e.g., relaxing when alone, going to a movie with family or friends). DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) also suggested that more than one kind of goal can be activated (and satisfied) by the same medium. Dependency on a specific medium is influenced by the number of media sources available to an individual. Individuals should become more dependent on available media if their access to media alternatives is limited. The more alternatives there are for an individual, the lesser is the dependency on and influence of a specific medium (Sun et al., 1999).
[edit]Uses
and Gratifications Research in a New Era
The uses and gratifications has always provided a cutting-edge theoretical approach in the initial stages of each new mass medium, such as newspapers, radio and television, and now the Internet, which receives the significance via this approach (Ruggiero, 2000).
The uses and gratifications theory has been widely used, and also is better suited, for studies of Internet use. In the Internet environment, users are even more actively engaged communication participants, compared to other traditional media (Ruggiero, 2000). The theory also suggests that people consciously choose the medium that could satisfy their needs and that audiences are able to recognize their reasons for making media choices (Katz et al., 1974). Some surveys have shown that users have little trouble verbalizing their needs when using the Internet (Eighmey & McCord, 1997; Lillie, 1997; Nortey, 1998; Piirto, 1993; Ryan, 1995). Katz et al. (1974) argued that available media choice compete to satisfy individual needs. Thus, there exists competition not only between the Internet and other traditional media, but among each options in the Internet itself as well. Despite the robustness of this list, history has shown that new media often create new gratifications and new motivations among various audience groups (Angleman, 2000). These new dimensions of users motivations and gratifications need to be identified and satisfied. Although motivations for Internet use may vary among individuals, situations, and media vehicles, most uses and gratifications studies explore them based on some or all of the following dimensions: relaxation, companionship, habit, passing time, entertainment, social interaction, information/surveillance, arousal, and escape (Lin, 1999). Examining how and why students use a university computer bulletin board, Rafeali (1986) found that users seldom skip the factual or informative messages, which indicates their strong interest in messages of this type. Maddox (1998) also suggested that the most important reason why people use the Internet is to gather various kinds of information. Lin (2001) found similar results when she examined online services adoption. She found that online services are perceived primarily as information-laden media, and that audiences who need to create more outlets for information reception are the ones most likely to adopt online services (Lin, 2001). Internet use is also linked to a series of instrumental as well as entertainment-oriented gratifications (Lin, 1996). Some scholars ranked diversion/entertainment as more important than exchanging information in triggering media use (Schlinger, 1979; Yankelovich Partners, 1995). Rafeali (1986) found that the primary motivation of bulletin board users are recreation, entertainment, and diversion, followed by learning what others think about controversial issues by communicating with people who matter in a community. Entertainment content appears to satisfy users needs for escapism, hedonistic pleasure, aesthetic enjoyment, or emotional release (McQuail, 1994). Providing entertainment, therefore, can motivate audiences to use the media more often (Luo, 2002). Examining the Internet as a source of political information, Johnson and Kaye (1998) found that people use the web primarily for surveillance and voter guidance and secondarily for entertainment, social utility and excitement. In a study of the web as an alternative to television viewing, Ferguson and Perse (2000) found four main motivations for Internet use: entertainment, passing time, relaxation/escape and social information. The Internet combines elements of both mass and interpersonal communication. The distinct characteristics of the Internet lead to additional dimensions in terms of the uses and gratifications approach. For example, learning and socialization are suggested as important motivations for Internet use (James et al., 1995).
Personal involvement and continuing relationships were also identified as new motivation aspects by Eighmey and McCord (1998) when they investigated audience reactions to websites. The potential for personal control and power is also embedded in Internet use. Pavlik (1996) noted that online, people are empowered to act, communicate, or participate in the broader society and political process. This type of use may lead to increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and political awareness (Lillie, 1997). Heightened interactions were also suggested as motivations for using the Internet. Kuehn (1994) called attention to this interactive capability of the Internet through discussion groups, e-mail, direct ordering, and links to more information (Schumann & Thorson, 1999; Ko, 2002). As such, Lin (2001) suggested that online services should be fashioned to satisfy peoples need for useful information as well as social interaction opportunities. Group support is another important reason for using the Internet. The Internet can provide a relatively safe venue to exchange information, give support, and serve as a meeting place without fear of persecution (Tossberg, 2000). It provides an accessible environment where individuals can easily find others who share similar interests and goals. As part of a group, they are able to voice opinions and concerns in a supportive environment (Korenman & Wyatt, 1996). Other studies identified anonymity as one of the reasons why people go online. According to McKenna et al. (2000), people use the security of online anonymity to develop healthy friendships and gratify their need to socialize. Those who play massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) report that anonymity reduces their self-awareness and motivates their behaviors in game playing (Foo & Koivisto, 2004). Another survey done by Choi and Haque (2002) also found anonymity as a new motivation factor for Internet use. Some also suggested that the Internet offer democratic communication to anonymous participants in virtual communities such as chat rooms. Ryan (1995) indicated that anonymity motivates users to speak more freely on the Internet than they would in real life. With small fear of social punishment and recrimination, minority groups can equally participate in the communication process provided the technology is universally available (Braina, 2001).
[edit]Criticisms
of Uses and Gratifications Research
Although uses and gratifications approach holds a significant status in communication research, the research of the approach receives criticisms both on its theory and methodology represented. McQuail (1994) commented that the approach has not provided much successful prediction or casual explanation of media choice and use. Since it is indeed that much media use is circumstantial and weakly motivated, the approach seems to work best in examining specific types of media where motivation might be presented (McQuail, 1994). The researcher Ien Ang also criticized uses and gratifications approach in such three aspects:
1.
It is highly individualistic, taking into account only the individual psychological gratification derived from individual media use. The social context of the media use tends to be ignored. This overlooks the fact that some media use may have nothing to do with the pursuit of gratification it may be forced upon us for example.
2.
There is relatively little attention paid to media content, researchers attending to why people use the media, but less to what meanings they actually get out of their media use.
3.
The approach starts from the view that the media are always functional to people and may thus implicitly offer a justification for the way the media are currently organized (cited by CCMS-Infobase, 2003).
Since it is hard to keep track of exposure patterns through observation, uses and gratifications research focus on the fact relied heavily on self-reports (Katz, 1987). Self-reports, however, are based on personal memory which can be problematic (Nagel et al., 2004). As such, the respondents might inaccurately recall how they behave in media use and thus distortion might occur in the study.
[edit]References
Angleman, S. (2000, December). Uses and gratifications and Internet profiles: A factor analysis. Is Internet use and travel to cyberspace reinforced by unrealized gratifications? Paper presented to the Western Science Social Association2001 Conference, Reno, NV. Retrieved June 4, 2005, from http://www.jrily.com/LiteraryIllusions/InternetGratificationStudyIndex.html. Berelson, B. (1949). What missing the newspaper means. In P.F. Lazarsfeld, & F.M. Stanton (Eds.), Communication Research 1948-9 (pp. 111-129). NY: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. Braina, M. (2001, August). The uses and gratifications of the Internet among African American college students. Paper presented to the Minorities and Communication Division, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC. CCMS-Infobase. (2003). Mass media: effects research - uses and gratifications. Retrieved October 10, 2005, from http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/media/ Choi, Y., & Haque, M. (2002). Internet use patterns and motivations of Koreans. Asian Media Information and Communication, 12(1), 126-140. DeFleur, M. L. & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1989). Theories of mass communication (5th ed.). New York: Longman. Blumler, J., & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of Mass Communications. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
DeFleur, M. L., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1976). A dependency model of mass media effects. Communication Research, 3, 3-21. Eighmey, J., & McCord L. (1998). Adding value in the information age: Uses and gratifications of sites on the world-wide web. Journal of Business Research, 41(3), 187-194. Ferguson, D. & Perse, E. (2000). The World Wide Web as a functional alternative to television. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44 (2), 155-174. Foo, C., & Koivisto, E. (2004, December 7). Live from OP: Grief player motivations. Paper presented to the Other Players Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark. Grant, A. E., Zhu, Y., Van Tuyll, D., Teeter, J., Molleda, J. C., Mohammad, Y., & Bollinger, L. (1998, April). Dependency and control. Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the Association of Educators in Journalism and Mass Communications, Baltimore, Maryland. Herzog, H. (1944). What do we really know about daytime serial listeners? In P.F. Lazarsfeld (ed.), Radio Research 1942-3 (pp. 2-23). London: Sage. James, M. L., Wotring, C. E., & Forrest, E. J. (1995). An exploratory study of the perceived benefits of electronic bulletin board use and their impact on other communication activities. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 39(1), 30-50. Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (1998). The Internet: Vehicle for engagement or a haven for the disaffected? In T. J. Johnson, C. E. Hays & S. P. Hays (Eds.), Engaging the public: how government and the media can reinvigorate American democracy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Katz, E. (1959). Mass communication research and the study of culture. Studies in Public Communication, 2, 16. Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Ulilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler, & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19-32). Beverly Hills: Sage. Katz, E., Blumler, J., & Gurevitch, M. (1974a). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler, & E. Katz (Eds.), The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research. Beverly Hills & London: Sage Publications. Katz, E., Blumler, J., & Gurevitch, M. (1974b). Uses of mass communication by the individual. In W.P. Davison, & F.T.C. Yu (Eds.), Mass communication research: Major issues and future directions (pp. 11-35). New York: Praeger. Katz, E., Gurevitch, M., & Haas, H. (1973). On the use of the mass media for important things. American Sociological Review, 38, 164-181.
Katz, E. (1987). Communication research since Lazarsfeld. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 525545. Ko, H. (2002, August). A structural equation model of the uses and gratifications theory: Ritualized and instrumental Internet usage. Paper presented to the Communication Theory and Methodology Division, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Miami, FL. Korenman, J., & Wyatt, N. (1996). Group dynamics in an e-mail forum. In S. C. Herring (Ed.), ComputerMediated Communication: Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives (pp. 225-242). Amesterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Kuehn, S. A. (1993). Communication innovation on a BBS: A content analysis. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 1(2). Retrieved June 1st, 2005 fromhttp://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/1993/n2/kuehn.txt. LaRose, R., Mastro, D., & Eastin, M. S. (2001). Understanding Internet usage: A social-cognitive approach to uses and gratifications. Social Science Computer Review, 19(4), 395-413. Lazarsfeld, P.F., & Stanton, F. (1944). Radio Research 1942-3. NY: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. Lazarsfeld, P.F., & Stanton, F. (1949). Communication Research 1948-9. NY: Harper and Row. Lillie, J. (1997). Empowerment potential of Internet use. Retrieved November 20, 2004 from http://www.unc.edu/~jlillie/340.html. Lin, C. A. (1996, August). Personal computer adoption and Internet use. Paper presented to the annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Anaheim, CA. Lin, C. A. (1999). Online service adoption likelihood. Journal of Advertising Research, 39(2), 79-89. Lin, C. A. (2001). Audience attributes, media supplementation, and likely online service adoption. Mass Communication and Society, 4(1), 19-38. Littlejohn, S. (2002). Theories of Human Communication (7th ed.). Albuquerque, NM: Wadsworth. Lowery, S. A., & DeFleur, M. L. (1983). Milestones in Mass Communication Research. New York: Longman. Luo, X. (2002). Uses and gratifications theory and e-consumer behaviors: A structural equation modeling study. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 2(2). Maddox, K. (1998, October 26). E-commerce becomes reality. Advertising Age, pS1(1). McGuire, W. J. (1974). Psychological motives and communication gratification. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The Uses of Mass Communications. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. McKenna, A., & Bargh, A. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(1): 57-75.
McQuail, D., Blumler, J. G., & Browmn, J. (1972). The television audience: A revised perspective. In D. McQuail (Ed.), Sociology of Mass Communication (pp. 135-65). Middlesex, England: Penguin. McQuail, D. (1983). Mass Communication Theory (1st ed.). London: Sage. McQuail, D. (1987). Mass Communication Theory (2nd ed.). London: Sage. McQuail, D. (1994). Mass Communication: An Introduction (3rd ed.,). London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications. Nagel, K. S., Hudson, J. M., & Abowd, G. D. (2004, November 6-10). Predictors of availability in home life context-mediated communication. Paper presented to the 2004 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work, Chicago, IL. Nortey, G. (1998). Benefits of on-line resources for sufferers of chronic illnesses. Masters thesis, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L. A., & Rayburn II, J. D. (1980). Relations between gratifications sought and obtained: A study of television news. Communication Research, 7(2), 161-192. Palmgreen, P., & Rayburn, J. D. (1985). An expectancy-value approach to media gratifications. In K. E. Rosengren, P. Palmgreen & L. A. Wenner (Eds.), Media Gratification Research: Current Perspectives (pp. 6172). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Parker, B. J., & Plank, R. E. (2000). A uses and gratifications perspective on the Internet as a new information source. American Business Review, 18(June), 43-49. Pavlik, J. V., & Everette, E. D. (1996). New Media Technology and the Information Superhighway. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Piirto, R. A. (1993). Electronic communities: Sex, law and politics online. Masters thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Rafaeli, S. (1986). The electronic bulletin board: A computer-driven mass medium. Computers and the Social Sciences, 2(3), 123-136 . Rossi, E. (2002). Uses & gratifications/dependency theory. Retrieved April 1, 2005, from http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/7-4-uses.htm. Rubin, A. M., & Windahl, S. (1982). Mass media uses and dependency: A social systems approach to uses and gratifications. Paper presented to the meeting of the International Communication Association, Boston, MA. Ruggiero, T. (2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication & Society, 3(1), 3-37.
Ryan, J. (1995). A uses and gratifications study of the Internet social interaction site LambdaMOO: Talking with Dinos. Masters thesis, Ball State University, Muncie, IN. Schlinger, M. J. (1979). A profile of responses to commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, 19(2), 3746. Schumann, D. W., & Thorson, E. (Eds.) (1999). Advertising and the World Wide Web. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Severin W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (1997). Uses of Mass Media. In W. J. Severin, & J. W. Tankard (Eds.) Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media (4th ed.). New York: Longman. Sun, T., Chang, T., & Yu, G. (1999, August). Social structure, media system and audiences in China: Testing the uses and dependency model. Paper presented to the annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, New Orleans, LA. Tossberg, A. (2000). Swingers, singers and born-again Christians: An investigation of the uses and gratifications of Internet-relay chat. Masters thesis, Iowa State Univeristy, Ames, Iowa. UPENN.EDU. (2001). Notable Teachers, World-Class Reputations. Retrieved October 10, 2005, from http://www.asc.upenn.edu/asc/Application/Faculty/Bios.asp Waner, W.L., & Henry, W.E. (1948). The radio day-time serial: A symbolic analysis. In Psychological Monographs, 37(1), 7-13, 55-64. Watson, J. & Hill, A. (1997). A dictionary of communications studies. NY: Arnold Publishing. Wenner, L. A. (1982). Gratifications sought and obtained in program dependency: A study of network evening news programs and 60 Minutes. Communication Research, 9, 539-560. Yankelovich Partners. (1995, October 10). Cybercitizen: A profile of online users. The Yankelovich Cybercitizen Report, Birmingham, AL.
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Introduction to Sociology/Being a Sociologist

Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction 2 Sociology Majors 3 Bachelor's Degree Occupations
o o o
3.1 The Corporate World 3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations 3.3 Continuing Your Education
4 PhD Degree Occupations 5 Personal Experiences of Individuals With Degrees in Sociology 6 References 7 External Links
[edit]Introduction
Now that you know what sociologists study, you might be wondering: What can you do with a degree in sociology? In an ideal world, just studying social problems would make them go away. But, alas, as you've learned from reading this book, we don't live in an ideal world and there is far more to do than just study social life with a degree in Sociology. The American Sociological Association, among others, has looked into this question and have some pretty intriguing answers.[1] What follows is a brief explanation of what you can do with a degree in Sociology.
[edit]Sociology
Majors
Despite the many tests that suggest otherwise, there is no correlation between personality and career choice.[2] Thus, there is no particular "personality type" among sociology majors. The average graduating sociology major is a young female (early 20s) who is white and single. Almost 80% of students graduating with sociology degrees are female, and nearly that many (75%) are white. Less than half of the parents of sociology majors have baccalaureate degrees of their own.[1] Many sociology majors choose the major because they found their first exposure to the discipline engaging (usually through an introductory course). Most sociology majors chose the discipline because they found the
concepts discussed in their course interesting. Only 7% of sociology majors choose the discipline because it appears easy, and relatively few (5%) choose it because the major they wanted was unavailable. In other words, sociology majors find the discipline exciting and challenging and generally enjoy studying sociology. [1] By the time they graduate, 90% of sociology majors report understanding the basic concepts of the discipline (e.g., social structure, social stratification, etc.). Most also grasp the differences in the theoretical paradigms of sociology (e.g., structural functionalism, conflict theory, etc.). Sociology majors feel confident in the following skills as a result of their degree: identifying ethical issues in research, developing evidence-based arguments, evaluating different research methods, writing reports that are understandable by non-sociologists, forming causal hypothesis, using computers to develop reference lists, interpreting the results of data analysis, and using statistical software (though slightly less than 50% feel confident in their ability to use statistical software).[1] Sociology majors are generally satisfied overall with their experience earning a sociology degree. Most are also satisfied with the quality of teaching, the accessibility to technology and faculty, their interaction with other majors, and getting the courses they need to graduate. Unfortunately, most students (between 80% and 92%) are dissatisfied with the information provided on graduate school and career opportunities (hopefully this brief chapter will help fill this void).[1]
[edit]Bachelor's
Degree Occupations
What can you do with a Baccalaureate degree in Sociology? While it may not seem like it when you are deep into studying race relations or gender stratification, the training you receive as a sociology major is actually quite applicable outside academia as well. College graduates trained in sociology bring unique and valuable insights into business decisions concerning issues surrounding race, ethnicity, gender, age, education, and social class.[3] To give a specific example, a sociology major could help a company like CVS realize the problem with tagging hair care items for African Americans with anti-theft measures while not doing the same for hair care items for whites.[4] Practices like these may seem pragmatic to the managers of these stores, but they also alienate consumers.[4] College graduates trained in sociology bring many skills to their jobs, including: the ability to recognize trends and patterns, the ability to create concise reports and essays, strong critical thinking skills, oral presentation skills, strong interpersonal communication skills, skills in data collection and analysis using statistical software, grant writing skills, management skills, and planning and organizational skills. [5] All of these skills are potentially invaluable contributions to workplaces. Most graduating seniors (around 72%) plan on getting a job right out of college. Around 40% plan on going on to graduate school (these paths aren't mutually exclusive of course, you can work while going to graduate school). There are a number of institutions where sociologists find employment, including: schools, churches,
hospitals, corporations, government, and social service agencies.[3] For those planning on getting jobs, all of the following are career paths sociology majors are well-suited for: organizational planning, development, and training; human resource management; industrial relations; marketing; public relations; organizational research; and international business.[6]
[edit]The
Corporate World
Some sociologists find the adaptation of their sociological training and insights to the business world relatively easy.[3] Corporations want and need to understand their customers' habits and preferences in order to anticipate changes in their markets. This drive to understand consumers is called consumer research and is a growing interest of corporations. Sociology majors are particularly well-suited for this type of research as the ultimate goal of empirical sociological research is to predict human behavior.[7] This particular niche may be the single largest opportunity for sociologists in the corporate world.[3] Another budding area in modern retail firms is site selection, or the determination of the best locations for new stores. Site selection requires understanding human ecology and consumer spending patterns, both of which are addressed using the sociological imagination.[3] Some additional direct applications of sociology include concept and product testing (which will put to good use training in research methods), the evaluating of global market opportunities (which will draw upon understandings of various cultures), long-range planning and forecasting (which draws on both statistics and futurist perspectives), marketing and advertising (which applies consumer studies directly), and human resource management (which relies on studies of organizational behavior).[3]
Future Educational Plans of Graduating Sociology Majors [1] Field of Study Education Counseling/Psychology Applied Sociology, MA and related areas Masters in Social Work Law Degree Criminology Doctorate in Sociology Medical/Nursing Marketing/Business Administration Public Affairs/Public Policy Communication % 22.6 14.9 11.6 11.3 11.0 7.7 5.7 4.8 3.9 3.3 2.1
One way to situate yourself well for the corporate world after earning your Bachelor's
Other
1.2
degree in Sociology would be to double major in Sociology and Business or minor in Business. This would give you the credentials that hiring departments in the business world are looking for while simultaneously allowing you to focus on Sociology. Another key to succeeding in the corporate world with a degree in Sociology is to market your specific skill set.[8] As noted above, a degree in Sociology provides you with skills that many other college graduates lack. Emphasizing those skills on your resumes and in job interviews increases the odds of you being hired and you using those skills in your job. There is also evidence to suggest that sociology graduates who use their sociological training in their jobs post graduation are more satisfied with their jobs. [8]
[edit]Non-Governmental
Organizations
Non-Governmental Organizations (or NGOs) are legally constituted organizations created by private persons or organizations with no participation or representation of any government. Examples of NGOs include Oxfam, Catholic Relief Services, CARE International, and Lutheran World Relief. Many NGOs are concerned with the very social problems and social issues sociologists study, from poverty to gender stratification to world population growth. NGOs are ideal opportunities for sociology majors to apply what they have learned in college.
[edit]Continuing
Your Education
For those planning on continuing their education, the table to the right breaks down the most frequently chosen fields of study for sociology majors: Many professional degree programs (e.g., medical school and law school) do not, in fact, require someone to have a specific undergraduate degree. Sociology majors can carry the sociological imagination into medical practice, offering sociological insights while practicing medicine. In 2001, sociology majors had a 42% acceptance rate into medical school.[9] Sociology majors should view their undergraduate education as opening doors for them into many possible fields of work and study. Two factors seems to limit the occupational prospects of sociologists: The first limiting factor is their own imagination. The sociological imagination is applicable to almost every occupation and field of research, from studying how physicists do their work
[10]
to union organizing.[11] The second limiting factors is
that many people do not know what sociologists are trained to do. This should only be a limiting factor up until they meet a sociology major!
[edit]PhD
Degree Occupations
What can you do with a PhD in Sociology? A PhD in Sociology prepares an individual for a variety of career options, including all of those mentioned above for someone with a Bachelor's Degree in Sociology (e.g., marketing, non-governmental organizations, etc.), but it also means you will be much better qualified for these
types of jobs. Graduate training in Sociology includes a greater emphasis on research methodology and statistics. It also often includes training in qualitative research methods, like content analysis. Additionally, graduate training includes much more in depth analysis and discussion of many of the topics discussed in your undergraduate training. The format of graduate training may also differ as many of the classes are designed as a seminar rather than a lecture-oriented class - students will come to class meetings having read the assigned readings and then discuss them under the supervision of a professor.
All of this additional training will prepare a PhD in Sociology for advanced careers in fields as diverse as corporate marketing and statistical forecasting to community organizing and lobbying. A PhD in quantitative research and demography could lead to a career at the Census Bureau or the World Bank. Another obvious occupation one can pursue is as an academic sociologist, working at a college or university.
Sociology PhDs by Employment Sector in 2003[12] Employment Sector Educational Institutions Private Industry - For-Profit Private Industry - Not-For-Profit Government Self-Employed and Other % 74.6 6.5 8.3 6.9 3.4
Depending on the type of university or college where one works, the job description will vary substantially. Some colleges - typically four-year liberal arts colleges - focus on teaching. In contrast, research universities which include PhD programs - focus on research. Thus, what your job description would be as an academic sociologist could range from a heavy emphasis on teaching undergraduates to a heavy emphasis on teaching graduate students. In both types of institutions, there are both tenure and non-tenure track jobs. Tenure refers to a lifetime appointment and carries with it a contractual right not to have the position terminated without just cause. Adjunct instructing is another option, which is usually teaching on a contract basis. According to Forbes magazine, Sociology is one of the top-ten highest-paying rare jobs in the United States and is generally rated as one of the most satisfying occupations. This may be due to the fact that Sociologists are often engaged in trying to remedy social ills, which can be a very satisfying life pursuit. According to data compiled in ASAs 2007 Beyond the Ivory Tower report, one-fourth of PhD sociologists work outside academia. Of those in academia, as of April 2008, the average sociology faculty salary was $68,857, ranging from assistant professors making $53,844 to full professor earnings of $87,938.
[edit]Personal
Experiences of Individuals With Degrees in Sociology
Joe Mercurio, retired strategist and researcher at Walgreen Co. http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/feb08/fn1.html
[edit]References
Karen Ehrhardt-Martinez, works for the NGO American Council for an EnergyEfficient Economy (ACEEE) http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/feb08/fn6.html
1.
a b c d e f Spalter-Roth, Roberta, William Erskine, Sylvia Pociask, and Jamie Panzarella. 2005. "What Can I Do with a Bachelor's Degree in Sociology?": A National Survey of Seniors Majoring in Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association http://www.asanet.org/galleries/defaultfile/B&B_first_report_final.pdf (Accessed April 30, 2008).
2.
Manuel Garcia-Sedeo, Jose I. Navarro, Inmaculada Menacho (2009) Relationship Between Personality Traits and Vocational Choice. Psychological Reports: Volume 105, Issue , pp. 633-642.
3.
a b c d e f Mercurio, Joe. 2008. A Perspective on Business Careers for Sociologists. Footnotes, February 2008, 3. http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/feb08/fn1.html
4.
a b Urban Legends Reference Pages: CVS Hair Care Products. http://snopes.com/racial/business/cvs.asp (Accessed April 30, 2008).
5.
Sociology Major | What Can You Do With a College Degree in Sociology?. http://www.worldwidelearn.com/online-educationguide/social-science/sociology-major.htm (Accessed April 30, 2008).
6.
Sociology Major - Preparation for Careers | American Sociological Association. http://www.asanet.org/cs/root/leftnav/careers_and_jobs/soci ology_major_preparation_for_careers (Accessed April 30, 2008).
7.
http://www.asanet.org/cs/root/leftnav/careers_and_jobs/sociological_rol es_relating_to_business_industry_and_work
8.
a b Spalter-Roth, Roberta and Nicole Van Vooren. 2008. Pathways to Job Satisfaction: What Happened to the Class of 2005. American Sociological Association Department of Research and Development.http://www.asanet.org/galleries/defaultfile/ASA_Pathways.pdf
9.
Acceptance to Medical School by Undergraduate Major, 2000-2001 Entering Class. http://www.colorado.edu/aac/table1.pdf (Accessed April 30, 2008).
10. Garfinkel, H., M. Lynch, and E. Livingston (1981). The work of a discovering science construed with materials from the optically discovered pulsar. Philosophy of the Social Sciences 11(2): 131-158. 11. Lerner, Stephen. 2007. Global Corporations, Global Unions. Contexts. 6:3. 12. http://www.asanet.org/research/stats/employment_trend_data/employe d_doctorate_by_sector.cfm
[edit]External
Links

