Mcmaster MECH ENG 3O04 - Fluid Mechanics Notes by Dr. Mohamed S. Hamed

9/3/2008
Outline and Announcements

Outline:-
z Introduction – Course instructor and website.
z Assessment.
z Lectures, Class Notes, and Downloads
z Assignments, Tutorials, and Exams.
z Role of the Textbook.
z Teaching Style.
z Course objectives.
z Interesting Flows.
z The “First Question”.
Important announcements:-
1. Tutorials start the week of Sept 15.
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Assessment
z Two-term tests (October and November) = 30%.
z Assignments = 15% .
z Final examination = 55% .
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Lectures
z Class discussions might include points that are not
necessarily included in the textbook.
z All exams will include questions on theory and

concepts covered in lectures and class discussions.
z Assignments might include questions on theory and

concepts covered in lectures and class discussions.
z Attending lectures is very important!!
z Laptops and Cell Phones are not allowed during

lectures, tutorials, and exams.
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Class Notes and Downloads

z Class notes are print out of my PowerPoint
presentations.
z Notes taken by students during lectures are very

important.
z Lecture notes and other material will be posted on the

course website in a password protected section.
z All material is copyright protected and should not be

shared with and/or distributed to others.
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Assignments
z Assignments – will be assigned regularly,

roughly every week.
z Assignments might include problems from the

textbook and from lectures and class
discussions.
z Due dates are posted on the web.
z A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied.
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Tutorials and Exams

z Tutorials are provided to:-
{ Address any unclear points.
{ Help you solve assignments.
z All exams will include questions on theory and

concepts covered in lectures and class
discussions.
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Role of the Textbook
z The textbook will be used to assign problems.
z It supplements class discussions.
z It is not a substitute for lectures!!
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Teaching Style
z I love and enjoy teaching. So, my teaching style is
dynamic and interactive.
z Everybody is encouraged to interact (ask questions,

inquire, answer questions, etc.)
z Bonus cards will awarded to individuals based on their

level of interaction and understanding of the material.
z Each card is worth 0.25%. There is no limit on how

many cards you can get!!
z This bonus is added to your total. So, your total could

be more than 100%!!
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Important Announcements
z Please check the “Important Announcements”

Announcements
section on the web on a regular basis.
z Tutorials will start the week of Sept 15.

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Course Objectives
z Introduce special “vocabulary”
vocabulary and “basic
concepts” used in fluid mechanics.
z Develop a good understanding of these

concepts.
z Use them to analyze and understand fluid flows

in “real (practical)”
(practical) problems.
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Why Fluid Mechanics is A Core

Course?
Please try to think of or name:
{An industry,
{A piece of machinery, or
{Any engineering system,
where fluid mechanics does not play an

important role!
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Industries where Concepts of

Fluid Mechanics Play a Vital Role
•Automobile Engineering
•Aerospace Engineering
•Oil & Gas Engineering
•Power Generation
•Thermal Management
•Environmental Control
•Biotechnology
•Energy Conversion
•Process Engineering ▪
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Some Interesting Flows
Airfoil zero angle Airfoil 25° angle Wing Vortex
Air flow over a Car Personal Plume

Reference: Multimedia Fluid Mechanics CD-ROM
Cambridge University Press ISBN-10: 0521604761
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OK, So what would be the first question

we should address in this class?
What is Fluid Mechanics ?
Forms of Matter:
• Solid.
• Liquid.
• Gas. Motion and its “Cause”
Force
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Scope of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is the study of the

behavior of fluids at rest and in motion.
motion
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What is the Definition of a “Fluid” ?
Definition of A Fluid:
Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously

under the application (or the effect) of
a shear stress.
tangential force
area
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Definition of a Fluid – cont’d
When a shear stress is applied:

z Solids deform or bend, then stop!
z Fluids continuously deform ⇒ i.e., they Flow
Fig. 1.1
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Q. What makes a fluid deform?
A. The “no-slip condition”.
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Two Famous Flows in Fluid Mechanics

1. Couette flow.
2. Poiseuille flow.
Poiseuille Flow
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Two Famous Flows in Fluid Mechanics

1. Couette Flow
2. Poiseuille Flow
Poiseuille Flow
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Basic Equations
z In the analysis of any fluid mechanics problem,

we need to use a set of equations called
“Governing Equations”.
z These equations can be classified into:

1. Basic or General Laws.
2. Particular or Special Laws.
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Basic or General Laws
z Conservation of mass.
From
z Newton’s second law of motion. Mechanics
z The principle of angular momentum.
z The first law of thermodynamics.

z The second law of thermodynamics.
From
Thermodynamics
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Basic or General Laws – Cont’d
z Note that these laws do not depend on the type of

fluid involved in the problem. That’s why they are
called “General Laws”.
z Not all these laws are required every time.
z In many problems, it is necessary to bring into the

analysis additional relations ⇒ “Particular Laws”
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Particular or Special Laws

z These laws describe the behavior of physical properties
of specific types of fluids.
z Example: Ideal Gas Law ⇒ P = ρ RT

¾ This law can be used only for ideal gases.
¾ It relates absolute pressure and temperature to gas density.
¾ P in Pa = N/m2, ρ in kg/m3, and T in K.
¾ R = gas constant, for air = 286.9 J/kg.K ■
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Methods of Description
1. The system approach (the Lagrangian
approach), which follows one specific particle
or system (e.g., following the motion of a falling
object).
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Methods of Description - Continue
2. The control volume approach (the Eurlerian

approach), which focuses on a certain region
not on a certain particle (e.g., flow in a
pipeline).
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Methods of Analysis
in Thermodynamics
9 System
(or “Closed System”)
9 Control Volume
(or “Open System”)
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Methods of Analysis in Fluid

Mechanics
1. Infinitesimal or finite control volume.
2. Large control volume.
Differential control volume Large Control volume
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Methods of Analysis in Fluid

Mechanics
1. Infinitesimal or finite system.
2. Control volume.
z In each case the equations will look different.

z In (1), the resulting equations are differential
equations, which provide details of the flow.
z In (2), the resulting equations are integral, which
give a global or overall behavior of the flow. ■
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Why Use Infinitesimal Control

Volume (Differential) Approach?
z Differential approach allows us to determine flow

details, e.g., velocity distribution:-
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Why Use Control Volume

(Integral) Approach?
z Integral approach allows the determination of
global or overall values, such as, average
velocities, forces, etc..
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Units and Dimensions
z A unit is a specific quantitative measure of a physical

quantity. Example, the foot and the meter, which are
used to measure the physical quantity ‘length’.
z A physical quantity, such as length, is called a

dimension.
z Dimensions can classified as basic or primary

dimensions and secondary dimensions:-
1. Length and time are basic dimensions.
2. Velocity is a secondary dimension because it can be
represented using primary dimensions (velocity = length / time).
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Systems of Basic Dimensions
1. [M], [L], [t], and [T].
2. [F], [L], [t], and [T].
3. [F],[M], [L], [t], and [T].
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Systems of Units
1. MLtT - SI (kg, m, s, K).
2. FLtT - British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR).
3. FMLtT - English Engineering (lbf, lbm, ft, s, oR).
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Preferred Systems of Units
SI (kg, m, s, K)
British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR)
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Dimensional Consistency
z All equations and formulas must have consistent
dimensions.
z I.e., all terms in any equation must have the
same dimension.
z What is the dimension of each term of

Bernoulli’s equation?
r2 r2
V1 p1 V2 p2
+ g z1 + = + g z2 +
2 ρ 2 ρ
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Dimensional Consistency – Cont’d

z In your engineering studies and practice, you might
deal with two types of equations having inconsistent
dimensions:-
1. Semi-empirical equations, e.g., the Manning equation,
used to calculate the velocity of flow in an open channel
(such as a canal):- 2/3 1/ 2
Rn S0
V=
n
Where V is the velocity in m/s, R is the hydraulic radius of
the channel in m, and S is the channel slope (ratio). For
unfinished concrete, n = 0.014.
z What is the unit of V? Does n have a unit?

z If we use n =0.014, and R in ft, can we get the correct
value of V in ft/s?
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Dimensional Consistency – Cont’d

2. In the second type the dimensions of an equation are
consistent but the use of units is not.
z For example, the commonly used Energy Efficiency ratio

(EER) of an air conditioner is:-
cooling rate energy / time
EER = =
electrical input energy / time
z The equation is dimensionally consistent, with EER being

dimensionless (ratio). However, it is used in an inconsistent
way.
z A good A/C has EER = 10, which means 10 Btu/hr for each
1 W of electrical power.
z One must say 10 (Btu/hr)/W because it is not dimensionless.
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Exercise
A sky diver with a mass of 75 kg jumps from an

aircraft. The aerodynamic drag force acting on
the sky diver is known to be FD = kV2, where k =
0.228 N.s2/m2.
Determine the maximum speed of free fall for

the sky diver and the speed reached after 100 m
of fall.
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Vocabulary List
1. A Fluid.
2. Mechanics.
3. Shear force.
4. Normal force (pressure).
5. Flow = continuous deformation.
6. Scope of Fluid Mechanics.
7. Basic Equations.
8. Methods of Description.
9. Methods of Analysis.
10. No-slip condition.
11. Lagrangian approach.
12. Eulerian approach.
13. Infinitesimal or finite system = infinitesimal control volume
(C.V.).
14. Infinitesimal C.V. = Differential approach.
15. Control volume or integral approach.
16. Basic dimensions.
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A flow is described by the velocity field,

Problem
V = a y iˆ + b t ˆj
Where a = 1 1/s and b = 2 m/s2. t in seconds.
(a) Plot the pathline of the particle that passed

point (1,2) at t = 2.
(b) Streakeline at t = 3 of the particles that passed

point (1,2).
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Note the difference between the meaning of t and to
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Note the difference between the meaning of t and to
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Problem – time permit

Fluids of viscosities μ1 = 0.1 N.s/m2 and μ2 = 0.15 N.
s/m2 are contained between two plates (each plate is 1
m2 in area). The thicknesses are h1 = 0.5 mm and h2 =
0.3 mm. respectively. Find the force F to make the upper
plate move at a speed of 1 m/s. What is the fluid velocity
at the interface between the two fluids?
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Chapter 2 - Fundamental Concepts

Outline:-
¾ Fluid as a Continuum.
¾ Scalar quantities.
¾ Vector quantities - Velocity Field.
¾ Steady Vs Unsteady Flow Fields.
¾ Uniform Flow Fields.
¾ One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows.
¾ Visual Representation of flow fields:
Timeline.
Streamlines.
Pathlines.
Streaklines.
¾ Types of Forces acting on a fluid element.
¾ Stresses (name and sign convention).
¾ Stress Field (stress at a point).
¾ Shear Stress and rate of deformation of a fluid element.
¾ Viscosity.
1. Newtonian and
2. Non-Newtonian Fluids.
¾ Surface Tension.
¾ Classification of Fluid Motions.
¾ Compressibility effect.
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Nature of Fluids (Matter)
z Fluids (gases or liquids) are forms of matter and

they consist of molecules with atoms and space
in between.
z So, generally speaking, mass of a fluid is not

continuously distributed in space:
(mass – space – mass – space – mass – etc…)
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Fluid as a Continuum
Continuum Hypothesis: We can assume that fluids are continuous
medium.
1. What does it mean?

It means that a fluid regardless of its molecular nature, can be treated
as a continuous medium.
2. What is the result or benefit of this assumption?

a) Each fluid property is assumed to have a definite value at every point
in space, thus
b) Fluid properties are considered to be continuous function of position

and time.
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Continuum Hypothesis – Cont’d

3. When it is not possible to make such an
assumption?
We can not use this assumption if the mean free path of the
molecules is of the same order of magnitude as the smallest
significant characteristic dimension of the problem.
{ Molecules always vibrate in space.
{ Mean free path is the distance the molecules travel as it

vibrate.
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Mean Free Path, Lm

z Examples, for air:-
1. At STP (15º C and 101.3 kPa) ⇒ Lm = 6 × 10-8 m = 0.06 μm = 60 nm.
2. At P = 1.33 × 10-7 kPa (Rarefied Gas) ⇒ Lm = 0.9 m = 90 cm.
z Applications = air flow between parallel plates with a = 10 cm at

atmospheric pressure i.e., P = 101.3 kPa.
? Can we assume that air is

a continuous medium
⇐ in this case ?
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Quantities of interest
In fluid mechanics we are interested in

quantities that are:
1. Scalar quantities, such as: density, temperature,

pressure, etc.
2. Vector quantities, such as: velocity, acceleration,

stress, ect.
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Scalar Quantities – e.g., Density ρ
z Since ρ is a scalar quantity, we need only the

specification of its magnitude.
z The complete or field representation of ρ is given by:
(2.1)
z Equation (2.1) represents a scalar field.
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Density ρ - Cont’d
z Density is sometimes expressed in terms of specific
gravity, SG for liquids:-
ρ
SG =
ρw max
where, ρwmax = max density of water = 1000 kg/m3 at 4 ºC.
ρ
zFor gases, SG = where ρa= air density.
ρa
zOr, in terms of specific weight, γ:

weight m g
γ= = =ρg
volume ∀
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Vector Quantities – e.g., Velocity

Field, V
z Similar to ρ, we can represent the velocity as:-
(2.2)
z Eqn. 2.2 represents the velocity field, which is a

vector field.
z A Vector has magnitude and direction.
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Velocity Field, V - Cont’d

z Velocity can be written in terms of its 3 scalar
components (u, v, w) in the x, y, and z directions:
where iˆ, ˆj , and kˆ = unit vectors

in x, y, and z directions, respectively.
z In general each component u, v, and w is a function of

x,y, z, and t, e.g., u = u(x,y,z,t)
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Types of Flows - Steady Flow

z If properties at every point in a flow field do not change
with time (t), the flow is called steady.
z If η is any fluid property in a steady flow field,

mathematically:
∂η
=0, or η =η (x, y, z)
∂t
df
z Remember : if f = f(x), then rate of change of f w.r.t. x =
dx
z If f=f(x,y), then rate of change of f w.r.t. x = ∂f ■

∂x
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Types of Flows - One-, Two-, and Three-

Dimensional Flows
Depending on the number of space coordinates
required to specify the velocity field, a flow can be
described as 1D, 2D or 3D.
9 V = V ( x, y , z , t ) ⇐ 3D, unsteady
9 V = V ( x, y , t ) ⇐ 2D, unsteady
9 V = V (x) ⇐ 1D, steday
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Examples – Steady Flow
1D 2D
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Uniform Flow
Sometimes we can neglect the no-slip condition at the
wall and assume that the velocity is uniform across the
whole cross section, as shown below:
u = u(x,y) u=u(x)
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Visual Representation of Flow Fields

Sometime we want to have a visual representation of
flow fields. Such a representation is provided by:
¾ Timelines.
¾ Streamlines.
¾ Path lines.
¾ Streak lines.
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Timelines
z A timeline is a line connecting the positions of a
set of fluid particles at a given instant.
This is a timeline
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Streamlines
A streamline is the line drawn in the flow field so that at
any instant in time it is tangent to the direction of the
flow, i.e., tangent to the velocity vector.
v dy
i.e., = tan α = , ⇒ u dy − v dx = 0
u dx
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Streamlines – Cont’d
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Pathlines
z A path line is the line traced out by a given particle as it
flows from one point to another.
z Path lines are useful in studying , for example, the

trajectory of a contaminant leaving a smokestack.
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Pathlines – Cont’d
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Streaklines
A streakline is the locus of all particles that at an earlier
instant in time, passed through a prescribed point in
space.
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Streaklines – Cont’d
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What type of Lines are these?
z The redlines, and

z The white lines?
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Important points to note
z A streamline and a timeline are instantaneous

lines, e.g., snap shots.
z While streaklines and pathlines are generated

by the passage of time, e.g., video recording.
z In steady flow, the velocity at each point in the

flow field remains constant with time and
consequently, in a steady flow, pathlines,
pathlines
streaklines,
streaklines and streamlines are identical.
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Example Problem
A two-dimensional unsteady velocity field

is given by u = x (1 + 2 t), v = y. Find:-
1. The time-varying streamlines which pass through
some reference point (xo,yo). Sketch some for the
case of xo=1, yo = 1.
2. Find the equation of the pathline which passes

through the point (xo, yo) at t = 0. Sketch this pathline
for the case of xo=1, yo = 1.
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Streamlines at different times
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Pathline for t < 0 to t > 0
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Types of Forces Acting on a Fluid Element
1. Surface Forces.
2. Body Forces.
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Types of Forces Acting on a Fluid Element

A. Surfaces Forces:- e.g., Pressure and Friction
These are forces generated on the surface of the fluid element by

contact with other fluid particles or a solid surface.
B. Body Forces:- e.g., Gravity and Electromagnetic Field
These forces are not concentrated at the surface of the fluid

element; they are rather experienced throughout the particle.
Example: gravitational body force acting on a fluid element of

volume, d ∀ =
gravitational force = d m × g = ρ d ∀ g
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Surface Force on a Fluid Element

y
δAx
δAy δAx
F
Δy x
δAz Δz
Δx
z
Fluid Element in Cartesian Coordinates
Surface Forces cause Stresses on the surfaces of the fluid element
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Stress Caused by Surface Forces
Fluid element
σ (sigma) is used to denote normal stresses.

τ (Tao) is used to denote tangential stresses.
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Stress Caused by Surface Forces –

Cont’d
δFx
z Normal stress at point C = σ xx = lim
δAx → 0 δ Ax
δFy δF
z Tangential stress at point C = τ xy = lim δA Or, τ xz = lim δAz
δAx →0 x δAx →0 x
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Name Convection - Stress needs two

directions to be define (force and area).
z First letter on the left refers

to the plan on which the δAx
stress acts.
z Second letter refers to the

direction in which the stress
acts.
z Note that the subscript in

δAx refers to the direction
normal to the surface of
interest.
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Sign Convention
z Velocity or force is positive if it
is in the positive direction of
the axis.
z The plan is considered positive

if the normal to it is in the
positive direction of the axis.
δ Ax
z Sign of stress is determined by
the sign of its plan and force.
z What is the sign of σxx ?
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Stress Field
⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Stress at a point = ⎢τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎦
Note: all stresses shown here are positive.
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Shear Stress in a Fluid Element Exposed

to a Shear Force
z Fluid continuously deforms (i.e., flows) under the effect of
a shear force.
δFx dF x
z Shear Stress = τ yx = lim
δA y → 0 δ A y
=
dA y
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Rate of Deformation of a Fluid Element

Exposed to a Shear Force
z Rate of deformation = δα dα (1)
lim =
δt → 0 δ t dt
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z Because δα is very small we can say that:
δl = δα. δy (2)
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Due to the no slip condition, point M’ will be
moving at δu, thus : δl = δu. δt (3)
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z From (2) and (3), Rate of deformation =
δα δu dα du
= , or , =
δt δy dt dy
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Relation Between Shear Stress and Rate

of Deformation
z Because every fluid element exposed to shear

stress will deform, there must be a relationship
between the shear stress and the rate of
deformation.
deformation
z This relationship depends on the type of fluid:-

1. Newtonian, or
2. Non-Newtonian.
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Fluid Viscosity
z Newtonian Fluids:-
{Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
{“Linear” fluids
z For Newtonian fluids, the rate of deformation is
in direct proportion with the shear stress, i.e.,
z The constant of proportionality is the fluid

viscosity, μ, i.e.,
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Non-Newtonian Fluids
{Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids,
toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
{“Non-linear” fluids
In this case the relation between
Shear stress and rate of deformation
Takes the form:
Which can also be written as :
In this case, η is called the apparent viscosity

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Non-Newtonian Fluids – Cont’d
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Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
z This equation is called Newton’s law of

viscosity for a one-dimensional flow (note
only y appears in the equation).
equation
z μ (mu) is called the Dynamic Viscosity of the

fluid and it is a physical property of the fluid.
z ν (nu) =μ/ρ is called the Kinematic viscosity

and it is another physical property.
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Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
z Units of μ : Pa.s = N.S/m2 = kg/(m.s),
1 Poise = 1 gm/(cm.s).
z Units of ν: m2/s,
1 Stoke = 1 cm2/s.
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Problem
A block of mass M slides on a thin film of oil. The film thickness is h
and the area of the block is A. When released, mass m exerts
tension on the cord, causing the block to accelerate. Neglect friction
in the pulley and air resistance. Develop an expression for the
viscous force that acts on the block when it moves at speed V.
Obtain an expression for the block speed as a function of time. If
mass M = 5 kg, m = 1 kg, A = 25 cm2 , and h = 0.5 mm. If it takes 1 s
for the speed of the block to reach 1 m/s, find the oil viscosity μ.
47
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Surface Tension, σ
z Surface tension is a force that appears along
any common surface (interface) between two
fluids.
interface
z Units of σ is force per unit length (length of the

interface), e.g., N/m or lbf/ft.
48
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Surface Tension – Cont’d
z As shown below, if the two fluids are in contact

with a solid surface, a contact angle, θ,
develops.
z Both of values of σ and θ depend on the type of

fluids in contact.
49
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50
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51
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Capillary Rise (CR) and Capillary

Depression (CD).
z CR occurs when θ < 90°.
z CD occurs when θ > 90°.
52
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Calculation of Δh
∑F z =0
∑F z = σ π D cos θ − ρ g Δ∀ = 0 (1)
π D2 (2)
Q Δ∀ = Δh
4
4 σ cos θ
From (2) in (1):- ∴ Δh =
ρgD
Note the sign of Δh when θ > 90º and θ < 90º.
53
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Description and Classification of Fluid Motions
54
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Viscous and Inviscid Flows

Under some special circumstances, the effect
of fluid viscosity can be ignored (neglected).
Example:- in region of flow away from solid
surfaces.
55
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Laminar and Turbulent Flows

z A laminar flow is a flow in which the fluid particles move in
smooth layers, laminas.
z A Turbulent Flow is a flow in which the fluid particles
rapidly mix as they move due to random velocity
fluctuations.
z The flow in a pipe is considered laminar if Re < 2300,

where, ρV D
Re = = Reynolds number
μ
z Where, ρ,μ, V, & D are the density, viscosity, velocity, and
diameter, respectively.
56
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Compressible and Incompressible

Flows
z Incompressible flows are those in which

variations in density are negligible.
z When variations in density are not negligible, the

flow is called compressible.
z Variations in density are due to changes in

pressure and/or temperature.
57
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Compressible and Incompressible Flows

z Mostly, liquids can be regarded as incompressible
fluids.
z Pressure and density changes in liquids are

reflected by the bulk compressibility modulus,
or modulus of elasticity:
elasticity
dp
Ev =
dρ / ρ
z For water at 15°C, Ev = 2010 kPa = 2.92 x 105 psi.
58
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Can we treat a gas flow as an

Incompressible flow?
z For Mach number M < 0.3, the maximum density variation is
less than 5%.
z Thus, gas flows with M < 0.3 can be treated as

incompressible.
z Mach number = V/c, where V is the flow velosity and c is the

speed of sound.
z The speed of sound in an ideal gas is given by: c = k RT

z Where k = Cp/Cv, R = gas constant, and T is the absolute
temperature.
59
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Problem
At what minimum speed (in mph) would an

automobile have to travel for compressibility
effects to be important? Assume the local air
temperature is 60°F.
60
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Problem – time permit

Fluids of viscosities μ1 = 0.1 N.s/m2 and μ2 = 0.15 N.
s/m2 are contained between two plates (each plate is 1
m2 in area). The thicknesses are h1 = 0.5 mm and h2 =
0.3 mm. respectively. Find the force F to make the upper
plate move at a speed of 1 m/s. What is the fluid velocity
at the interface between the two fluids?
61
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Vocabulary List
1. Continuum hypothesis.
2. Mean free path.
3. Scalar quantity.
4. Vector quantity.
5. Uniform flow.
6. Multi-dimension flow.
7. Flow Visualization.
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Vocabulary List
1. Timeline.
2. Streamline.
3. Pathline.
4. Streakline.
63
8/28/2008
Vocabulary List
1. Body force.
2. Surface force.
3. Stress field.
4. Shear stress.
5. Normal stress.
6. Rate of deformation.
7. Viscid and Inviscid flows.
8. Laminar and Turbulent flows.
9. Compressible and Incompressible flow.
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Outline:- Fluid Statics – Chapter 3
¾ The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

¾ Types of Pressures.
¾ Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid.
¾ Example Problem.
¾ Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces.
¾ Example Problems.
ME3O04 – Chapter 3 1 3 1
1
9/13/2008
What does Static Fluid mean?
z Statics means that the fluid is not moving, i.e., its

velocity =0; and its acceleration = 0.
z Fluid velocity = 0 means that it does not flow.

flow
z If a static fluid does not flow, how much shear

stress the fluid is exposed to?
no flow = no deformation = no shear
2
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What does Static Fluid mean?
z In this case, fluid can be exposed to only

normal forces and behaves as
“a rigid body” – no deformation
3
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The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

Consider the following fluid element:-
4
9/13/2008
The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

Consider the following fluid element:-
Newton’s 2nd law:- r r

∑ dF = dm . a = 0
r
Divide both sides by d∀ gives: dF r
∑ d∀ = ρ .a = 0
5
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The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics – Cont’d

z Forces affecting on the fluid element =
surface + body forces, i.e.,
r r r
∑ dF = dFs + dFB
z Body Force =
or,
6
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Surface Force in y- direction, dFys
Surface force in y-direction =

r ⎡⎛ ∂ p dy ⎞ ⎛ ∂ p dy ⎞ ⎤
d F S y = ⎢ ⎜⎜ p − ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ p + ⎟⎟ ⎥ dx .dz
⎣⎝ ∂y 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂y 2 ⎠⎦
∂p
= − dx .dy .dz
∂y
7
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Surface Force, dFs

z Combining the other two directions, we get:
r ⎛ ∂p ˆ ∂p ˆ ∂p ˆ ⎞
dFS = −⎜⎜ i + j + k ⎟⎟dx.dy.dz
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
= −∇p.dx.dy.dz
z Where, ∇p = gradient of p.
8
9/13/2008
Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

r
dF r
Recall – Newton’s 2nd Law:- ∑ d∀ = ρ .a = 0 (1)
r r r
∑ dF = dFs + dFB
r
dFS = −∇p.dx.dy.dz (2)
From (2) in (1):

9
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Note that equation above is not really one equation, it is

rather three equations in the three directions x, y, and z.
∂p ∂p ∂p
− + ρ g x = 0, − + ρ g y = 0, − + ρ g z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
10
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r
z Knowing that g = g x iˆ + g y ˆj + g z kˆ
z Assuming that z is the vertical direction, we can say that
gx = gy = 0, gz = - g, the three equations:
∂p ∂p ∂p
− + ρ g x = 0, − + ρ g y = 0, − + ρ g z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
11
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∂p ∂p ∂p
Can be written as :- = 0, = 0, = −ρ g
∂x ∂y ∂z
i.e., pressure is not
function of x i.e., pressure is not
function of y
z i.e.,
dp
= − ρ g = −γ
dz
12
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Important Restrictions:-
In order to use the following equation, three
conditions must be satisfied.
satisfied
dp
= − ρ g = −γ
dz
1. Fluid must be static, i.e., velocity =
acceleration = 0.
2. Gravity is the only body force.
3. The Z axis is vertical and upward.
13
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Types of Pressures
Fig. 3.2
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
14
9/13/2008
Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

For Incompressible Fluid: Manometers
dp
= −ρ g
dz
p z
∫ dp = − ∫ ρ g dz
po zo
15
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Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

For Incompressible Fluid: Manometers
p z
∫ dp = − ∫ ρ g dz
po zo
p − po = − ρ g ( z − zo ) = ρ g ( zo − z ) or,
p = po + ρ g h
16
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Simple Rules to Analyze Multiple-Liquid

