Microwave Planning and Design

Slide No 1
Microwave Radio Planning and Link Design

CISCOM Training Center
Microwave Planning and Design
Slide No 2
Course Contents
PCM and E1 TDM Overview
Digital Multiplexing: PDH and SDH Overview
Digital Microwave Systems Overview
Microwave links Performance and Quality Objectives
Topology and Capacity Planning
Diversity
Microwave Antennas

Slide No 3
Course Contents (cond)
Radio Propagation
Microwave Link Planning and Design
Path Profile
LOS Survey
Link Budget
Performance Prediction
Frequency Planning
Interference
Digital map and tools overview

Slide No 4
Planning Objectives
MW Radio Planning Objectives
Selection of suitable radio component
Communication quality and availability
Link Design
Preliminary site location and path profile, LOS survey
Channel capacity
Topology
Radio frequency allocation (planning)

Slide No 5
PCM and E1 Overview
Slide No 6
Voice channel digitizing and TDM
Transmission:
Voice
Data
Voice is an analog signal and needs to be digitized before
transmitted digitally
PCM, Pulse Code Modulation is the most used technique
The European implementation of PCM includes time
division multiplexing of 30 64 kb/s voice channels and 2
64kb/s for synchronization and signaling in basic digital
channel called E1
E1 rate is 2.048 Mb/s = 32 x 64 kb/s

Slide No 7
PCM Coder Block Diagram 64 kb/s
S/H Quantizer LPF Encoder
64 kb/s
PCM signal
Analog
signal
Slide No 8
E1 History
First use was for telephony (voice) in 1960s with PCM
and TDM of 30 digital PCM voice channels which called
E1
E1 is known as PCM-30 also
E1 was developed slightly after T1 (1.55 Mbps) was
developed in America (hence T1 is slower)
T1 is the North America implementation of PCM and
TDM
T1 is PCM-24 system

Slide No 9
E1 Frame
30 time division multiplexed (TDM) voice channels, each running at
64Kbps (known as E1)
E1 rate is 2.048 Mbps containing thirty two 64 kbps time slots,
30 for voice,
One for Signaling (TS16)
One for Frame Synchronization (TS0)
E1 (2M) Frame rate is the same PCM sampling rate = 8kHz, Frame
duration is 1/8 kHz = 125 s (Every 125 us a new frame is sent)
Time slot Duration is 125 s/32 = 3.9 s
One time slot contains 8 bits
A timeslot can be thought of as a link running at 8000 X 8 = 64 kbps
E1 Rate:
64 X 32 = 2048000 bits/second
Slide No 10
E1 frame diagram
Time Slot
0
Time Slot
1
Time Slot
2
Time Slot
31
Time Slot
30
Time Slot
29
.

Time Slot
16

125s
S
i
0

0

1

1

0

1

1

S
i
1

A

S
n
S
n
S
n
S
n
S
n
Frame containing
frame alignment
signal (FAS)
Frame not containing
frame alignment
signal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bits
Frame Alignment Signal (FAS) pattern - 0011011
S
i
= Reserved for international use (Bit 1)
S
n
= Reserved for national use
A = Remote (FAS Distant) Alarm- set to 1 to indicate alarm condition
Slide No 11
E1 Transmission Media

Symmetrical pair: Balanced, 120 ohm
Co-axial: Unbalanced, 75ohm
Fiber optic
Microwave
Satellite
Other wireless radio
Wireless Optical

Slide No 12
GSM coding and TDM in terrestrial E1
As we know PCM channel is 64Kb/s
Bit rate for one voice GSM channel is 16Kb/s between
BTS and BSC (terrestrial)
One GSM E1 is 120 GSM voice channels
The PCM-to-GSM TRAU (transcoder) reduces no of E1s
by 4
Each GSM radio carries 8 TCHs in the air, this equivalent
to 8x16Kb/s=2x64Kb/s between BTS and BSC.
Each GSM radio has 2 time slots in the GSM E1.
Example: 3/3/3 site require 9x2=18 E1 time slots for
traffic and time slot(s) for radio signaling links
Slide No 13
Digital Multiplexing: PDH and SDH
Overview
Slide No 14
European Digital Multiplexer Hierarchy

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH )
Slide No 15
PDH Multiplexing

Based on a 2.048Mbit/s (E1) bearer
Increasing traffic demands that more and more of these
basic E1 bearers be multiplexed together to provide
increased capacity
Once multiplexed, there is no simple way an individual E1
bearer can be identified in a PDH hierarchy
Slide No 16
European PDH Multiplexing Structure
1
30
1 E1
4 x E1
16 x E1
4 x 34
Higher order multiplexing
2048 kbps
8448 kbps
34,368 kbps
139,264 kbps
Slide No 17
European PDH Multiplexing Structure-used
MUX
DEMUX
Primary PCM
Multiplexing
BTS
Multiplexing
Data
Multiplexing
MUX
DEMUX
MUX
DEMUX
MUX
DEMUX
MUX
DEMUX
1
st
order
2.048 Mbps
E1
2
nd
order
8.228 Mbps
E2
3
rd
order
34.368 Mbps
E3
VF
Data
mobile
Slide No 18
PDH Problems
Inflexible and expensive because of asynchronous
multiplexing
Limited network management and maintenance support
capabilities
High capacity growth
Sensitive to network failure
Difficulty in verifying network status
Increased cost for O&M
Slide No 19
SDH

Synchronous and based on byte interleaving
provides the capability to send data at multi-gigabit rates over
fiber-optics links.
SDH is based on an STM-1 (155.52Mbit/s) rate
SDH supports the transmission of all PDH payloads, other than
8Mbit/s
Slide No 20
SDH Bit Rates
155.52 Mbit/s
622.08 Mbit/s
2.48832 Gbit/s
STM-1
STM-4
STM-16
4
4
3
STM-0
51.84 Mbit/s
STM-64
4
9.995328 Gbit/s
Slide No 21
General Transport Module STM-N
RSOH
MSOH
Payload
AU pointer
1
9
5
3
N. 270 columns
N. 9
N. 261
SOH: Section Overhead
AU: Administration Unit
MSOH: Multiplexer Section
Overhead
RSOH: Repeater Section
Overhead
Slide No 22
SDH Multiplexing Structure
C-4 VC-4
C-12
C-3 VC-3
VC-12 TU-12
TU-3 TUG-3
TUG-2
AUG AU-4 STM-N
x 1
x 1 x 3
x 7
x 3
x N
C: Container
VC: Virtual Container
TU: Tributary Unit
TUG: Tributary Container Group
AU: Administrative Unit
AUG: Administrative Unit Group
Mapping
Aligning
Multiplexing
140 Mbps
2 Mbps
34 Mbps
Slide No 23
From 2 Mbps to STM-1
STM-1
VC-4
+ POH
+ POH
VC-12 2 Mbits
(Justification)
+ SOH
SOH: Section Overhead
POH: Path Overhead
SDH
MUX
Slide No 24
Containers C
=
PDH
Stream
Justification bits
Container
Slide No 25
Virtual Containers VC
=
Container
Path overhead
Virtual
Container
Slide No 26
SDH Advantages
Cost efficient and flexible networking
Built in capacity for advanced network management and
maintenance capabilities
Simplified multiplexing and demultiplexing
Low rate tributes visible within the high speed signal.
Enables direct access to these signals
Cost efficient allocation of bandwidth
Fault isolation and Management
Byte interleaved and multiplexed

Slide No 27
SDH Benefits over PDH
SDH transmission systems have many benefits over PDH:
Software Control
allows extensive use of intelligent network management software for high flexibility, fast
and easy re-configurability, and efficient network management.

Survivability
With SDH, ring networks become practicable and their use enables automatic
reconfiguration and traffic rerouting when a link is damaged. End-to-end monitoring
will allow full management and maintenance of the whole network.

Efficient drop and insert
SDH allows simple and efficient cross-connect without full hierarchical multiplexing or
de-multiplexing. A single E1 2.048Mbit/s tail can be dropped or inserted with relative
ease even on Gbit/s links.
Slide No 28
SDH Benefits over PDH- cond

Standardization
enables the interconnection of equipment from different suppliers through
support of common digital and optical standards and interfaces.

Robustness and resilience of installed networks is increased.

Equipment size and operating costs
reduced by removing the need for banks of multiplexers and de-multiplexers.
Follow-on maintenance costs are also reduced.

Backwards compatibly
will enable SDH links to support PDH traffic.

Slide No 29
GSM Block Diagram (E1 links)
MSC1
MSC3
MSC2
BSC1
BSC2
BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS
BTS
SDH
PDH
Abis
Slide No 30
Abis- Interface
Connects between the BSC and the BTS
Has not been standardized
Primary functions carried over this interface are:
Traffic channel transmission, terrestrial channel management, and radio
channel management
On Abis-Interface, two types of information
Traffic information
Signalling information

BSC Abis-Interface
BTS
Slide No 31
Abis- Interface
Traffic Information
The traffic on the physical layer needs TS (Time Slot)
on the E1 with bit rate = 16 Kb/s
4 channels exist within one TS
Signalling Information
Different rates on the physical layer: 16 Kb/s, 32 Kb/s,
and 64 Kb/s
The protocol used over the Abis-Interface is LAPD
protocol (Link Access Protocol for the ISDN D-channel)
The signalling link between the BSC and the BTS is
called RSL (Radio Signalling Link)

Slide No 32
Digital Microwave systems Overview
Slide No 33
Digital Microwave system
Equipment
E1
MUX
IF MODEM
Transceiver
In door
Out door TRU
Feeder
For In door
Co-axial transmission line
Waveguide transmission line
For Outdoor
IF between modem ODU Transceiver (TRU)

Slide No 34
MODEM- Digital Modulation
PSK
2 PSK
4 PSK
8 PSK
QAM
8 QAM
16 QAM
32 QAM
64 QAM
128 QAM
Slide No 35
Protecting MW Links
Microwave links are protected against
Hardware failure
Multipath Fading
Rain Fading

Protection Schemes
1 + 1 configuration
Diversity
Ring

Slide No 36
Microwave Equipment Specification
Operating Frequency
Modulation
Capacity
Bandwidth
Output power
Receiver Thresholds @ BERs 10
-6
and 10
-3
MTBF
FKTB

Slide No 37
RADIO EQUIPT Example: DART
Dish diameter: 30 cm
Antenna
dish
Radio
Equipment
Slide No 38
Slide No 39
Radio Equipment Datasheet

Slide No 40
Microwave Allocation in Radio spectrum
3 k
30 k
300 k 3 M
30 M 300 M 3 G
30 G 300 G
VLF LF MF
VHF
VHF
Very low frequency
LF
Low frequency
MF
Medium frequency
HF High Frequency
VHF Very High Frequency
UHF Ultra High Frequency
SHF Super High Frequency
EHF Extremely High Frequency
UHF SHF HF EHF
Microwave primarily is
utilized in SHF band, and
some small parts of UHF &
EHF bands
Slide No 41
Microwave Bands
Some Frequency bands used in microwave are
2 GHz
7 GHz
13 GHz
18 GHz
23 GHz
26 GHz
38 GHz
The usage of frequency bands will depend mainly on the
budget calculation results and the path length
Slide No 42
Microwave Capacities

Capacities available for microwave links are
1 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 1.75 MHz
2 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 3.5 MHz
4 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 7 MHz

Slide No 43
23 GHz Band - example
21224 22456
1232
1120 1120
22456
23576
Low High
2 x 2 (3.5 MHz) 4 x 2 (7 MHz) 8 x 2 (14 MHz) 16 x 2 (28 MHz)
Possible Number of Channels
320 160 80 40
Slide No 44
Channel Spacing
1.75 MHz 3.5 MHz
3.5 MHz
7 MHz
7 MHz 14 MHz
14 MHz
28 MHz
2 E1
4 E1
8 E1
16 E1
Slide No 45
International Regulatory Bodies
ITU-T
Is to fulfil the purposes of the Union relating to telecommunication
standardization by studying technical, operating and tariff questions
and adopting Recommendations on them with a view to
standardizing telecommunications on a world-wide basis.
ITU-R
plays a vital role in the management of the radio-frequency spectrum
and satellite orbits, finite natural resources which are increasingly in
demand from a large number of services such as fixed, mobile,
broadcasting, amateur, space research, meteorology, global
positioning systems, environmental monitoring and, last but not
least, those communication services that ensure safety of life at sea
and in the skies.
Slide No 46
Performance and availability objectives
Slide No 47
Performance Objectives and availability objectives
Dimensioning of network connection is based on the
required availability objective and performance
Dimension a network must meet the standard
requirements recommendations by ITU
The performance objectives are separated from
availability objectives
Factors to be considered
radio wave propagation
hardware failure
Resetting time after repair
Frequency dependant interference problems
Slide No 48
ITU-T Recs for Transmission in GSM Net

All BTS, BSC and MSC connections in GSM network are
defined as multiples of the primary rate if 2 Mbps,

ITU-T Rec G.821 applies as the overall standard for
GSM network.

ITU-T Rec G.826 applies for SDH.

Slide No 49
The ITU-T Recs (Standards)
The ITU-T target standard are based on two
recommendations:
ITU-T Recommendation G.821,intended for digital connection with
a bit rate of 64 kBit/s. Even used for digital connection with bit rates
higher than 64kBit/s. G.821 will successively be replaced by G.826.
ITU- T Recommendation G.826, used for digital connection with bit
rates of or higher than 2,048 kBit/s (European standard) or 1,544
kBit/s (USA standard).
The main difference between G.826 and G.821 is that
G.826 uses Blocks instead of bits in G.821

Slide No 50
ITU-T G.821 some definitions
HRX : hypothetical Reference Connection
This a model for long international connection, 27,500 km
Includes transmission systems, multiplexing equipment and switching

HRDP: Hypothetical Reference Digital Path
The HRDP for high grade digital relay systems is 2500 km
Doesnt include switching

HRDS: Hypothetical Reference Digital Section
It represents section lengths likely to be encountered in real networks
Doesn't include digital equipments, such as multiplexers/demultiplexers.
Slide No 51
ITU-T G.821 some definitions (cond)
SES : Severely Errored Seconds
A bit error rate (BER) of 10
-3
is measured with an integration time of 1 second.

DM : Degraded Minutes
A bit error rate (BER) of 10
-6
is measured with an integration time of 1 minute.

ES : Errored Seconds
Is the second that contains at least one error

RBER: Residual Bit Error Rate
The RBER on a system is found by taking BER measurements for one month
using a 15 min integration time, discarding the 50 % of 15 min intervals which
contain the worst BER measurements, and taking the worst of the remaining
measurements

Slide No 52
ITU-T G.821 HRX Hypothetical Reference Connection
Local
Grade
Medium
Grade
Medium
Grade
Local
Grade
High
Grade
T-reference
point
T-reference
point
1250 km 1250 km 25,000 km
27,500 km
LE LE INT
INT
40 %
15 %
15 % 15 % 15 %
Slide No 53
ITU-T G.821 some definitions

The system is considered unavailable when one or both of the
following conditions occur for more than 10 consecutive seconds
The digital signal is interrupted
The BER in each second is worse than 10
3

Unavailable Time (UAT)
Begins when one or both of the above mentioned conditions occur for 10
consecutive seconds
Available Time (AT)
A period of available time begins with the first second of a period of 10
consecutive seconds of which each second has a bit error ratio (BER) better than
10
-3

Slide No 54
ITU-T G.821 performance & Availability
Examples
BER 10
-6
BER 10
-3
DM
ES
SES
<10s
>10s
SES
Available time (AT) Unavailable time (UAT)
DM
ES ES
ES
ES
DM DM
Slide No 55
ITU-T G.821 Availability
Route availability equals the sum of single link
availabilities forming the route.
Unavailability might be due to
Propagation effect
Equipment effect

Note: Commonly used division is to allocate 2/3 of the allowed total
unavailability to equipment failure and 1/3 to propagation related
unavailability

Slide No 56
ITU-T G.821 Performance Objectives

SES : Severely Errored Seconds
BER should not exceed 10
3
for more than 0.2% of one second intervals in any
month
The total allocation of 0.2% is divided as: 0.1% for the three classifications
The remaining 0.1% is a block allowance to the high grade and the medium grade
portions
DM : Degraded Minutes
BER should not exceed 10
6
for more than 10% of one minute intervals in any
month
The allocations of the 10% to the three classes
ES : Errored Seconds
Less than 8% of one second intervals should have errors
The allocations of the 8% to the three classes
Slide No 57
G.821 Performance Objectives over HRX
Local Medium Medium Local High
0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.2 1.2
1.2
0.04
4
3.2
1250 km
1250 km
25000 km
INT
LE
SES 0.2%
(0.1%+0.1% for
High and Medium
grade for adverse
conditions
0.05 0.05
DM 10 %
ES 8 %
ITU-T; G.821, F.697, F.696
Slide No 58
P & A for HRPD High Grade
High Grade
2500
0054 %
(0.004+0.05)
0.4 %
0.32 %
SES
(Additional 0.05% for
adverse propagation
conditions)
DM
ES
0.3 %
UAT
Note: between 280 to 2500 all parameters are multiplied by (L/2500)
1/10 of HRX
ITU-T; G.821, Rep 1052
Slide No 59
P & A for HRDS Medium Grade

Used for national networks, between local exchange and
international switching center
Performance and availability Objectives for HRDS
Performance parameter Percentage of any month
Class 1
280 km
Class 2
280 km
Class 3
50 km
Class 4
50 km
SES

0.006 0.0075 0.002 0.005
DM 10 % 0.045 0.2 0.2 0.5
Errored Seconds ES 8 % 0.036 0.16 0.16 0.4
RBER 5.6x10
-10
Under
study
Under
study
Under
study
UAT 0.033 0.05 0.05 0.1
IT-T; G.821, F.696, Rep 1052
Slide No 60
P & A for HRX Local Grade
The local grade portion of the HRX represents the part between the
subscriber and the local exchange
Error performance objectives are:
BER shouldnt exceed 10
3
for more than 0.015% of any month with an
integration time of 1 s
BER shouldnt exceed 10
-6
for more than 1.5% of any month with an integration
time of 1 min
The total errored seconds shouldnt exceed 1.2% of any month
Unavailability objectives for local grade circuits have not yet been
established by ITU-T or ITU-R.
Slide No 61
Performance Predictions
System performance is determined by the probability for
the signal level to drop below the radio threshold level or
the received spectrum to be severely distorted

The larger fade margin, the smaller probability for the
signal to drop below the receiver threshold level

Slide No 62
Availability
The total unavailability of a radio path is the sum of the
probability of hardware failure and unavailability due to rain
The unavailability due to hardware failure is considered for
both the go and return direction so the calculated value is
doubled
The probability that electronic equipment fails in service is not
constant with time
the high probability of hardware failure occurred during
burn-in and wear-out periods
During life time the random failures have constant probability
Slide No 63
HW Unavailability

Unavailability of one equipment module HW

where
MTTR is mean time to repair
MTBF is mean time between failures.

MTTR MTBF
MTTR
N1
+
=
Slide No 64
Calculation of Unavailability

Unavailability of cascaded modules

N1
N3 N2
Nn
( )
i
n
i
n
i
i
n
i
s s
N Ni N A N
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
= = =
E =
|
.
|
\
|
E ~ H = =
Slide No 65
Calculation of Unavailability

Unavailability of parallel modules
N1
N3
N2
Nn
i
n
i
s
N N
1 =
H =
Slide No 66
Improvement in Availability in n+1 protection
HW protection
Unavailability of a n+1 redundant system
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) 2 1
2
1
1
! 2 1 ! 2
1 1
+
+

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
n
n
N N
n
n
n
N
Can be approximated
2
1
2
1
N
n
N
n
+
=
+
Slide No 67
Improvement in Availability in Loop protection
HW and route protection
Unavailability in a loop

Where,
J: Amount of hops in loop
K: Consecutive number of hop from the hub
N: Unavailability of the hop
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

+ = =
J
k i
i
k
i
i
N N N
1 1
N6 N5
N4
N3
N2
N1
N7
N=(N1+N2)(N3+N4+N5+N6+N7)
Slide No 68
HRDS - Example
HRDS: Medium grade class 3, 50 km. If the link is 5km
find UAT in % & s/d

Solution:
From table of HRDS, Medium grade class 3, 50 km >>UAT =
0.05%
For 5 km >> UAT = (0.05%) * 5/50 = 0.005%
UAT = (0.005/100) * 365.25*24= 0.438h/y = 26min/y = 4s/d
N
Slide No 69
Topology Planning
Slide No 70
Capacity and Topology planning
Capacity demand per link results from transceiver capacity at those
BTS which are to be connected to the microwave link
One transceiver reserves 2.5 time slots for traffic and signalling
It is common to design for the higher capacity demand.
For rapid traffic increase, the transmission network is dimensioned
to reserve the capacity of 6 transceivers
The advantage to reserve capacity
Flexibility in topology planning
New BTS s can be added to existing transmission links
New transceivers can be added without implementing new transmission links
No need for changeover to new transmission links in fully operating network

Slide No 71
Transmission Capacity Planning-Traffic
Motorola-standards
Bit rate for one voice PCM channel is 64Kb/s
Bit rate for one voice GSM channel is 16Kb/s between
BTS and BSC
Each GSM radio carries 8 TCHs in the air, this equivalent
to 8x16Kb/s=2x64Kb/s between BTS and BSC.
Each GSM radio has 2 time slots in the GSM E1.
Example: 3/3/3 site require 9x2=18 E1 time slots for
traffic and one time slot for RSL, total is 19 time slots

Slide No 72
Transmission Capacity Planning-Example
Example: How Many Motorola micro-cells can be daisy
chained using one E1 at maximum?
Solution:
Motorola micro cell has 2 radios (omni-2)
Each micrcell requires 2x2 time slots for traffic and 1 time slot for
rsl
So each micro cell requires 5 time slots (64 kb/s time slots)
Each E1 contains 31 time slots
[31time slots] divided by [5 time slots/microcell] gives us the the
maximum no of daisy chained microcells
So 6 microcells can be daisy chained at maximum

Slide No 73
Topology Planning
Network topology is based on
Traffic
Outage requirements

Most frequently used topologies
Star
Daisy Chain
Loop
Slide No 74
Star
Each station is connected with a separate link to the MW hub.
Commonly used for leased line connections (needs low
availability)
Slide No 75
Star
Advantages
Easy to design
Independent paths which mean link failure affects only one node
Easy to configure and install
Can be expanded easily

Disadvantages
Limited distance from BTS or hub to the BSC
Inefficient use of frequency band
Inefficient link capacity use as each BTS uses the 2 Mbps
High concentration of equipment at nodal point
Interference problem
Slide No 76
Daisy Chain
Advantages
Efficient use of link capacity (if BTSs are chained to the same 2Mbps)
Low concentration of equipment at nodal point

Disadvantages
Installation planning is essential as the BTSs close
If the first link is lost, the traffic of the whole BTS chain is lost
extended bandwidth (grooming)
Application: along roads

Slide No 77
Daisy Chain

(grooming)

Slide No 78
Tree
Application: Used for small or medium size network

Advantages
Efficient equipment utilization by grooming
Short paths which require smaller antenna
Frequency reuse

Disadvantages
Availability , one link failure affect many sites
Expansions might require upgrading or rearrangement
Slide No 79
Loop
BTSs are connected onto two way multidrop chain

Advantages
Provide the most reliable means of transmission protection against microwave link
fading and equipment failure
Flexibility y providing longer hops with the same antenna size, or alternatively,
smaller antenna dishes with the same hop length
Disadvantages
Installation planning; since all BTSs of a loop must be in place for loop protection
More difficult to design and add capacity
Skilled maintenance personnel is required to make cofiguration changes in the loop
Slide No 80
Topology Planning

Define clusters
Select reference node
Chose Backbone
Decide the topology

Slide No 81
Diversity
Slide No 82
Diversity
Diversity is a method used if project path is severely
influenced by fading due to multi path propagation
The common protection of diversity techniques are:
Space Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Combination of frequency and space Diversity
Angle Diversity

Note: frequency diversity technique takes advantage because of the
frequency selectivity nature of the multi path depressive fading.
Slide No 83
Diversity
Diversity Improvement
The degree of improvement afforded by all of diversity
techniques on the extents to witch the signals in the
diversity branches of the system are uncorrelated.
The improvement of diversity relative to a single channel
given by:
Improvement factor where P refers to BER
Diversity
nel Singlechan
P
P
I =
Slide No 84
Diversity Improvement
10
3

20
10
-4

10
-5

10
-6

10
-7

40 30
Diversity
improvement
factor
No
diversity
diversity
Fade Depth
Slide No 85
Single Diversity
Space diversity
Employs transmit antenna and two receiver antenna
The two receivers enables the reception of signals via different
propagation paths
It requires double antenna on each side of the hop, a unit for the
selection of the best signal and partially or fully duplicated
receivers

Note: whenever space diversity is used, angle diversity should also
be employed by tilting the antenna at different upwards angles

Slide No 86
Space Diversity

Separate paths
Tx
Rx
Rx
S
1 1
1
Slide No 87
Frequency diversity
The same signal is transmitted simultaneously on two
different frequencies
One antenna is required on either side of the hops, a unit
selecting the best signal and duplicate transmitters and
receivers
A cost-effective technique
Provides equipment protection , also gives protection
from multipath fading
Slide No 88
Frequency diversity
It is not recommended for 1+1 systems, because 50% of the spectrum
is utilized
For redundant N+1 systems this technique is efficient, because the
spectrum efficiency is better, but the improvement factor will be
reduced since there are more channel sharing the same diversity
channel
1+1 systems
Slide No 89
Hot standby configuration
Tx and Rx operate at the same frequency, so there is no frequency
diversity could be expected
This configuration gives no improvement of system performance,
but reduces the system outage due to equipment failures
Used to give equipment diversity (protection) on paths where
propagation conditions are non-critical to system performance

Slide No 90
Hybrid diversity
Is an arrangement where 1+1 system has two antennas at
one of the radio sites
This system effect act as space diversity system, and
diversity improvement factor can be calculated as for
space diversity

Slide No 91
Angle diversity
Angle diversity techniques are based upon differing angles of
arrival of radio signal at a receiving antenna, when the signals are a
result of Multipath propagation
The angle diversity technique involves a receiving antenna with its
vertical pattern tilted purposely off the bore sight lines
Angle diversity can be used is situations in witch adequate space
diversity is not possible or to reduce tower height
Slide No 92
Combined diversity
In practical configuration a combination of space and
frequency diversity is used
Different combination algorithms exist
The simple method (conservative) to calculate the
improvement factor for combined diversity configuration
I = Isd + Isd
Slide No 93
Combined diversity

Combined space and frequency diversity

TX
TX
RX
RX
RX
RX
f1
f1
f2
S
f2
Slide No 94
Path Diversity
Outage due to precipitation will not be reduced by use of
frequency,angle or space diversity.
Rain attenuation is mainly a limiting factor at frequencies above
~10 GHz
Systems operating at these high frequencies are used in urban areas
where the radio relay network may from a mix of star and mesh
configurations
The area covered by an intense shower is normally much smaller
than the coverage of the entire network
Re-Routing the signal via other paths

Slide No 95
Path Diversity

The diversity gain (I.e. the difference between the attenuation
(dB) exceeded for a specific percentage of time on single link and
that simultaneously on two parallel links
Tends to decrease as the path length increases from 12 km or a given percentage
of time, and for a given lateral path separation
Is generally greater for a spacing of 8 km than for 4 km, though an increase to 12
km dose not provide further improvement
Is not significantly dependent on frequency in the range 20 40 GHz, for a
given geometry, and
- Ranges from about 2.8 dB at 0.1% of the time to 0.4 dB at 0.001% of the time, for
a spacing of 8 km, and path lengths of about the same value for a 4 km spacing
are about 1.8 to 2.0 dB.

Slide No 96
Microwave Antennas
Slide No 97
Microwave Antennas
The most commonly used type is parabolic antenna
The performance of microwave system depends on the
antenna parameters
Antenna parameters are:
Gain
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
Side and back lobe levels
Beam width
Discrimination of cross polarization
Mechanical stability

Slide No 98
Antenna Gain
The gain of parabolic antenna referred to an isotropic
radiator is given by:

where:
q= aperture efficiency (typical values : 0.5-0.6)
= wavelength in meters
A = aperture area in m
2

Note : the previous formula valid only in the far field of the antenna, the
gain will be decreased in the near field, near field antenna gain is obtained
from manufacturer
)
4
log( 10
2
t
q ~ A Gain
Slide No 99
Antenna Gain-cont.
This figure shows the relation
between the gain of microwave dish
and frequency with different dish
diameters

Can be approximated
Gain = 17.8 + 20log (d.f) dBi
where,
d : Dish diameter (m)
f : Frequency in GHz

Slide No 100
VSWR
VSWR resembles Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
It is important in the case of high capacity systems with
stringent linearity objectives
VSWR should be minimum in order to avoid intermodulation
interference
Typical values of VSWR are from 1.06 to 1.15
High performance antennas have VSWR from 1.04 to 1.06

Slide No 101
Side and Back lobe Levels
The important parameters in frequency planning and
interference calculations are sidelobe and backlobes
Low levels of side and backlobes make the use of
frequency spectrum more efficient
The levels of side and backlobes are specified in the
radiation envelope patterns
The front to back ratio gives an indication of backlobe
levels
The front to back ratio increases with increasing of
frequency and antenna diameter
Slide No 102
Beam Width
The half power beam width of antenna is defined as the
angular width of the main beam at 3dB point

An approximate formula used to find the beam width is:
o
3dB
= 35. /D in degrees
The 10dB deflection angle is found approximately by:
o
10dB
= 60. /D in degrees
Slide No 103
Antenna Characteristics EIRP and ERP
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
It is equal to the product of the power supplied to a transmitting antenna and the
antenna gain in a given direction relative to an isotropic radiator (expressed in
watts)
EIRP = Power - Feeder Loss + Antenna Gain
Both EIRP and Power expressed in dBW
Antenna gain expressed in dBi
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
The same as EIRP but is relative to a half-wave dipole instead of an isotropic
radiator
EIRP = ERP + 2.14 dB
Example
Transmitter Output Power = 4 Watts = 36 dBm, Transmission Line Loss = 2 dB, and
Antenna Gain = 10 dBd. Calculate the ERP
Answer: ERP = 36 - 2 + 10 = 44 dBmd

Slide No 104
Passive Repeater
Two types of passive repeaters :
Plane reflectors
Back to Back antennas
The plane reflector reflects MW signals as the mirror
reflects light
The laws of reflection are valid here
The back to back antennas work just like an ordinary
repeater station, but without frequency transportation or
amplification of the signal

Slide No 105
Passive Repeater- cont.

By using passive repeaters; the free space loss becomes:
A
L
= A
FSA
G
R
+ A
FSB

where
A
FSA
is the free space loss for the path site A to passive repeater
A
FSB
is the free space loss for the path site B to passive repeater
G
R
is the gain of the passive repeater

Slide No 106
Plane Reflectors
More popular than back to back antennas due to :
Efficiency is around 100%
Can be produced with much larger dimensions than parabolic antennas
The gain of plane reflectors is given by:
G
R
= 20 log( 139.5 . f
2
.A
R
. cos( +/2 )) in dB
where :
A
R
is the physical reflector area in m2
F is the radio frequency in GHz
+ is the angle in space at the passive
repeater in degrees

Slide No 107
Plane Reflectors
Slide No 108
Back to back Repeater
Use of them is practical when reflection angle is large
The Gain of back to back antennas is given by
G
R
= G
A1
A
C
+ G
A2
in dB
where :
G
A1
: is the gain of one of the two antennas at the repeater in dB
G
A2
: is the gain of the other antenna at the repeater in dB
A
C
: is the coupling loss between antennas in dB
Slide No 109
Back to back antennas
Slide No 110
Antenna Characteristics - Polarization

Co-Polarization
The transmit and receive antennas have the same polarization
Either horizontal or vertical (HH or VV)
Cross-Polarization
The transmit and receive antennas have different polarization
Either HV or VH

Slide No 111
Transmission of two separate traffic channels is performed on the
same radio frequency but on orthogonal polarization
The polarization planes are horizontal and vertical
The discrimination between the two polarization is called Cross
Polar Discrimination (XPD)
Cross-Polarization Discrimination (XPD)
the ratio between the power received in the orthogonal (cross polar) port to the
power received at the co-polar port when the antenna is excited with a wave
polarized as in the co-polar antenna element
Good cross polarization allows full utilization of the frequency band

Cross Polarization
Slide No 112
Cross Polarization
To ensure interference-free operation, the nominal value
of XPD the value is usually in the rang 30 40 dB
Discrimination of cross polar signals is an important
parameter in frequency planning

28 MHz
Vertical
Horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slide No 113
Mechanical Stability
Limitations in sway / twist for the structure of the
structure (tower or mast) correspond to a maximum 10
dB signal attenuation due to antenna misalignment
The maximum deflection angle may be estimated for a
given antenna diameter and frequency by using
o
10dB
= 60. /D in degrees
Slide No 114
Antenna
Datasheet
Slide No 115
Digital Antenna
pattern
Slide No 116
Antenna Pattern
Slide No 117
Radio Propagation
Slide No 118
Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
EM wave is a wave produced by the interaction of time varying
electric and magnetic field
Electromagnetic fields are typically generated by alternating
current (AC) in electrical conductors
The EM field composes of two fields (vectors)
Electric vector E
Magnetic vector H
Electromagnetic waves can be
Reflected and scattered
Refracted
Diffracted
Absorbed (its energy)

Slide No 119
Electromagnetic Waves Properties
E and H vectors are orthogonal
In free space environment, the EM-wave propagates at
the speed of light (c)
The distance between the wave crests is called the
wavelength ()
The frequency ( f )is the number of times the wave
oscillates
The relation that combines the EM-wave frequency and
wavelength with the speed of light is:
= c / f

Slide No 120
Radio Wave Propagation

The propagation of radio wave is affected by :
Frequency Effect
Terrain Effect
Atmospheric Effect
Multipath Effect

All the above mentioned effects cause a degradation in
quality
Slide No 121
Frequency Effect

Attenuation: Loss
Propagation of radio depends on frequency band

At frequencies above 6 GHz radio wave is more affected
by gas absorption and precipitation
At frequencies close to 10 GHz the effects of precipitation begins to
dominate
Gas absorption starts influencing at 22 GHz where the water vapour
shows characteristic peak
Slide No 122
Terrain effect
Reflection and scattering
The radio wave propagating near the surface of earth is
influenced by:
Electrical characteristics of earth
Topography of terrain including man-made structures
Slide No 123
Atmospheric effect
Loss and refraction
The gaseous constituents and temperature of the
atmosphere influence radio waves by:
Absorbing its energy
Variations in refractive index which cause the radio wave reflect,
refract and scatter
Slide No 124
Multipath effect
Multipath effect occurs when many signals with different
amplitude and/or phase reach the receiver

Multipath effect is caused by reflection and refraction

Multipath propagation cause fading
Slide No 125
EM wave Reflection and scattering

When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface it might
be reflected or scattered
Rayleigh criterion used to determine whether the wave
will be scattered or reflected
The reflected waves depend on the frequency, incidence
angle and electrical property of the surface

Slide No 126
EM wave Reflections

Reflection of the radio beam from lakes and large surfaces
are more critical than reflection from terrain with
vegetation
Generally, vertical polarization gives reduced reflection
especially at lower frequencies
If there is a great risk from reflection ,space diversity
should be used
Slide No 127
EM wave Reflection coefficient ()

Reflection can be characterized by its total reflection
coefficient
is the quotient between the reflected and incident field
When = 0 nothing will be reflected and when =1 we
have specular reflection
reflection coefficient decreases with frequency

Slide No 128
EM wave Reflection coefficient-cont.

Reflection
loss ()
-35
-5
-15
-15
-25
5
0.2 0.8 0.6 0.4
Total reflection coefficient ()
A
max
A
min
The resulting electromagnetic field at a receiver antenna is
composed of two components,the direct signal and the reflected
signal
Since the angle between the both components varies between 0
and 180 the signal will pass through maximum and minimum
values respectively

The figure shows different
values of total reflection
coefficient, and the minimum
and maximum values
with respect to them
Slide No 129
EM wave Refraction

Refraction occurs because radio waves travel with
different velocities in different medium according to their
electrical characteristics.

Index of refraction of a medium is the ratio of the velocity
of radio waves in space to the velocity of radio waves in
that medium

Slide No 130
EM wave Refraction
Radio wave is refracted toward the region with higher
index of refraction (denser medium)
Incident wave
Reflected wave
Refracted wave
Medium 1
Medium 2
i

r

,n1
,n2
n2 > n1
Slide No 131
EM wave Refraction
Refractivity depends on
Pressure
Temperature
Humidity

Refractive Gradient (dN/dh) represents refractive
variation with respect to height (h), related to the earth
radius.
Slide No 132
EM wave Refraction and Ray bending
Refraction cause ray bending in the atmosphere
In free space, the radio wave follows straight line
no atmosphere
with atmosphere
Slide No 133
EM wave Refraction: K-Factor
K is a value to indicate wave bending

r
e
:is the effective radius of the ray due to refraction
a :is the earth radius = 6350 km

For temperate regions :
dN/dh = - 40N units per Km,
K=4/3=1.33

a
r
K
e
=
Slide No 134
K-Factor and Path Profile Correction
Path profile must be corrected by K-factor
Radius of earth must be multiplied by K-factor, less
curvature of earth
Slide No 135
Formation Of Ducts- Refraction and reflection
Ground Based Duct: Refraction and reflection
The atmosphere has very dense layer at the ground with a
thin layer on top of it.

Elevated Duct: Refraction only
The atmosphere has a thick layer in some height above
ground.
If both the transmitter and the receiver are within the
duct, multiple rays will reach the receiver
If one is inside and the other is outside the duct, nearly no
energy will reach the receiver
Slide No 136
Formation Of Ducts- Refraction and reflection
Earth
Elevated DUCT
Earth
Ground Based DUCT
Slide No 137
Formation Of Ducts- Explanation
Refraction and reflection
Slide No 138
Ducting Probability- Refraction and reflection
Duct probability percentage of time when dN/dh is less
than 100 N units/km per specified month
ITU-R issues DUCT Probability CONTOUR MAPS
The ducting probability follows seasonal variations
This difference in ducting probability can be explained by
the difference in temperature and most of all by difference
in humidity
From the map the equatorial regions are most vulnerable
to ducts
Slide No 139
ITU-R DUCT Probability CONTOUR MAPS
Slide No 140
Multipath Propagation - Refraction and reflection
Multipath propagation occurs when there are more than
one ray reach the receiver
Disadvantages:
Signal strength changes rapidly over a short time and distance
Multipath delays which causes time dispersion
Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts
Delay spread of the received signal
Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading
Fading is explained in later slides
Slide No 141
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs and causes increase in transmission loss
when the size of obstacle between transmitter and
receiver is large compared to wavelength
Diffraction effects are faster and more accentuated with
increased obstruction for frequencies above 1 GHz
Transmission obstruction loss over irregular terrain is
complicated function of frequency, path geometry,
vegetation density and other less significant variable
Practical methods are used to estimate the obstruction
losses.
Slide No 142
Diffraction loss
Practical methods are used to estimate the obstruction
losses
Terrain Averaging: ITU-R P.530-7
Diffraction loss in this method can be approximated for losses
greater than 15 dB
A
d
= -20h/F1 + 10 (dB) : ITU-R P.530-7
Where, A
d
: diffraction loss.
h: height difference between most significant blockage and
path trajectory.
F1: radius of first freznal zone

Slide No 143
Knife edge models
Knife edge approximation is used when the obstruction is
sharp and inside the first freznal zone
Single Knife edge
Bullington
Epostein-Peterson
Japanese Atlas

Slide No 144
Absorption
At frequency above 10
GHz the propagation of
radio waves through the
atmosphere of the earth is
strongly effected by
resonant absorption of
electromagnetic energy by
molecular water vapor and
oxygen

Slide No 145
Rain Attenuation
When radio waves interact with raindrops the
electromagnetic wave will scatter
The attenuation depends on frequency band, specially for
frequencies above 10 GHz
The rain attenuation calculated by introducing reduction
factor and then effective path length
The rain attenuation depends on the rain rate, which
obtained from long term measurement and very short
integration time
The Earth is divided into 16 different rain zones
Slide No 146
Rain Attenuation
Rain rate is measured to estimate attenuation because it is
hard to actually count the number of raindrops and
measure their individual sizes so
Rainfall is measured in millimeters [mm], and rain
intensity in millimeters pr. hour [mm/h].
Since the radio waves are a time varying electromagnetic
field, the incident field will induce a dipole moment in the
raindrop will therefore act as an antenna and re-radiate
the energy.
A raindrop is an antenna with low directivity and some
energy will be re-radiated in arbitrary directions giving a
net loss of energy in the direction towards the receiver.

Slide No 147
Raindrop shape
As the raindrops increase in size, they depart from the
spherical shape
Raindrops are more extended in the horizontal direction and
consequently will attenuate horizontal polarized waves more
than the vertical polarized.
This means that vertical polarization
is favorable at high frequencies
where outage due to rain is dominant.

Slide No 148
Fading

The radio waves undergo variations while traveling in the
atmosphere due to atmospheric changes. The received
signal fades around nominal value.

Multipath Fading is due to metrological conditions in the
space separating the transmitter and the receiver which
cause detrimental effects to the received signal

Slide No 149
Fade Margins
Fade Margin is extra power

Fade Margins will be explained in link design for the
following:
Multipath Fading
Flat Fading
Selective Fading
Rain Fading
Slide No 150
Mutipath Fading
As the fading margin increased the probability of the
signal to drop below the receiver threshold is decreased

Flat fading or non-selective occurs when all components
of the useful signal are affected equally
Frequency selective fading occurs if some of the spectral
components are reduced causing distortion
Total fading
P
tot
=P
flat
+ P
sel

Slide No 151
Mutipath Fading
The impacts of multipath fading can be summarized as
follows:
It reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and consequently increases the
bit-error-rate (BER)
It reduces the carrier-to-interference (C/I) ratio and consequently
increases the BER
It distorts the digital pulse waveform resulting in increased
intersymbol interference and BER
It introduces crosstalk between the two orthogonal carriers, the I-rail
and the Q-rail, and consequently increases the BER

Slide No 152
Mutipath Fading
Frequency
selective
fading
Normal
signal
Flat fading
P
Slide No 153
Microwave Link Planning and Design
Slide No 154
Hop Calculations (Design)
Free Space Loss
Gas Absorption
Obstacle Loss
Rain fading
Multipath fading
Link Budget
Fading prediction
Performance &
Availability Objectives
Predictable
Statistically Predictable
Always present
and predictable
Predictable
if present
Not always present
but statistically
predictable
Slide No 155
Path Profile

Path profile is essentially a plot of the elevation of the
earth as function of the distance along the path between
the transmitter and receiver

The purpose of path profile:
To check the free line of sight
To check the clearance of the path to avoid obstacle attenuation
When determining the fading of received signal
Slide No 156
Path Profile Example
Path profiles are necessary to determine site locations and
antenna heights

Slide No 157
Path Profile: Clearance of Path
Design objective: Full clearance of direct line-of-sight and
and an ellipsoid zone surrounding the direct line-of-sight
The ellipsoid zone is called the Fresnel Zone
Slide No 158
Path Profile: Fresnel Zone Example
Slide No 159
Fresnel Zone
Fresnal Zone is defined as the zone shaped as ellipsoid
with its focal point at the antennas on both ends of the
path
If there is no obstacle within first Fresnel zone ,the
obstacle attenuation can be ignored and the path is
cleared
Equation of path of ellipsoid

2
2 1
= + d d d
Slide No 160

First Fresnel zone radius

Fresnel zone Exercise: Calculate the fresnel zone radius at mid
path for the following cases
1. f= 15GHz, K=4/3, d=10km
2. f = 15GHz, K=4/3, d=20km
Solution:
1. F
1
(radius)

2. F
1
(radius)

f d
d d
F
=
2 1
1
3 . 17
Fresnel Zone Equation
[m]
m 10
20 15
10 10
3 . 17 =
=
m 7
10 15
5 5
3 . 17 =
=
Slide No 161
Fresnel Zone Radii calculations
Table Tool

4.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
7.0 9.2 12.7 13.3 15.0 17.3 18.6
13.0 10.3 13.6 12.1 13.6 13.8 14.2
15.0 10.1 14.2 11.3 13.4 12.4 13.1
18.0 9.2 15.2 10.6 13.8 11.6 13.0
23.0 7.7 17.1 9.6 14.7 10.9 13.4
26.0 6.7 19.6 8.6 16.0 10.1 14.1
38.0 5.1 23.9 7.3 18.1 9.1 15.2
Distance in km Frequency
GHz
Slide No 162
Obstacle Loss: Fresnel Zone is not Cleared

Obstacle Loss

Knife Edge obstacle loss
Smooth spherical obstacle loss
Slide No 163
Knife Edge Losses
0 12 20
6 0
dB
Slide No 164
Smooth Spherical Earth Losses
10
20
30
dB
Slide No 165
Line-Of-Sight Survey
LOS Survey
To verify that the proposed network design is feasible considering
LOS constraints

LOS
Slide No 166
Line-Of-Sight Survey- Flowchart
LOS Survey
LOS Report
Update the
design
Network Design
Slide No 167
LOS Survey Equipment
Necessary:
Compass
Maps : 50 k or better
Digital Camera
GPS Navigator
Binoculars
Hand-held communication
equipment
Signaling mirrors

Optional:
Clinometer
Altimeter
Laptop
Spectrum analyzer
Antenna horn
Low noise amplifier
Theodolite
Slide No 168
LOS Survey Procedure - Preparation
Preparation
Maps of 1:50k scale or better to be used and prepared
List of hops to be surveyed
Critical obstacles should be marked in order to verify LOS in the
field
Organize transport and accommodation
Organize access and authorization to the sites
Prepare LOS survey form
Slide No 169
LOS Survey Procedure - Field
Verification of sites positions and altitudes
Confirmation of line-of-sight using
GPS
Compass
Binocular
And other methods in the next slide
Take photographs
Estimate required tower heights
Path and propagation notes
Slide No 170
Other Methods of LOS Survey
Mirrors
Flash
Balloon
Portable MW Equipment
Driving along the path and taking GPS and altitude
measurements for different points along it.
Slide No 171
LOS Survey Report
Site Data
Name
Coordinates
Height
Address
Proposed Tower Height
LOS Confirmation
Azimuth and Elevation
Path short description
Photographs

Slide No 172
Link Budget

Includes all gains and losses as the signal passes from transmitter to
the receiver.

It is used to calculate fade margin which is used to estimate the
performance of radio link system.

Slide No 173
Link Budget
Link budget is the sum of all losses and gains of the signal
between the transmitter output and the receiver input.
Items related to the link budget
Transmitted power
Received power
Feeder loss
Antenna gain
Free space loss
Attenuations
Used to calculate received signal level (fading is ignored)

Slide No 174
Link Budget (cond)
Where,
Pin = Received power (dBm)
Pout = Transmitted power (dBm)
L = Antenna feeder loss (dB)
G = Antenna gain (dBi)
FSL = Free space loss (dB) (between isotropic antennas)
A = Attenuations (dB)

+ = A FSL G L P P
out in
Slide No 175
Link Budget
Tx
G
t
G
r
Rx
Output
power
Received
power
Antenna
gain
Branching
loss
Feeder
loss
Antenna
gain
Feeder
loss
Branching
loss
Free space loss +
atmospheric atten.
Fade
Margin
Receiver threshold
Slide No 176
Link Budget Parameters-Free Space Loss
It is defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as is
propagates in a straight line through the vacuum

L
p(dB)
= 92.4 + 20logf
(GHz)
+ 20logD
(km)

2 2
4 4
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
=
c
fD D
L
p
t
t
where,
L
p
= free space path loss
D = distance
f = frequency
= wavelength
c = velocity of light in free space (3*10
8
m/s)

Slide No 177
Free Space Loss
Tx
Rx
L
p
Link Budget Parameters
Slide No 178

Total Antenna Gain:
G
a
= 20 log (D
a
) + 20 log (f) + 17.8

Atmospheric attenuation occurs at higher frequencies ,
above 15 GHz due to atmospheric gases, and given by:

Where d is path link in km ,
a
is specific attenuation in dB/km

D
a
f
d A
a a
=
Slide No 179

Rx Level: Signal strength at the receiving antenna
P
Rx
= P
Tx
-L
BRL
-+G
Tx
-L
FS
-L
obs
+G
Rx
- L
Tx feeder
L
Rx

feeder

Where, P
Rx
: received power level G
Tx
:Tx gain
P
Tx
: transmitted power level L
obs
:Diffraction loss
L
BRL
: branching loss G
Rx
:Rx gain
L
FS
: free space loss L
Rx feeder
: Rx feeder loss
L
Tx feeder
: Tx feeder loss
Slide No 180
Fading

Fading types
Multipath Fading; Dominant cause of fading for f < 10 GHz
Flat Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Rain Fading; Dominant cause of fading for f > 10 GHz

Slide No 181
Fade Margin and Availability

Is the difference between the nominal input level and receiver
threshold level
From Link Budget
FM = Received Power Receiver threshold

Fade margin is designed into the system so as to meet outage
objectives during fading conditions
Typical value of Fade Margin is around 40 dB
Availability is calculated from the Fade Margin value as in F.1093,
P.530-6, P.530-7,
Slide No 182
Flat Fading ITU-R P.530-7
P
flat
=P
o
. 10
F/10
where:
F equals the fade margin
P
o
the fading occurrence factor

Po = k. d
3.6
. f
0.89
.(1+|E
p
|)
-1.4

Where:
k is geoclimatic factor
d is path length in Km
f is frequency in GHz
Ep: path inclination in mrad =

d
h h
E
P
2 1

=
Slide No 183
Flat Fading- cont. ITU-R P.530-7
The geoclimatic (K) depends on type of the path
Inland links
Plains: low altitude 0 to 400m above mean sea level
Hills: low altitude 0 to 400m above mean sea level
Plains: Medium altitude 400 to 700m above mean sea level
Hills: Medium altitude 400 to 700m above mean sea level
Plains: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level
Hills: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level
Mountains: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level
Coastal links over/near large bodies of water
Coastal links over/near medium-sized bodies of water
Indistinct path definition
To calculate K value, refer to formulas and tables in ITU-R P.530-7

Slide No 184
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R F.1093
Result from surface reflections or introduced by
atmospheric anomalies such as strong ducting gradients

Where,
: Probability of of the occurrence of multipath fading
W: Signature width (GHz), equipment dependent
B : Signature depth (GHz), equipment dependent

m
: Mean value of echo delay

r
: Time delay used during measurements of the signature curves (reference delay)
ns. Normally 6.3 ns
r
m
B
sel
W P
t
t
q
2
20
10 3 . 4 =

Slide No 185
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R F.1093
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
4 / 3
0
100
2 .
1
P
e q
5 . 1
50
7 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
m
t
}
=
2 /
2 /
20
10
w
w
B
c
W
Where,
P
o
: The fading occurrence factor

Where,
d : Path length (km)
Where,
B
c
: Signature depth
Slide No 186
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R P.530-7

Where,
W
x
: Signature width
B
x
: Signature depth
x
: The reference delay used to obtain signature in
measurements
x: Denotes either Minimum phase (M) or Not Minimum phase (NM)
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

NM r
M
B
NM
M r
M
B
M sel
NM M
W W P
,
2
20
,
2
20
10 10 15 . 2
t
t
t
t
q
Slide No 187
Space Diversity Improvement ITU-R P.453
Where,
s : Vertical separation between antennas in m
f : Frequency in GHz
d : Path length
F : Fade Margin
: The difference in antenna gain between the two antenna in dB
P
o
: from the formula of flat fading
10
100
10 34 . 3
10 1
04 . 1
48 . 0 12 . 0 87 . 0 4
G M
P
d f s
o
e I
A
|
|
.
|
\
|

(
(
=

I
P P
I
P
P
sel flat mp
mp
div
+
= =
G A
Slide No 188
Rain Attenuation ITU-R P.530
Rain Intensity in mm/h
The reference level is the rain intensity that is exceeded .01% of all the time (R
0.01
)
The attenuation due to the rain in .01% of the time for a given path
may be found by:

where

R
: Specific rain attenuation (dB/km)
d
eff
: Effective path length, km

k and a are given in the table
eff
R R
d A . =
a
R
R k =
Slide No 189
Usable path lengths with rain intensity
example: 15 GHz
Slide No 190
Rain zone contours (Americas)
Rain zone contours (Far
East)
Rain zone contours
(Europe and Africa)
ITU-R presents the cumulative distribution of rain
intensity for 15 different zone as shown below
Slide No 191
Rain Fading ITU-R P.530
The relation between fading margin and unavailability for the path
is given by:

Where
A
R0.01
: Rain attenuation exceeded 0.01% of the time
F: Fade margin

) / 12 . 0 log( 172 . 0 29812 . 0 546 . 0 ( 628 . 11
01 . 0
10
F A
R
P
+ +
=
%
Slide No 192
Frequency Planning
Slide No 193
Frequency planning
Objective of frequency planning
Efficient use of available frequency band
Keep interference level as low as possible
Frequency plan must consider interference
C/I Objectives
Note: the requirements depends on
Equipment
Frequency
Bandwidth
For adjacent channel interference
Slide No 194
Frequency Planning
Frequency Allocation
From operators point of view, it is best to get a block of
frequencies or several adjacent channels from each
frequency band
Installation and maintenance of microwave radio is less complicated
Interference analysis is only needed between operators own hops
It is recommended to assign the available channels or
frequency block to certain capacities so that 2X2, 4X2,
8X2, 16X2 will not interleave.
Normally in 18-38 GHz, four hops using the same channel
can arrive at star if they are at 90 degrees angle from each
other

Slide No 195
Frequency Planning
Interference
Interference needs more concern at star points because several
microwave radios transmit and receive are close to each other
Dont use higher transmitter output power than required
Frequency planning in star points is trivial if multiple channels are
used (inefficient use of channels)
Re use same channel (efficient use of channels)
All stations at star transmit either high or low, while high-low alteration must be
applied in chains.
Good angle separation
Cross polarization gives extra discrimination
Note: Rain has greater attenuation on horizontal polarization thus use horizontal
polarization for shorter hops
Slide No 196
Frequency Planning
The radio spectrum is allocated to various services by
ITUs Administrative Radio Conference (WARC)
ITU-R is responsible for providing RF channel
arrangement
Alternated channel arrangement
Co-channel arrangement
Interleaved arrangement

Slide No 197
Alternated Channel arrangement
Every channel will have opposite polarization to the
adjacent channels
This arrangement is used(neglecting co-polar adjacent
interference) if the below rule holds
XPDmin+(NFD 3)>(C/I)min
NFD=adj. Ch. Received power / adj. Ch. Power received after BB filter
Advantage:
Easily filfilled by standard antenna to radio equipment
Disadvantage:
Limited spectrum effective

Slide No 198
Co-channel arrangement
In this arrangement every radio channel is utilized twice
for independent traffic on opposite polarization for the
same path

The following demand must be fulfilled
[10log(1/(1/10^((XPD + XIF)/10) +1/10^((NFD-3)/10)))] > (C/I)
Where,
NFD :Net Filter discriminator
XIF :is XPD improvement factor
Slide No 199
Channel Capacity and Separation
Capacity Channel Separation
2 X 2 Mbps 3.5 MHz
4 X 2 Mbps 7 MHz
8 X 2 Mbps 14 MHz
16 X 2 Mbps 28 MHz
Channel separation
Slide No 200
Co-channel Interference Far
Tx/Rx Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx
Tx = f
1
Rx = f
2
Tx = f
1
Rx = f
2
Tx = f
2
Rx = f
1
Tx = f
2
Rx = f
1
Slide No 201
Co-channel Interference Near
Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx
Tx = f
1
Rx = f
2
Tx = f
2
Rx = f
1
Slide No 202
Adjacent Channel Interference
f
Rx
f
Tx
Interference
Slide No 203
Receiver Threshold Degradation

Presence of interfering signals will give a receiver threshold
degradation
The degraded receiver threshold level L
Tel
is calculated from:

A Rule of Thumb
Threshold Degradation < 3 dB
( ) ( )
( )
10 /
10 1 log 10
I R Te
L C L
Te Tel
L L
+ +
+ + =
Slide No 204
Threshold Degradation
Receiver
threshold,
dBm
-82
-84
-86
-88
-80
-78
-76
-72
-74
-70
14 19 17 16 18 15 21 20 22
23
Signal to Interference ratio, dB
3dB
Slide No 205
Channel plan
Tx=4A
Rx=4B
Tx=4B
Rx=4A
1A
7A 6A 5A 4A 2A 3A 7B 6B 5B 4B 3B 2B 1B
Low sub-band High sub-band
Duplex distance
Slide No 206
High / Low Tx Channel Allocation
H
L
H
H
L
H
L
H
H/L
L
Near interference
Slide No 207
High / Low Tx Channel Allocation
H
H/L
L
L
L
H
H
H
H
L
Interference
New
frequency
band
Rings with odd number of sites should be avoided
Slide No 208
Channel Plan
7 Channels
28 MHz
(17x2 Mbps)
f
1A
7A
6A 5A 4A
3A 2A
Slide No 209
Channel Plan
28 MHz
(17x2 Mbps)
f
14 MHz
(8x2 Mbps)
11 Channels
Slide No 210
Channel Plan
28 MHz
(17x2 Mbps)
f
14 MHz
(8x2 Mbps)
15 Channels
7 MHz
(4x2 Mbps)
Slide No 211
Output Power
High output
power
High output
power
High output
power
Interference
Only High output power
Slide No 212
Output Power
Low output
power
High output
power
Low output
power
No Interference
High and low output power
Slide No 213
Interference
Slide No 214
Digital Systems and BER
Performance of digital transmission system can be
evaluated by BER, Bit Error Rate
Telephony BER degradation versus audible degradation:
10
-6
: Noise not audible
10
-5
: Barely audible
10
-4
: audible, understandable
10
-3
: disturbing
More than 10
-3
: sync loss, link loss
Data and in particular multimedia media application
require a very low BER
Slide No 215
Noise in Digital Systems
Noise can originate from a variety of sources, and many of
these sources are man-made so they can be eliminated
Thermal noise
Noise Factor and Noise Figure
S/N Ratio
Receiver Thresholds

Slide No 216
White Noise in Digital Systems

Thermal noise is generated from random motion of
electrons due to thermal energy
P
n
=KTB (W) where :
k=Boltzmanns constant
T=temperature in Kelvin
B=bandwidth of noise spectrum
Typical values are : T=300 K , b= 6MHz , -106 dBm
Slide No 217
Noise Factor and Noise Figure
Noise Factor and Noise Figure are figures of merit used to
indicate how much the S/N deteriorates as a signal passes
through a circuit or series of circuits.
Noise factor:
Is defined in terms of signal to noise ratio

Noise Figure
NF = 10 log(F) (dB)
output at ratio power S/N available
input at ratio power S/N available
= F
(unitless)
Slide No 218
Noise in Digital Systems

Signal to interference ratio defines the minimum
difference between the signal and the interferer levels. It
depends on bandwidth, modulation and manufacturer.

Usually for digital system signal to interference ratio 15-
25 dB

Slide No 219
Receiver Thresholds
Threshold (10
-3
): Received level at BER 10
-3
Threshold (10
-6
): Received level at BER 10
-6
Threshold = White noise + Noise figure + S/N
Threshold
S/N
NF
White noise
Slide No 220
Threshold Degradation
Receiver
threshold,
dBm
-82
-84
-86
-88
-80
-78
-76
-72
-74
-70
14 19 1
7
16 18 15 21 20 22
23
Signal to Interference ratio, dB
3dB
A Rule of Thumb
Threshold Degradation < 3 dB
given that the required
signal to interferer is not
violated
Slide No 221
Cross Polar Interference XPI
Both multi path- and rain fading can result in severe
degradation of XPD level
Cross Polar interference Cancellers (XPIC) in the receiver
remove the unwanted signal that has leaked from the
opposite polarization into the wanted one

The quantitative
Description of cross-
Polar interference XPI

dB
E
E
Log XPI
21
11
. 20 =
dB
E
E
Log XPD
12
11
. 20 =
Where E
11
and E
12
are
given in the next figure
Slide No 222
Cross Polar Interference

Depolarization Causes
Scattering or reflection from land or water surfaces
Reflection from an atmospheric layer
Tropospherical turbulence
Slide No 223
Cross Polar Interference
E
1

E
2

E
11

E
22

E
21

E
12

Dual polarized system suffering from XPI
Slide No 224
Ways to include interference in
performance calculation
The interference calculation are performed by calculation
the interference level and determining the receiver
threshold degradation
Start from allowed interference level at the input of the
disturbed receiver and then comparing it with level of the
interfering signal
The degradation receiver threshold level
( ) ( )
( )
10 /
1
10 1 log 10
L C L
Te Tel
R Te
L L
+ +
+ + ~
Slide No 225
Interfering waves propagation mechanisms
Long-term interference mechanisms:
Diffraction
Troposcatter
Line-of-site
Short-term interference mechanisms:
Ducting: layer refraction/reflection
Hydrometeor scatter

Slide No 226
Selecting Interfering Stations
Before performing interference calculation the possible interfering
station must be selected in the area of interference
Co-ordination area are the area around given station where
possible co-channel interference from near site are situated

Co-ordination area for off-
key hole region
Key hole
region
Slide No 227
Propagation in Interference Calculations
Select interfering site by calculating coordination area
Select minimum interference levels
Predict interferer signal level
Decide whether an average year or worst month prediction is required
Assemble the basic input data
Derive the annual or worst-month radio meteorological data from maps
Analyze the path profile, and classify the path according to the path geometry
Identify which individual propagation models need to be invoked
Calculate the individual propagation predictions using each of the models
identified in the previous step
Combine the individual predictions to give the overall statistics
Slide No 228
Interference Calculation
Undesirable RF coupling between radio channels
Cross polarization: occurred in channels operating on opposite
polarization
Adjacent channel:the channel filter at the receiver and the width of
the transmitted spectrum determined the interference level
Front to back:The interference level is mainly a function of the
antenna front-to-back ratio
Over shoot:If the paths are aligned , interference due to overshoot
is critical. Use of opposite polarization or change of radio channels
is recommended.
Slide No 229
Examples of Interference RF coupling
Examples
V
H
Cross Polarization
Adjacent channel
f
2
f
1
f
1
Front-to-Back
f
1
f
1

Over Shoot
f
1
f
1

f
1
Slide No 230
Interference Calculations- cont.
Preconditions
Network diagram: drawn to scale and angle, includes all radio-relay
circuits within the frequency band concerned
Network data : antenna types and radiation patterns, transmitter
output power
RL equipment interference data, normally given as diagrams
Digital to digital interference diagrams
Digital to analog interference diagrams
Analog to digital interference diagrams
Adjacent-channel attenuation as a function of channel spacing
Antenna radiation patterns: for all types of antennas used in the
network
Slide No 231
Interference Calculations- cont.
Interference evaluation on digital network
It is necessary to check each antenna discrimination in the nodal
stations for all disturbances
In the beginning, only the most critical interference path has to be
examined
As a start, standard performance antennas are used, and no level
adjustments are made to reduce interference problems, this case is
worst case
Co-polar operation
Cross-polar operation
Slide No 232
Digital Map and Tools Overview
Slide No 233
Digital Maps
Digitized Geographical data is needed

Maps sampling (examples)
Urban: 20 to 50m
Suburban: 50-100m
Open: 100m

Slide No 234
Digital Maps-Geographical Databases
The choice of the geographical databases depends on the
propagation model used
A compromise has to be reached between:
Cost
Accuracy
Calculation speed
The chosen configuration
Geographical databases types are:
Vector data (Linear)
Altitude
Clutter (land use data)
Slide No 235
Digital Maps - Vector Data (Linear)

Succession of points describing:
Highway
Roads
Railways
Rivers
Borders
coastlines
Slide No 236
Digital Maps - Altitude
One altitude value per each pixel
Each point of the pixel is assumed at the same altitude
Two categories of altitude databases
Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
Digital Evaluation Model (DEM)

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Microwave Radio Planning and Link Design

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