jobs at the US Census Bureau jobs at the World Bank
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Introduction to Sociology/Education
< Introduction to Sociology This page may need to be reviewed for quality.
TODO Per Future Chapters at Introduction to Sociology table of contents, this module is yet to be completed.
Education is a social science that encompasses teaching and learning specific skills. Practicing teachers in the field of education use a variety of methods and materials in their instruction to impart a curriculum. There has been a plethora of literature in the field of education that addresses these areas. Such literature addresses the facets of teaching practices to include instructional strategies, behavior management, environmental control, motivational strategies, and technological resources. However, the single most important factor in any teacher's effectiveness is the interaction style and personality of the teacher, for the quality of their relationships with the students provides the impetus for inspiration. The best teachers are able to translate good judgment,
experience, and wisdom into the art of communication that students find compelling. It is their compassion for varied human qualities, passion, and the creativity of potential that assists teachers to invigorate students to higher expectations of themselves and society at large. The goal of education is the growth of students so that they become productive citizens of a dynamic, everchanging, society. Fundamentally, the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialisation)promotes a greater awareness and responsiveness through social maturity to the needs of an increasingly diversified society.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview 2 Origins of the Word "Education" 3 Formal Education 4 History of education 5 Education Globally
5.1 In developing countries
6 Technology and Education 7 Education and Social Theory
o o
7.1 The Functions of Education 7.2 Education and Social Interaction
8 Education and Inequality
o o o
8.1 Gender 8.2 Class and Income 8.3 Health and Longevity
9 Issues in Education (U.S. Focus)
o o o o
9.1 Charter Schools 9.2 High School Completion 9.3 Public vs. Private Schools 9.4 Other Issues
10 The Role of Students 11 Challenges in education
11.1 Parental involvement
12 References
[edit]Overview
It is widely accepted that the process of education begins at birth and continues throughout life. Some believe that education begins even earlier than this, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development. The word 'education' is often used to refer solely to formal education (see below). However, it covers a range of experiences, from formal learning to the building of understanding through day to day experiences. Ultimately, all that we experience serves as a form of education. Individuals can receive informal education from a variety of sources. Family members and society have a strong influence on the informal education of the individual.
[edit]Origins
of the Word "Education"
The word "education" is derived from the Latin educare meaning "leading out" or "leading forth". This reveals one of the theories behind the function of education - of developing innate abilities and expanding horizons.
[edit]Formal
Education
Formal education occurs when society or a group or an individual sets up a curriculum to educate people, usually the young. Formal education can become systematic and thorough. Formal education systems can be used to promote ideals or values as well as knowledge and this can sometimes lead to abuse of the system. Life-long or adult education has become widespread in many countries. However, 'education' is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as 'adult learning' or 'lifelong learning'. Adult education takes on many forms from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning. Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. Many adults have also taken advantage of the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their informal education.
[edit]History
of education
In 1994 Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universitt Berlin, said education began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770. (The first chair of pedagogy was founded at the end of the 1770s at the University of Halle, Germany.) This quote by Lenzen includes the idea that education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture, requiring adults to train the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species, has depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally, story-telling from one generation to
the next. As oral langauage developed into witten symbols and letters, the depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed increased exponentially. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc., the beginnings of formal education, schooling, eventually followed. There is evidence that schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC. Basic education today is considered those skills that are necessary to function in society. Yet, a more critical view[1] suggests that mass public education has been used by governments as a way to instill in the minds of youth nationalism and patriotism, as well as obedience to authority. Business corporations have also advocated public education as a way to teach children to be obedient to managers ("teachers"), to follow orders, complete assignments, show-up for class on time, and other conditions that mirror a work environment. In this radical critique of public education, schools are tools for coercing children to respect hierarchy and to fit them into the systems of the nation-state and capitalism.
[edit]Education [edit]In
Globally
developing countries
In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced is naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested, however, that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions. A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries there are uniform, overstructured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.
Due to globalization, increased pressure on students in curricular activities Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)
India however is starting to develop technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, they have launched a special education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by AMD and other corporations to develop the $100 dollar computer which should be ready by 2006. This computer will be sold in units of 1 million, and will be assembled in the country
where the computer will be used. This appears to be a different computer to that developed by MIT, with the same price tag, believed to be powered by clockwork and a generator. This will enable poorer countries to give their children a digital education and to close the digital divide across the world. In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years.
should cover education statistics around the world also talk about economic development of countries and the connection to education
[edit]Technology
maybe highlight some countries
and Education
Technology has become an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and associated technology are being widely used in developed countries to both complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). While technology clearly offers powerful learning tools that can engage students, research has been mixed as to whether technology actually improves student learning.
[edit]Education [edit]The
and Social Theory
Functions of Education
The manifest function of education is the transmission of knowledge to students in order to help them contribute back to society, either as knowledge producers themselves (i.e., scientists) or in other ways, like in business or industry. However, education also has a latent function, and it is a function that is actually quite important when it comes to financial outcomes. One of the latent functions of a mass educational system is to foster social skills. And, it turns out, those social skills literally pay-off in the long run. Students who score high on measures of sociability earn more money and get more education than equally intellectually gifted students who don't score as high in social skills.[2]
[edit]Education
socialization cultural innovation social integration knowledge transmission child care for workers
and Social Interaction
self-fulfilling prophecies
[edit]Education [edit]Gender
and Inequality
A recent topic of policy debate in the U.S. is the concern that there is a "boy crisis," as boys are less likely to graduate from high school and go on to college than are girls. However, recent research by Judith Kleinfeld suggests that painting this as a "crisis" exclusive to boys may be a little misleading. [3] Boys at the primary and secondary educational levels do have a number of problems: lower rates of literacy, lower grades, lower engagement in school, higher dropout rates, higher rates of placement in special education, higher rates of emotional disturbance, higher rates of learning disabilities, higher rates of suspension and expulsion from school, and lower rates of entrance into college.[3] Outside of school, boys are also more likely to: commit suicide, exhibit conduct disorders, die young, and be arrested or sent to juvenile detention centers. Clearly, boys have a number of problems.[3] However, girls have their own share of problems that are no less serious than those facing young men, just different: higher rates of depression, higher incidence of eating disorders, higher rates of suicide attempts, lower scores on math and science tests, and less likely to be the highest achievers.[3]Kleinfeld does conclude that the issues facing boys are probably more serious (e.g., 25% of American male high school graduates cannot understand a newspaper article vs. 10% of females), but also reminds us that women are facing many serious issues as well. In the U.S. in 1960, 65% of all Bachelors degrees went to men; in 1982 it reached parity between men and women. In 2004, women received 58% of Bachelor's degrees.[4] The 1960s and 1970s were pivotal years in the reversal of educational disparity between men and women. According to recent research, [4] the reversal in disparity of educational attainment between men and women is largely attributable to higher drop-out rates of men from 4-year colleges, particularly males whose fathers have just a high school education or are absent from the home. Additionally, women experience earlier academic success than men do (in junior high and high school); the study skills and commitment that contribute to that success carries over to college where they do better than men. Additional reasons why this reversal has taken place may include: a faster rise in the value of college for females than for males (resulting in women benefiting more from completing their education) and rising divorce rates, which force women to be more independent. The increasing completion rate of women may have substantial influences on society in general, as education and income are important factors when considering who one will marry.[5]
[edit]Class
and Income
One of the primary factors contributing to educational inequality and poverty in general in the US is the funding system for public education.[6] In most areas of the US, public schools are funded primarily through local property taxes. As a result, schools in wealthier neighborhoods have substantially larger budgets, which translates into better facilities, better teachers, and better resources. When these monetary advantages are coupled with the advantage of having a safe, supportive, and intellectually enriching home environment that
comes with wealth,[6] it is not surprising that children who attend better funded public schools tend to be more successful than those who attend more poorly funded public schools. Additionally, within schools in the U.S., tracking is commonly employed (separating students into different classes based on their abilities and skills). Tracking increases disparity in educational attainment rather than reducing those disparities.[7] There is also evidence to suggest that the lifetime educational possibilities of most kids are set by the time they are six years old.[8] This is due to the fact that several family background characteristics are very strong predictors of future educational attainment, including: parental support, parental expectations for schooling, household income, and parental educational attainment, with the last two being the most important factors. Also surprising in this study was the finding that the lifetime educational attainment predicted using background characteristics when individuals were in the first grade were just as good at predicting educational attainment as were similar variables when inviduals were in high school, and on some measures better. In real terms, this translates into children living in poorer neighborhoods receiving less education than children who live in middleclass or upper-class neighborhoods. What's more, the lifetime educational attainment seems to be set by the time children are starting school, not when they are finishing it. Educational deficits resulting from inequality also affect future life trajectories. Colleges tend to draw students from a relatively advantaged background because of their high costs and stiff academic requirements for enrollment.[9] What's more, because colleges want to maintain their rankings in various college ranking systems (e.g., U.S. News & World Report), colleges favor students with higher standardized test scores and aggressively recruit them using "merit" scholarships. In 2000, affluent students, students who could otherwise afford to pay for college, received "merit" scholarships worth 82% of the need-based aid received by students with the lowest family incomes.[7] In other words, affluent students who could pay for college often do not have to because the advantages they received attending better elementary, middle, and high schools translated into higher standardized test scores, which are attractive to universities when it comes to recruiting. As a result, there is less funding available for students who actually need it. This ends up reinforcing the existing status hierarchy by keeping the affluent wealthy and the poor unable to attend college. Some of those under-privileged youth choose another path as a result. Despite being both volunteer and high risk, the military remains attractive to a certain segment of the U.S. population, primarily young people from less advantaged families and neighborhoods. Such individuals view the military as more promising than entrylevel jobs in the workforce without a college diploma. Cognitively, young people from disadvantaged homes are about average, but are socioeconomically disadvantaged, which is one of the primary reasons they turn to the military rather than college to pursue financial success, with some success.[9]
[edit]Health
and Longevity
As noted in the chapter on demography, education is a strong and significant predictor of greater life expectancy. The more years of education a person has, the greater their likelihood of engaging in healthy behaviors (and, inversely, the lower their likelihood of engaging in unhealthy behaviors, like smoking). [10]
[edit]Issues
in Education (U.S. Focus)

Schools
[edit]Charter
Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools in the United States that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools in exchange for some type of accountability for producing certain results, which are set forth in each school's charter. Their founders are often teachers, parents, or activists who feel restricted by traditional public schools. State-run charter schools (schools not affiliated with local school districts) are often established by non-profit groups, universities, and some government entities.[11] The basic concept of charter schools is that they exercise increased autonomy in return for greater accountability. They are accountable for both academic results and fiscal practices to several groups, including the sponsor that grants them, the parents who choose them, and the public that funds them. Charter schools can theoretically be closed for failing to meet the terms set forth in their charter, but in practice, this can be difficult, divisive and controversial. One example was the 2003 revocation of the charter for a school called Urban Pioneer in the San Francisco Unified School District, which first came under scrutiny when two students died on a school wilderness outing.[12] An auditor's report found that the school was in financial disarray[13] and posted the lowest test scores of any school in the district except those serving entirely non-Englishspeakers.[14] It was also accused of academic fraud, graduating students with far fewer than the required credits. Opponents of charter schools argue that charter schools probably cannot fix any broader problems with the U.S. educational system. If they do anything, they probably encourage segregation while drawing money out of the public school system.[11] Additionally, recent data indicates that children in charter schools are not doing any better on standardized achievement tests. At best, they are doing as well as children in public schools, but when charter schools are not associated with a public school district, children in the schools score significantly less well than their public school counterparts.[11] Charter schools appear not to be the solution to the lackluster educational system of the U.S.
[edit]High
School Completion
An issue often obfuscated by confusing statistics, high school completion rates in the U.S. are often lower than reported.[15] High school completion rates are calculated at the state level and aggregated at the federal level. The percentage of students who graduate from high school often reported by the federal government in the U.S. is around 85%, but a more accurate percentage is about 71%.[15] Seventy-one percent is a sobering
statistic when you think about its implications - slightly less than 3 out of 4 students who start high school in the U.S. finish; 1/4 of young people in America today are moving into adulthood without a high school diploma. The lack of a high school diploma contributes to lower wages and increased rates of poverty, as well as poorer general understandings of society, health, and science. Additionally, the U.S. used to lead the world in sending high school graduates on to higher education, but in 2008 it was 5th and 16th out of 27 industrialized countries in the proportion of students who start college and complete it.[16] We also have a disproportionate share of lowperforming students; almost 1/3 of students in U.S. secondary schools don't have the minimum education to contribute to a globalized, high-tech economy.[16]
[edit]Public
vs. Private Schools
While it has long been held that private schools provide better education than public schools, current research suggests that is not the case.[17] Public school students test higher, on average, in math than do private school students when social and economic backgrounds are controlled.[17] Longitudinal data illustrates that, while students beginning in public and Catholic schools test at about the same level in math, by the fifth grade the public school students make significantly greater gains, equivalent to almost an extra half year of schooling.[17] While the limited number of private schools makes it difficult to compare a wide variety of religiously affiliated schools with public schools, conservative Protestant private schools show the worst math performance of all types of schools.[17] Math is particularly telling in this regard as it is the subject least influenced by home environment and most greatly influenced by the effectiveness of the schooling environment.[17] However, it should be noted that school type only explains about 5% of the variation in math scores; the bulk of the difference is explained by demographic characteristics.[17] The implication of this research is that, while private schools may provide a specific type of schooling (i.e., one that includes religious instruction), there is little evidence that private schools in general provide better instruction or improve educational outcomes.
[edit]Other
Issues