Manometer Problems
1. Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous

volume of the same liquid are at the same pressure.
2. Pressure increases as one goes down a liquid column.
17
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Example- Problem
Determine the gage pressure in psig at point “a”, if liquid
A has SG = 0.75 and liquid B has SG = 1.20. The liquid
surrounding point “a” is water and the tank on the left is
open to the atmosphere.
18
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Hydrostatic Force on Submerged

Surfaces.
p = po + ρ g h
z This equation allows us to determine how pressure varies in a static
fluid.
z We would like to determine the force due to that pressure on a
surface submerged in a liquid.
19
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Surfaces – Cont’d
In order to fully determine the force on a

surface submerged in a liquid, we must
determine the following:-
1. The magnitude of the force;
2. The direction of the force; and
3. The line of action of the force.
20
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1- Direction of the Force on a Plane

Submerged Surface
z Since fluid is not moving (static), there is no
shear, i.e., only normal forces might exist.
z Since this force is caused by pressure of fluid,

it will always be normal to the surface.
surface
z This determines the direction of the force.
21
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2- Magnitude of the Force on a Plane Submerged

Surface
dF = P. dA (1)
P = Po + ρ g h (2)
From (2) in (1)

∴ FR = ∫ dF = ∫ (Po + ρ g h ) dA (3)
A A
22
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2- Magnitude of the Force on a Plane

Submerged Surface Note how θ is measured
∴ FR = ∫ dF = ∫ (Po + ρ g h ) dA (3)
A A
but,
h = y sin θ (4)
From (4) in (3)
FR = Po A + ρ g ∫ y sin θ .dA
A
Where, Po is the pressure at the fluid surface, A is the surface area.
23
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3- Line of Action of the Force on a Plane

Submerged Surface
∴ FR . y ' = ∫ dF . y = ∫ P. dA. y
A A
but, P = Po + ρ g h
and h = y sin θ
(
∴ FR . y ' = ∫ Po . y + ρ g y 2 sin θ . dA )
A
24
9/13/2008
3- Line of Action of the Force on a

Plane Submerged Surface
∴ F . y = ∫ (P . y + ρ g y
R
'
o
2
)
sin θ . dA
A
Solving for y’
1 1
∴y ='
.∫ Po . y.dA + .∫ ρ g y 2 sin θ . dA
FR A FR A
25
9/13/2008

Surfaces – Cont’d
1. The magnitude of the force;
FR = Po A + ρ g ∫ y sin θ .dA
A
2. The direction of the force = normal to the surface.

3. The line of action of the force.
1 1
∴ y' = .∫ Po . y.dA + .∫ ρ g y 2 sin θ . dA
FR A FR A
26
9/13/2008
Example Problem
The pressure in the air gap is 8000 Pa gage. The tank
is cylindrical. Calculate the net hydrostatic force
(a) On the bottom of the tank;
(b) On the cylindrical sidewall CC;
(c) On the annular plane panel BB.
27
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Example Problem
Gate AB is a homogeneous mass of 180 kg, 1.2 m wide
into the paper, resting on smooth bottom B. All fluids are
at 20°C. For what water depth h will the force at point B
be zero? Assume specific gravity of Glycerin = 1.26.
28
9/13/2008
Vocabulary List
1. Static fluid
2. Manometer.
3. Hydrostatic pressure.
4. Gauge pressure.
5. Vacuum.
6. Hydrostatic force on a submerged surface.
29
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Outline Chapter 4- Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control

Volume.
¾ Definition of a control volume.
¾ Dot product of Two Vectors.
¾ Volume and Mass Rate of Flow through a C.V.
9 Volume Flux.
9 Mass Flux.
9 Sign Convention.
¾ Conservation of Mass.
9 Special cases.
¾ Example Problem.
¾ Extensive and Intensive Fluid Properties.
¾ Reynolds Transport Theorem.
¾ Momentum Equation.
¾ Sign Convention of Terms in the Momentum Equation.
¾ Types of forces.
¾ Example problem.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 1
1
10/1/2008
¾Conservation of Mass.
¾Conservation of Momentum
Basic Equations in Integral Form

for a Control Volume
Chapter 4
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 2
2
10/1/2008
Why do we need Basic Equations in

integral Form ?
In some applications we do not need
details of the flow field, we rather need
values such as:-
some global values,
1. Average velocity at a certain section.

2. Force due to fluid flow.
3. Mass or Volume flow rates.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 3
3
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Examples:-
Given velocity at the exit section, fine mass
flow rate and average velocity at the inlet
section.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 4
4
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Examples:-
Find velocity V3 and force on the scale due to
fluid flow.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 5
5
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Examples:-
Find force on the 90° elbow.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 6
6
10/1/2008
Examples:-
Find flow rate and force on the gate in the open

and closed positions.
gate
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 7
7
10/1/2008
Basic Equations in Integral Form

Q1 How do we obtain these equations?
A1 By applying conservation laws on a control
volume.
Q2 Which conservation laws?

A2 1- Conservation of mass.
2- Conservation of momentum.
Q3 What is a control volume?
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 8
8
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Definition of a Control Volume

1. A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space
through which fluid flows. The geometric boundary of
the control volume is called the control surface.
surface
2. The control surface may be real or imaginary.
Imaginary surface
Real surface
Fig 3.1
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 9
9
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Background - Dot Product of Two

Vectors
Dot product of V and dA = V dA cos α =
projection of V on dA.
α
Fig 4.3
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 10
10
10/1/2008
Sign Convention
Fig 4.3
r r r r
V . dA = V dA cos 0 = +V dA V . dA = V dA cos180 = −V dA
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 11
11
10/1/2008
Volume Flow Rate through a C.V.
z Volume flow rate = volume flux through dA

r r
= dQ = V cosα . dA = V dA cos α = V . dA
z Total volume flow rate through control surface (CS)=
r r
& &
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ V . dA
CS CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 12
12
10/1/2008
Mass Flow Rate through a C.V.
z Mass flow rate = Mass flux through dA

r r
= ρ dQ = dm = ρ V . dA
z Total mass flow rate through control surface (CS)=

r r
m& = ∫ dm& = ∫ ρ V . dA
CS CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 13
13
10/1/2008
Sign Convention
Fig 4.3
r r r r
volume flux = V . dA = +V dA volume flux = V . dA = −V dA
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 14
14
10/1/2008
Conservation of Mass of any System
z M = mass of the system = constant.
z Or, the time rate of change of the mass of the

system = 0
dM ⎞
i.e., ⎟ =0
dt ⎠system
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 15
15
10/1/2008
Conservation of Mass of a Control

Volume
z Time rate of decrease of mass within the control volume
= net mass outflow rate from the control volume.
z Time rate of decrease of mass within the control volume

=
∂
− ∫ ρ d∀
∂t CV r r
z net mass outflow rate from the control volume = ∫ ρ V . dA
CS
dM ⎞ ∂ r r
⎟ = ∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
dt ⎠ system ∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 16
16
10/1/2008
dM ⎞ ∂ r r
Special Cases ⎟ = ∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
1. Unsteady Incompressible Flow, i.e., ρ = c

∂ r r
take ρ outside integrals, ρ ∫
∂t CV
d∀ + ρ ∫ V .dA = 0
CS
∂ r r
divide by ρ , ∫
∂t CV
d∀ + ∫ V .dA = 0
CS
but, ∫ d∀ = ∀ = the volume of the C.V.

CV
∂∀ r r
thus, + ∫ V .dA = 0
∂t CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 17
17
10/1/2008
Special Cases
1. Unsteady Incompressible Flow, i.e., ρ = c
∂∀ r r
thus, + ∫ V .dA = 0
∂t CS
∂∀
for a non - deformable (fixed) C.V., = 0, thus
∂t
r r
∫ V .dA = 0
CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 18
18
10/1/2008
Special Cases dM ⎞
⎟ =
∂ r r
∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
2. Unsteady Incompressible flow through a fixed

C.V. ∂∀
ρ = c, ∀ = c, or =0
∂t
∂ r r
ρ ∫ d∀ + ρ ∫ V .dA = 0
∂t CV CS
∂ r r
devide by ρ , ∫ d∀ + ∫ V .dA = 0
∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 19
19
10/1/2008
Special Cases dM ⎞
⎟ =
∂ r r
∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
2. Unsteady Incompressible flow through a fixed

C.V.
∂∀ r r
thus, + ∫ V .dA = 0
∂t CS
∂∀
but = 0, thus r r
∂t
∫ V .dA = 0
CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 20
20
10/1/2008
dM ⎞ ∂ r r
Special Cases ⎟ = ∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
3. Steady Compressible flow

∂∀
Steady ⇒ = 0, Compressible ⇒ ρ ≠ c
∂t
r r
∫ ρ V .dA = 0 (1)
CS
r r r r
Recall, dm& = ρ V .dA, thus, ∫ ρ V .dA = ∑ m&
CS
r r
in (1), ∑ m& = ∫ ρ V .dA = 0, i.e., m& in = m& out
CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 21
21
10/1/2008
Example Problem
Water flows steadily through a pipe of length L and
radius R = 3 in. Calculate the uniform inlet velocity, U, if
the velocity distribution across the outlet is given by:
⎡ r2 ⎤
u = umax ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ , and umax = 10 ft/s.
⎣ R ⎦
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 22
22
10/1/2008
Solution
1. Water = incompressible fluid → ρ = constant.

∂
2. Flowing steadily = steady flow, i.e., = 0.
∂t
Conservation of mass equation:-
∂ r r
∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0 (1)
∂t CV CS
Under conditions 1 and 2, equation (1) can be
r r
∫ V .dA = 0
written as:
CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 23
23
10/1/2008
Extensive Vs Intensive Fluid Properties
z An extensive property is one that depends on

the size of the C.V.
Example:- volume or mass.
z An intensive property is one that does not

depend on the size of the C.V.
Example:- Specific volume, specific enthalpy.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 24
24
10/1/2008
Reynolds Transport Theorem

z Let N = any extensive property.
N
zη = = the intensive property corresponding
m
to N.
z For any C.V., Reynolds Transport Theorem is:
dN ⎞ ∂ r r
⎟ = ∫ η ρ d∀ + ∫ η ρ V .dA (I)
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 25
25
10/1/2008
Reynolds Transport Theorem
N
z If N = mass, M ⇒ η= =1 in (I),
m
z Conservation of mass equation:
dM ⎞ ∂ r r
⎟ = ∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 26
26
10/1/2008
Interpretation of each term in R.T.T.

dN ⎞ ∂ r r
⎟ = ∫ η ρ d∀ + ∫ η ρ V .dA (I)
dN ⎞
z ⎟ = time rate of change of any extensive
dt ⎠ system property of the system.
∂
z ∫ η ρ d∀ = time rate of change of N within the C.V.
∂t CV
z ρ d∀ = mass of an element contained in the C.V.
z η ρ d∀ = amount of N in that element.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 27
27
10/1/2008
Interpretation of each term in R.T.T.

dN ⎞ ∂ r r
⎟ = ∫ η ρ d∀ + ∫ η ρ V .dA (I)
r r
z ∫ η ρ V .dA = the net rate of flux of N out through the C.S.
CS r r
z ρ V .dA = the rate of mass flux exiting dA = mass flow
rate.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 28
28
10/1/2008
Momentum Equation for an Inertial

(not accelerating) C.V.
r r
P = linear momentum = M V
r r N r
Let N = P = M V ∴η = =V
M
dN ⎞ ∂ r r
In R.T.T. ⎟ = ∫ η ρ d∀ + ∫ η ρ V .dA
r
dP ⎞ ∂ r r r r
⎟ = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA
⎟
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 29
29
10/1/2008
Momentum Equation “Newton’s Second

Law” for an Inertial C.V. r
r dP
∑ F = time rate of change of momentum = dt
r
dP ⎞ ∂ r r r r
from R.T.T., ⎟ = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA
⎟
r ∂ r r r r
∴∑ F = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 30
30
10/1/2008
Momentum Equation – meaning of each term
r ∂ r r r r
∴∑ F = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
(A) = (B) + (C)

z (A) = sum of all forces acting on the fixed C.V.
z (B) = time rate of change of momentum inside the

C.V.
z (C) = net rate of flux of momentum out through the
C.S.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 31
31
10/1/2008
r r r
Types of Forces ∑ F = ∑ FS + ∑ FB
r r
∑ FS = surface forces, e.g., pressure ⇒ Fs = ∫ − P dA
CS
r r
∑ FB = body forces, e.g., gravity ⇒ FB = ∫ ρ g d∀
CV
r ∂ r r r r
sub in ∑ F = ∂t ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA
CV CS
r r ∂ r r r r
FS + FB = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA (I)
∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 32
32
10/1/2008
Scalar Equations of the Momentum Equation
r r ∂ r r r r
FS + FB = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA (I)
Note ∂t CV CS Note
z Equation (I) is a vector equation. Therefore, it may be written as
three scalar component equations. Note
Note
z In Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), equation (I) can be written as:
∂ r r
x - diretion equation : Fsx + FBx = ∫ u ρ d∀ + ∫ u ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
∂ r r
y - diretion equation : Fsy + FBy = ∫ v ρ d∀ + ∫ v ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
∂ r r
z - diretion equation : Fsz + FBz = ∫ w ρ d∀ + ∫ w ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 33
33
10/1/2008
Sign Convention of Terms in the

Momentum Equation.
r r ∂ r r r r
FS + FB = ∫ V ρ d∀ + ∫ V ρ V .dA (I)
∂t CV CS
z F is positive if it is in the positive direction of the

coordinate.
z V is positive if it is in the positive direction of the

coordinate.
r r r
z Sign of
r V .dA depends on the relative directions of V
and dA .
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 34
34
10/1/2008
Problem
A jet of water issuing from a stationary nozzle at 15 m/s (Aj = 0.05
m2) strikes a turning vane mounted on a cart as shown. The vane
turns the jet through angle θ = 50º. Determine the value of mass, M,
required to hold the cart stationary. If the vane angle θ is adjustable,
plot the mass, M, needed to hold the cart stationary versus θ
for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 35
35
10/1/2008
Solution Procedure for This Type of

Problems
1. Identify your control volume, C.V.
2. Identify its C.S., and number important sections

to consider.
3. Identify your coordinates and draw them.
4. Identify which equation (s) will be used to solve
the problem.
5. Identify which assumptions you can make to
simplify your equations.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 36
36
10/1/2008
Solution Procedure for This Type of

Problems
6. Common assumptions are:-

a. Steady.
b. Incompressible, i.e., density, ρ = constant .
c. Uniform flow.
d. Body force = 0.
e. Effect of atmospheric pressure is negligible.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 37
37
10/1/2008
Solution
1. Identify your control volume, C.V.
2. Identify its C.S., and number important sections to
consider.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 38
38
10/1/2008
Solution
1. Identify your coordinates and draw them.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 39
39
10/1/2008
Solution – Cont’d
4. Identify which equation Rx
(s) will be used to solve
the problem.
Momentum Equation : -
∂ r r
x - diretion equation : Fsx + FBx = ∫ u ρ d∀ + ∫ u ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
∂ r r
y - diretion equation : Fsy + FBy = ∫ v ρ d∀ + ∫ v ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
∂ r r
z - diretion equation : Fsz + FBz = ∫ w ρ d∀ + ∫ w ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 40
40
10/1/2008
Rx
∂ r r
Fsx + FBx = ∫ u ρ d∀ + ∫ u ρ V .dA
∂t CV CS
5. Identify which assumptions you can make to

simplify your equations.
6. Common assumptions are:-

9 a. Steady.
9 b. Incompressible, i.e., density, ρ = constant .
9
9 c. Uniform flow.
9 d. Body force = 0.
e. Effect of atmospheric pressure is negligible.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 41
41
10/1/2008
ρV 2 A
M= (1 − cos θ ) Rx
g
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 42
42
10/1/2008
Vocabulary List
1. Basic equations (conservation laws).
2. Control volume.
3. Dot product of two vectors.
4. Volume flux.
5. Extensive Property.
6. Intensive Property.
7. Reynolds Transport Theorem
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 43
43
10/7/2008
Exercise
Water flows steadily through a pipe of length L and
radius R = 3 in. Calculate the uniform inlet velocity, U, if
the velocity distribution across the outlet is given by:
⎡ r2 ⎤
u = umax ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ , and umax = 10 ft/s.
⎣ R ⎦
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 25
1
10/7/2008
Solution
1. Water = incompressible fluid → ρ = constant.

∂
2. Flowing steadily = steady flow, i.e., = 0.
∂t
Conservation of mass equation:-
∂ r r
∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V .dA = 0 (1)
∂t CV CS
Under conditions 1 and 2, equation (1) can be
r r
∫ V .dA = 0
written as:
CS
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 26
2
10/7/2008
Solution – cont’d
r r r r r r
∫ V .dA = 0 ⇒ ∫ V .dA + ∫ V .dA = 0 (a)
CS 1 2
r r ⎡ r2 ⎤
at (1) V = U = constant, at (2) V = umax ⎢1- 2 ⎥, dA = 2π r dr
⎣ R ⎦
R R
r2
in (a), − ∫ U .2 π rdr + ∫ + umax (1 − 2 ) 2 π r dr = 0
0 0
R
Note the sign of the first and the second integrals.
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 27
3
10/7/2008
Solution – cont’d
R R
r2
in (a), − ∫ U .2 π rdr + ∫ umax (1 − 2 ) 2 π r dr = 0
0 0 R
R
⎡r r ⎤ 2 4
− U .π R + 2 π umax ⎢ − 2 ⎥ = 0
2
(b)
⎣ 2 4R ⎦ 0
umax
Solving (b) for U : U= = 5.0 ft/s.
2
ME3O04 – Chapter 4 1 2 3 28
4
10/7/2008
Outline Chapter 5- Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion.

¾ Why differential.
¾ Region of interest.
¾ Conservation of Mass for an infinitesimal C.V. (fluid particle) -
Special cases.
¾ Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions of the motion of a fluid
particle.
¾ Material, substantial, or particle derivative.
¾ Example problem.
¾ Particle acceleration.
¾ Types of motion of a fluid particle.
¾ Rotation and vorticity vectors.
¾ Fluid deformation:
1. Angular deformation.
2. Linear deformation.
¾ Differential momentum equation.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 1
1
10/7/2008
Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion
Why differential?
To obtain detailed knowledge, we must apply

the basic equations of fluid motion in differential
form.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 2
2
10/7/2008
Region of interest
Since we are interested in formulating differential
equations, our analysis will be in terms of
infinitesimal systems or infinitesimal control
volumes (i.e., differential C.V.)
Fig 5.1
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 3
3
10/7/2008
Conservation of Mass for an infinitesimal

C.V. (fluid particle)
(I) =Time rate of decrease of mass inside C.V. = (II) =

net rate of mass flux (mass flow rate) out through the
C.S.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 4
4
10/7/2008
Conservation of Mass for an

infinitesimal C.V. (fluid particle)
(I) = Time rate of decrease of mass inside C.V. =
∂ρ ∂ρ
=− d∀ =− dx dy dz
∂t ∂t
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 5
5
10/7/2008
(II) = net rate of mass flux (mass flow rate) out through
the C.S. in the x-direction =
⎛ ∂( ρ u) ⎞
= ⎜ρu + dx ⎟dy dz − (ρ u ) dy dz
⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂( ρ u)
=+ dx dy dz
∂x
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 6
6
10/7/2008
Conservation of Mass for an

infinitesimal C.V. (fluid particle)
(II) = net rate of mass flux (mass flow rate) out through
the C.S. in the three directions =
⎡ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) ⎤
( II ) = + ⎢ + + ⎥ dx dy dz
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
∂ρ ∂ρ
(I ) = − d∀ = − dx dy dz
∂t ∂t
∂ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w)
∴ + + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 7
7
10/7/2008
Conservation of Mass - Special Cases

∂ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w)
+ + + = 0 ⇐ Compressible , Unsteady
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ρ
1. Incompressible Flow:- ρ = constant ⇒ =0
∂t
∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) ∂u ∂v ∂ w
+ + =0 ⇒ + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
r
i.e., ∇. V = 0
∂ ∂ρ
2. Steady Flow:- =0 ⇒ =0
∂t ∂t
∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) r
+ + =0 ⇒ i.e., ∇. ( ρV ) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 8
8
10/7/2008
Example Problem
Which of the following sets of equations represent

possible two-dimensional incompressible flow cases?
a) u = 2x2 + y2 − x2 y
v = x 3 + x( y 2 − 2 y )
b) u = 2 xy − x + y 2
v = 2 xy − y 2 + x 2
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 9
9
10/7/2008
Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions of

the Motion of a Fluid Particle
1. Lagrangian Description:-
In the Lagrangian description, anyrfluid property, “F”,
r
is function of the position
X vector X and time (t), i.e.,
r
F = F ( X , t)
r
r dX
∴ particle velocity, V =
dt
r r
r dV d X
2
and particle acceleration, a = = 2
dt dt
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 10
10
10/7/2008
Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions of

the Motion of a Fluid Particle
2. Eulerian Description:-
In the Elurian description, any fluid property, “F”, is
function of the space coordinates x, y, z, and time (t),
F = F ( x, y , z , t )
i.e.,
∂x
∴ = local velocity in the x - direction
∂t
(not a certain particle velocity).
∂F
= local change of F (at a certain x, y, z location)
∂t
Eulerian description is used in most fluid mechanics problems.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 11
11
10/7/2008
Problem
The temperature, T, in a long tunnel is known to vary
approximately as:
−x
T = To − α e L sin( 2 π t / τ )
where To , α, L, and τ are constants, and x is measured
from the entrance of the tunnel.
A particle moves into the tunnel with a constant speed,

U. Obtain an expression for the rate of change of
temperature experienced by the particle.
∂T
Is the required rate of change equal to ?
∂t
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 12
12
10/7/2008
Substantial Derivative
If we want to find the time rate of change of any

fluid property,”F”, following a certain particle and
still use Eulerian descriction, we have to use what
is called a “substantial”
substantial or “particle”
particle or “material”
derivative.
derivative
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 13
13
10/7/2008
In the Eulerian description:- F = F(x, y, z, t)
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
dF = dt + dx+ dy+ dz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dF ∂F ∂F dx ∂F dy ∂F dz
devide by dt, = + + + (1)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
If we are following a certain particle:-
dx dy dz
=u , =v , =w
dt dt dt
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 14
14
10/7/2008
dF ∂F ∂F dx ∂F dy ∂F dz
= + + + (1)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
dx dy dz
= u, = v, =w
dt dt dt
DF ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
in (1) = +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
DF ∂F r
or, = + V .∇F
Dt ∂t
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 15
15
10/7/2008
Substantial Derivative – meaning of

each term DF ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
= +u +v +w
DF ∂F r
or, = + V .∇F
Dt ∂t
DF
= total time rate of change of F seen or experienced
Dt
by a certain particle.
∂F
= local time rate of change of F.
∂t
r
V .∇F = convective rate of change
= rate of change due to the motion of the particle.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 16
16
10/7/2008
Problem
The temperature, T, in a long tunnel is known to vary
approximately as:
−x
T = To − α e L sin( 2 π t / τ )
where To , α, L, and τ are constants, and x is
measured from the entrance of the tunnel.
A particle moves into the tunnel with a constant speed,

U. Obtain an expression for the rate of change of
temperature experienced by the particle.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 17
17
10/7/2008
Particle Acceleration
r r
In the Eulerian description:- V = V ( x, y , z , t )
r r
∂V DV
= local acceleration = particle acceleration = a p
∂t Dt
r r r r r
DV ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
∴ap = = +u +v +w (I)
r
∂V r r
or, ap = + V .∇V
∂t
Note:- Equation (I) is a vector equation, so three
equations can be written in the three coordinates.
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 18
18
10/7/2008
Particle Acceleration
r r r r r
DV ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
∴ap = = +u +v +w (I)
r
∂V r r
or, ap = + V .∇V
∂t
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∴in x - direction : a px = = +u +v +w
Dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
∴in y - direction : a py = = +u +v + w
Dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
∴in z - direction : a pz = = +u +v +w
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 19
19
10/7/2008
Types of Motion of A Fluid Particle

(Kinematics)
1. Translational.
2. Rotation.
3. Linear Deformation.
4. Angular Deformation.
Fig 5.5
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 20
20
10/7/2008
Deformation and Rotation of a Fluid

Element
Rate of Deformation =
(Δα + Δβ )
Δt
1 (Δα − Δβ )
Rate of rotation = average rotational speed =
2 Δt
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 21
21
10/7/2008
Rotation of a Fluid Element
Δη Δξ
Δα = , Δβ = (1)
Δx Δy
⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂u
Δξ = ⎜⎜ u + Δy ⎟⎟.Δt − u.Δt = Δy.Δt
⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y
⎛ ∂v ⎞ ∂v
Δη = ⎜ v + Δx ⎟.Δt − v.Δt = Δx.Δt
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x
∂v ∂u
in (1) ∴ Δα = , Δβ = (2)
∂x ∂y
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 22
22
10/7/2008
Rotation Vector
1 Δα − Δβ
Average rotational velocity = ωz =
2 Δt
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
from (2) ∴ωz = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
ωz = component of the rotation vector about the z-axis.
1 ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞
ωx = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟, ωy = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ iˆ ˆj kˆ
r ) 1 r 1 r 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
ω = rotation vector = ωx i + ωy j + ωw k = ∇ × V = curl V =
ˆ ˆ
2 2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 23
23
10/7/2008
Vorticity Vector ) 1 r
r
ω = rotation vector = ωx iˆ + ωy ˆj + ωw k = ∇ × V =
2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
1 r 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= curl V =
2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r r ∂ ∂ ∂
ζ = vorticity vector = 2ω = ∇ × V =
∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 24
24
10/7/2008
Fluid Deformation: (1) Angular

Deformation
Δα + Δβ
Rate of angular deformation in x - y plane =
Δt
∂v ∂u
but, Δα = , Δβ =
∂x ∂y
⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
∴ Rate of angular deformation in x - y plane = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂w ∂u ⎞
∴ Rate of angular deformation in x - z plane = ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞
∴ Rate of angular deformation in y - z plane = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 25
25
10/7/2008
Types of Motion of A Fluid Particle

(Kinematics)
1. Translational.
2. Rotation.
3. Linear Deformation.
4. Angular Deformation.
Fig 5.5
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 26
26
10/7/2008
Fluid Deformation: (2) Linear Deformation
⎡ ∂u ⎤
⎢⎣ u + Δx ⎥ Δt − u Δt
∂x ⎦ ∂u
Linear deformation in x - direction = = Δt
Δx ∂x
∂u
Rate of linear deformation in x - direction =
∂x
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 27
27
10/7/2008
Fluid Deformation: (2) Linear Deformation
∂u
Rate of linear deformation in x - direction =
∂x
∂v
Similarly, rate of linear deformation in y - direction =
∂y
∂w
and rate of linear deformation in z - direction =
∂z
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 28
28
10/7/2008
Rate of Volume Deformation or

Dilation
Rate of volume deformation or dilation =

∂u ∂v ∂w
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
r
= ∇.V
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 29
29
10/7/2008
Recall - Conservation of Mass - Special

Cases
∂ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) ⇐ Compressible
+ + + =0 ⇐ , Unsteady
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ρ
Incompressible Flow:- ρ = constant ⇒ =0
∂t
∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w) ∂u ∂v ∂ w
+ + =0 ⇒ + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
r
i.e., ∇.V = 0
i.e., for an incompressible fluid, rate of volume deformation = 0

ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 30
30
10/7/2008
Differential Momentum Equation.
For an incompressible fluids with constant density and

viscosity, momentum equations are:-
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
ME3O04 – Chapter 5 1 2 3 31
31
10/20/2008
Outline Chapter 6- Incompressible Inviscid Flow

¾ Momentum equation - special cases:
9 Incompressible flow with constant viscosity.
9 Inviscid (frictionless flow), i.e., μ = 0 - Euler’s
equation.
¾ Euler’s equations along a streamline.
¾ Bernoulli’s Equation.
¾ Hydrostatic, Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation
Pressures.
¾ Applications of Bernoulli’s equation.
¾ Energy Grade Line (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade Line
(HGL).
¾ Example problem.
1
10/20/2008
Differential Momentum Equation.
For an incompressible fluids with constant density and

viscosity, momentum equations are:-
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
2
10/20/2008
Incompressible Inviscid Flow
z Incompressible means ρ = constant.
z Inviscid means that viscosity μ = 0.
3
10/20/2008
Differential Momentum Equation

For an incompressible fluid (ρ = c) with constant
viscosity, momentum equation is:-
r
DV r Inviscid ⇒ μ = 0
ρ = ρ g − ∇p + μ ∇ V
2
Or, Dt
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
4
10/20/2008
Euler’s Equation
For an incompressible (ρ = c) , inviscid flow
0) momentum equation is:- DVr
(μ = 0),
ρ = ρ g − ∇p
Or, Dt
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
5
10/20/2008
Euler’s Equation in Streamline

Coordinates
z Euler’s equations shown in the previous slide
are written using x-y-z coordinates.
z In steady flow a fluid particle will move along a
streamline because, for a steady flow, pathlines
and streamlines coincide.
z Thus, in describing the motion of a fluid particle

in a steady flow, the distance along a streamline
is a logical coordinate to use in writing the
equations of motion.
6
10/20/2008
Fluid Particle Moving along a

Streamline
Fig 6.1
7
10/20/2008

Coordinates
1. Apply Newton’s 2nd Law in the s-direction
∑ F = FS + FB = m as
⎡ ∂p ds ⎤ ⎡ ∂p ds ⎤
⎢⎣ p − ⎥ dn.dx − ⎢ p + ⎥ dn.dx − ρ g sin β d∀ = ρ d∀ as
∂s 2 ⎦ ⎣ ∂s 2 ⎦
8
10/20/2008
Euler’s Equation in S-direction

⎡ ∂p ds ⎤ ⎡ ∂p ds ⎤
⎢⎣ p − ∂s 2 ⎥⎦ dn.dx − ⎢⎣ p + ∂s 2 ⎥⎦ dn.dx − ρ g sin β d∀ = ρ d∀ as (1)
dz
but, sin β =
ds
r r r
1 ∂p ∂z DV ∂V r ∂V
in (1) − − g = as = = +V
ρ ∂s ∂s Dt ∂t ∂s
If we neglect the body force and consider only steady flow:-
r
1 ∂p r ∂V
− =V
ρ ∂s ∂s
9
10/20/2008
10
10/20/2008

Coordinates
2. Apply Newton’s 2nd Law in the n-direction
∑ F = FS + FB = m an
⎡ ∂p dn ⎤ ⎡ ∂p dn ⎤
⎢⎣ p − ⎥ ds.dx − ⎢ p + ⎥ ds.dx − ρ g cos β d∀ = ρ d∀ an
∂n 2 ⎦ ⎣ ∂n 2 ⎦
11
10/20/2008
Euler’s Equation in n-direction

⎡ ∂p dn ⎤ ⎡ ∂p dn ⎤
⎢ p − ∂n 2 ⎥ ds.dx − ⎢ p + ∂n 2 ⎥ ds.dx − ρ g cos β d∀ = ρ d∀ an
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
(2)
dz
but, cosβ =
dn r2
1 ∂p ∂z V
in (2) − −g = an = −
ρ ∂n ∂n R
an = centripetal acceleration, R = radius of curvature.
If we neglect the body force and consider only steady flow:-
r2
1 ∂p V
=
ρ ∂n R
12
10/20/2008
Euler’s Equation
in n-direction
r2
1 ∂p V
=
ρ ∂n R
z This equation indicates that pressure increases in
the direction outwards from the center of curvature
of the streamline.
∂p
z In case of flow in a straight line:- R = ∞ ∴ =0
∂n
i.e., there is no variation in pressure in the n-direction.
13
10/20/2008
Measurement of Static Pressure
r2
1 ∂p V
=
ρ ∂n R
∂p
R=∞ ∴ =0
∂n
14
10/20/2008
Measurement of Static Pressure
Can we put the pressure gage at the elbow?

r2
1 ∂p V
=
ρ ∂n R
15
10/20/2008
Bernoulli’s Equation
z Bernoulli’s equation results from the integration

of Euler’s equation along a streamline for a
steady flow.
z Euler’s equation in s-direction (along a

streamline):- r r
1 ∂p ∂z ∂V r ∂V
− −g = +V
ρ ∂s ∂s ∂t ∂s
r
1 ∂p ∂z r ∂V
− − g =V (3)
z For steady flow:- ρ ∂s ∂s ∂s
16
10/20/2008
Bernoulli’s Equation – Cont’d

Since we are moving a long a streamline, thus,
p=p(s,t) ∂p ∂p ∂p
∴ dp = ds + dt = ds
∂s ∂t ∂s
∂z ∂z ∂z
and, dz = ds + dt = ds
∂s ∂t ∂s
r r r
r ∂V ∂V ∂V
and, dV = ds + dt = ds
∂s ∂t ∂s
r
1 ∂p ∂z r ∂V
Recall (3) − − g =V (3)
ρ ∂s ∂s ∂s
17
10/20/2008
1 r r
in (3) − dp − g dz = V d V
ρ
r r
or, V d V + g dz +
dp
=0 (4)
ρ
z Integration of (4) along S:-
r2
V
+gz+∫
dp
= constant (5)
2 ρ
z For an incompressible fluid ρ = c, in (5):
r2
V p ⇐ Bernoulli’s equation
+ g z + = constant
2 ρ
18
10/20/2008
Restrictions of The Application of

Bernoulli’s Equation r2
V p
+ g z + = constant
2 ρ
Bernoulli’s equation is a very powerful tool, but is has to be
carefully Because it has very strict applicability
used very carefully.
limitations.
1. Incompressible flow, i.e., ρ = c, Mach number, Ma < 0.3.
2. Inviscid flow, i.e., μ = 0.

∂
3. Steady flow, i.e., =0
∂t
4. Along a streamline.
19
10/20/2008
Hydrostatic, Static, Dynamic, and

Stagnation Pressures
1. Hydrostatic pressure is pressure resulting from weight
of a fluid column. P = ρ g h.
2. Ps=Static pressure is pressure due to the

thermodynamic state of the fluid.
3. Pd=Dynamic pressure is pressure due to the velocity of

r2
the fluid. ρV
Pd =
2
4. Po=Stagnation pressure is pressure exerted by a
moving fluid when brought from motion to rest.
Po=Ps + Pd
20
10/20/2008
Measurement of Static Pressure, Ps
Fig 6.2
21
10/20/2008
Measurement of Stagnation Pressure
Po = Ps + Pd
22
10/20/2008
Simultaneous Measurement of Static and

Stagnation Pressures
r2 r2
Po Vo P V
From Bernoulli’s + + gzo = + + gz
ρ 2 ρ 2
r2
r V
Vo = 0 and z o = z, ∴ Po = P + ρ
2
23
10/20/2008
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

r2
V p
+ g z + = constant
2 ρ
Bernoulli’s equation can be written for any two

points along a same stream line as:
r2 r2
V1 p1 V2 p2
+ g z1 + = + g z2 +
2 ρ 2 ρ
24
10/20/2008
Measurement of Fluid Velocity at a Point
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B:

r2 r2
PA VA PB VB
+ + g zA = + + g zB (1)
ρ 2 ρ 2
Note : zA = z B
and VB = 0, thus PB = Po
r2
2 (Po − PA )
P V P
in (1) A + A = o
ρ 2 ρ ∴ VA =
ρ
25
10/20/2008
Applications – Nozzle Flow
One can relate info at section 2 to those at section 1 using:

r2 r2
V1 p1 V2 p2
+ g z1 + = + g z2 +
2 ρ 2 ρ
26
10/20/2008
Flow through a Siphon

One can relate info at sections 1, A, and 2 using:
r2 r2 r2
V1 p1 VA p A V2 p2
+ g z1 + = + g zA + = + g z2 +
2 ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ
Note : P1 = P2 = Patm.
Since area reservoir >> area pipe
then, V1 ≈ 0
z If one uses Patm =0, this means that pressures
are gage.
z If one uses Patm = 101.3 kPa, this means that
pressures are absolute.
27
10/20/2008
Meaning of Each Term in Bernoulli’s Equation

r2
p V
+ + g z = constant r2
ρ 2 p V
devide by g : + +z = H
ρ g 2g
p p∀
= = flow energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid=
ρ g mg
r head due to local static pressure.
r 2 mV 2
V 2 = kinetic energy per unit weight = head due to local
=
2g mg dynamic pressure.
mg z
z= = Potential energy per unit weight = head
mg
due to elevation.
H = total mechanical energy per unit weight
= total head of the flow
28
10/20/2008
Example Problem
A tank with a reentrant orifice called a Borda
mouthpiece is shown. The fluid is inviscid and
incompressible. The reentrant orifice essentially
eliminates flow along the tank walls, so the
pressure there is nearly hydrostatic. Calculate
the contraction coefficient, Cc = Aj/Ao.
29
10/20/2008
Energy Grade Line (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade

Line (HGL)
64 4EGL
7 44 8
r2
p V
+z+ =H
ρg 2g
123
HGL
z EGL is a line representing
the total head.
z HGL is a line
representing the sum of
elevation heads and
static pressure head.
z The difference EGL-HGL
= dynamic head.
30
10/20/2008

Line (HGL)
64 4EGL
7 44 8
r2
p V
+z+ =H
ρg 2g
123
HGL
z At point (1) p1 = patm.=0

(gage) and V1 = 0, thus
H1 = z1.
z At point 4, p4=patm. = 0,
thus the height of HGL =
z4.
31
10/20/2008

Line (HGL)
64 4EGL
7 44 8
r2
p V
+z+ =H
ρg 2g
123
HGL
z Flow through a constant
cross section will have a
horizontal HGL (bec. V = c).
32
11/1/2008
Example 1
A tank with a reentrant orifice called a Borda
mouthpiece is shown. The fluid is inviscid and
incompressible. The reentrant orifice essentially
eliminates flow along the tank walls, so the
pressure there is nearly hydrostatic. Calculate
the contraction coefficient, Cc = Aj/Ao.
1
11/1/2008
2
11/1/2008
3
11/1/2008
4
11/1/2008
5
11/1/2008
6
11/1/2008
1 Aj
∴ Cc = =
Ao 2
7
11/1/2008
Example 2
Heavy loads can be moved with relative ease on air cushions by
using a load pallet as shown. Air is supplied from the plenum through
porous surface AB. It enters the gap vertically at uniform speed, q.
Once in the gap, all air flows in the positive x direction (there is no
flow in across the plane at x = 0) Assume air flow in the gap is
incompressible and uniform at each cross section, with speed u(x) as
shown in the enlarged view. Although the gap is narrow (h<<L),
neglect frictional effects as a first approximation. Use a suitably
chosen control volume to show that u(x) = qx/h in the gap. Calculate
the acceleration of a fluid particle in the gap. Evaluate the pressure
gradient dp/dx, and sketch the pressure distribution within the gap. Be
sure to indicate the pressure at x=L.
8
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9
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10
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11
11/17/2008
Water is admitted at the center pipe of the platform shown below at

a rate of 1 m3/s and discharged into the air around the periphery.
The upper circular plate in the figure is horizontal and is fixed in
position to the ceiling. The lower annular plate is free to move
vertically and is not supported by the pipe. The annular plate
weighs 30 N, and the weight of water on it should be considered. If
the distance, d, between the two plates is to be maintained at 3.5
cm, what is the total weight W that this platform can support?
ME3O04 –Review 1 2 7
1
11/17/2008
Water is discharged from a narrow slot in a 150 mm diameter pipe.

The resulting horizontal two-dimensional jet is 1 m long and 15 mm
thick, but of non-uniform velocity. The pressure at the inlet section is
30 kPag. Calculate (a) the volume flow rate at the inlet section and
(b) the forces required at the coupling to hold the spray pipe in
place. Neglect the mass of the pipe and the mass of water it
contains.
Coupling
ME3O04 –Review 1 2 18
2
10/30/2008
Outline Chapter 7- Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

¾ Meaning of Similitude.
¾ Dimensionless numbers.
¾ Methods of dimensional analysis:-
1. Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equations.
2. Using Buckingham PI Theorem.
¾ Buckingham PI Theorem.
¾ Procedure to determine the PI groups (illustrative example - Drag
force on a sphere).
¾ Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics.
¾ Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics.
¾ Flow Similarity and Model Studies.
¾ Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters.
¾ Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters.
¾ Example Problem
ME3O04 - Chapter 7 1
http://mech.mcmaster.ca/~hamedm/me3o04/ 1 2
1
10/30/2008
Similitude
V 2 m2 s 2 1 ??
= 2
gh s m m
= dimensionless
One of the important dimensionless

2
V
numbers in this problem =
gh
2
10/30/2008
Similitude
2V
??
V 2
V 2
1
= 2
gh1 gh2
h2 2
V =
2
2
V1
h1
V =2 V
2 2
2 1
i.e., V2 = 2 V1 = 2 V
3
10/30/2008
Roasting Time of a Turkey

What are the parameters affecting roasting time
of a turkey (t) ?
1. Mass, m
p
3
c ρm 2
2. Density, ρ t = constant
3. Thermal conductivity, k k
4. Specific heat, cp
Using dimensional analysis we can show that:-
Or,
tk =constant = dimensionless number
cp 3 ρ m2
4
10/30/2008
Roasting Time of a Turkey
⎛ tk ⎞ ⎛ tk ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ c 3 ρ m2 ⎟ ⎜ c 3 ρ m2 ⎟
⎝ p ⎠bird no.1 ⎝ p ⎠bird no. 2
So, if we know the cooking time of bird no.1, we can calculate
the cooking time of bird no. 2 from this equation.
5
10/30/2008
Drag Force on a Sphere

Drag force on a sphere, F
depends on:-
1. Diameter, D
2. Fluid density, ρ
3. Fluid viscosity, μ
4. Fluid velocity, U
Dimensional analysis shows that this problem is governed
by two dimensionless numbers :
F ⎛ ρ VD ⎞
And that = f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ρV D ⎝ μ ⎠
2 2
6
10/30/2008
z Does the size of sphere (i.e., D) matter in using this figure?

z Does the type of fluid (i.e., ρ and μ) matter in using this figure?
7
10/30/2008
Similitude
z So, if we know which dimensionless parameters
are important in a problem, all other similar
problems can be dealt with easily, or we should
say, similarly.
similarly
z The “QUESTION” now is how can we determine

important “Dimensionless Numbers”
Numbers in any
problem of interest?
z Methods to do that:
1. Nondimensionalizing basic differential equations.
2. Using Buckingham PI Theorem.
8
10/30/2008
Nondimensionalizing the Basic

Differential Equations
Example: Steady, incompressible, two-dimensional
flow, of a Newtonian fluid, with constant
viscosity.
Assumptions:
∂
1. Steady ⇒ =0
∂t
2. Incompressible ⇒ ρ =c
∂
3. Two-dimensional ⇒ =w=0
∂z
4. Newtonian fluid with constant μ.
9
10/30/2008
For an incompressible fluid with constant viscosity,

momentum equations are:-
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
10
10/30/2008
Momentum Equations after Applying all

Other Assumptions
1) x–direction,
2) y-direction,
3) z-direction,
⎡ ∂u ∂u ⎤ ∂p ⎡ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎤
x − direction ρ ⎢u + v ⎥ = − + μ ⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥ (2)
⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ ∂x ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦
⎡ ∂v ∂v ⎤ ∂p ⎡ ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ⎤
y − direction ρ ⎢u + v ⎥ = − − ρg + μ ⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥ (3)
⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ ∂y ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦
11
10/30/2008
Non- Dimensionalizing Equations 1 and 2
z Non-dimensionalizing these equations means :
1. To divide all lengths by a reference length, L;

x y
x = ,
*
y =*
L L
2. To divide all velocities by a reference velocity, V∞;
u v
u =*
, v =
*
V∞ V∞
z Note: dimensionless quantities are denoted with
asterisks:
12
10/30/2008
Non- Dimensionalizing Equations 1 and 2
3. To divide pressure by twice the dynamic head

= ρV∞2.
p
p =*
ρ V∞2
z Note: dimensionless quantities are denoted with

asterisks:
13
10/30/2008
Equations in Dimensionless Form

Momentum, x − direction :
∂u *
∂u *
∂p *
μ ⎡ ∂ 2 *
u ∂ 2 *⎤
u
u * * + v* * = − * + ⎢ + ⎥ (2)
∂x ∂y ∂x ρ V∞ L ⎣ ∂x*2 ∂y *2 ⎦
Momentum, y − direction :
∂v* * ∂v* ∂p* gL μ ⎡ ∂ 2 v* ∂ 2 v* ⎤
u*
+v =− * − 2 + ⎢ *2 + *2 ⎥ (3)
∂x *
∂y *
∂y V∞ ρ V∞ L ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦
ρ V∞ L V∞2
Re = = Reynolds number Fr = = Froud number
μ gL
14
10/30/2008
Recall - Similitude
z So, if we know which dimensionless parameters are
important in a problem, all other similar problems can
be dealt with easily, or we should say, similarly.
z The “QUESTION” now is how can we determine these

important “Dimensionless Numbers”
Numbers in any problem of
interest?
z Methods to do that:
9 1. Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equations.
Ö 2. Using Buckingham PI Theorem.
15
10/30/2008
Methods to find the Dimensionless Numbers

Relevant to a Certain Problem of Interest
z The method of non-dimensionalizing differential
equations depends on knowing which equations to use,
which is not always the case.
z If we do not know the equations, we use the second
method known as the “Buckingham PI Theorem” .
z Before we discuss the Buckingham PI Theorem, we
need first to discuss two important concepts:-
1. Fundamental, or Independent, or Primary Dimensions.
2. Dimensional homogeneity.
16
10/30/2008
Fundamental, or Independent, or Primary

Dimensions
z Dimensions of all physical quantities can be expressed
in terms of a group of “independent or primary
dimensions”.
z These primary dimensions are:

1. Mass, M; L
Velocity = V = = L. t −1
2. Length, L; t
3. Time, t; V L −2
4. Temperature, T. Acceleration = = = L.t ,
t t 2
z Examples:-
L
Force = ma = M . 2 = M .L.t −2
t
17
10/30/2008
Dimensional Homogeneity
Any valid equation that relates physical quantities must
be dimensionally homogeneous,
homogeneous i.e., each term in the
equation must have the same dimensions.
Example: Newton’s Law of Viscosity
∂u
τ =μ (1)
∂y
force L 1 M
L.H.S. of (1) τ= = M. 2 . 2 = 2
area t L t .L
18
10/30/2008
Dimensional Homogeneity
∂u
τ =μ (1)
∂y
N.s M .L t L 1 M
Qμ = ∴ R.H.S. of (1) = . . =
m2 t 2 L2 t L t 2 .L
τ
Equation (1) can be written as : − 1 = 0,
∂u
μ
∂y
i.e., f (τ , μ , u, y) = 0
19
10/30/2008
Buckingham PI Theorem
This theorem states that: Given a relation among n
parameters, q1, q2, …, qn, of the form:
g (q1 , q2 ,....., qn ) = 0
The n parameters may be grouped into (n-m)
independent dimensionless groups or ratios (π
parameters), expressible in functional form by:
G (π 1 , π 2 ,....., π n −m ) = 0
where m = r = the minimum number of independent
dimensions required to specify the dimensions of the n
parameters.
20
10/30/2008
Procedure to Determine the π Groups

Illustrative example: Drag force on a sphere.
Step 1
List all dimensional parameters involved in the problem
and determine n. Where n is the number of dimensional
parameters.
Drag force on a sphere, FD depends on:-
1. Diameter, D
2. Fluid density, ρ
3. Fluid viscosity, μ
4. Fluid velocity, U
g ( FD , D, U , μ , ρ ) = 0 ∴n=5
21
10/30/2008
Procedure to Determine the π Groups –

Cont’d
Step 2 Select a set of primary dimensions = M, L, t, T
Step 3 Construct the “Dimensional Matrix” by listing all
parameters in terms of the primary dimensions.
M −1 − 2
F = = M L t ,
Lt μ ρ
2
FD D U
D = L, M1 0 0 1 1
L L 1 1 1 −1 − 3
U = = L t −1 ,
t t − 2 0 −1 −1 0
M
μ = = M L−1 t −1 T 0 0 0 0 0
Lt
M
ρ = 3 = M L− 3 “Dimensional Matrix”
L
22
10/30/2008

Cont’d
Step 4 Determine the rank of the dimensional
matrix, r.
where the rank, r, is the order of the largest non-zero
determinant in the matrix.
FD D U μ ρ
M 1 0 0 1 1
L 1 1 1 −1 − 3
t −2 0 −1 −1 0
T 0 0 0 0 0
∴ r=3
23
10/30/2008

Cont’d
Step 5 Select a set of r dimensional parameters that
includes all the primary dimensions used in step 3 (i.e.,
M, L, and t).
Since r = 3, then select [ U, D, ρ ]
These parameters are called the repeating parameters.

Note: It is common to select a velocity,
velocity a dimension,
dimension and a
fluid property.
property
24
10/30/2008

Cont’d
Step 6 Set dimensional equations using the repeating
parameters and one of the other parameters, one-at-a-
time. a c
π 1 = U a .D b .ρ c .FD = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ .Lb .⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ . 2 = M 0 .L0 .t 0
L M ML
⎝t⎠ ⎝L ⎠ t
Solving for the exponents:
of t: -a -2 = 0 ⇒ a = -2
of M: c + 1 = 0 ⇒ c = -1
of L: a + b -3c + 1 = 0 ⇒ b = -2
FD
∴π1 = = drag coefficient
ρU D
2 2
25
10/30/2008

Cont’d
Step 6 Set dimensional equations using the repeating
parameters and one of the other parameters, one-at-a-
time.
a c
π 2 = U .D .ρ .μ =
a b c ⎛L⎞ b ⎛M ⎞ M
⎜ ⎟ .L .⎜ 3 ⎟ . = M 0 .L0 .t 0
⎝t⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ L.t
Solving for the exponents:
of t: -a -1 = 0 ⇒ a = -1
of M: c + 1 = 0 ⇒ c = -1
of L: a + b -3c -1 = 0 ⇒ b = -1
μ
1
∴π 2 = =
ρ U D Re
26
10/30/2008

Cont’d
Step 7 Check that each π group is dimensionless.
The use of Buckingham theorem in the problem of drag

force on a sphere shows there are two important
dimensionless numbers in this problem, which are:
FD
drag coefficient =
ρ U 2 D2
ρU D
and, Reynolds number =
μ
But how these two groups relate, needs to be
determined experimentally.
27
10/30/2008
Relationship between Drag

Coefficient and Reynolds number
28
10/30/2008
Buckingham PI Theorem
Important points to note:-

z Buckingham theorem allows us to determine:-
1. The number of π groups (dimensionless numbers)
involved in the problem.
2. The form of each one of these dimensionless
numbers (π’s).
z But, it does not allow us to determine the form

of the function, G (π 1 , π 2 ,....., π n −m ) = 0 , which
has to be determined experimentally.
experimentally
29
10/30/2008
Forces encountered in Fluid

Mechanics
Forces encountered in flowing fluids include forces
due to:
1. Inertia
2. Viscosity
3. Pressure
4. Gravity
5. Surface tension
6. Compressibility.
The ratio of any two forces will be dimensionless, and
defines a significant dimensionless number in Fluid
Mechanics.
30
10/30/2008
Dimensions of These Forces

(
⎛V ⎞
1. Inertia force = m.a = ρ L . ⎜ ⎟,
3
) L
but t = ,
⎝t ⎠ V
⎛ ⎞
( V
)
2
Thus, m.a = ρ L . ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ρ L2 V 2
3
⎝ L ⎠
∂u V 2
2. Viscous force = τ . A = μ . A = μ .L = μ V L
∂y L
3. Pressure force = Δp. A = Δp.L2
31
10/30/2008
Dimensions of These Forces –

Cont’d
4. Gravity force = m. g = ρ L3
(.g )
5. Surface tension force = σ . L , where, σ = surface
tension = force per unit length.
6. Compressibility force = Ev . A = Ev . L , where Ev is

2
the compressibility modulus, or modulus of elasticity.
dp force
Ev = = = stress
⎛⎜ dρ ⎞⎟ area
⎝ ρ⎠
32
10/30/2008
Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid

Mechanics
inertia force ρ L2V 2 ρ LV
1.
1. = = = Re = Reynolds number
viscous force μ V L μ
2. pressure force Δ p L2
Δp
= = = Eu = Euler number
inertia force ρ LV2 2
1
ρV 2
22
3. inertia force = ρ L V = V = Fr 2 = (Froud number )2
2 2
gravity force ρ L3 g gL
inertia force ρ L2V 2 ρ L V 2

4. surface tension force = σ L = σ = We = Weber number
33
10/30/2008
Significant Dimensionless Groups in

Fluid Mechanics – Cont’d
inertia force ρ L2V 2 ρ V 2 V2
5. = = = = Ma 2
compressibility force Ev L2 Ev Ev ρ
V V V
where, = = = Ma = Mach number
Ev dp C
ρ dρ
dp
and C = speed of sound = dρ
Note:- in case of incompressible flow, ρ = constant,

i.e., dρ = 0. Thus, C = ∞ ⇒ Ma = 0.
34
10/30/2008
Significant Dimensionless Groups in

Fluid Mechanics – Cont’d
pressure force Δp L2 p − pv
= = = Ca = Cavitation number
6. inertia force ρ L V
2 2
1
ρV 2
2
where, p = pressure in liquid stream.
pv = vapor pressure of liquid.
Note:- As Ca ↓, the more likely cavitation to occur.
35
10/30/2008
Flow Similarity and Model Studies

z A model test must yield data that can be scaled to
obtain information of interest on the full-scale prototype.
z To be able to do that, there are conditions that have to

be met to ensure similarity of model and prototype flow.
z Model and prototype must have:-

1. Geometrical similarity.
2. Kinematic similarity.
3. Dynamic similarity.
36
10/30/2008
Geometrical Similarity
Geometrical similarity requires that:-
1. The model and prototype be of the same shape.
2. All linear dimensions of the model related to

corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a
constant scale factor.
factor
37
10/30/2008
Kinematic Similarity
z Two flows are kinematically similar when the velocities at
corresponding points are in the same direction and differ
by a constant scale factor.
z Thus two kinematically similar flows have streamlines

related by a constant scale factor.
z Since the boundaries form the boundary streamlines of

the flow, flows that are kinematically similar must be
geometrically similar.
i.e., geometrical similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic

similarity.
38
10/30/2008
Dynamic Similarity
z Dynamic similarity requires that Identical types of forces
to be :-
1. Parallel, and
2. Related in magnitude by a constant scale.
z For condition 1, dynamic similarity requires kinematic

similarity, hence geometric similarity too.
z For condition 2, each independent dimensionless group

(force ratio) must have the same value in the model and
the prototype.
39
10/30/2008
Example – Drag Force on a Sphere

F = f ( D, U , μ , ρ )
F ⎛ ρV D ⎞
Drag coefficient = = f 2 (Re) = f 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ρU D ⎝ μ ⎠
2 2
Dynamic similarity is achieved if we use a model sphere

(could be smaller or bigger) and keep:-
⎛ ρV D ⎞ ⎛ ρV D ⎞
Re model = Re prototype , i.e., ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ μ ⎠ model ⎝ μ ⎠ prototype
⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞
and, ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ρ U 2 D2 ⎟ ⎜ ρ U 2 D2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ model ⎝ ⎠ prototype
40
10/30/2008
Example – Drag Force on a Sphere –

Cont’d ⎛ ρ V D ⎞ ⎛ ρV D ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1)
⎝ μ ⎠ model ⎝ μ ⎠ prototype
⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜
=⎜ ⎟ (2)
⎜ ρ U 2 D2 ⎟ 2 ⎟
⎠ model ⎝ ρ U D ⎠ prototype
2
⎝
Equations (1) and (2) state that:-

1. We do not need to use the same fluid to test the model.
2. The resulted drag force in the model will not be equal to

the drag force in the prototype. However, the drag
coefficients are the same.
41
10/30/2008
Scaling with Multiple Dependent

Parameters
z In the example of drag force on a sphere, we were
interested in one dependent parameter,
parameter which is the
drag force.
z In some practical applications there might be more than

one dependent parameter of interest.
z In such cases, dimensionless groups must be formed

separately for each one of those dependent parameters.
z Example – performance of a typical centrifugal pump.
42
10/30/2008
Centrifugal Pump or Fan
43
10/30/2008
Example for Scaling with Multiple

Dependent Parameters
Performance of a typical centrifugal pump.
z In this case, dependent parameters of interest are:-

1. Pressure rise or head developed by the pump, h.
2. Power input required to derive the pump, P.
z We are interested to know how h and P depend on:-

1. Volume flow rate, Q.
2. Angular speed, ω.
3. Impeller diameter, D.
4. Fluid properties ρ and μ.
44
10/30/2008
Performance of a Typical Centrifugal

Pump
∴ h = f1 (Q, ω , ρ , μ , D)
and P = f 2 (Q, ω , ρ , μ , D)
If we apply Buckingham Theorem, we can find out that:-
h ⎛ Q ρ ω D2 ⎞ P ⎛ Q ρ ω D2 ⎞
= f1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ and, = f 2 ⎜⎜ , ⎟
μ ⎟⎠
, ⎟
ω D
2 2
ω D 3
μ ρω D
3 5
⎝ω D
3
⎝ ⎠
h = head coefficient
where, 2 2
ωD
P
, = power coefficient
ρω D
3 5
45
10/30/2008
Performance of a Typical Centrifugal

Pump
∴ h = f1 (Q, ω , ρ , μ , D)
and P = f 2 (Q, ω , ρ , μ , D)
If we apply Buckingham Theorem, we can find out that:-
h ⎛ Q ρ ω D2 ⎞ P ⎛ Q ρ ω D2 ⎞
= f1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ and, = f 2 ⎜⎜ , ⎟
ω D
,
μ ⎟⎠ ρω D
3 5
⎝ω D
3
μ ⎟⎠
⎝ω D
2 2 3
Q flow coefficient,
=
ωD3
ρωD2 ρ (ωD) D ρ V D
and = ≡ is a form of Re number
μ μ μ
46
10/30/2008
Performance of a Typical
Centrifugal Pump – Cont’d
z From practice it has been found that viscous

effects are relatively unimportant w.r.t. inertial
effects.
z So, we can exclude Re number, and thus:
h '⎛ Q ⎞ P Q ⎞
'⎛
= f1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
3⎟ and, = f 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟
ω D 3⎟
⎝ω D ⎠ ρω D ⎝ω D ⎠
2 2 3 5
47
10/30/2008
Performance Curves of a Typical

Centrifugal Pump
h '⎛ Q ⎞
= f1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
3⎟
ω D
2 2
⎝ω D ⎠
P '⎛
Q ⎞
⎜
= f2 ⎜ ⎟
3⎟
ρω D
3 5
⎝ω D ⎠
P
Efficiency =
Shaft Horsepower
Fig. 7.5
48
10/30/2008
Similarity in Pump Performance
Complete similarity in pump performance test

would require:-
Q1 Q2
=
ω1D12 ω2 D2 2
h1 h2
=
ω12 D12 ω2 2 D2 2
P1 P2
=
ρ1 ω13 D15 ρ 2 ω23 D25
49
10/30/2008
Example Problem
The drag of an airfoil at zero angle of attack is a function
of density, viscosity, and velocity, in addition to a length
parameter.
A 1/10-scale model of an airfoil was tested in a wind

tunnel at a Reynolds number of 5.5 X 106, based on
chord length. Test conditions in the wind tunnel air
stream were 15°C and 10 atmospheres absolute
pressure. The prototype airfoil has a chord length of 2 m,
and it is to be flown in air at standard conditions.
Determine the speed at which the wind tunnel model

was tested, and the corresponding prototype speed.
50
10/30/2008
α = angle of attack.
α=0
51
11/8/2008
Outline Chapter 8- Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

¾ Classification of Continuum Fluid Mechanics.
¾ Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow.
¾ Flow Regimes – Laminar and Turbulent.
¾ Boundary Layer and meaning of fully developed flow.
¾ Fully developed, Laminar Flow between Infinite Parallel
Plates.
¾ Flow in Pipes and Ducts:-
1. Velocity Profiles in fully developed pipe flow.
2. Turbulent velocity profiles in fully developed pipe flow -
“Power Law” .
3. Calculation of head loss:-
a. Major losses.
b. Minor losses.
1
11/8/2008
Classification of Continuum Fluid

Mechanics
9 144
42444
3
Chapter 6
To be covered
Chapters 8 and 9
in 4th year
2
11/8/2008
Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
z Internal means that the flow is completely bounded by

solid surfaces.
Examples:- flow in nozzles, ducts, diffusers, pipes, etc.
z Flow Regimes:- internal flows can be classified, based

on the flow regime, into:-
1. Laminar flow: fluid flows in layers or laminas.
2. Turbulent flow: flow is characterized by high-

frequency velocity fluctuations.
3
11/8/2008
a) Laminar Flow (Re < 2300). b) Turbulent Flow (Re > 2300).
4
11/8/2008
Osborne Reynolds Experiments
a) Laminar Flow (Re < 2300). b) Turbulent Flow (Re > 2300).
5
11/8/2008
Boundary Layer
z Viscosity is responsible for what we call the no-slip
condition.
z Therefore, as fluid approaches a solid surface and due

to the no-slip condition, a region of significant
deformation, i.e., significant velocity gradient is formed.
z This region is called the boundary layer.
6
11/8/2008
Entrance Region
thickness of boundary layer
7
11/8/2008
Fully Developed Flow

When the boundary layer reaches its maximum
thickness the velocity distribution in the direction of
flow does not change anymore,anymore at which case, the flow
is said to have been fully developed.
developed
∂u ∂u
i.e., ≠ 0, i.e., u = u(r, x) i.e., = 0, i.e., u = u(r)
∂x ∂x
thickness of boundary layer
8
11/8/2008
Entrance length = Development length, L

for Flow in a Pipe.
L
1. For Laminar Flow: = 0.06 Re
D
e.g., at Re = 2300, L = 138 D.
where D = pipe diameter
2. For Turbulent Flow: L = 80 D
9
11/8/2008
Fully-Developed Laminar Flows
Common cases are:-
1. Fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel

plates –two cases:-
a. Both plates stationary.
b. Upper plate moving with constant speed , U.
2. Fully developed laminar flow in a pipe.
10
11/8/2008
Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite

Parallel Plates –upper plate moving with constant
speed U.
Assumptions:-
∂
1. Steady flow, i.e., =0
∂t
2. Incompressible flow, i.e., ρ = constant.
3. Constant viscosity, i.e., μ = constant.

∂u
4. If L>> a, then flow is fully developed, i.e., = 0 ≡ u = u(y)
∂x
where, L = length of plates and a = height of gap between plates.
∂
5. Infinite plates means = 0, i.e., flow is two-dimensional.
∂z
6. Neglect body forces in x and y directions.
11
11/8/2008
Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between

Infinite Parallel Plates – upper plate moving
with constant speed U.
Boundary conditions:-
1. at y = 0, u = v = 0.
2. at y = a, u = U, v = 0.
12
11/8/2008
Analysis
For this type of flow, we would like to determine the

following :-
1. Velocity distribution,
2. Pressure distribution.
3. Shear stress distribution.
4. Volume flow rate.
5. Average velocity.
6. Point of maximum velocity.
13
11/8/2008
Analysis – Differential Equations
1. Conservation of mass:-
∂ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v) ∂ ( ρ w)
+ + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Applying assumptions number 1, 5 , and 2:- = f ( x)
∂u ∂v ∂v
+ =0 ⇒ =0 ⇒ v
∂x ∂y ∂y or
= constant
Since v = 0 at any x ⇒ v ≠ f ( x)
∴ v = constant = 0 everywhere.
14
11/8/2008
Analysis – Differential Equations – cont’d

For an incompressible fluid (ρ = c) with constant
viscosity, momentum equation is:-
r
DV r
ρ = ρ g − ∇p + μ ∇ V
2
Dt
Momentum equation in y - direction:-
⎡ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎤ ∂p ⎡ ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ⎤
ρ ⎢ +u + v + w ⎥ = − + ρ gy + μ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂y ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
= p ( x)9 Can not be constant.
∂p
∴ =0 ⇒ p or If it is constant, there
∂y will be no flow.
= constant
15
11/8/2008
Analysis – Differential Equations – cont’d

Momentum equation in x-direction
⎡ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎤ ∂p ⎡ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎤
ρ ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = − + ρ gx + μ ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎥
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂x ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
∂p ∂ 2u
∴ =μ 2 (1)
∂x ∂y
Recall ⇒ p = p ( x) and u = u ( y )
f(x) f ( x) ≠ f ( y ) f(y)
∴ L.H.S. of equation (1) or and R.H.S. of equation (1) or
constant 9 constant
9
16
11/8/2008
Pressure Distribution
∂p ∂ 2u
∴ = μ 2 = constant, say = c1 (2)
∂x ∂y
∂p
∴ = c1 ⇒ (3) at x = 0 p = p1
p = c1.x + c2
∂x
at x = L p = p2
p1 − p2 Δp
∴ c2 = p1 and c1 = − =−
L L
Δp
in (3) ∴p = − x + p1 ⇐ Pressure distribution
L
Note that p is function of x.
17
11/8/2008
Velocity Distribution
∂p ∂ 2u
Recall - =μ 2 (1)
∂x ∂y
∂p Δp ∂ 2u Δp
but = c1 = − in (1) =-
∂x L ∂y 2
μL
∂u Δp
∴ =- y + C3
∂y μL
Δp 2 at y = 0 u=0
and u = - y + C3 y + C4 (4)
2μ L at y = a u = U
Δp 1 ∂p
U
u = y+
a 2μ L
(
U
ya− y = u−
2
a 2 μ ∂x
)
ya − y 2 ( )
18
11/8/2008
Shear Stress Distribution
∂u
Qτ yx =μ
∂y
U
and u = y -
a
Δp 2
2μ L
y −a y ( )
U Δp
∴ τ =μ + (a − 2 y )
a 2L
19
11/8/2008
Volume Flow Rate, Q

r r a
Q = ∫ V .dA = ∫ u ( y ) .Wdy
A 0
⎡U Δp 2 ⎤
( )
a
Q = ∫⎢ y− y − a y ⎥ W .dy
0⎣a 2μ L ⎦
⎡Ua Δp a 3 ⎤
∴Q=⎢ + ⎥W
⎣ 2 12 μ L ⎦
20
11/8/2008
Average Velocity
Q ⎡Ua Δp a 3 ⎤ 1
uav = = ⎢ + ⎥W ×
A ⎣ 2 12 μ L ⎦ Wa
U Δp a 2
∴ uav = +
2 12 μ L
21
11/8/2008
Point of Maximum Velocity

Point of maximum velocity is defined by:-
∂u
= 0, i.e., when τ yx = 0
∂y
U Δp a μ LU
τ =μ + (a − 2 y ) = 0 ⇒ y= +
a 2L 2 a Δp
Note: - Point of maximum velocity is not at y =a/2.

22
11/8/2008
Velocity Distribution
Velocity distribution will change as pressure gradient

1 ∂p 2
( )
changes.
U
u = y+ y −a y
a 2 μ ∂x
Pressure decreases Pressure increases

to the right. to the right, i.e., decreases
to the left.
23
11/8/2008
Velocity distribution will change if the

upper plate is not moving
Pressure decreases
1 ∂p 2
( )
to the right.
U
u = y+ y −a y
a 2 μ ∂x
24
11/8/2008
Flow in Pipes and Ducts
For an incompressible, Inviscid (i.e., μ = 0) flow,

Bernoulli’s equation can be applied between points 1
and 2 as:-
r2 r2
p1 V1 p2 V2
+ + g z1 = + + g z 2 = constant (1)
ρ 2 ρ 2
inviscid flow
25
11/8/2008
Flow in Pipes and Ducts

z Due to friction, i.e., due to shear stress at the wall, we do
not expect the right hand side of Bernoulli’s equation to
remain constant for an incompressible viscid flow.
r2 r2
p1 V1 p2 V2
+ + g z1 = + + g z 2 + hlT (2)
ρ 2 ρ 2
where hlT = total energy loss per unit mass.
viscid flow
26
11/8/2008
Velocity Profiles for Fully Developed Pipe

Flow
27
11/8/2008
Velocity Profile in Fully Developed Pipe

Flow – Laminar Flow
1. Laminar Flow:-
R ∂p ⎡ 2
⎛r⎞ ⎤
2
u = u (r ) = − ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4 μ ∂x ⎢⎣ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
28
11/8/2008

Flow – Turbulent Flow
2. Turbulent Flow:- velocity vector in case of fully

developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be represented
by:
r
V = (u + u ′) iˆ + v′ ˆj
where, u = time-mean velocity.
u’ and v’ are fluctuating velocity components in x- and y-
directions, respectively
29
11/8/2008

Flow – Turbulent Flow
The velocity profile for turbulent flow through a smooth
pipe may be approximated by the empirical power-law
1/ n
u ⎛ r⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ (1)
U ⎝ R⎠
where, U = maximum velocity = velocity at the centerline.
for ReU > 2x104, n = -1.7+1.8 log ReU
ρU D
ReU = Reynolds number calculated using U =
μ
30
11/8/2008
Energy Equation
r
for Viscid
r
Flow in Pipes
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + g z1 = + α2 + g z 2 + hlT (I)
ρ 2 ρ 2
z Equation (I) is not the known Bernoulli’s equation. This
equation has two major differences:-
1. hlT = total energy loss per unit mass, which takes
into account energy loss due to friction between
points 1 and 2.
2. Kinetic energy coefficients α1 and α2, which allow us
to use average velocities V1 and V2.
z α = 2 in case of laminar flow, and = 1 in case of
turbulent flow.
31
11/8/2008
Solution of Pipe Flow Problems
The energy conditions relating conditions at any two

points 1 and 2 for a single-path pipe system (i.e., no
branching) is:
r2 r2
p1 V p V
+ α1 1 + g z1 + Δh pump = 2 + α 2 2 + g z2 + hlT (II)
ρ 2 ρ 2
where hlT = total energy loss per unit mass.
Δp pump Pump power W& pump
Δhpump= head caused by a pump= = =
ρ Mass flow rate m&
α = kinetic energy coefficient = 2.0 for laminar flow, Re <
2300.
= 1.0 for turbulent flow Re ≥ 2300.
32
11/8/2008
Calculation of Head Loss, hlT
hlT = total energy loss per unit mass due to friction, is

calculated from:
hlT = ∑ hl + ∑ hlm
where
∑hl = sum of major losses due to frictional effects in fully
developed flow in constant-area sections.
sections
∑hlm=sum of minor losses due to changes in flow direction

and cross section area,
area e.g., entrances, elbows,
contractions, etc.
33
11/8/2008
Calculation of Major Losses, ∑hl

L Vav2
For each straight part of the pipe system hl = f
D 2
Where, D = pipe diameter, L = pipe length (length of straight
part), f = friction coefficient, which can be calculated from:-
1. Moody chart, or
2. The following equations:
64
for laminar flow, i.e., Re < 2300 f =
Re
1 ⎡e / D 2.51 ⎤
for Turbulent flow, i.e., Re ≥ 2300 = −2.0 log ⎢ + 0 .5 ⎥
f ⎣ 3 .7 Re f ⎦
34
11/8/2008
Moody Chart – Fig 8.12
e = surface roughness
35
11/8/2008
Surface Roughness, e
Depends on pipe material – Table 8.1
36
11/8/2008
Calculation of Major Losses, ∑hlm

z These are additional losses encountered, primarily as a
result of flow separation (due to change in flow direction
and/or change in cross section area) in pipe fittings.
z Depending on the type of fitting, minor losses are
computed in one of two ways:-
1. Using k = the loss coefficient, which is determined
experimentally.
Vav2
hlm = k
2
2. Or, using Le = the equivalent length of straight pipe,
which is also determined experimentally.
Le Vav2
hlm = f
D 2
37
11/8/2008
Inlets and Exits – Table 8.2
38
11/8/2008
Sudden Enlargements and Contractions –

Fig 8.14
Note the difference in the velocity to be used in each case
39
11/8/2008
Gradual Contractions – Nozzles

Vav2 2
hlm = k
2
Value of k given in Table 8.3
40
11/8/2008
Gradual Enlargements - Diffusers

Vav2 1
hlm = (Cpi − Cp )
2
Where, Cp is the pressure recovery coefficient – from Fig
8.15. Cpi is the ideal pressure recovery coefficient.
1
Cpi = 1 −
AR 2
AR = area ratio, to calculated as shown below
41
11/8/2008
Fig 8.15
42
11/8/2008
Bends – Fig 8.16

Le Vav2
hlm = f
D 2
43
11/8/2008
Valves and Other Fittings – Table 8.4

Le Vav2
hlm = f
D 2
44
11/8/2008
Pumps, Fans, and Blowers
Δp pump
Δh pump =
ρ
W& pump
Δp pump = &
Q
W& pump W& pump

∴ Δh pump = =
ρ Q& m&
45
11/8/2008
Non-Circular Ducts
z Instead of using D, we use the hydraulic diameter, Dh,

defined by:-
4A
Dh =
P
Where, A = cross-section area and P = wetted perimeter.
z For a rectangle with two sides a and b, A = a x b, P =

2(a+b), thus:
4ab 2ab
Dh = =
2 ( a + b) ( a + b)
z For a square a = b, thus: Dh = a
46
11/8/2008
Example Problem
Water is pumped at the rate of 2 ft3/S from a reservoir 20 ft above a
pump to a free discharge 90 ft above the pump. The pressure on the
intake side of the pump is 5 psig and the pressure on the discharge
side is 50 psig. All pipes are commercial steel of 6 in. diameter.
Determine (a) the head supplied by the pump and (b) the total head
loss between the pump and point of free discharge.
47
11/24/2008
Outline Chapter 9- External Incompressible

Viscous Flow
¾ The Concept of Boundary Layer

z Effect of Boundary Layer on a Blunt Body
z Effect of Boundary Layer on a Streamlined Body
¾ Boundary Layer Thicknesses:
1. Disturbance Thickness, δ99
2. Displacement Thickness, δ*
¾ Example Problem.
¾ Fluid Flow about Immersed Bodies
¾ Drag and Lift.
¾ Types of Drag.
¾ CD and CL.
ME3O04 - Chapter 9 1 2 1
1
11/24/2008
External Flows
z External flows are flows over bodies immersed in an

unbounded fluid.
z Examples of external flows are the flow fields around

such objects as airfoils, automobiles, and airplanes.
2
11/24/2008
Definition of Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is the region adjacent to a solid

surface in which viscous stresses are present.
3
11/24/2008
Boundary Layer Thicknesses
1. Disturbance Thickness, δ99

2. Displacement Thickness, δ*
4
11/24/2008
Disturbance Thickness, δ99

z δ99 is the boundary layer thickness at which u equals to
99% of the free stream velocity, U.
z In other words, it is the distance from the surface at

which the velocity is within 1 % of the free stream
5
11/24/2008
Displacement Thicknesses , δ*
What do we do to make both mass flow rates equal?
h h
h r h r
mass flow = ∫ ρ U dA > mass flow = ∫ ρ u dA
0 0
6
11/24/2008
z Raise the plate a distance δ* so that mass flow rates are

equal.
z The displacement thickness, δ*, is the distance the plate
would be moved so that the loss of mass flux (due to
reduction in uniform flow area) is equivalent to the loss
the boundary layer causes.
7
11/24/2008
∞ r ∞
mass flux with no B.L = ∫ ρ U dA = ∫ ρ U W.dy
0 0
∞ r ∞
mass flux with B.L = ∫ ρ u dA = ∫ ρ u W.dy
0 0
∞ r ∞
difference in mass flux = ∫ ρ (U − u ) dA = ∫ ρ (U − u ) W.dy (1)
0 0
8
11/24/2008
difference in mass flux = ρ Uδ * W (2)
∞ δ
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u⎞
from (1) = (2) ∴δ * = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟ dy = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟ dy
0 ⎝ U⎠ 0 ⎝ U⎠
Note: W is depth normal to paper.

9
11/24/2008
The Use of Displacement Thicknesses ,

δ*, in Practical Applications
One can use Bernoulli’s equation to design or determine the pressure

drop in a duct by reducing duct dimensions by 2δ* as shown above.
10
11/24/2008
Example Problem
Laboratory wind tunnels have test sections 1 ft square and 2 ft long.

With nominal air speed U1 = 80 ft/s at the test section inlet, turbulent
boundary layers form on the top, bottom, and side walls of the tunnel.
The boundary-layer thickness is δ1 = 0.8 in. at the inlet and δ2 = 1.2
in. at the outlet from the test section. The boundary-layer velocity
profiles are of power-law form, with:
1/ 7
u ⎛ y⎞
=⎜ ⎟
U ⎝δ ⎠
a) Evaluate the freestream velocity, U2, at the exit from the wind-
tunnel test section.
b) Determine the change in static pressure along the test section.
11
11/24/2008
Fluid Flow about Immersed Bodies
Source: Fluid Mechanics by Douglas et.al., Prentice Hall, 2001.
12
11/24/2008
Forces from the Surrounding Fluid on a Two-

Dimensional Object
(a) Pressure force (b) Viscous (shear or friction) force
Source: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by B. R. Munson et. al., Wiley, 1994.
13
11/24/2008
Resultant Force
Source: Fluid Mechanics by Douglas et.al., Prentice Hall, 2001.
14
11/24/2008
Drag and Lift
Net force F is resolved into:-

1. The drag force, FD, defined as the component of the force parallel to
the direction of motion, and
2. The lift force, FL, defined as the component of the force perpendicular to
the direction of motion
Source of fig: Fluid Mechanics by Douglas et.al., Prentice Hall, 2001.
15
11/24/2008
Types of Drag
1. Pressure or Form Drag:
This type of drag is due to pressure difference in front of and at the back of
the object. The formation of a low pressure wake behind the object
depends on the shape or “form”
form of the object. This is why this type of drag
is called “form” drag.
In case of a streamlined object, the total drag will be due to friction, as in

(a). In (b), due to this large wake (region of low pressure), form drag will be
significant.
16
11/24/2008
Types of Drag
2. Friction or Skin Friction Drag:
This type of drag results from viscous (shear) stresses

at the surface of the object.
17
11/24/2008
Drag Coefficient
with
18
11/24/2008
Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow: only

friction drag, no pressure drag
Boundary Layer can be 100% laminar, partly laminar

and partly turbulent, or essentially 100% turbulent;
hence several different drag coefficients are available
19
11/24/2008
Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow: Only

Friction Drag
Laminar BL:
Turbulent BL:
20
11/24/2008
Drag Coefficient for a Smooth Flat Plate –

Fig 9.8
21
11/24/2008
Flow over a Flat Plate Perpendicular to the

Flow: Pressure Drag, No Friction Drag.
Drag coefficients are usually obtained empirically
22
11/24/2008
Flow over a Flat Plate Perpendicular to the

Flow: Pressure Drag (Continued)
23
11/24/2008
Flow over a Sphere: Friction and

Pressure Drag
24
11/24/2008
Drag Coefficient - Typical Values
Source: Principles of Fluid Mechanics by A. Alexandrou, Prentice Hall, 2001.
25
11/24/2008
Effect of flow Regime on Form or Pressure Drag - flow

over a cylinder
< 1.0
> 1.0
Source: Fluid Mechanics by F.M. White, Wiley, 2003.
26
11/24/2008
Streamlining
Used to Reduce Wake and hence reduce pressure
drag
27
11/24/2008
Important Note Regarding the Area, A
1. In case of pure friction drag, the area, A, is the total

surface area in contact with the fluid (i.e., the wetted
area).
area
2. In case of pure pressure drag, the area A is the frontal
area or projected area of the object.
3. For combined cases, drag coefficient for flow over an
immersed object usually is based on the frontal area or
projected area of the object,
object except for airfoils and
wings.
4. for airfoils and wings, use the planform area.
28
11/24/2008
Airfoils and Wings Planform Area
Planform area is the maximum projected area of the wing.

Source: Fluid Mechanics by F.M. White, Wiley, 2003.
29
11/24/2008
How de calculate Lift? Lift Coefficient, CL
Note: Ap is the planform area = maximum

projected area.
30
11/24/2008
CL is Function of Re and Angle of Attack, α

z Examples: NACA 23015; NACA 662-215
31
11/24/2008
Minimum Flight Speed, Vmin
z At steady-state flight conditions, lift force, FL, must be

equal to aircraft weight, W, thus:
1
FL = W = C L ρ V 2 A
2
z V = Vmin = Minimum flight speed when CL=CLmax
2W
Vmin =
ρ C Lmax A
z The question is how to maximize CL?
32
11/24/2008
Increase of CL using Winglets (Flaps)
Figure 9.23
33

Mcmaster MECH ENG 3O04 - Fluid Mechanics Notes by Dr. Mohamed S. Hamed

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9/3/2008

Outline and Announcements

z Two-term tests (October and November) = 30%.

z Final examination = 55% .

z All exams will include questions on theory and

z Assignments might include questions on theory and

z Attending lectures is very important!!

z Laptops and Cell Phones are not allowed during

Class Notes and Downloads

z Notes taken by students during lectures are very

z Lecture notes and other material will be posted on the

z All material is copyright protected and should not be

z Assignments – will be assigned regularly,

z Assignments might include problems from the

z Due dates are posted on the web.

z A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied.

Tutorials and Exams

z All exams will include questions on theory and

Role of the Textbook

z The textbook will be used to assign problems.

z It supplements class discussions.

z It is not a substitute for lectures!!

z Everybody is encouraged to interact (ask questions,

z Bonus cards will awarded to individuals based on their

z Each card is worth 0.25%. There is no limit on how

z This bonus is added to your total. So, your total could

z Please check the “Important Announcements”

z Tutorials will start the week of Sept 15.

z Develop a good understanding of these

z Use them to analyze and understand fluid flows

Why Fluid Mechanics is A Core

where fluid mechanics does not play an

Industries where Concepts of

Some Interesting Flows

Airfoil zero angle Airfoil 25° angle Wing Vortex

Air flow over a Car Personal Plume

OK, So what would be the first question

What is Fluid Mechanics ?

Scope of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is the study of the

What is the Definition of a “Fluid” ?

Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously

Definition of a Fluid – cont’d

When a shear stress is applied:

Q. What makes a fluid deform?

A. The “no-slip condition”.

Two Famous Flows in Fluid Mechanics

Two Famous Flows in Fluid Mechanics

z In the analysis of any fluid mechanics problem,

z These equations can be classified into:

Basic or General Laws

z The first law of thermodynamics.

Basic or General Laws – Cont’d

z Note that these laws do not depend on the type of

z Not all these laws are required every time.

z In many problems, it is necessary to bring into the

Particular or Special Laws

z Example: Ideal Gas Law ⇒ P = ρ RT

Methods of Description - Continue

2. The control volume approach (the Eurlerian

Methods of Analysis in Fluid

Differential control volume Large Control volume

Methods of Analysis in Fluid

z In each case the equations will look different.

British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR)