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Elementary School Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Assignment 2 Research Paper

Kelsey Street 10077315 B02: Marianne Burgess

Education 407 Diversity in Learning Jared French University of Calgary March 20, 2012

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Introduction Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are pervasive developmental disorders that primarily affect social interaction, language and behaviour (Smith, Polloway, Patton, Dowdy & McIntyre, 2012, p. 198). The phrase autism spectrum disorder refers to a broad definition of autism including the classical form (Autistic Disorder) of the disorder as well as Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD), Rett Syndrome, Asperger Syndrome, and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (Smith et al. 2012). This paper focuses on the classical form of the autism disorder in elementary school aged children. Prevalence According to Boyd & Shaw (2010) the prevalence of autism has increased as much as twentyfold by some estimates in little more than two decades. A recent report released by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) found the prevalence of autism to be 1 in 110 (p. 212). Boyd & Shaw (2010) explain that there are many reasons that contribute to the rise in prevalence of autism, such as the use of better screening and diagnostic tools, increased public awareness of the disorder, earlier diagnosis of children, and the use of the term autism spectrum disorder (p. 213). Smith et al. (2012) state that recent research has found that the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders has increased from 40 to 60 per 10 000 people, representing approximately 190 000 Canadians (p. 199). Plausible reasons for the dramatic increases in prevalence could include: Greater awareness of the condition Population increase

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Definitional changes Prior misdiagnosis (e.g., intellectual disabilities) Vaccinations (Smith et al., 2012).

Causation According to Smith et al. (2012) there is no definite cause of autism spectrum disorder. Nwokeafor (2009) states that researchers have had a difficult time narrowing down what might be the remote causes of autism disorder which affects children. Nwokeafor (2009) also states that genetics and environment have both been identified as contributing factors which [have] played some considerable role in autism disorder (p. 6). Smith et al. (2012) state that the genetic role is presumed to put in place a predisposition for ASD. However, genes alone cannot explain the recent rapid increases in prevalence (p. 203). Smith et al. (2012) believe that it is a common assumption that autism is related to abnormalities in brain structure or function. Nwokeafor (2009) explains that there have been irregularities found in several regions of the brain of children with autism. According to Nwokeafor (2009) autism may run in the family, siblings of people with autism are more likely to be autistic and twins are more likely to share the autistic trait (p. 6). Nwokeafor (2009) lists the following points based on research from Croen (2008) that depict the role that genetics play in the causation of autism: 1. That autism no doubt has a genetic component; 2. That if autism runs in a family, a member of that family have an increased risk of having a child with autism; 3. That if one has one child with autism, he has an increased risk of having another child with autism; and

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4. That the genes associated with autism are complex and genetic inclination toward autism may require an environmental trigger to cause symptoms (Nwokeafor, 2009). Characteristics To be diagnosed with autism there are three core characteristics that must be identified before the developing childs third birthday (Boyd & Shaw, 2010), they are: 1. They have difficulties with social interactions; 2. They have problems with verbal and non-verbal communication; 3. They have repetitive behaviours or narrow, obsessive interests (Nwokeafor, 2009). Nwokeafor (2009) explains the difficulties with social interaction in that a child with autism may appear to develop normally and then as time progresses he/she withdraws and become indifferent to social engagement (p. 5). When it comes to having problems with verbal and non-verbal communication children with autism fail to respond to their name and often avoid eye contact with other people. They also have difficulty interpreting what others are thinking or feeling because of their inability to understand social cues, such as tone of voice or facial expressions (Nwokeafor, 2009, p. 6). Children with autism also have difficulties with language and lack empathy and the coordination to watch other peoples facial expressions for clues about appropriate behavior (Nwokeafor, 2009). Many children with autism also engage in repetitive movements or self-abusive behaviors, they also find it very difficult to engage in interactive behavior with others and may only like to discuss a very narrow range of topics (Nwokeafor, 2009). The characteristics of autism can also be divided into two major groups: behavioral deficits and behavioral excesses:

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1. Behavioral deficits Inability to relate to others Lack of functional language Sensory processing deficits Cognitive deficits

2. Behavioral excesses Self-stimulation Resistance to change Bizarre and challenging behaviors Self-injurious behaviours (Smith et al., 2012)

According to Smith et al. (2012) some children with autism can display unique splinter skills, or island of precocity where they display areas of giftedness (p. 205). Common splinter skills include (1) calendar abilities; (2) the ability to count visual things quickly; (3) artistic ability; and (4) musical ability (Smith et al., 2012). LaBarbera & Soto-Hinman (2009) explain that an autistic child has an impaired ability to understand cause and effect relationships and to draw inferences is present in most children with autism, and most have difficulty with language comprehension, often associated with academic language across the content areas, and the social use of language (p. 1). According to LaBarbera & Soto-Hinman (2009) autistic students struggle in the classroom because of their literal, concrete thinking, and if reading requires the student to make inferences instead of having literal understanding they will most likely have difficulties. According to Friedlander (2009) children with autism can have difficulty regulating

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input into their central nervous system, resulting in sensitivity to touch, sound, taste, or smell (p. 141). Identification According to Smith et al. (2012) identifying autism is just as arduous as defining it. There are three problems related to the identification of children with autism: 1. Children with autism display many characteristics exhibited by individuals with other disabilities, such as speech and language disorders; 2. Many children with autism, because they exhibit disorders across multiple domains, are mistakenly classified as having multiple disabilities; 3. No stable classification system is used among educators and other professionals who encounter children with autism (Smith et al., 2012). A critical concern and common challenge in the field of ASD has been to determine how early autism can be detected (Smith et al., 2012). Key characteristics for early detection include lack of eye contact and limited social skills; differences in postural and motoric characteristics; a lack of responsiveness to others and to ones own name; a pattern of solitary or unusual play; marked passivity; fixation on objects in the environment; delayed expressive and receptive language, including gestural communication; and difficulties in self-regulation that may be reflected in, for example, impulsivity, irritability, and interference with the formation of attachments (Smith et al., 2012, p. 203)

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A potentially important indicator of autism is explained by Boyd & Shaw (2010), which is the phenomenon of autistic regression, defined as a period of rather normative development and a subsequent loss of skills around the second year of the childs life, usually language skills (p. 213). According to Boyd & Shaw (2010) it is still being researched as to whether the child was actually developing as expected or if early warning signs went unnoticed, and whether the child actually loses skills or if the development of skills simply slows or plateaus (p. 214). Assessment Assessment is two-step process, first the child is screened and then a formal assessment can be done (McCrimmon, 2012). According to McCrimmon (2012) formal assessment can be time consuming, so the screening process makes use of brief questionnaires and observations to query the necessity of a more formal assessment process (p. 7). McCrimmon (2012) lists the different types of questionnaires available for the screening process, including: Autism Spectrum Rating Scale; Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire; Autism Spectrum Quotient; Childhood Autism Spectrum Test; Childrens Communication Checklist; Social Communication Disorder Checklist; Social Responsiveness Scale; and Childhood Autism Rating Scale 2. After the screening process, the child can begin formal assessment which is typically best done with a multidisciplinary team: psychology, psychiatry, pediatrician, speech/language, and occupational theory (McCrimmon, 2012, p. 7). Formal assessment can also be achieved through formal and/or informal interviews with caregivers and teachers, as well as through classroom observations (McCrimmon, 2012).

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Classroom Intervention When it comes to classroom intervention and planning for students with autism there is copious amounts of information relating to how a teacher should prepare. Friedlander (2009) recommends that teachers find out all you can about your student with autism before he or she arrives in the classroom; this will ease the transition for the student, for you, and for the class. Parents are the most important resource because they know the child best (p. 142). Friedlander (2009) suggests that prior to class sessions a meeting with the parents and the child is necessary to give you and the family time to plan for and avoid pitfalls. According to McCrimmon (2012) it is best for the child if intervention begins as early as possible, with the efforts directed towards the development of social and communication skills, and reduction of stereotyped and problematic behaviour (p. 10). McCrimmon (2012) lists ten possible pitfalls that are often observed in the classroom, with the management of them being mainly up to the teacher, these include: (1) generalization of learning; (2) obsessions/fixations; (3) transitions; (4) personal boundaries; (5) safety awareness; (6) self-stim behaviour/SIB; (7) communication; (8) emotional recognition/empathy/social skills; (9) splinter skills/savantism; and (10) definance (p. 10). The subsequent sections will address transitions and socials skills in children with autism as well as the role of an early childhood educator. Transition times are one area where students diagnosed with autism struggle, which may lead to problem behaviour such verbal or physical aggression, tantrums, noncompliance, and self-injury (Banda, Grimmett, & Hart, 2009, p. 16). According to Banda et al. (2009) one of the main challenges that teachers face is to try and provide students with the needed support during transition times while also trying to decrease dependence on adult instructions. One way this can

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be accomplished is through visual supports, such as picture cues and activity schedules, [which] may help reduce or eliminate the need for students to rely on adults to provide assistance and clarification during scheduled and unscheduled changes (p. 17). Banda et al. (2009) explain that an activity schedule is a visual support system that combines photographs, images, or drawings in a sequential format to represent a targeted sequence of the student's day. Activity schedules provide predictability throughout the student's day and allow a student to anticipate changes in the daily routine (p. 17). According to Ganz (2007) the classroom should be organized for visual clarity, which can also be referred to as physical organization. Ganz (2007) states that areas should be designated for specific learning tasks and the classroom should be arranged such that activities are clearly identified in a visual manner (p. 250). The purpose behind using visual support is to provide concrete, stationary instruction, [to] illustrate for students what preferred events will occur and when, and increase independent task engagement (Ganz, 2007, p. 252). Ganz & Flores (2010) suggest that visual cues can improve childrens social and communication skills when participating in recreational activities, communicating with adults, answering questions, and making comments (p. 79). Another area of struggle for students with autism is with their social skills. According to Sperry, Neitzel, & Engelhardt (2010) social impairment and difficulty with social reciprocity is perhaps the single most defining feature of autism spectrum disorder (p. 256). Children with ASD respond less frequently to social initiations and engage in shorter interactions due to their difficulties in initiating interactions and understanding social cues (Sperry et al., 2010, p. 256). Sperry et al. (2010) suggest peer-mediated instructional approaches to address the issues concerning social skills and social interaction. Peer-mediated instruction and intervention strategies are a set of focused intervention practices designed to systematically teach typically

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developing peers ways of successfully engaging children with ASD in positive social interactions (Sperry et al., 2010, p. 256). The goals of peer-mediated instruction and intervention strategies are as follows: To teach peers ways to talk and interact with children and youth with ASD, To increase the frequency with which children and youth with ASD interact with typically developing peers, To extend peers social initiations with students with ASD across activities in the classroom, To minimize teachers and adults support (e.g., prompts, reinforcement), and To promote interactions between typically developing peers and students (Sperry et al., 2010). According to Boyd & Shaw (2010) school aged children with autism often experience social isolation and loneliness and may become the victims of peer bullying (p. 214). Perhaps introducing the peer-mediated instruction and intervention strategies in the classroom will prevent the social isolation, loneliness and bullying that some autistic students face. Ogilvie (2011) also recommends the concept of using peers as a means to improve the social skills of an autistic student. Ogilvie (2011) suggests the use of peer mentoring, which she defines as an intervention that involves one or more peers without disabilities providing academic support to a student with disabilities (p. 22). According to Ogilvie (2011) students with ASD had an increase in skills and social engagement following a peer mentoring intervention, and the students continued to demonstrate increased peer interaction.

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The role of an early childhood educator is to implement evidence-based practices into the classroom to ensure a quality program (Vakil, Welton, OConnor, & Kline, 2009, p. 323). According to Vakil et al. (2009) evidence-based practices are informed by research, in which the characteristics and consequences of environmental variables are empirically established and the relationship directly informs what a practitioner can do to produce a desired outcome (p. 323). Smith et al. (2012) state that educational professionals should ask the following questions when developing programs for children with autism: 1. What are the anticipated outcomes of the programming option? 2. What are the potential risks? 3. How will the option be evaluated? 4. What proof is available that the option is effective? 5. What other options would be excluded if this option were chose? (Smith et al., 2012). An early childhood educator must create a supportive environment that stimulates learning to enhance development (Vakil et al., 2009). Vakil et al. (2009) define a supportive environment as one that is based on developmentally appropriate practice where children feel accepted, cared for, and supported in not only their learning, but also in their physical, emotional, and social well-being (p. 322). Vakil et al. (2009) state that trust is of the upmost importance when it comes to creating an inclusive classroom, it is vital that early childhood educators build supportive teams with parents and families and are trained and supported in inclusive practices (p. 325).

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While there are many different factors that need to be considered when teaching children who are autistic, the preceding research reflects that the following three factors play a key role in classroom intervention. The three factors are that an early childhood educator should ensure that quality programs are implemented, that the classroom environment is safe and supportive and that there is a trusting relationship between the teacher, other related professionals and the parents.

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References Banda, D. R., Grimmett, E., & Hart, S. L. (2009). Activity Schedules: Helping Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders in General Education Classrooms Manage Transition Issues. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 41(4), 16-21. Boyd, B. A., & Shaw, E. (2010). Autism in the Classroom: A Group of Students Changing in Population and Presentation. Preventing School Failure, 54(4), 211-219. Friedlander, D. (2009). Sam Comes to School: Including Students with Autism in Your Classroom. Clearing House: A Journal Of Educational Strategies, Issues And Ideas, 82(3), 141-144. Ganz, J. B. (2007). Classroom Structuring Methods and Strategies for Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Exceptionality, 15(4), 249-260. Ganz, J. B., & Flores, M. M. (2010). Implementing Visual Cues for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Their Classmates. Young Children, 65(3), 78-83. LaBarbera, R., & Soto-Hinman, I. (2009). Toward a Model of Promoting Literacy for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the General Education Classroom. Forum On Public Policy Online, 2009(1), McCrimmon, A. (2012). Autism Spectrum Disorders: Early Markers, Assessment and Diagnosis, and Interventions. University of Calgary: March 6, 2012. Nwokeafor, C. U. (2009). Conundrum of Autism: A Review of Its Causes and Significant Impact on the Education of a School Age Child. Forum On Public Policy Online, 2009(1),

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Ogilvie, C. R. (2011). Step by Step: Social Skills Instruction for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Using Video Models and Peer Mentors. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 43(6), 20-26. Smith, T. E. C., Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R., Dowdy, C. A., & McIntyre, L. J. (2012). Teaching Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Settings. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Sperry, L., Neitzel, J., & Engelhardt-Wells, K. (2010). Peer-Mediated Instruction and Intervention Strategies for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Preventing School Failure, 54(4), 256-264. Vakil, S., Welton, E., O'Connor, B., & Kline, L. S. (2009). Inclusion Means Everyone! The Role of the Early Childhood Educator when Including Young Children with Autism in the Classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 36(4), 321-326.

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