standardized testing home schooling tracking people with disabilities adult education teacher shortages and teacher quality
Some of these issues, as well as others, are discussed in a Wikibook called Contemporary Educational Psychology.
[edit]The
Role of Students
Education is not solely about the provision of information to students. Students also play a role in the education process. One of the ways they do so is in employing effective study techniques. Unfortunately, there are a number of myths about effective studying techniques for students. For instance, many educators encourage elaborate study techniques, like concept-mapping, claiming that they improve the encoding of information into memory. Recent research suggests it is more beneficial for recall to practice retrieving information than using elaborate encoding techniques.[18] Students' time is better spent practicing free recall of information studied than employing complex study techniques.
[edit]Challenges
in education
The goal of education is the transference of ideas and skills from one person to another, or from one person to a group. Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge. Educators such as George Counts and Paulo Freire identified education as an inherently political process with inherently political outcomes. The challenge of identifying whose ideas are transferred and what goals they serve has always stood in the face of formal and informal education. In addition to the "Three R's", reading, writing, and arithmetic, Western primary and secondary schools attempt to teach the basic knowledge of history, geography, mathematics (usually including calculus and algebra), physics, chemistryand sometimes politics, in the hope that students will retain and use this knowledge as they age or that the skills acquired will be transferrable. The current education system measures competency with tests and assignments and then assigns each student a corresponding grade. The grades usually come in the form of either a letter grade or a percentage, which are intended to represent the amount of all material presented in class that the student understood. Educational progressives or advocates of unschooling often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of youth voice in the educative process. Some feel the current grading system risks lowering students' self-confidence, as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, child abuse, and prejudiced or incompetent teachers. By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or "back to basics" approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be quite the opposite. Students are not sufficiently inspired or challenged to achieve success because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the "canon" with inferior material. Their view of self-confidence is that it arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles. On the one hand, Albert Einstein, one of the most famous physicists of our time, credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being
taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. However, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge. On the other hand, for millennia those who have been challenged and well-educated in traditional schools have risen to great success and to a lifelong love of learning because their minds were made better and more powerful, as well as because of their mastery of a wide range of skills. There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? What should be taught, are we better off knowing how to build nuclear bombs, or is it best to let such knowledge be forgotten?
[edit]Parental
involvement
Parental involvement is an essential aspect of a child's educational development. Early and consistent parental involvement in the child's life is critical such as reading to children at an early age, teaching patterns, interpersonal communicationskills, exposing them to diverse cultures and the community around them, educating them on a healthy lifestyle, etc. The socialization and academic education of a child are aided by the involvement of the student, parent(s), teachers, and others in the community and extended family.
[edit]References
Spring, Joel. 1998. A Primer of Libertarian Education. Montreal: Black Rose Books 2. Lleras, Christy. 2008. Do Skills and Behaviors in High School Matter? The Contribution of Noncognitive Factors in Explaining Differences in Educational Attainment and Earnings. Social Science Research 37 (3): 888-902. 3. a b c d Kleinfeld, Judith. 2009. The State of American Boyhood. Gender Issues. 26:113-120. 4. a b Buchmann, C., and DiPrete, T.A. 2006. The Growing Female Advantage in College Completion: The Role of Family Background and Academic Achievement. American Sociological Review, 71 (4), 515-541. 5. Paul, A.M. 2006. The Real Marriage Penalty. The New York Times. Retrieved November 19, 2006. 6. a b Taylor, Kay Ann. 2009. Poverty's Multiple Dimensions. Journal of Educational Controversy. 4(1). http://www.wce.wwu.edu/Resources/CEP/eJournal/v004n001/a002. shtml 7. a b Sacks, Peter. 2007. Tearing Down the Gates: Confronting the Class Divide in American Education. University of California Press.
1.
8.
Entwisle, Doris R., Alexander, Karl L., and Steffel Olson, Linda. 2005. First Grade and Educational Attainment by Age 22: A New Story. American Journal of Sociology, 110 (5):1458502.
9.
a b Elder, G. H., L. Wang, N. J. Spence, D. E. Adkins, and T. H. Brown. 2010. Pathways to the All-Volunteer Military*. Social Science Quarterly 91:455-475.
10. Kolata, G. 2007. A Surprising Secret to a Long Life: Stay in School. The New York Times. Retrieved January 3, 2007. [1] 11. a b c Renzulli, Linda A., and Vincent J. Roscigno. 2007. Charter Schools and the Public Good. Contexts: Understanding People in Their Social Worlds 6:31-36. 12. Delgado, Ray. "District suspends wilderness trips: School could lose charter if safety lapses found", San Francisco Chronicle, 2003-03-07. Retrieved on 2008-01-21. 13. Schevit, Tanya. "Audit finds faults in charter school: Board set to vote on troubled Urban Pioneer", 2003-08-26. Retrieved on 2008-01-21. 14. Academic Performance Index (API) Base Report: School Report: Urban Pioneer Experiential. California Department of Education (2004-06-14). Retrieved on 2008-01-21. 15. a b Dillon, Sam. 2008. States Data Obscure How Few Finish High School. The New York Times, March 20 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/20/education/20graduation.html (Acc essed March 20, 2008). 16. a b Fiske, Edward B. 2008. A Nation at a Loss. The New York Times, April 25 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/25/opinion/25fiske.html (Accessed February 8, 2010). 17. a b c d e f Lubienski, Christopher, Corinna Crane, and Sarah Theule Lubienski. 2008. What Do We Know About School Effectiveness? Academic Gains in Public and Private Schools. Phi Delta Kappan. 89, 9. 18. Karpicke, Jeffrey D., and Janell R. Blunt. 2011. Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping. Science. Categories: TODO | Introduction to Sociology What do you think of this page?
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Managing Groups and Teams/Conflict

Creating and Maintaining Team Cohesion Managing Leadership Transitions
< Managing Groups and Teams This page may need to be reviewed for quality.
Contents
[hide]
1 Conflict Defined
1.1 Conflict in Groups and Teams
2 Types of Conflict that a Team Can Face
o o
2.1 Positive conflict 2.2 Negative conflict
3 Why is Conflict Resolution Important in a Team Setting? 4 What are the Symptoms of Team Conflict? 5 What are Appropriate Solutions to Conflict? 6 How Can a Team Prevent Negative Conflict? 7 How Do Teams Prevent Damaging Conflict? 8 Resolving Conflict
o o o
8.1 How Can Teams Resolve Conflict Between Factions? 8.2 What Should a Team Leader Do To Resolve Conflict and Promote Team Performance? 8.3 How Can a Team Member Resolve a Conflict with the Team Leader?
9 References
[edit]Conflict
Defined
Conflict can exist between factions or groups within a team, with a leader or manager, and with other teams or departments within the company. It has been defined in numerously different ways and has come to hold several connotations. The following is an example of a relatively broad dictionary entry, where conflict is defined in the following way(s):
conflict 1. to come into collision or disagreement; be contradictory, at variance, or in opposition; clash: The account of one eyewitness conflicted with that of the other. My class conflicts with my going to the concert. 2. to fight or contend; do battle. 3. a fight, battle, or struggle, esp. a prolonged struggle; strife. 4. controversy; quarrel: conflicts between parties. 5. discord of action, feeling, or effect; antagonism or opposition, as of interests or principles: a conflict of ideas. 6. a striking together; collision. 7. incompatibility or interference, as of one idea, desire, event, or activity with another: a conflict in the schedule. 8. Psychiatry. a mental struggle arising from opposing demands or impulses. dictionaryreference.com
[edit]Conflict
in Groups and Teams
Conflict inevitably arises in one form or another in varying degrees due to the mere group and/or team dynamics of having people with differing backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas coming together in an effort to accomplish a common goal. Conflict is generally considered to be negative and something to be avoided. Numerous frameworks such as LaFasto and Larson's CONNECT model have been developed to help rid groups of negative conflict. However, conflict isnt always negative and there are circumstances in which positive conflict is necessary in order to prevent compliance tendencies and the potentially disastrous effects of groupthink. In the following sections, the positive and negative realms of conflict will be outlined and further detailed in an effort to narrow the scope of conflict while helping to navigate some of the more negative connotations that easily come to mind when thinking about conflict.
[edit]Types
of Conflict that a Team Can Face
Positive conflict vs Negative conflict
[edit]Positive
conflict
Positive conflict is the notion that a healthy discourse may exist in the disagreement among group members regarding personality traits, styles, or characteristics or the content of their ideas, decisions or task processes which involves a pathway towards resolution. Any tolerable amount of conflict is vital to group success in order to avoid groupthink and to generate more innovative ideas among potentially and vastly differing members of the group. In addition, positive conflict generates buy-in and offers elements of ownership and a sense of cooperation and enhanced membership to all of the group members. Positive conflict reduces the effects of conformity pressures and groupthink. Groupthink occurs when conformity and compliance pressures are exaggerated, and it generally occurs in the absence of task conflict. One of the most devastating examples of groupthink occurred on the morning of January 28th, 1986 in which the Challenger space shuttle exploded over the Atlantic Ocean after the failure of an O-ring. This failure resulted from the O-ring being unable to withstand extreme temperatures in which the O-ring had never been truly tested. Numerous NASA staff members were
aware of the possible failure of the O-ring in extreme temperatures, and they were also aware of the ramifications should the O-ring break. However, the decision making process regarding whether or not the shuttle was safe to launch was riddled with flaws that ultimately created a breeding ground for groupthink. To illustrate, the Challenger launch had been postponed several times before this scheduled date, and there was direct pressure from NASA to approve the launch. There was also media pressure as they were scheduled to film the launch, since it would be the first time a teacher was sent into space. NASA officials feared public ridicule if the launch was delayed again, and as early as six days prior to the launch, NASA put the pressure on. They told the inspectors to stop thinking like inspectors and start thinking like managers, and they rationalized that there was no conclusive evidence to suggest that the O-ring would not work. As a result, the inspectors bowed to conformity pressures and gave the approval to launch. The resulting launch and subsequent death of all 7 crew members aboard the Challenger shook the nation and was not the front page news that NASA had hoped for.
Other disasters that occurred due to conformity pressures include the Bay of Pigs, the Tenerife plane crash disaster, the holocaust, and many others. To test how strong the effects of conformity pressures are on less cohesive groups and among individuals that were only recently introduced, Solomon Asch conducted his famous conformity experiment in which a group of random participants were shown a picture of the following lines, and they were asked which line in the second group of lines is approximately the same height as the first line shown.
Example of the cards shown to the participants of the study
Individuals that were a part of the experiment (confederates to the experiment) selected an obviously inappropriate line such as line B as their answer. The results were astounding in which the remaining individual in the group (not a confederate to the experiment) also selected line B as their answer due to perceived pressures to conform. Conformity occurs as a result of individuals desire to be liked and their need to be right. Therefore, they tend to fall victim to false consensus biases and generally bring their behavior in line with the groups expectations and beliefs. So how are you to know if your group is falling prey to conformity pressures and groupthink? Here are some common symptoms:
Illusions of invulnerability Rationalization & justification Illusion of group morality Stereotyping the out-group as weaker, evil, or stupid Direct or indirect peer or supervisory pressures Self-censorship by team members Illusions of unanimity
First, realizing that you and your group are affected by or susceptible to conformity pressures and groupthink is very important. Next, in order to create a norm of conflict, it is essential that a feeling of psychology safety is present. This can be instated by encouraging objections, criticisms, and altering perspectives. Also, as a leader, one should avoid making clear statements about your preferences, create subgroups, have outside experts come in to observe the decision making process, and re-examine the next
best alternatives once a decision has been reached. Finally, limiting the size of the group and assigning roles that make conflict commonplace (such as a Devils Advocate) will help to discourage and minimize compliance pressures. After the Challenger explosion, NASA took similar steps to avoid future disasters in which they instituted a verbal and video recorded affirmation from several NASA officials that certify flight readiness. Furthermore, NASA's managers instituted a veto policy in which anyone at any level is given the authority to stop the flight process. In addition to avoiding groupthink and conformity pressures, positive conflict is more likely to generate a sense of membership, involvement, and enthusiasm from all group members and is also more likely to lead to the infusion of more creative and innovative ideas. This results from each team member having the opportunity to voice his or her own perspective on the issues being decided by the group. When individuals feel more involved in the decision making process, they are more likely to state a high satisfaction level with their team and are additionally more likely to want to continue working as a member of that team. Creating a heterogeneous team is another way to encourage diverse perspectives, opinions, and ideas. Heterogeneous groups also have a broader knowledge base resulting from a variety of experiences, backgrounds, skills, and achievements. Comparable to other investment strategies that are somewhat more risky (in terms of the increased likelihood for ensuing conflict levels), diverse teams stand a greater chance for potential return and favorable results as well.
[edit]Negative
conflict
Interactions
In diverse and heterogeneous teams, negative conflict has a tendency to emerge in varying degrees due to the mere dynamics of having diverse individuals with differing backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas coming
together. Negative conflict can arise in several different arenas including the following:
Conflict can arise between factions or groups within a team. Subgroups, or factions, can develop within a team. Each group has their own opinions and will stick together and oppose other factions within the team. Organizations can be greatly divided by such factions
Conflict can develop between team members and the leader of the team.
Team members can disagree with the team leader. This can lead to refusal to follow the direction of the team leader. There may be conflict with management because management has not given clear goals to the team or may not be supporting the team. The organization could have a culture that does not allow teams to work effectively.
Conflict can form between the different teams or departments in the organization. Unlike positive conflict, negative conflict is better if avoided and must be swiftly addressed and resolved when it does present itself. Due to the dangerous nature and destructive effects negative conflict has on productivity and moral, it may potentially lead to Human Resource Management issues or even a lawsuit. In order to set the stage so that interpersonal conflict is avoided or at least minimized, firms can prevent the establishment of ingroups and out-groups, foster open communication and trust, understand the various personality styles that comprise a group, and coach effective communication skills and perspective taking skills to team members. An example of a firm, where the formation of in-groups and outgroups fostered so much negative conflict, was the Lehman Brothers firm, this in-group and out-group culture lead to the selling of the firm. Within this firm, a strong separation between
Traders and Bankers literally divided the corporation and led to its ultimate demise. Differences between the functions were exaggerated and there was a perception that each of the divisions was pursuing its own unique and more valuable objectives. There was not a unified vision within the company and personality conflict was commonplace. The Traders believed that the Bankers were lazy "Ivy League" graduates who were awarded greater benefits simply to uphold the status-quo. The Bankers perceived the Brokers as less intelligent, blue collar workers who deserved less compensation and rewards. Creating in-groups and out-groups in a company leads to an unhealthy competition between the groups. Each faction ends up battling for a greater share of the companys limited resources and an us vs. them rational emerges, while energy is wasted on trying to prove which group is better rather than to maintain common goals. As demonstrated by the infamous Robbers Cave Experiment conducted by Muzafer Sherif, working toward a common goal and maintaining common purpose is essential for group unity and contributes to the reduction of personal conflict. In this experiment, 22 boy scouts were assigned to two separate camps and neither group was aware of the other's existence. Each boy formed a strong identification with his own group, and the scouts were even allowed to select a group name. The first contact between the two groups was to play a competitive sport and friction emerged between the groups almost immediately. During the resolution phase of the experiment, a task was developed in which the two groups were forced to cooperate and work together toward achieving a common purpose that neither group could achieve alone. A broken-down truck that needed to be towed back to the camp was staged, and the two groups had to combine their man-power to tow the truck. By the end of the experiment, the in-groups and out-groups had merged, and the entire group even insisted upon riding back home on the same bus together. In addition to forming a super-ornate goal for group members to achieve, pointing out what group members have in
common and defusing stereotypes is a way to prevent the formation of an out-group. Fostering support, trust, and open communication is also essential if relationship conflicts are to be reduced and quickly resolved. Open communication can be established by the following:
Establish ground rules. Take turns when talking and do not interrupt. Ensure that each team member has equal time when stating their perspective. Listen for something new and say bring something new to the discussion. Avoid restating the facts and talking in circles. Avoid power plays and eliminate status or titles from the discussion
Listen compassionately
Avoid thinking of a counterargument while the other person is speaking. Listen to the other persons perspective rather than listening to your own thoughts. Dont make an effort to remember points.
Point out the advantages of resolving the conflict. Maintain a neutral vantage point and be willing to be persuaded.
Avoid all-or-none statements such as always and never and point out exceptions when these statements are used.
(IE: What does it look like when Marketing does consult sales before acting?)
Create a goal of discovery rather than of winning or persuading.
Be alert to common goals and where goals overlap as each party is communicating their perspective.
Use clarifying statements to ensure the other party feels understood and listened to such as, What I heard you say is that you feel unappreciated and that you lack vital feedback to help you perform, is this correct?
Help team members to separate the problem from the person.
Use techniques such as role-playing, putting oneself in the competitors shoes, or conducting war games. Such techniques create fresh perspectives and engage team members.
Team members should recognize each other for having expressed his view and feelings.
Thanking one another recognizes the personal risk the individual took in breaking from group think and should be viewed as an expression of trust and commitment toward the team.
Help each team member to understand one anothers' perspective, and help them to reframe the situation.
The exact same situation can often be viewed differently by several individuals. To illustrate, what did you see first in the picture below, the young woman or the old woman?
Which do you see?
Once a team has received coaching on how to communicate effectively, address conflict situations immediately as they arise. Letting tense situations fester will only allow time for animosity to polarize and grow. Helping team members to reframe the problem and see it from the other individuals perspective can also be accomplished directly, via cross-training and job shadowing which allows each team member to draw from a frame of reference by walking in the other team member's shoes. Utilizing the Big 5 personality test descriptions will also add an element of understanding to the group dynamic. To illustrate, if Jimmy is highly extroverted, neurotic, and conscientious, it may help Tim, who is not quite as extroverted as than Jim and who is more agreeable, to understand where Jimmys seemingly endless ability to voice his irritation with others is stemming from, and he may not take it as personally. In addition, Jimmy may better understand and get less irritated with Tims perceived inability to take initiative and make decisions efficiently. Finally, understanding common stereotypes and mental shortcuts that are used when passing judgment on others will make team members more aware of how these shortcuts are leading to bias conclusions. The common cognitive biases and a brief description are as follows:
Self Fulfilling Prophecy: the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will (consciously or subconsciously) confirm our beliefs.
Halo Effect: the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them
Primacy Effect: the tendency to weigh initial events more than subsequent events.
Recency Effect: the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events
Availability Heuristic: a biased prediction, due to the tendency to focus on the most salient and emotionally-charged outcome.
Selective Perception: selectively attend to data that supports your conclusion while omitting valid evidence that does not.
Actor-Observer Bias: the tendency for explanations for other individual's behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation. This is coupled with the opposite tendency for the self in that one's explanations for their own behaviors overemphasize their situation and underemphasize the influence of their personality.
Hindsight Bias: sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the inclination to see past events as being predictable.
Illusory Correlation: beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect
Egocentric Bias: occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would.
False Consensus Bias: the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
Fundamental Attribution Bias: the tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior
Just World Phenomenon: the tendency for people to believe that the world is "just" and therefore people "get what they deserve."
Self Serving Bias: the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests
Illusion of Transparency: people overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.
Ingroup Bias: the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.
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Managing Groups and Teams/Communication

Introduction How can managers deal with difficult team members?
< Managing Groups and Teams This page may need to be reviewed for quality.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction 2 Miscommunication 3 Communication Breakdown 4 Planning for Communication 5 Communication Tools 6 Personality Types 7 Conclusion 8 References
[edit]Introduction
Communication is something we humans do extraordinarily well, because only our species has evolved complex language skills. Why this should happened only to us is not entirely clear, but some cynics say that the primary purpose of language is to allow us to tell lies! Perhaps this is a misconception - for good communication requires that the 'mental model' that the originator wishes to transmit and the experience of the person interpreting the received information is sufficiently similar. A brain surgeon explaining a procedure to a patient would have to use much more simple, precise, unequivocal 'mental models' than if she was presenting, say draft paper to a seminar of specialist colleagues who each enjoyed comprehensive and independent checking cross-checking capabilities. We forget to apply an adequately 'balanced' checking 'protocol' at our peril!
[edit]Miscommunication
On January 3 2006 at approximately 11:50 pm, CNN and other news outlets reported that 12 of 13 miners trapped in the Sago Mine were alive. Families of the victims celebrated for three hours before mine company officials informed them that the report was wrong and 12 of the 13 miners were dead. The families would later report that a mine foreman, who had overheard the rescue team, had contacted the families with some initial but unverified information and the media picked the story up from the families. Reporters then 'verified' that information with other families and other news sources without realizing those 'cross-check' sources originated from the very same, single unverified source. They failed to 'dig down to the roots' of their story and relied instead on visible superficiality. Beyond compounding the mental anguish of the families, many professional news media outlets appeared unprofessional and the mine company experienced a far worse public relations problem than if they had communicated clearly and quickly using more formal protocols. Unfortunately formal protocols involve verification, and this slower process can seem rather like censorship or deliberate information management to news gatherers. While most business communication issues dont result in such dramatic public displays,
'quick and dirty' communications often prevent teams from functioning properly and cost companies uncountable billions of dollars. But so too does the over-cautious, 'need to know' secrecy beloved of military style organizations, who thereby miss many opportunities. The trick is to strike a balance, and that balance will change, depending on the sensitivity, importance and urgency of the message. Unbalanced messages are likely to cause communication breakdown which can engender conflict. Over cautious protocol can prevent important information from reaching decision makers accurately and in time, while listening to messages with no verification protocol - rumors - can easily reduce the morale of team members. By understanding the causes of communication breakdown and effective techniques for group communication, team members can create a more productive working environment for themselves, and increase their effectiveness when dealing with outsiders such as customers or the wider public (or vice versa as occurred at the Sago Mine 'information leak'). Effective communication techniques maximize team productivity and creativity while minimizing the chance of miscommunication. Just to make things even more complicated, deliberately 'unbalancing' messages to provoke miscommunication can be quite creative! Unbalanced - unverified messages are the essence of formal 'brain-storming' events, and also occurs routinely in gentle banter and ironic satire among colleagues. However, it can not be over-emphasized that these 'wrong protocol' techniques should only be used exceptionally as they require very careful management in a business environment!
[edit]Communication
Breakdown
Communication breakdown can be the source or the result of conflict, but it is also important to recognize that a lack of conflict can also be a sign of communication breakdown. Inadequate training, apathy, misunderstandings, channel noise, differing backgrounds, or lack of respect can all be causes of communication breakdown. The results of communication issues include withholding information, loss of trust, reduced cooperation, reduced productivity, reduced creativity, reduced risk taking, personal attacks, sabotage, complaints, clique formation and team breakup or individual resignation. The North American Blackout of 2003 is an interesting example. One power plant failed to accurately communicate the status of their section of the power grid, causing more than one hundred power plants to go off line, forty million people to lose power, and an estimated six billion dollars in losses to businesses.It is caused by problems which occur daily which allows people to stop their communication.
A survey of 560 MBA students with work experience from across the USA helps to illustrate some of the problems that communication breakdown can cause. The table labeled "Hard Costs" shows the number of respondents that can recollect certain hard costs that were incurred due to communication breakdown. The table labeled "Soft Costs" shows the soft costs incurred (Gilsdorf 191-192). The soft costs may result in losses as high as or higher than hard costs, but they are difficult to quantify. As you can see, the effects of
communication breakdown are far from trivial. The Society for Advancement of Consulting (SAC) has recently released an article stating that poor communication is more of a threat to the failure of a business than competition or the economy ("Communication Errors Undermining Business.").
Hard costs
# of respondents
Hard cost
11
< $100
34
$100 - $499
24
$500 - $999
82
$1,000 - $9,999
25
$10,000 - $19,999
35
$20,000 - $49,999
11
$50,000 - $99,999
21
$100,000 - $499,999
$500,000 - $999,99
11
$1,000,000 - $10,000,000
Soft costs
# of respondents
Soft cost
124
Lost time
111
Lost employee(s)
101
Lowered productivity, efficiency, or quality
82
Bad image, word of mouth, publicity
80
Ill will
79
Grave erosion of individuals' effectiveness
72
Damaged working environment of relationship
57
Lowered morale
56
Stupid risk or liability
51
Lowered team spirit
46
Lowered trust
46
Lost revenue
34
Waste of money
25
Lost customer(s)
18
Lost opportunity
There are many books written with psychological and linguistic perspectives on communication breakdown. Thats Not What I Meant! by Deborah Tannen explains how ambiguities in our speech can cause people to misinterpret what we intend to say. She also talks about how the majority of what we say isnt in the actual words, but in the way they are said. This involves pacing, volume, expression of emotion (pitch, tone). There is a higher incidence of misinterpretation when communicating between cultures, due to differences in the norms of meta messages between cultures. Communication breakdown can also be manifested as politeness taken too far. Tannen talks about the Two-edged Sword of Politeness where, in the interest of maintaining relations with others, important things are not said. The motive here is to get along, but people often end up getting along worse when this is done. When communicating, we dont always say what we mean due to what we think others might think of us. This is known as indirectness and is a type of self-defense mechanism. Communicating with others is far more complicated than simply turning an idea into words, saying it, and having it turned back into the same idea. All these complications are places where communication breakdown can occur, frustrating those involved. Richard J. Mayer has a slightly different perspective on breakdown. He came up with the hypothesis that Virtually all communication problems and conflicts between people, no matter how serious they appear, are due to an accumulation of un-confronted and unresolved minor issues, each of little or no apparent importance. (Mayer 3). He studied hundreds of instances where communication breakdown had occurred to come up with this idea. Many of these minor issues are caused by the communication concepts mentioned earlier by Tannen. The new part of this perspective is that major problems are caused by an accumulation of minor issues. He suggests confronting these little issues every time they are encountered. He also proposes the idea that we are more skilled at being competitive than we are at being collaborative, which makes it difficult to work in effective teams. A certain amount of communication conflict within a team is good. Both too little, as well as too much conflict is a type of communication breakdown. Too little communication conflict most likely means either that nobody cares very much or they are all brainwashed to think alike ('group-think'). Both of these factors mean the team is not being effective (Lemmex 2004). In an article about communication breakdown, Larry Lauer says that communication breakdown is inevitable due to the complex nature of human experience and thus interpretation, so the communications need to be reiterated back and forth until both the transmitter and all those receiving messages have a common and verifiable understanding. He suggests some ways to spot communication breakdown, and suggests we should look for 'activity plateaus' after a goal is met. These plateaus often cause members to be more focused on their personal matters, and communication begins to slow down. Another sign is productivity falling off. A plateau might be due simply to members of a group who feel that their input isnt much valued, and start to withdraw from the group activity. Executive isolation is another sign of communication breakdown. This is the process of a manager suffering from 'head in the office syndrome'. Effective communication is difficult. During times of stress, it is tempting to avoid conflict
by spending less and less time with others, and not engaging in verifiable communication with them about the critical issues. Finally, either too few or too many comments, queries or complaints is likely be a sign of communication breakdown (Lauer 1994). It is all a matter of balance between 'foot in mouth' and 'paralysis by analysis'! Communication breakdown is all around us, and is responsible for more problems than anyone takes the time to realize. Through the use of examples, survey results, and various perspectives on the inner workings and diagnosis of communication breakdown, we try to develop a better idea as to why we should want to avoid communication breakdown. The following sections will help you communicate effectively with others so that, together, you can plan and implement effective communication techniques and checking protocols within your group or team. Effective communication within a team doesnt happen by accident; instead, it requires planning and organization, and an effective team leader or facilitator. Planning for good communication in a meeting setting takes even more preparation. This section will discuss how leaders and facilitators can plan ahead for good communication.
[edit]Planning
for Communication
In modern organizations, teams may be entirely virtual and never interact in person. This presents a unique set of communication challenges which are outside the scope of this paper, although certain techniques presented will work well for virtual teams. Larson and LaFasto (1989, 55-57) consider an effective communication system to be one of the four necessary features of team structure. The communication system must focus on accessible information, utilize information from credible sources, provide opportunities for informal communication and have a way to document decisions in planning for communication. Leaders must take care to structure the team and interactions in such a way that these four elements are a part of the system. For existing teams, the team will probably already have procedures in place, whether or not conscious effort went into developing them. As groups work together, certain norms of behavior develop. Team leaders should be aware of this process and work to develop an effective set of norms from the beginning. Opportunity for informal communication needs to be deliberately coordinated, not left to chance. To enhance the likelihood of informal communication, a team leader will want to allow time at the beginning of the process for group members to get to know one another and interact informally. An offsite retreat or team activity will build personal relationships among members and facilitate communication down the road. The facilitator should continue to build in regular opportunities for informal discussion in ways that work with the team culture. Another important technique in preparing for communication is to train group members in advance on communication techniques. A leader should train team members about group techniques for meeting facilitation
and conflict resolution as well as individual skills such as listening, communicating criticism and mediation. This process facilitation can have positive effects on team accomplishment. (Wheelan 2005) Finally, good communication requires feedback among group members. The facilitator must build in ways for team members to provide one another evaluative information about their behavior. (Wheelan 2005) Once general systems are in place for good communication, the team leader can focus on specific situations such as a team meeting. For teams working face to face, meetings are one of the most common ways groups communicate, so planning for effective communication at meetings is critical. Part of planning a meeting means having the logistics in place for success. The timing and location must be right and the technologies must be in place for effective communication. Logistics such as the time of day members are likely to be available to meet and at their best, a location that will minimize interruptions and technologies such as PowerPoint that provide visual aids are all important foundations for a successful meeting. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995) Even more importantly, the leader must be clear on the purpose of the meeting and make sure the right participants are involved. Then, he or she must plan the structure. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995) To be most effective, a facilitator must explicitly determine the most appropriate meeting structure and procedures. Some of the basic procedural options include: 1) an agenda-guided discussion, 2) a problem- or item-list procedure, and 3) simplified parliamentary procedure. (Stech/Ratliffe, 243) Extensive detail on each of these options can be found in the book, Effective Group Communication referenced at the end of the paper. For most meetings, a detailed agenda, distributed in advance, is an effective way to help participants prepare for the meeting. The agenda gives group members time to consider issues to be discussed so the group does not, waste time discussing ill-conceived suggestions. (Whetton and Cameron, 460) The group also needs to have a clear decision making format in place. Communication structure options include: ordinary group discussion (the most common default), brainstorming and nominal group technique. The appropriate choice depends on the group task. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995) Effective implementation of these various communication strategies will be discussed in the next section. Beyond determining the structural format, a leader also needs to prepare by making sure the participants fully understand the purpose of the meeting and their role in the process. In many cases, particularly when there is a controversial item on the agenda, premeetings with specific participants are important. it is advisable to discuss the matter before the meeting with key opinion leaders. This polling of sentiment is useful for gauging how much time should be set aside for discussing an issue and how it should be presented to the group. In addition, if the chairperson can obtain the support of key group members before the meeting, it is less likely that a controversial issue will dominate the group discussion (Whetton and Cameron, 461) Facilitators and leaders must plan for good communication. In general, investment in structure (including informal communication) and member training can set the stage to allow team members to communicate well. For a team meeting, more planning should be done including deciding on the meeting purpose, participants,
structure, logistics and decision making process. Agendas and pre-meetings with individuals can help members prepare and ensure the group meeting moves smoothly.
[edit]Communication
Tools
While planning for effective communication is key in order to achieve specific objectives, it is equally important to utilize tried and tested 'tools' that can facilitate 'live' real time communication between a transmitter and an audience. First, some communication is what Eric Birne called 'parent to child'- the issuing of clear and unequivocal orders to make sure that tasks are completed quickly in what the authority figure thinks is the best way possible. Other times, we act more like adults, and hold discussions that require awareness, active listening, using names, making I statements, the Nominal Group Technique, developed by Delbecq and VandeVen,is a method of ranking various contributions. Appropriate body language, mirroring and eye contact can all help individuals to understand each other better. The first step in facilitating clear team communication is to be aware of who is in the group. Bringing the group together in a social setting allows team members to learn each others personalities, work situation, and personal background. This understanding prevents issues and differences from arising that could inhibit communication between team members. The next technique that can improve communication is the use of active listening skills. Active listening occurs when people really hear what the other person is saying and both paraphrase what was said and identify any nonverbal cues that a person may also be trying to express through body language. Sometimes this means more than just identifying the concrete comments or suggestions that a person is making, but also addressing any underlying emotional issues that are also affecting what a person is trying to say (Thompson and Gooler, 1996). A simple way to help a person understand that you are actively listening is to use their name a few times during the course of a conversation. This helps a person to realize that you are focusing your attention on what they are saying, and really hearing their full meaning (Connolly and Syer, 1996). When you are the person who feels misunderstood or not heard, make sure to express your feelings through the use of I statements. Using I statements allows people to express themselves without putting others on the defensive. For example, instead of saying, You are completely ignoring me, phrasing that feeling as I feel like I am not being heard by the group allows others to realize how you are feeling without starting a conflict (Connolly and Syer, 1996). If a group is having trouble creating and communicating divergent ideas, one way to facilitate this process is through the Nominal Group Technique. This technique preempts conflict by allowing individuals to generate ideas individually and have everyone share their thoughts with the group. The advantage of the nominal group technique is that it maximizes information gain, ensures a democratic representation of all members ideasand avoids production blocking (Thompson, 162). Ultimately, some conflict will arise. But through the use of the nominal group technique and the use of I
statements, conflict may be productive in the generation of new ideas and not lead to permanent rifts between team members. Though these tools for facilitating verbal communication are essential, the importance of understanding nonverbal cues cannot be underestimated. The use of space, eye contact, body orientation, head movements and other behaviors are often used to transmit messages without the use of words (Thompson and Gooler, 407). Regardless of what team members actually say, it is important to be aware of the nonverbal messages communicated through body language. Though a person may verbally agree, it may be clear that they are uncomfortable or dissatisfied with an idea or solution, and that needs to be addressed for good communication to be permanently achieved. In addition to being cognizant of others nonverbal cues, it is also important for team members to be aware of how their own nonverbal behavior is perceived. Team members should be very aware of eye contact. Maintaining eye contact with individuals who are communicating their ideas indicates interest (Connolly and Syer, 1996). Staring out the window or around the room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect. Another simple nonverbal technique to facilitate good communication is the act of mirroring. Mirroring involves mimicking others gestures and ideas. This is especially helpful for making outsiders feel comfortable sharing ideas. While mirroring may seem over the top, in fact, it is a highly effective way of stating the obvious and raising awareness to allow change. (Connolly and Syer, 210). While these tools can help to address the nonverbal aspects of communication, in the end team members must be aware of how they are expressing themselves both through what they say and what they dont say. While these general techniques are effective for most teams, individual team differences often arise with special needs. Though there are too many to enumerate in this paper, we would like to address two of the most common and difficult groupings that people encounter diverse groups and groups with personality clashes. There is a delicate balance in teams between appreciating individual differences and requiring unity (Larson and LaFasto, 79). Finding the balance between creating cohesiveness and respecting differences is difficult, but can ultimately strengthen teams if it is leveraged properly through good communication. In todays diverse, international work environment, people of differing work and cultural backgrounds are often working together on teams. Finding a way to communicate despite differences is not only necessary, but also needed in order to find the best solutions. The belief is that diverse teams have a broader range of knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences that can enhance the groups ability to critically analyze problems and generate more creative solutions and ideas (Thompson and Gooler, 397). Common problems that occur in diverse groups include stereotyping, language barriers, and misunderstandings. For example, in the United States a thumbs up means okay, in Japan the same gesture means money, and in Iran it is an obscene gesture. (Henderson, 1994). Also, people from different cultures do not have the same shared history and stories that they can relate to when explaining issues. When group members do not share common social signals, the development of group cohesiveness may be hindered and the team may have greater difficulty establishing a positive social climate (Thompson and Gooler, 409). For
this reason, it is particularly important that diverse teams have shared social team activities outside of the workplace so that they can not only get to know each other, but also have these shared stories to refer to when trying to communicate particular points. During team meetings, team members must take the time to pause and make sure that everyone is grasping the issues and solutions being discussed (Henderson, 1994). If the team rushes ahead without everyone on board, conflict will probably ensue at a later time. A degree of formality is also helpful in diverse team meetings. Using proper titles (and always pronouncing names correctly, of course) and avoiding slang may help people understand each other and not be inadvertently offended. In diverse teams, keeping an open mind and really hearing what other team members are trying to say must be made a priority in every meeting (Henderson, 1994). In general, in diverse groups it is better to use the Nominal Group Technique than devils advocate, which can cause the group to turn on one member, or simply create unproductive conflict that does not lead to the best solution. However, despite the extra effort that must be put into communication in diverse groups, the benefits often make the work worth it when highly effective, innovative solutions to problems are generated. Another factor that plays a role in team communication is the differing personalities between team members. In fact, Weblin goes so far as to say that personality may be described as the sum pattern of a persons way of communicating the total impression he makes on others (quoted in Huseman, 1977: p. 417). Because of their varying personalities, members of teams receive, process, and act on information and situations differently. Differences can be helpful by bringing fresh perspectives and skill sets to the team, but can also create conflict if communication styles differ or are misunderstood. If team members understand their own personality tendencies as well as those of their teammates, the communication between members and therefore effectiveness of the team will improve drastically. It will also allow the team to emphasize and appreciate each members strengths. As Ruderman hypothesizes, the level of team personality diversity will be positively and significantly related to team productivity, especially on problem solving teams (1996, p. 79). communication tools can be prevented in many ways which should be done by the people themselves.it's their fault for the low factors which separates them.
[edit]Personality
Types
One of the most prevalently used personality assessment tools is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This technique can prove to be a powerful tool in learning about your own personality as well as those of your teammates. Unfortunately, it is not especially 'scientific' and some less secure personalities may place too much faith in their 'type' so that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. The assessment relies on a long and recursive series of questions, none of which have an 'obviously correct' answer, but all are rather ambiguous in nature. This MBTI tool is just one of many which seeks to analyze and measure a persons predisposed preferences about the world and other people. MBTI identifies people as points along four axes. These four dimensions
thus produce 16 broad possible personality types and a range of 'shades' within each category. The first dimension refers to how a person prefers to be energized. An extrovert (E) mainly gains energy from interaction with others while an introvert generally (I) prefers being alone. The second dimension deals with how a person prefers to take in information from the external world. A sensing (S) person likes distinct facts and details while an intuitive (N) person prefers to see the big picture. The third dimension relates to how people usually make decisions. A thinking (T) person generally utilizes 'cold' logical thinking for their decisions while a feeling (F) person tends to make judgments based on personal and subjective values. The final dimension deals with an individuals preference for their relationship with the external world. A perceptive (P) person with the perceives situations in an emotional, flexible and spontaneous way. A more judgmental (J) person prefers to live in planned and organized situations that is susceptible to analysis and synthesis (Bradley 1997: p. 341; Dent 2004: p. 67) Understanding differing personality types in general can help the group communication and functional process. The ideal team should be highly diversified in the talents and knowledge each member contributes, while maintaining open, non-threatening communication (Bradley 1997: p. 338). Extroverts tend to open the lines of between group members, while introverts provide internal reflection of group discussions. Both are important functions of group communication. The sensing-intuition dimension can produce the greatest divisions in teams but both are absolutely necessary (Lyman 1995: p. 58). Sensing types take in and bring up pertinent, concrete, and precise facts, and recognize the practical realities of the situation. On the other hand, intuitive types take in data as a whole, focusing on associations and relationships and seeing new possibilities and ideas. Thinking types present a logical analysis of the decision-making situation and therefore communicate in this way, while feeling individuals offer insights into how feelings of other group members might affect the situation. Feelers may view thinkers as insensitive while thinkers might view feelers as touchy feely if each does not appreciate the others perspective. The planned and orderly approach of the judging type will typically help keep the team on schedule, while perceivers help
[edit]Conclusion
Utilizing a variety of these tools and techniques to facilitate effective communication is crucial in order to maximize team effectiveness. When communication structures and protocols ares not in place, the communication breakdown is more probable than not. Fairly simple misunderstandings, if not detected, can impair, sometimes even devastate the productivity of a team. On the other hand, some misunderstandings can actually lead to creative leaps of the imagination, especially if the checks and balances we call 'protocol' are working properly. Careful planning for meetings with simple tools like the minutes of previous transactions and and not too flexible agendas can help in advance. During the encounter, attention to verbal and non-verbal communication, and understanding different participants backgrounds and communication styles can all help teams capture the productivity improvements associated with effective team operation. Ultimately, the
increased productivity that results from developing a range of 'communications protocols' for different situations, circumstances and audiences is likely to be well worth the effort. The essence is in finding the right balance between spontaneity and carefully edited messages likely to be appropriate in each foreseeable situation.
[edit]References
"2003 North American Blackout." Wikipedia. 25 May 2006. 30 May 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2003_North_America_blackout>. Bradley, J. and Hebert, F. The Effect of Personality Type on Team Performance. Journal of Management Development, Vol. 16 no 5, 1997. Communication Errors Undermining Business." Society for Advancement of Consulting (2005). Print Delivery. LexisNexis. UC Davis, Davis. 30 May 2006. Keyword: poor communication errors. Connolly, Christopher, and John Syer. How Teamwork Works. London: McGraw-Hill Company, 1996. Dent, F., Curd, J, Carr, M., and Blass, E. Managing by Dimensions. EBF. Autumn, 2004. Eaton, Sabrina, and Tom Diemer. "FirstEnergy defends its actions in blackout ." The Plain Dealer 05 Sept. 2003. 30 May 2006 <http://www.cleveland.com/blackout/index.ssf?/blackout/more/1062759325296770.html>. Ernest, Stech, and Sharon A. Ratliffe. Effective Group Communication How to Get Action by Working in Groups. Lincolnwood: National Textbook Company, 1985. Funk, John, and Peter Krouse. "Transcripts Show Chaos Just Before Blackout." The Plain Dealer 04 Sept. 2003. 30 May 2006 <http://www.cleveland.com/blackout/index.ssf?/blackout/more/106268022521680.html>. Gilsdorf, Jeanette W. "Organizational Rules on Communicating: How Employees are - and are Not - Learning the Ropes." The Journal of Business Communication os 35 (1998): 173-201. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. UC Davis, Davis. 22 May 2006. Henderson, George. Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Issues and Strategies. Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books, 1994. Huseman, R., Logue, C. and Freshley, D. 1977. Readings in Interpersonal and Organizational Communication. Boston, Holbrook Press, Inc. Lark, J. P., Robert B. Nelson, and Laura Chappelle. "Report on August 14th Blackout." State of Michigan. Nov. 2003. 30 May 2006 <http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mpsc_blackout_77423_7.pdf>. Larson, Carl E., and Frank M. LaFasto. TeamWork What Must Go Right/What Can Go Wrong. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1989.
Lauer, Larry D. "How to Improve Internal Communication: Guidelines for the Nonprofit Manager." Nonprofit World os 12.3 (1994): 34-38. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. UC Davis, Davis. 22 May 2006. Keyword: communication breakdown. Lemmex, Steve. "Communication Breakdown and Conflict with Teams." Global Knowledge Network os (2004). Business Source Premier. EBSCO. UC Davis, Davis. 22 May 2006. Keyword: communication breakdown. Lyman, D. and Richter, K. QFD and Personality Type: The Key to Team Energy and Effectiveness. Industrial Engineering. February, 1995. Mayer, Richard J. "Communications and Conflict in Organizations." Human Resource Management (1974). Business Source Premier. EBSCO. UC Davis, Davis. 22 May 2006. Keyword: communication problems. Ruderman, M, Hughes-James, M, and Jackson, S. 1996. Selected Research on Work Team Diversity. American Psychological Association and Center for Creative Leadership. "Sago Mine Disaster." Wikipedia. 4 June 2006. 4 June 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Sago_Mine_disaster >. Shave, David W. Communication Breakdown. St. Louis: Warren H. Green, Inc., 1975 Quinn, John P. "How to Avoid Communication Breakdowns." Logistics Management Apr. 2006: 37+. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. UC Davis, Davis. 22 May 2006. Keyword: Communication Breakdown. Susan, Wheelan A. "Facilitating Group Communication." The Handbook of Group Research and Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2005 Tannen, Deborah. That's Not What I Meant! New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986. Thompson, Donna E., and Laura E. Gooler. "Capitalizing on the Benefits of Diversity Through Workteams." Managing Diversity. Ed. Ellen E. Kossek and Sharon A. Lobel. Cambridge: Blackwell Inc., 1996. 392-437. Thompson, Leigh. Making the Team. Chapter 8: Creativity. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000. Whetton, D., and C Cameron, "Principles for Managing Meetings." Developing Management Skills. Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1995. 454-476. Introduction Managing Groups and Teams How can managers deal with difficult team members? Category: Managing Groups and Teams What do you think of this page? Please take a moment to rate this page below. Your feedback is valuable and helps us improve our website. Reliability: Presentation:
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Introduction to Sociology/Groups
Socialization Demography
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction 2 Social Identity Theory
o o o
2.1 Categorization 2.2 Identification 2.3 Comparison
3 Primary and Secondary Groups 4 Group Influence
o o o o o o o o
4.1 Conformity 4.2 Social Facilitation 4.3 Social Loafing 4.4 Deindividuation 4.5 Group Polarization 4.6 Diffusion of Responsibility 4.7 False Consensus and Illusory Superiority 4.8 Groupthink
5 Networks 6 References 7 External links
[edit]Introduction
In sociology, a group is usually defined as a number of people who identify and interact with one another. This is a very broad definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. While an aggregate comprises merely a number of individuals, a group in sociology exhibits cohesiveness to a larger degree. Aspects that members in the group may share include: interests, values, ethnic/linguistic background, roles and kinship. One way of determining if a collection of people can be considered a group is if individuals who belong to that collection use the self-referent pronoun "we;" using "we" to refer to a collection of
people often implies that the collection thinks of itself as a group. Examples of groups include: families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious congregations.
A law enforcement official is a social category, not a group. However, law enforcement officials who all work in the same station and regularly meet to plan their day and work together would be considered part of a group.
Collections of people that do not use the self-referent pronoun "we" but share certain characteristics (e.g., roles, social functions, etc.) are different from groups in that they usually do not regularly interact with each other nor share similar interests or values. Such collections are referred to as categories of people rather than groups; examples include: police, soldiers, millionaires, women, etc. Individuals form groups for a variety of reasons. There are some rather obvious ones, like reproduction, protection, trade, and food production. But social categorization of people into groups and categories also facilitates behavior and action.[1] An example may help explain this idea: Suppose you are driving somewhere in a car when you notice red lights flashing in your rearview mirror. Because you have been socialized into society, you know that the red lights mean you should pull over, so you do. After waiting for a minute or two, an individual in a uniform walks toward your car door. You roll down your window and the individuals asks you for your "license and registration." Because groups and categories help facilitate social behavior, you know who this individual is: a member of a law enforcement category like the police or highway patrol. In all likelihood, you do not have to question this
individual as to why they are driving a special car with lights on it, why they are wearing a uniform, why they are carrying a gun, or why they pulled you over (you may ask why they pulled you over, but doing so often increases the likelihood they'll give you a ticket). In short, because you recognize that the individual driving the car belongs to a specific social category (or group), you can enter this interaction with a body of knowledge that will help guide your behavior. You do not have to learn how to interact in that situation every single time you encounter it. Social categorization of people into groups and categories is a heuristic device that makes social interaction easier.
[edit]Social
Identity Theory
Social identity is a theory developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological basis of intergroup discrimination. As developed by Tajfel, Social Identity Theory is a diffuse but interrelated group of social psychological theories concerned with when and why individuals identify with, and behave as part of, social groups, adopting shared attitudes to outsiders. It is also concerned with what difference it makes when encounters between individuals are perceived as encounters between group members. Social Identity Theory is thus concerned both with the psychological and sociological aspects of group behavior. According to Tajfel and Turner, social identities are composed of three elements.
[edit]Categorization
We categorize objects in order to understand them, in a very similar way we categorize people (including ourselves) in order to understand the social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and busdriver because they are useful. If we can assign people to a category then that tells us things about those people. Without an understanding of people's groups and categories, we would have a very difficult time functioning in society. Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to. We define appropriate behaviour by reference to the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs to your group.
[edit]Identification
We identify with groups that we perceive ourselves to belong to. Identification carries two meanings. Part of who we are is made up of our group memberships. That is, sometimes we think of ourselves as "us" vs. "them" or "we" vs. "they", and at other times we think of ourselves as "I" vs. "he or she" or "me" vs. "him or her". In other words, sometimes we think of ourselves as group members and at other times we think of ourselves as unique individuals. This varies situationally, so that we can be more or less a group member, depending upon the circumstances. What is crucial for our purposes is that thinking of yourself as a group member and thinking of yourself as a unique individual are both parts of your self-concept. The first is referred to as social identity, the latter is referred to as personal identity. In social identity theory, group membership is not something foreign which is tacked onto the person, it is a real, true and vital part of the person. Our groups make up part of who we are. The other meaning implied by the concept of identity is the idea that we are, in some sense, the same, or identical to other people. This should not be misinterpreted, when we say that we are the same, we mean that for some purposes we treat members of our groups as being similar to ourselves in some relevant way. To take the most extreme example, in some violent conflict such as a war, the members of the opposite group - the outgroup are treated as identical and completely different to the those people in your group - the ingroup - which is made up of distinct individuals. Thinking about individuals in one's outgroup in such a fashion allows the individual to believe that the enemy is deserving of death by dehumanizing them (more on this below). Treating people this way allows us to justify otherwise unjustifiable behavior.
[edit]Comparison
A positive self-concept is a part of normal psychological functioning. There is pretty good evidence that to deal effectively with the world we need to feel good about ourselves. The idea of social comparison is that in order to evaluate ourselves we compare ourselves with similar others. We often gain self-esteem by comparing ourselves with others in our group, particularly if we can claim membership in a prestigious group. The prestige of a group is also often created through comparisons that positively reflect on the group. In other words, people in groups choose to compare their groups with other
groups in ways that reflect positively on themselves. In fact, people are motivated to see their own group as relatively better than similar (but inferior) groups (i.e., positive distinctiveness). Inversely, people in a group may minimize differences between their group and another, slightly more prestigious group so one's own group tends to be seen more favorably (i.e., negative distinctiveness). Groups choose dimensions for comparison in order to maximize the positivity of their own group. Groups which perceive themselves to be of high status on particular dimensions will choose those as the basis of comparison. Groups of low status will minimize differences on those dimensions or choose new dimensions. For example, people from some Middle Eastern Islamic countries might regard their country as inferior to the West in terms of economic and technological advancement but might regard their way of life as being morally superior. Intriguingly, the notion that inferior or "underdog" groups are hyper-motivated to succeed against superior groups turns out not to be true, generally. Members of a group or team will actually work harder when they are competing against a lower ranked group than when they are competing against a higher-ranked group.[2] This makes sense when framed as a status issue: the superior group has more to lose if it is defeated by an inferior team while the inferior team, if it loses, has not lost anything but rather has affirmed the existing social order. Thus, members of higher status groups work harder when competing against lower status groups.
[edit]Primary
and Secondary Groups
This family from the 1970s would be an example of a primary group.
In sociology we distinguish between two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A Primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together. The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and close friends are examples of primary groups
A class of students is generally considered a secondary group.
Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented. Some secondary groups may last for many years, though most are short term. Such groups also begin and end with very little significance in the lives of the people involved. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary group. Rather than having as the goal the maintenance and development of the relationships themselves, these groups generally come together to accomplish a specific purpose. Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, peoples roles are more interchangeable. Examples of secondary groups include: classmates in a college course, athletic teams, and co-workers. The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Horton Cooley. He labeled groups as "primary" because people often experience such groups early in their life and such groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Secondary groups generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on one's identity.
[edit]Group
Influence
The primary reason sociologists study groups is because of their power over individuals. A large body of research suggests that group membership strongly shapes the everyday behavior of individuals. Following are some of the many ways groups shape individual level behavior.
[edit]Conformity
An example of the types of cards used in the Solomon Asch line experiments.
If you've ever done something in a group that you would not do if you were alone, it's likely that you experienced conformity; your attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors were influenced by other people. One of the most wellknown illustrations of conformity is Solomon Asch's conformity experiments. The experiment was set up as follows: Research participants would enter a room and sit at a table with several other people (who were confederates, meaning they were actually helping with the research). The participant and confederates would be shown one card that had a reference line and another card that had three comparison lines. Subjects were required to select the comparison line that corresponded in length to the reference line. This seems like a relatively straightforward task. However, choosing the correct line becomes much more difficult when the confederates choose the wrong answer. Why? Because of our tendency to conform to those around us. Thus, when Asch has the confederates choose the wrong answer, participants also chose the wrong line 37% of the time.[3][4] How do you think you would respond in such a situation? Jason Chein and Laurence Steinberg have illustrated why people in groups are more likely to take risks (one form of conforming) using functional magnetic resonance imaging: the presence of peers heightens the benefits
that result from risky decisions.[5] Participants in their research remained aware of the risks, but their brains exhibited heightened sensitivity to the benefits of succeeding. Thus, the presence of peers can facilitate risky behavior as it makes the reward more meaningful.
[edit]Social
Facilitation
People often perform their best when competing with others, like in races, as a result of social facilitation. This is just one illustration of the influence of groups on individuals.
Social facilitation is the tendency for people to be aroused into better performance on simple tasks (or tasks at which they are expert or that have become autonomous) when under the eye of others,[6]rather than while they are alone (i.e., the audience effect), or when competing against another (i.e., the coactor effect).[7] Complex tasks (or tasks at which people are not skilled), however, are often performed in an inferior manner in such situations.[8] This effect has been demonstrated in a variety of species. In humans, it is strongest among those who are most concerned about the opinions of others, and when the individual is being watched by someone he or she does not know, or cannot see well.[9]
[edit]Social
Loafing
Social loafing refers to the phenomenon that can occur when people in a group make less of an effort to achieve a goal than they would working alone. As a result of social loafing, groups can sometimes generate less total output than the combined performance of their members working as individuals.[10] Social loafing results from a lack of motivation when working in a group because individuals do not believe their specific contribution will be evaluated. As a result, they do not put in as much effort as they otherwise
would. Social loafing is pervasive, but it does not occur when group members feel that their task or the group itself is important.[10]
[edit]Deindividuation
Deindividuation refers to the phenomenon of relinquishing one's sense of identity, self-awareness, or evaluation apprehension. This can happen as a result of becoming part of a group that fosters obedience to group norms rather than an individual's norms, such as an army or mob.[11] Once this happens, individuals no longer think about themselves before they act and may, in fact, be unaware of their own actions. Deindividuation can have quite destructive effects, like increasing the odds someone will commit a crime[12], engaging in violence,[13][14] or even overenforce the law, such as police in riot situations.
[edit]Group
Polarization
Group polarization refers to the finding that after participating in a discussion group, members tend to advocate more extreme positions and/or call for riskier courses of action than individuals who did not participate in any such discussion.[15]
Juries can be influenced by group polarization, leading to more extreme punitive damage awards.
Group polarization results from two primary mechanisms: social comparison and informational influence.[16] Social comparison refers to the drive of individuals to appear socially desirable. Informational social influence occurs when a person is in a situation where he or she is unsure of the correct way to behave. In such situations, that person will often look to others for cues concerning the correct behavior. When "we conform because we believe that other's interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours
and will help us choose an appropriate course of action,"[17] it is informational social influence. Group polarization has been used to explain the decision-making of juries, particularly when considering punitive damages in a civil trial. Studies have shown that after deliberating together, mock jury members often decided on punitive damage awards that were larger or smaller than the amount any individual juror had favored prior to deliberation. The studies indicated that when the jurors favored a relatively low award, discussion would lead to an even more lenient result, while if the jury was inclined to impose a stiff penalty, discussion would make it even harsher.
[edit]Diffusion
of Responsibility
Diffusion of responsibility (also called the bystander effect) is a social phenomenon which tends to occur in groups of people above a certain critical size when responsibility is not explicitly assigned. A common example would
Kitty Genovese's murder is widely cited as an example of the diffusion of responsibility as numerous people observed (either heard or saw) her murder but no one called the police immediately, allowing the murderer to leave the scene of the initial attack then return to track her down and kill her and still get away.
be observing a minor fender-bender on a busy freeway. Most people, when they observe something like that, do not stop and do not call the police, assuming someone else will do so. This phenomenon rarely ever occurs in small groups. In tests involving groups of three or fewer, everyone in the group took action as opposed to groups of over ten where in almost every test, no one took action.
[edit]False
Consensus and Illusory Superiority
The false consensus effect is the tendency for people to project their way of thinking onto other people.[18][19] In other words, people often assume that everyone else thinks the same way they do. This belief is unsubstantiated by statistical data, leading to the perception of a consensus that does not exist. This logical fallacy involves a group or individual assuming that their own opinions, beliefs and predilections are more prevalent amongst the general public than they really are. This bias is commonly present in a group setting where one thinks the collective opinion of their own group matches that of
the larger population. Since the members of a group reach a consensus and rarely encounter those who dispute it, they tend to believe that everybody thinks the same way. This is done to justify one's own beliefs. Illusory superiority is a cognitive bias in which people overestimate the degree to which they possess desirable qualities, relative to others, or underestimate their negative qualities relative to others.[20] Such over- and under-estimations serve to bolster peoples' self-esteem. People who succumb to the illusory superiority bias have inflated views of their own characteristics. Some surveys have found all, or nearly all, the participants rate themselves as above the group average. The strongest effect has been found when people rate themselves on abilities at which they are totally incompetent. These subjects have the greatest disparity between their actual performance (at the low end of the distribution) and their self-rating (placing themselves above average). The effect has been found when people compare themselves to others on many different abilities and personality traits:
Sorority members perceive those in their sorority as far less likely to be conceited and snobby than those in other sororities[21]
53% of Dutch adults rate their marriage or partnership as better than most others; only 1% rate it as worse than most marriages[22]
66% of adult Americans grade their oldest child's public school with an A or B, but 64% give the nation's public schools a C or D[23]
[edit]Groupthink
Groupthink is a term coined by psychologist Irving Janis [24] to describe a process by which a group can make bad or irrational decisions. In a groupthink situation, each member of the group attempts to conform his or her opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group. In a general sense this seems to be a very rationalistic way to approach the situation. However this results in a situation in which the group ultimately agrees upon an action which each member might individually consider to be unwise (the risky shift). Janis' original definition of the term was "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically
appraise alternative courses of action." The word groupthink was intended to be reminiscent of George Orwell's coinages (such as doublethink and duckspeak) from the fictional language Newspeak, which he portrayed in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Groupthink tends to occur on committees and in large organizations. Janis originally studied the Pearl Harbor bombing, the Vietnam War and the Bay of Pigs Invasion. Recently, in 2004, the US Senate Intelligence Committee's Report on the U.S. Intelligence Community's Prewar Intelligence Assessments on Iraq[25] blamed groupthink for failures to correctly interpret intelligence relating to Iraq's weapons of mass destruction capabilities. Janis[26] provides descriptions of groupthink:
antecedent conditions of groupthink
symptoms indicative of groupthink
symptoms of decisions affected by groupthink
Insulation of the group
Illusion of invulnerability
Incomplete survey of alternatives
High group cohesiveness
Unquestioned belief in the inherent morality of the group
Incomplete survey of objectives
Directive leadership
Collective rationalization of group's decisions
Failure to examine risks of preferred choice
Lack of norms requiring methodical Shared stereotypes of outgroup, procedures particularly opponents
Failure to re-appraise initially rejected alternatives
Homogeneity of members' social background and ideology
Self-censorship; members withhold criticisms
Poor information search
High stress from external threats Illusion of unanimity (see false with low hope of a better solution than the one offered by the leader(s) consensus effect)
Selective bias in processing information at hand (see also confirmation bias)
Direct pressure on dissenters to conform
Failure to work out contingency plans
Self-appointed "mindguards" protect the group from negative information
One mechanism which management consultants recommend to avoid groupthink is to place responsibility and authority for a decision in the hands of a single person who can turn to others for advice. Others advise that a pre-selected individual take the role of disagreeing with any suggestion presented, thereby making other individuals more likely to present their own ideas and point out flaws in others' and reducing the stigma associated with being the first to take negative stances (see Devil's Advocate). Anonymous feedback via suggestion box or online chat has been found to be a useful remedy for groupthink negative or dissenting views of proposals can be raised without any individual being identifiable by others as having lodged a critique. Thus the social capital of the group is preserved, as all members have plausible deniability that they raised a dissenting point.
[edit]Networks
A social network is a social structure between actors, either individuals or organizations. It indicates the ways in which they are connected through various social familiarities ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds. The study of social networks is called both social network analysis and social network theory. Research in a number of academic fields has demonstrated that social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals.
An example of a social network diagram
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors. These concepts are often displayed in a social network diagram, where nodes are the points and ties are the lines. The shape of the social network helps determine a network's usefulness to its individuals. Smaller, tighter networks can be less useful to their members than networks with lots of loose connections (weak ties) to individuals outside the main network. More "open" networks, with many weak ties and social connections, are more likely to introduce new ideas and opportunities to their members than closed networks with many redundant ties. In other words, a group of friends who only do things with each other already share the same knowledge and opportunities. A group of individuals with connections to other social worlds is likely to have access to a wider range of information. It is better for individual success to have connections to a variety of networks rather than many connections within a single network. Similarly, individuals can exercise influence or act as brokers within their social networks by bridging two networks that are not directly linked (called filling social holes). The power of social network theory stems from its difference from traditional sociological studies, which assume that it is the attributes of individual actors
- whether they are friendly or unfriendly, smart or dumb, etc. - that matter. Social network theory produces an alternate view, where the attributes of individuals are less important than their relationships and ties with other actors within the network. This approach has turned out to be useful for explaining many real-world phenomena, but leaves less room for individual agency, the ability for individuals to influence their success, so much of it rests within the structure of their network. For instance, social networks have been used to examine how companies interact with each other, characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different companies. These networks provide ways for companies to gather information, deter competition, and even collude in setting prices or policies. Power within organizations has also been found to be tied to social networks. Powerful people in organizations often derive their power from their degree of connectedness within the organization (i.e., the degree to which an individual within a network is at the center of many relationships) rather than from job title or statuses. Social networks also play a key role in hiring, in business success for firms, and in job performance. The so-called rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members (sometimes called the Dunbar Number). The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and especially anthropology of the maximum size of a village (in modern parlance an ecovillage). It is theorized in evolutionary psychology that the number may be some kind of limit of average human ability to recognize members and track emotional facts about all members of a group. However, it may be due to economics and the need to track "free riders", as larger groups tend to be easier for cheats and liars to prosper in.
The "six degrees of separation" model.
The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase six degrees of separation after a 1967 small world experiment by psychologist Stanley Milgram which found that two random US citizens were connected by an average of six acquaintances. Current internet experiments continue to explore this phenomenon, including the Ohio State Electronic Small World Project and Columbia's Small World Project. As of 2005, these experiments confirm that about five to seven degrees of separation are sufficient for connecting any two people through the internet. Sociologists are interested in social networks because of their influence on and importance for the individual. Social networks are the basic tools used by individuals to meet other people, to recreate, and to find social support.[27] Recent research suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking and more and more people have no close confidants or people with whom they can share their most intimate thoughts.[28] In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the U.S. was 2.94 people. Networks declined by almost an entire confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Almost half, 46.3% of Americans, say they have only one or no confidants with whom they can discuss important matters. The most frequently occurring response to the question of how many confidants one has was zero in 2004. The decline in confidants has been most notable among non-kin networks, putting greater emphasis on kin and spouses as social confidants. Most social confidants are similar in demographic characteristics to the person doing the sharing.[28] The implications of these findings are potentially disturbing for American society as people have smaller social support networks, which are important for both social but also health reasons.[27]
[edit]References
Hogg, Michael A. Social Categorization, Depersonalization, and Group Behavior. Hogg, Michael A. and Tindale, Scott, Editors.
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Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers; 2003; pp. 56-85. 2. Pettit, Nathan C., Kevyn Yong, and Sandra E. Spataro. 2010. Holding Your Place: Reactions to the Prospect of Status Gains and Losses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 46, 2:396-401. 3. Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70 (Whole no. 416). 4. Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgment. In H. Guetzkow (ed.) Groups, leadership and men. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. 5. Chein, Jason, Dustin Albert, Lia OBrien, Kaitlyn Uckert, and Laurence Steinberg. 2010. Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brains reward circuitry. Developmental Science no. 6. Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533. 7. 8. Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269-274. Cottrell, N.B., Wack, D.L., Sekerak, G.J., & Rittle, R.M. (1968). Social facilitation of dominant responses by the presence of an audience and the mere presence of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 245-250. 9. Bond, Charles F., Titus, L. J. (1983). Social facilitation: a metaanalysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin. 94(2), Sep 1983, 265-292. 10. a b Karau, S. J. & Williams, K. D. (1993). Social loafing: A metaanalytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 681-706. 11. Mullen, B. 1986. Atrocity as a function of lynch mob composition: A self-attention perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 187-197. 12. Diener, E., Fraser, S. C., Beaman, A. L. and Kelem, R. T. (1976). Effects of deindividuation variables on stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(2), 178-183.
13. Diener, E. (1976). Effects of prior destructive behavior, anonymity, and group presence on deindividuation and aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 497-507 14. Silke, A. (2003). Deindividuation, anonymity, and violence: Findings from Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 493-499 15. Moscovici, S., & Zavalloni, M. (1969). The group as a polarizer of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12, 125135. 16. Isenberg, Daniel J. 1986. "Group Polarization: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (6), 1141-1151. 17. Aronson, E., Wilson, T.D., & Akert, A.M. (2005). Social Psychology (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 18. Ross L., Greene D. & House, P. (1977). The false consensus effect: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13, 279-301. 19. Fields, James M., and Howard Schuman, (1976-77) "Public Beliefs about the Beliefs of the Public," Public Opinion Quarterly, 40: 427-448. 20. Hoorens, Vera (1993). "Self-enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison". European Review of Social Psychology (Psychology Press) 4 (1): 113139. 21. Biernat, M., Vescio, T.K., & Theno, S.A. (1996). Violating American Values: A "Value congruence" approach to understanding outgroup attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 387-410. 22. Buunk, B.P., & van der Eijnden, R.J.J.M. (1997). Perceived prevalence, perceived superiority, and relationship satisfaction: Most relationships are good, but ours is the best. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 219-228. 23. Whitman, D. (1996, December, 16). Im OK, you're not. U.S. News and World Report, p. 24.
24. Janis, I. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395140447 25. Senate Intelligence Committee. 2004. Report on the U.S. Intelligence Community's Prewar Intelligence Assessments on Iraq http://intelligence.senate.gov/conclusions.pdf 26. Janis, I. & Mann, L. (1977). Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice and Commitment. New York: The Free Press. 27. a b Putnam, Robert D. 2001. Bowling Alone : The Collapse and Revival of American Community. 1st ed. Simon & Schuster. 28. a b McPherson, J. Miller, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and Matthew E. Brashears. 2006. "Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks over Two Decades." American Sociological Review. 71(3): 353-375. This chapter draws on the following Wikipedia articles:
Group Social identity Primary group/Secondary group Group Polarization Deindividuation Social loafing Social network Groupthink Reference group
[edit]External
links
Social Identity (Australian National University) Social Identity Theory (University of Twente) "Primary Groups" excerpt from Cooley's "Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind"
Online Social Networking Research Report - A comparative analysis by Wildbit of the most popular online social networks with suggestions on creating and growing web communities.
Knock, Knock, Knocking on Newton's Door - article published in Defense Acquisition University's journal Defense AT&L, based largely on Six Degrees by Duncan Watts. Explores theory and practice of social networking, as related to military technology development.
How to Do Social Network Analysis Robin Dunbar and the Magic Number of 150 PieSpy - Social Network Bot Inferring and Visualizing Social Networks on IRC
The Academic Robotics Community in the UK: Web based data construction and analysis of a distributed community of practice The social networks of this community are constructed wholly from webbased resources such as web pages, electronic CVs and bibliographic search engines
The Augmented Social Network: Building Identity and Trust into the Next-Generation Internet by Ken Jordan, Jan Hauser, and Steven Foster
The Social Web: Building an Open Social Network with XDI by members of the OASIS XDI Technical Committee7
Pajek - Program for Large Network Analyis CASOS Dynamic Social Network Analysis being conducted at Carnegie Mellon University
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/deindividuation.htm Article on Groupthink from MeatballWiki Article on Groupthink from SourceWatch Socialization Introduction to Sociology Demography
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Communication Theory/Uncertainty Reduction

Introduction Propaganda and the Public

5 Uncertainty in the Modern Era

5.4 Expansions on Uncertainty Reduction

History of Interpersonal Communication Research: A Brief Overview

E. Shannon (1916-2001) and Warren Weaver (1894-1978)

in the Modern Era

[edit]A. Charles Berger

[edit]B. Developments from Other Researchers

[edit]C. Criticisms of URT

with utility that increases with subsequent research.

A: Axioms and Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and information seeking are inversely related.

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and reciprocity rate are inversely related.

Introduction Communication Theory Propaganda and the Public

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Collaborative Networked Learning: A Guide/Communication Models

learning involves purposeful intra-personal comunication.

learning involves purposeful interpersonal

model involves symbolic communication rather than accuracy of

dynamics are a critical factor in the new networked group model.

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Collaborative Networked Learning: A Guide/Conclusion

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Introduction to Sociology/Organizational Behavior

5.1 Interpersonal Communication

5.1.1 Reflective Listening

5.2 Affirming Contact

5.10 Barriers and Gateways to Communication

5.11 Defensive and Nondefensive Communication

5.12 Nonverbal Communication

5.13 Positive, Healthy Communication 5.14 Communication Through New Technologies

5.14.1 Written communication 5.14.2 Communication Technologies

6 Attitudes, Values, and Ethics

7.4.1 Four Categories of Work Demands

7.5 Non-Work Demands 7.6 Stress-Strain Relationships

9 The Concept of Power

9.1 Symbols of Power 9.2 Sharing Power: Empowerment

9.3 Political Behavior in Organizations 9.4 Effective Power

10 Leadership and Followership

10.1 Cultural Differences in Leadership

11 Conflict and Negotiation

13 Organizational Design and Structure

14 References 15 External Links

edit]Flexible Working Conditions

edit]Diversity in the Workplace

edit]Personality, Perception, and Attribution

of Personality Theory in Organizations: The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument