Phase 2

COMBAT LIFE SAVING
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS THE BASIC SCHOOL MARINE CORPS TRAINING COMMAND CAMP BARRETT, VIRGINIA 22134-5019
COMBAT LIFE SAVING B151196
____________________________________________________________________________________ BASIC OFFICER COURSE
B151196
COMBAT LIFE SAVING

Introduction
This handout and the accompanying lecture will prepare you to render effective first aid for combat-related injuries and to teach your Marines the same skills.
Importance
The difference between life and death can be measured in minutes after a Marine suffers a severe injury. Being trained in first aid, to the point where recognizing a life-threatening wound becomes second nature, is a critical skill for Marines of all ranks.
In this Lesson
This lesson will give the student officer an understanding of the basics of first-aid necessary for treating Marines wounded in combat or in training. This lesson discusses the following topics: Topic Topic 1: Shock Topic 2: Soft Tissue Injuries Topic 3: Open Chest Wounds Topic 4: Types of Bleeding Topic 5: Abdominal Wounds Topic 6: Burns Topic 7: Fractures and Spinal Injuries Conclusion References Notes Page 4 6 9 11 16 18 21 22 23 23
Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives:

MCCS.21.01 Given a simulated combat casualty and a first aid kid, identify proper care of life threatening injuries per the references. MCCS 21.02 Given a burn casualty and a first aid kit, treat a burn per the references.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 2
B151196
Enabling Learning Objectives:

MCCS 21.01a Given a casualty, identify proper care of life threatening injuries per the references. MCCS 21.01b Given a casualty and a first aid kit, demonstrate basic life saving skills per the references. MCCS 21.02a Given a burn casualty and a first aid kit, identify characteristics and sources of a burn per the references.
B151196
Shock
Shock
Shock may be caused by severe or minor trauma causing pain to the body. It can be the result of a significant blood loss, heart failure, severe and painful blows to the body, burns, severe wounds that become infected, a severe allergic reaction to drugs or certain foods, certain insect bites, snakebites, or dehydration. Shock stuns and weakens the body. When the normal blood flow in the body is upset, death can result. Early identification and proper treatment may save the injured Marine's life. The objective is to administer first aid measures that prevent shock from developing or worsening.
Signs and Symptoms of Shock

Examine the casualty for any of the following signs or symptoms: Sweaty but cool skin. Pale skin. Restlessness, nervousness. Thirst. Loss of blood (caused by internal or external bleeding). Confusion or loss of awareness. Faster than normal breathing rate. Blotchy or bluish skin (especially around the mouth and lips). Nausea and vomiting.
Hemorrhagic Shock
The average adult contains approximately 5 liters of blood and upon the loss of even 20%; the body will begin to go into hemorrhagic shock. The onset of this shock will happen quickly, as the body can bleed out in 60 120 seconds. The causes of hemorrhagic shock are external loss of whole blood, an internal hemorrhage or an extreme loss of plasma due to severe burns.
Treatment and Prevention of Shock:

In the field, the procedures followed to treat for shock are identical to procedures that would be performed to prevent shock. When treating a Marine, assume that shock is present or will occur shortly. By waiting until
B151196
actual signs or symptoms of shock are noticeable, the rescuer may put the casualty's life in jeopardy. Move the casualty to cover if the situation requires and permits. Position the casualty on his or her back. Do not move the casualty or his or her limbs if suspected fractures have not been splinted.
NOTE: Some casualties who may be in shock after suffering a heart attack, chest wound or breathing distress may breathe easier in a sitting position. If this is the case, allow them to sit upright, but monitor their condition carefully. Elevate the casualty's feet higher than the level of the heart. Use a stable object (a box, field pack, or rolled up clothing) so that the feet will not slip off. Remember to splint suspected fractures before elevating the feet. Loosen clothing at the neck, waist or wherever it may be binding. Prevent chilling or overheating. Place a blanket or like item over and under the victim to prevent chilling Calm the casualty. During the treatment or prevention of shock, do not give the casualty any food or drink. If the casualty is unconscious, turn his or her head to the side so that, in case he or she vomits, the victim will not choke on the vomitus.
B151196
Soft Tissue Injuries

Types of Soft Tissue Injuries
There are two types of soft tissue injuries that will be covered, closed wounds (in which the skin is not broken) and open wounds (in which the skin is broken.)
Closed Wounds
Closed wounds are commonly caused by blunt objects striking the body with sufficient force to crush the tissues beneath the skin. A contusion or bruise will commonly develop beneath the surface of the skin, which characteristically remains unbroken. Contusions are characterized by swelling and pain, caused by the blood leaking into the wound. This "leaking blood" will cause the characteristic black and blue marks. When serious amounts of tissue are damaged (to include the underlying blood vessels), a lump may develop rapidly. This is known as a hematoma or, literally, a blood tumor.
Open Wounds
An open wound is any wound in which the surface of the skin has been broken. Open wounds may be classified as abrasions, lacerations, incisions, or puncture wounds. An abrasion is a loss of a portion of the epidermis and part of the dermas from its being rubbed or scraped across a hard surface. It is extremely painful, and blood may ooze from injured capillary vessels at the surface. It does not penetrate completely through the skin. A laceration is a cut produced by glass, metal, or any other object that may leave a jagged wound on the skin surface and cut through the subcutaneous tissue, the underlying muscles, associated nerves, and blood vessels. An incision is similar to a laceration, except that the wound will be somewhat "cleaner," having no jagged edges. Puncture wounds may result from a stab with a knife, nail, ice pick, splinter, or any other pointed object. They may also result from gunshot injuries. External bleeding is usually not severe from a puncture wound because the wound is so small. However, these instruments may injure
B151196
major vessels within body cavities and cause rapid, fatal bleeding within the chest or abdomen. There is no way to assess the amount of damage sustained from a puncture wound. Ordinarily such assessment requires an exploratory operation in the chest, the abdomen, or the extremity involved. Extensive damage should always be suspected. Some puncture wounds, especially those in extremities, may traverse the entire limb to exit the opposite side. These are perforating (through and through) wounds. The Marine should always seek and note an exit wound, especially in the case of a gunshot wound. A special case in the puncture wound category is the impaled object. An excellent example of the impaled object is a bayonet in the abdominal area in which the bayonet has not been extracted. In the case of impaled objects, it is important to remember not to extract the object and to immobilize the object so that it will not cause further damage.
Treatment of Open Wounds

Control the bleeding by direct pressure, pressure points, or as a last resort, a tourniquet. Prevent contamination with a sterile dressing. Aside from serious blood loss, the danger of infection from an open wound should be your principal concern. The field dressing carried by every Marine in the field consists of two parts: a sterile dressing and a bandage to hold the dressing snugly in place.
In emergencies, it is not necessary to apply bandages in accordance with pictures found in textbooks. However, it is imperative to apply all bandages using the following principles: When direct pressure is not required, do not apply the bandage too tightly, as the blood supply to the lower extremities may be restricted. Do not apply the bandage too loosely (the most common error), because it will not hold the dressing in place. The bandage must be applied snugly, as it will stretch over time. When bandaging extremities, leave fingers and toes exposed so that color changes may be noted. Pain, pale skin, numbness and tingling all indicate poor circulation, potentially due to constricting bandages. Immobilize and elevate the injured part in the event of serious bleeding, providing it will not aggravate other injuries. (Procedures on immobilization will be covered in follow-on instruction).
Special Wounds
In this category are avulsions, crushing wounds, and amputations.
B151196
An avulsion is an injury in which a whole piece of skin with varying portions of tissue or muscle is either torn loose completely or left hanging as a flap. Occasionally, avulsed tissue will be torn completely free from the limb and will be lying apart from the injured individual. This tissue, if it is readily available, should be retrieved and transported along with the casualty to the hospital. It should be wrapped in sterile gauze and placed in a plastic bag, which should then be placed in a cooled container. The tissue should not be allowed to freeze. Crushing wounds are contusions that are more severe, as the underlying skeletal support is also damaged. Crushing wounds may or may not be characterized by open skin. Traumatic amputations may be caused by explosions, sharp objects, or by separations. An amputation is characterized by the separation of either digits (fingers, toes, etc.) or limbs from the victim's body. In most cases, a tourniquet will be required to stop the bleeding in the major artery that formerly supplied blood to the extremity. If possible, the extremity should be prepared (if completely separated) and transported with the victim to the medical facility. Should it still be partially attached, splint it as with fractures.
B151196
Open Chest Wounds

Symptoms
The primary symptom of an open or "sucking" chest wound is a hole in the chest wall. Another major symptom in extreme cases is the coughing up of bright red, frothy blood. Other symptoms include: Pain at the site of the injury. Pain that is aggravated by or occurs with breathing, localized around the site of an injury in the chest. Dyspnea (difficulty or pain with breathing). Failure of one or both sides of the chest to expand normally when inhaling. A rapid, weak pulse and low blood pressure. Cyanosis (discoloration) of the lips, fingertips, or fingernails.
This will probably cause the lung on the injured side to collapse. Be sure to examine the casualty carefully so that you do not miss a second hole or an exit wound. If applicable, cut or remove the casualty's clothing to expose the entire area of wound.
Treatment
Use a field dressing plastic wrapper. Tear open one end of the plastic wrapper covering the field dressing. Be careful not to destroy the wrapper. Remove the inner packet (field dressing). Tear open the empty plastic wrapper and create a flat surface, using as much of the wrapper as possible. Place wrapper over wound. Place the inside surface of the plastic wrapper directly over the open chest wound as the casualty exhales and hold in place. Apply dressing to the wound. Using the free hand, shake open the field dressing and place the white side of the dressing directly over the plastic wrapper covering the open wound, holding it securely in place to create an airtight dressing. Place casualty on injured side. Position the casualty on his injured side or in a sitting position, whichever makes breathing easier. Make the victim warm and evacuate as soon as possible.
Once a casualty is treated for an open chest wound, a condition known as tension pneumothorax may develop. Air pressure within the chest cavity
B151196
builds up to such a degree that the collapsed lung is pressed firmly against the uninjured lung and heart, interfering both with the ventilation of the good lung and with heart action. Tension pneumothorax is the 2nd leading cause of preventable death on the battlefield. If you see the casualty's condition worsen for no apparent reason, unplug the seal immediately. If tension pneumothorax exists, there will be an escape of air, and the casualty's condition will improve almost immediately as pressure is released from the uninjured lung and heart. The wound should then be resealed.
B151196
Types of Bleeding
Three Types of Bleeding
There are three types of bleeding that will be covered; arterial, venous, and capillary.
Arterial Bleeding
Arterial bleeding is characterized by the flow of bright red blood (due to the oxygen content) that pumps out in distinct spurts. The flow can be alarmingly profuse. Arterial bleeding is not likely to clot unless the flow of blood is minimal or the artery is very small. If an artery is completely severed, it has the tendency to constrict and seal itself off. Severe arterial bleeding could cause a victim to bleed to death in two to three minutes or less depending on the location of the wound. Immediate application of a tourniquet or specialized dressings is imperative in order to stop life-threatening hemorrhage.
Venous Bleeding
Venous bleeding is characterized by a steady flow of dark red or marooncolored blood. Although veinal bleeding may be profuse, it is much easier to control than arterial bleeding. Because blood in the larger veins is being drawn to the heart by the sucking action that develops as the heart contracts and relaxes, air may be drawn through the opening into the vein. If the air bubble is large enough, the ability of the heart to pump properly is hindered, and the heart may fail completely.
Capillary Bleeding
Capillary bleeding is characterized by the slow oozing of blood, usually from minor wounds. Because of the large amount of surface area that may be involved, the threat of contamination may be more serious than blood loss.
Controlling External Bleeding Mild Bleeding
B151196
Mild bleeding may be controlled by both elevating the wound and by the application of direct pressure. Apply pressure to the wound using a sterile dressing. Do not attempt to replace a dressing once it is held in place even though it may become blood-soaked. Replacing a dressing releases pressure on the cut blood vessels, interferes with normal coagulation, and increases the probability of contamination. Rather than replacing the dressing, place another one on top of the soaked dressing and hold them all in place.
Serious Bleeding
Use a combination of one or more of the following treatments: Direct pressure on the wound: This is the single most effective method for stopping serious bleeding. If a bandage is not immediately available, the hand or fingers can be used (inside the wound if necessary) to bring direct pressure to bear. The importance of quick action of this type outweighs the possibility of infection later. Pressure points: A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the injury site lies near the surface of the skin and directly over a bone. There are twenty-two pressure points throughout the body. The three most effective pressure points are over the brachial (arm), femoral (upper thigh), and carotid (neck) arteries. If direct pressure is failing to stop bleeding, the application of pressure at a pressure point can be used effectively. Place the heel of your hand over the pressure point and exert pressure downwards toward the bone until it is obvious that the bleeding has been controlled. If the casualty is very muscular or obese, you may have to exert considerable pressure to compress the artery.
B151196
Temporal Carotid Carotid Carotid Brachial Carotid
Femoral Carotid
Tourniquet: Control of hemorrhage is important since injury to a major vessel can result in hemorrhagic shock and exsanguination in a short time frame. It is very important to stop major bleeding as quickly as possible. Over 2500 deaths occurred in Viet Nam secondary to hemorrhage from extremity wounds. These are preventable deaths. If casualty is suffering from life-threatening hemorrhaging, do not hesitate to apply tourniquet! Use of temporary tourniquets to stop the bleeding is essential in these types of casualties. Although civilian medicine discourages the use of tourniquets, they are appropriate in a tactical environment because direct pressure is hard to maintain under fire and the threat of exsanguination is greater. Permanent damage to the casualty is rare if the tourniquet is left in place for less than 1 hour, and tourniquets are often left in place for several hours during surgical procedures. It is better to accept the small risk of permanent damage to the limb than to lose a casualty to exsanguination.
B151196
Note: Both the medic and casualty are in grave danger while a tourniquet is being applied, and non-life-threatening bleeding should be ignored until security is established and the enemy threat is reduced. The Marine or Corpsman rendering care must make the decision regarding the relative risk of further injury, versus that of exsanguination.
Tourniquet Application Steps

Select a place between the wound and the heart, approximate 2 inches from the wound. Place a pad, made from a dressing or other suitable material, over the main artery supplying blood to the limb. Apply a constricting band over the pad, knot it and insert a device to tighten the tourniquet. Ropes, pieces of wire or other thin materials should not be used because they could cut into the tissues of the limb. Tighten the tourniquet just enough to control the bleeding. If it is unnecessarily tight, it will cause excessive damage to the limb. Mark the casualty's forehead with "T" and the time and date the tourniquet was applied FOR EACH TOURNIQUET APPLIED!
Tourniquet Application Considerations

Only the absolute minimum of clothing should be removed. If the casualty needs to be moved, a tourniquet that is self-applied by the casualty is the most reasonable initial choice to stop major bleeding. Never place tourniquet on a joint. Do not cover tourniquet under any conditions. Leave it exposed for open viewing. All Marines engaged in combat missions should have a suitable tourniquet readily available at a standard location on their battle gear and be trained in its use
Common Tourniquet Mistakes

Not using one when you should. Using one when not appropriate. Putting it too close to wound. Not applied tightly enough.
Internal Bleeding
B151196
Dont assume that internal bleeding occurs only in abdominal and chest cavity injuries. A casualty can lose one to three pints of blood, internally, from a broken femur (thighbone) or pelvis. A casualty can actually bleed to death without externally losing a drop of blood.
Symptoms
Due to the loss of blood, blood pressure will drop. To compensate for this pressure drop, the heart will beat faster in an attempt to raise the pressure. The force of the heartbeat is reduced since there is less blood to pump. Internal bleeding can be suspected when the situation surrounding the injury indicates internal damage and the signs of shock are present without an obvious injury.
Symptoms Include
Rapid and weak pulse. Pale, moist and cold skin. Shallow and rapid respiration. Thirst. Dilated pupils. Coughing up or vomiting dark red blood the color of coffee grounds. Stiff abdominal muscles.
Treatment
Treat for shock. Give nothing by mouth. Evacuate as soon as possible.
B151196
Abdominal Wounds
Abdominal Cavity
A smooth, glistening, thin tissue called the peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity. This tissue is in turn surrounded by a layer of muscles on all sides. The organs inside are classified as either solid organs or hollow organs. The construction of the abdominal organs greatly influences their vulnerability to injury. Injuries to solid organs may result in their bleeding into the abdominal cavity. Hollow organs may discharge harmful bacteria and chemicals.
Abdominal Wound Symptoms

Injuries to the abdomen are often difficult to diagnose. Other than the obvious signs of a wound or an impaled object, the symptoms are: Nausea and vomiting are good indications of abdominal injury, especially if the vomitus contains blood. Pain, although usually minimal in the abdomen. Tenderness exists in affected areas. Muscle spasms or a stiffening of the abdominal muscles suggests the irritation of the lining of the abdominal cavity. Shock. Bruises and Abrasions.
Treatment for Abdominal Wounds

Position the casualty on his or her back with the knees flexed up to relieve pressure on the muscles of the abdomen. Expose the wound. Remove loose clothing from the wound, leaving clothing that is stuck in place. With a clean, moist dressing, gently pick up any organs that may be on the ground. Place the organs on top of the casualty's abdomen. DO NOT attempt to replace any protruding organs. Apply moist field dressing.
NOTE: If the dressing wrapper is large enough to extend well beyond the protruding bowel, the sterile side of the dressing wrapper can be placed directly over the wound with the field dressing on top. Grasp tails of dressing with two hands.
B151196
Hold dressing directly over wound with white side down. Pull dressing open and place directly over wound. With one hand, hold dressing in place and use the other hand to wrap one of the tails around the body. Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction until the dressing is completely covered. Tie the tails with the knot at the patient's side. Treat for shock and evacuate as soon as possible.
NOTE: Casualties with abdominal wounds should not be given anything by mouth.
B151196
Burns
Burns
The skin serves to isolate the body from its environment, to protect the body from bacterial invasion, to control the temperature of the body, to retain the fluids of the body, and to furnish information about the external environment to the brain through its nerve endings. Any damage of this surface covering allows a break in these mechanisms. Burn injuries are generally rated in terms of damage to the skin. Specifically, they are classified by percentage of surface damaged and depth of damage through the various layers of the skin.
Classification
Burns are classified in degrees, i.e. First, Second and Third. First-degree burns are limited to the most superficial layer of the epidermis and result only in reddening of the skin. Second-degree or partial-thickness burns cause damage into but not through the dermas and characteristically result in blisters forming on the skin. Third-degree or full-thickness burns destroy the skin down to the subcutaneous fat. In this type of burn, the skin may appear pale, dry, and white or it may be brown or charred. Clotted blood vessels may be seen through the skin and occasionally the bone structure is exposed. With third degree burns, the nerve endings in the skin are usually destroyed, and the victim will feel no pain. Such a casualty must be evacuated as soon as possible. THIRD DEGREE BURNS ARE LIFE THREATENING EMERGENCIES. When determining the seriousness of burn injuries it is not so much the TYPE of burn but the LOCATION and AMOUNT of skin surface that is burned. An individual with second degree burns covering 40% of his body, located on the face and neck, is in far worse shape than someone who has sustained a third degree burn covering 15% of his leg.
Sources of Burns
B151196
There are many sources of burns. Before administering the proper first aid, you must be able to recognize the type of burn to be treated.
Three Types of Burns

Thermal burns are caused by contact with fire, hot objects, hot liquids, gases, or nuclear blast or fireball. This is the most frequent type of burn in a combat environment. Electrical burns are caused by contact with electrical wires, current, or lightning. Chemical burns are caused by contact with wet or dry chemicals or white phosphorus (from marking rounds and grenades). Chemical burns require special treatment in that the chemical must be removed for the burning to stop.
Treatment
Remove the casualty from the source of the burn. Remove and cover the thermal burn casualty with a field jacket or any large non-synthetic material and roll him or her on the ground to smother (put out) the flames. Remove electrical burn casualties from the electrical source by using any nonconductive material, such as rope, clothing, or dry wood. DO NOT touch the casualty with your bare hands. Remove chemical burn casualties from the chemicals. Remove liquid chemicals by flushing with as much water as possible. Remove dry chemicals by brushing off loose particles and then flushing with large amounts of water, if available. Remove white phosphorus (WP) from the skin by brushing with a damp cloth or scraping with a knife.
For FIRST and SECOND degree burns with closed blisters ONLY:
Immerse the burned part in cold water for two to five minutes if the patient is seen within fifteen minutes of the time of injury and the burn involves less than 20% of the total body surface. Cover the burn with a moist, sterile dressing. Do not puncture the blisters on second-degree burns. DO NOT APPLY CREAMS OR OINTMENTS! Transport the patient promptly to a medical facility.
For THIRD degree burns or SECOND-degree burns with open blisters:

B151196
Examine for and relieve any respiratory distress. Always anticipate respiratory difficulty when there are burns about the face and neck or when the patient has been exposed to hot gases or smoke. Stand by to administer CPR. Cover the burned area with a dry sterile dressing or a clean sheet. Treat the patient for shock if it is present, and make him as comfortable as possible. DO NOT APPLY CREAMS OR OINTMENTS! Transport the patient promptly to the nearest medical facility.
B151196
Fractures
Fractures
Fractures are the sudden breaking of a bone or a break in a bone. Bones may be fractured by direct violence, indirect violence or through the continual over stressing of the bone. Through direct violence the bone is broken directly at the spot where the force was applied. Through indirect violence then bone is fractured by a force at a distance from the site of the fracture and transmitted to the fractured bone, such as a fracture of the clavicle by falling on an outstretched hand. A stress fracture is a fine hairline break in the bone that occurs from repetitive microtraumas, as with running, hiking or marching; with improper footwear or with heavy loads on hard surfaces; or with inadequate healing time after stress.
Types of Fractures
There are two types of fractures that will be covered, closed fractures (in which the skin is not broken) and open fractures (in which the skin is broken.)
Symptoms of Fractures
Symptoms include loss of movement, pain with acute tenderness over the site of the fracture, swelling and bruising, deformity or possible shortening, unnatural mobility, or crepitus or grating that is heard when the ends of the bone rub together.
Treatment
Stop the bleeding if required. Remove all binding objects. Splint them where they lie. Immobilize the joint above and below the break. Use padding. Tie/secure the splint. Use a sling if applicable. Check for circulation.
______________________________________________________________________________________ _______Basic Officer Course 21
B151196
Spinal Injuries
Spinal Injury
The spinal cord is a column of nerve tissue averaging about 44 cm in length. Most of the nerves to the truck and limbs emerge from the spinal cord and transmit the impulses to and from the brain. The spinal column is the vertebral column that encloses the spinal cord. A traumatic injury or damage to the spinal cord constitutes a spinal injury.
Symptoms of Spinal Injuries

Pain in the neck or back. Numbness or tingling in the extremities. Deformity. Paralysis.
Treatment
Stop the bleeding if required. Insure that the airway is secure and that circulation is stable. Immobilize the casualty. Use a back board if available. Treat for shock.
Conclusion
The difference between life and death can be measured in minutes after a Marine suffers a severe injury. Only a trained individual who understands the combat life saving techniques to the point where recognizing and treating a life-threatening wound is second nature will he or she be able to save a fellow Marine's life. This handout and the accompanying lecture will prepare you to render effective first aid for combat-related injuries and to teach your Marines the same skills.
B151196
References
Reference Title
First Aid Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support: Mil. Edition, 6 Ed. 2006
th
Reference Number
MCRP 3-02G PHTLS
Notes _______________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________
Notes
Basic Officer Course
B151236
Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Introduction A wide variety of threats to your health and that of the Marines you will be charged to lead can be prevented or treated successfully. The information provided here will prepare you for dealing with field-related injuries at Quantico and throughout the world. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Insects Human and Animal Bites Spiders Scorpions Snakes Heat Related Injuries Cold Related Injuries Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Terminal Learning Objectives MCCS-MED-1007 Given a casualty, treat a heat injury to prevent further injury or death MCCS-MED-1008 Given a casualty, treat a cold injury to prevent further MCCS-MED-1009 Given a casualty, treat an insect or animal bite to prevent further Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS-MED-1007a Given a casualty, identify types of heat injuries to determine treatment. MCCS-MED-1008a Given a casualty, identify types of cold injuries to determine treatment. MCCS-MED-1009a Given a casualty, identify bite symptoms to determine treatment.
Importance
In This Lesson
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF FIELD RELATED INJURIES B151236 STUDENT HANDOUT
Page 3 6 6 8 8 12 16 22 23 23 23
Learning Objectives
B151236
B151236
Insects
There are a variety of insects located in the Quantico area that can cause disease or illness, specifically: Ticks Ticks. Chiggers. Bees. Ticks can spread infectious diseases. The problem with a tick bite is not from the bite itself, but from the organisms that the tick can carry. Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease are two diseases that can be spread by means of a tick bite. Rocky Mountain spotted fever occurs within seven to ten days after a bite by an infected tick. Before the advent of antibiotics, this was a particularly devastating disease. Symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever include: Lyme Disease Nausea. Vomiting. Headache. Weakness. Paralysis. In extreme cases, cardio-respiratory collapse.
Insects (Continued)
Lyme Disease (Continued) People who are bitten by ticks may not be aware they have been bittenthe bite is painless. The tick attaches itself to the skin, sucks blood from the host, and becomes swollen. To prevent chances of a tick bite, Use insect repellent on target areas such as under the arms or the area near the top of the boot. Make sure sleeves are rolled down and boots are bloused.
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
It takes at least 24 hours for the infection to be transmitted from the tick to the person it has bitten. If a person is bitten by a tick, Carefully and slowly remove the tick physically. Use fine tweezers to grasp the tick by the body and pull it slowly, and steadily, straight out of the skin. The tick should release its hold on the bite area, so the whole tick is removed. Even if the ticks mandible portion is left embedded in the skin, the source of the infecting organisms has been removed. Do not try to suffocate the tick with gasoline or Vaseline or to burn it with a lighted match as you can possibly injure yourself. These remedies, once thought to be effective to make the tick back out of the skin on its own, do not work. In fact, some evidence indicates that by irritating the tick, you cause it to put more infecting bacteria into the skin. Avoid handling the tick with your hands. The bacteria can be transmitted directly through your skin. If your must use your hands, shield yourself with a piece of tissue paper. Wash your hands immediately. Once the tick is removed, use disinfectant on the area.
Lyme disease has received much publicity recently. After AIDS, it is the second most rapidly growing infectious disease in the United States. Lyme disease is caused by a bacterium that is carried by a tick. Signs will begin to show about ten days after being bitten by an infected tick and can include: A progressive red rash develops and may spread to several parts of the body. It may resemble a bullseye, with rings of discoloration. Painful swelling of the joints, particularly the knees.
Lyme disease may be confused with arthritis and may result in permanent disability. However, if it is recognized and treated promptly with antibiotics, the patient may recover completely.
Normally, a physician should see anyone bitten by a tick. The training regimen at TBS and the large number of bites incurred by students and staff preclude this. Remember that the symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease do not occur until a few days after being bitten. If you feel the onset of symptoms, report to the clinic at once.
B151236
B151236
Insects (Continued)
Chiggers Chiggers are extremely small insects, not visible to the human eye. They are found in grassy, wooded areas and are more abundant in the summer months, particularly from April through September. Symptoms of chigger bites include: Small welts on the skin. Intense itching.
Human and Animal Bites

Human bites should not be taken lightly. The wound resulting from a bite may be nothing more than a seemingly minor puncture wound, but it may also involve badly lacerated tissue. The human mouth is extremely dirty, and contact with an open wound may cause massive contamination. The primary concern in all animal bites is the possibility of the development of rabies, which is fatal. If the biting animal can be captured, it should be impounded for observation. If someone is bitten by a human or animal, To prevent chigger bites, Use insect repellent on target areas, especially the lower legs. Keep sleeves rolled down and boots bloused. Wash the wound with water and soap. Cover the wound with a sterile, dry dressing or bandage. Immobilize the area with a splint or bandage if necessary. Get the casualty to a medical facility as soon as possible.
The best care for chigger bites is to wash the area with hot soapy water to prevent infection. Do not apply clear fingernail polish (and other such folk remedies) to relieve the itching. Doing so can result in secondary infections worsening the situation. Bee Stings Bees, wasps, and yellow jackets are common in the Quantico area during the summer months. Unless you are allergic to a specific species, the sting is usually more of a nuisance than an emergency. Local pain at the site of the sting followed by swelling are the usual indicators of a sting. If someone has been stung, If the stinger remains embedded, scrape it off without injecting additional venom. Wash the sting site with soap and water; use ice to reduce pain. If extremities are bitten, remove rings or watches to allow for swelling. Any serious reactions indicate a possible allergic reaction; individuals so affected should seek medical attention.
Spiders
Spiders are relatively abundant in the local area. The two most commonly seen species are the black widow and the brown recluse. Black Widow The black widow spider is small (one inch in length) and has a small black body with a yellow/orange "hourglass mark" on its underside. Symptoms of a black widow spider bite are: No apparent mark. Neurotoxin poison resulting in muscle cramps (especially the abdomen). Tightness in the chest or difficulty breathing. Nausea. Vomiting. Sweating.
Although painful symptoms following the bites are severe, death is not common (63 recorded fatalities from 1950 to 1960). A specific antivenin is available, but its use is accompanied by a high incidence of side effects. Consequently, the antivenin is used only for very severe bites, the aged or very feeble, and children under the age of five.
B151236
B151236
Spiders (Continued)
Black Widow (Continued) If someone is bitten by a black widow spider, Render basic life support for the victim if in respiratory distress. Much more commonly, the victim will require relief from pain. If the site of the bite can be identified, putting a cold compress against it may slow the absorption of toxin. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. If possible, bring the spider to the facility with you.
Scorpions
The common scorpion, as found in American and Asian deserts, is two to four inches in length and features a stinger in its tail. Symptom of a scorpion sting is localized pain at the sting site. For a scorpion sting, follow the same procedures you use to treat spider bites: Render basic life support for the victim if in respiratory distress. Much more commonly, the victim will require relief from pain. If the site of the bite can be identified, putting a cold compress against it may slow the absorption of toxin. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. If possible, bring the scorpion to the facility with you.
Brown Recluse
The brown recluse spider is smaller than the black widow; it is only 1/4 to 1/2 inch long. The brown recluse spider is dull brown in color with a violin-shaped mark on the back of the body. Symptoms of a brown recluse spider bite are: Red, swollen bite site. Blister forming on the bite site. Fever. After a few days, a scab forms on the bite site and later leaves an ulcer or possibly gangrene.
Snakes
The two families of poisonous snakes in the United States are the crotalidae and the elapidae. The Crotalidae family includes: Rattlesnakes. Pygmy rattlers. Copperheads. Water moccasins. Cottonmouths.
The venom of the brown recluse is a collection of enzymes that is toxic to cells and tissues. One of these enzymes once released into the victims skin, destroys local cell membranes and disrupts the integrity of tissues leading to local breakdown of skin, fat, and blood vessels. This process leads to eventual tissue death, called necrosis, in areas immediately surrounding the bite site. To treat a brown recluse spider bite, Render basic life support for the victim if in respiratory distress. Much more commonly, the victim will require relief from pain. If the site of the bite can be identified, putting a cold compress against it may slow the absorption of toxin. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. If possible, bring the spider to the facility with you.
The family of the Elapidae has only one representative: the coral snake. The venom of the Crotalidae is hemotoxic; it acts on the lining of the small blood vessels, enabling blood to escape into the tissues. The venom of the coral snake is neurotoxic; it attacks the body's nervous system. Most snakebites occur between April and October, when the animals are active. When you encounter a snakebite, it is extremely important to identify whether envenoming (deposit of venom into the wound) has occurred. In one report of all snakebites throughout the United States, 27 percent were found to have had no envenoming at all, and an additional 37 percent had only minimal envenoming. Thus, only one-third of snakebites in general result in significant local or systemic injuries. There are several reasons why envenoming does not occur; most commonly, the snake recently has struck another animal and has exhausted its supply of venom.
B151236
B151236
Snakes (Continued)
Identifying the Snake When possible, identify the type of biting reptile. Sometimes recognition is not easy because identifying characteristics vary with locality, especially color identification. When identifying the reptile, check these points: Arrangement of teeth. The presence of fangs immediately labels the reptile as poisonous. Rattle. The presence of rattles immediately identifies the rattlesnake. However, rattles are frequently lost, so their absence does not rule out this family of vipers. Sensory pits. Certain groups have a sensory organ between the nostrils and eyes placed on each side of the head. Snakes that have this organ are known as "pit vipers." Color and pattern of coloration. Since color and pattern change with locale, age, and species, they are not always reliable but do help in identification; so note them in all cases. The shape of the head, as well as the subcaudal plates, will generally characterize harmless snakes from poisonous. The shape of the eyes also tells a harmless snake from a poisonous snake.
Snakes (Continued)
Snakebite Symptoms: Neurotoxic The bite from the Elapidae (cobra, coral, krait, sea-snake, etc.) is primarily neurotoxic and affects the nervous system. Symptoms include: Irregular heartbeat, followed by generalized weakness and exhaustion, terminating in shock. Severe headache, dizziness, blurred vision or blindness, hearing difficulty, mental disturbances such as incoherent speech, stupor, and mental confusion. Lack of muscular coordination (e.g., the inability to reach out and pick up an object), muscle spasms, and twitching. Difficult or labored breathing. Numbness and tingling of the skin (particularly of the lips and the soles of the feet). Excessive perspiration. Chills and fever. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Note: Extreme pain is not characteristic of neurotoxic venoms. Emergency Treatment for Hemotoxic or Neurotoxic Snakebites Follow these instructions to treat snakebites: Calm and reassure the patient. Get the patient to lie down and keep quiet to decrease the spread of any venom through the system. Patients will often vomit, from anxiety as well as from systemic effects of the poison. Never give the patient alcohol. Locate the bite area; clean it gently with soap and water or a mild antiseptic. Wrap soft rubber tubes or bands two to four inches above and below the fang marks; tighten them just enough to occlude the venous circulation, not the arterial circulation. The pulse should not disappear. Doing this limits the spread of the venom. Remove constrictive clothing and jewelry to allow for swelling. Loosen the constricting bands as necessary to allow for swelling. Do not wrap the limb in ice or put ice directly on the skin. Cool the bite area, but do not freeze it. Immobilize the extremity with a splint.
Despite knowing these indicators, do not handle or approach snakes in a non-controlled environment. Positive identification of venomous versus non-venomous snakes is only for trained personnel. Snakebite Symptoms: Hemotoxic The bite from the Crotalidae (rattlesnakes, copperheads, etc.) is hemotoxic. Symptoms include tissue swelling at the site of the bite and gradually spreading to surrounding areas. The swelling may be so severe as to burst the skin. Other symptoms include: Excruciating pain at the site of the bite. Severe headache and thirst caused by internal bleeding. Puncture marks. Shock. Respiratory distress.
10
B151236
B151236
Snakes (Continued)
Emergency Treatment for Hemotoxic or Neurotoxic Snakebites (Continued) If the snake has been killed, as it often has, bring it with you. Identification of the snake is extremely important in administering the correct antivenin. Transport the patient promptly to the hospital. Notify the hospital that you have a snakebite patient, and, if possible, describe the snake. If the patient shows no signs of envenoming, the only treatment necessary is: o Basic life support. o Putting a clean dressing over the suspected bite area. o Using venous constricting bands above and below the bite, approximately two to four inches. o Do not "cut and suck" poison from a bite; the stress and shock from this usually results in more complications than the bite alone would have caused. Bring all suspected snakebite victims to a hospital, whether they show immediate signs of envenoming or not. If you work in an area where poisonous snakes are known to exist, you should always know the location of the nearest facility where antivenin is available.
Heat Related Injuries

Heat Casualties The six types of heat injuries are: Sunburn. A bad case of sunburn can be incapacitating. Be sure to wear protective clothing even if you think it is "too hot" to do so. Prickly heat rash. Rashes take a long time to heal, particularly in the tropics. The itching and consequent scratching can lead to infection. Fungus infections. Fungus infections will leave open sores on your feet and groin. The scratching will lead to open ulcers, infection, and disease. While they can occur in nearly every environment, they are more typically found in a hot weather or humid setting. Heat cramps. Heat cramps will result in painful cramps in the muscles. Heat cramps are also considered to produce a "heat casualty." Heat exhaustion. More serious than heat cramps, heat exhaustion is also considered to produce a "heat casualty." Heat stroke. The most serious of the heat-related problems, heat stroke is the total collapse of the body's heat regulatory mechanism. It is the most serious of the "heat casualties and is a lifethreatening injury.
Local Snakes
The following poisonous snakes are found within the Quantico training area: Copperhead: Most commonly found, typically three to five feet long. Timber rattlesnake: Infrequently seen, three to five feet long. Water moccasin: Found in southern Virginia, infrequently spotted around Quantico.
Heat Cramps
Heat cramps are caused by a lack of electrolytes (salt) in the system. They can be brought on when you have been sweating profusely and suddenly drink a large quantity of cold water. Heat cramps symptoms are: Muscle cramps, particularly in the legs and abdomen. Profuse sweating and faintness.
To treat heat cramps, Give the victim small sips of cool water. Remove the victim to a cool or shaded area. Massage cramped muscles. If indications of a more serious condition are present, transport the victim to medical attention.
11
12
B151236
B151236
Heat Related Injuries (Continued)

Heat Exhaustion Heat exhaustion is caused by the pooling of blood in the capillaries close to the surface of the skin. Exposure to high temperatures and humidity, heat directly from the sun, and excessive activity by unacclimatized individuals are primary contributors to heat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion symptoms are: Rapid, shallow breathing. Dizziness. Blurred vision. Pale, clammy skin. Profuse sweating, normally accompanies this condition.

Heat Stroke (Continued) The major difference in symptoms between heat exhaustion and heat stroke is that during heat stroke the victim will not sweat and will have hot, dry, flushed skin. Body temperatures may range from 104 to 108 degrees F; death will occur if the body temperature is not lowered. To treat heat stroke, Send for medical assistance. Move the victim to a cool, shaded area. Loosen victims clothing and equipment. Apply water or ice to the victims entire body, fanning the victim as much as possible. Do not attempt to force the victim to drink. Ensure that the airway remains open and that the victim continues to breathe.
To treat heat exhaustion, Heat Stroke Remove excessive clothing. Place the victim in a cool, shaded area. Fan or sprinkle victim with water to keep cool. If conscious, give victim small sips of water. Treat victim also for shock,. Seek medical attention should indications of a more serious problem exist.
Treatment for heat stroke consists primarily of lowering the body temperature as quickly as possible. Time is of the essence! Heat stroke is a true medical emergency with a 20 percent mortality rate. Prevention of Heat Related Injuries The following measures should reduce the potential for, and severity of, heat casualties: Clothing. Even in very hot weather, clothing must be worn to avoid the absorption of solar energy. Loose-fitting, light-colored clothing is preferable. Marines should loosen their equipment whenever possible to allow for air circulation. Water. Water should always be available, and personnel should take small sips frequently. "Water rationing" or "water discipline" should never be practiced if possible. Since the thirst urge only identifies two-thirds of the body's needs, personnel should drink more than they feel is necessary. If possible, perform strenuous tasks during the morning or evening. The average diet provides more than enough salt; therefore, salt tablets should not normally be taken.
Heat stroke is a serious malfunction of the body's heat regulatory mechanism. Heat stroke may be brought on by the same environmental conditions that cause heat cramps or heat exhaustion. Symptoms of heat stroke are: Shortness of breath. Weakness. Headache. Dizziness. Loss of appetite. Nausea.
The victim will also experience: Muscle-twitching leading to convulsions. Dilated pupils. Lack of sweating. Full, fast pulse; delirium and eventual loss of consciousness.
13
14
B151236
B151236

Prevention of Heat Related Injuries (Continued) Command attention. Personnel must be supervised and instructed as to hot weather considerations. Enforced drinking of that extra one-third of the body's requirement may be utilized. Teach your Marines to store water in their bodies, not in their canteens.

Condition Alpha Flag Condition Green Index Physical Activity Restrictions
Fahrenheit(F)
Bravo Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index The "wet-bulb" is our source for determining heat conditions and an important means in controlling heat-related injuries. The various heat conditions are normally associated with flag colors. It is important to have a standardized system to help a commander determine appropriate training. The four environmental factors that make up the WBGT index are: Air movement. Air temperature. Relative humidity. Radiant heat.
Yellow
Charlie
Red
Delta
Black
Heavy exercise for unacclimatized personnel conducted with caution and under constant supervision. 85.0 to Strenuous activities such as hikes, close order drill, and obstacle courses suspended for 87.9 unacclimatized personnel. All physical training is halted. Outdoor classes in 88.0 to direct sunlight shall be avoided for personnel not 89.9 thoroughly acclimatized. Those thoroughly acclimatized may perform limited activity not to exceed six hours per day. 90.0 and All strenuous activity halted above 80.0 to 84.9
Cold Related Injuries

Cold Weather and the Human Body The human body is designed to maintain a core temperature of 98.6 Fahrenheit (F). If the environment is cooler than the body, heat leaves the body by seven means: Radiation: The loss of heat into still air. The head and neck are the body's most efficient radiators. Heat loss of the body's total heat production from an uncovered head can be up to: o 50 percent at 40 F. o 75 percent at 5 F. Conduction: The loss of heat due to contact with an object that is colder than the body. Conduction of heat from skin to metal is very rapid and can actually cause bonding of skin to the metal. Sitting on ice, snow, or a cold rock will cause conductive heat loss. Convection: The body continually warms (by radiation) a thin layer of air next to the skin to a temperature nearly equal to that of the skin. A cooling effect occurs when a brisk wind removes this layer.
The WBGT index is measured with a psychrometera device consisting of two thermometers. The bulb of one is kept wet, so that the cooling that results from evaporation makes it register a lower temperature than the dry one. The difference between the two readings constitutes a measure of the dryness of the atmosphere. The higher the humidity and the lower the air movement, the less effective sweating will be in cooling the body. The WBGT index gives us a range of conditions that are commonly referred to as "flag" conditions. All training during the period 1 May through 30 September will be conducted in accordance with the following heat/flag indexes.
15
16
B151236
B151236
Cold Related Injuries (Continued)

Cold Weather and the Human Body (Continued) Evaporation: The evaporation of sweat from the skin accounts for a substantial heat loss. Respiration: Inhaling cool air and exhaling warm air contribute to heat loss. Wind chill: Wind has an additional cooling effect; a mild temperature of 40 F with a wind blowing at 25 miles per hour produces an equivalent wind chill temperature of 15 F. Water chill: The thermal conductivity of water is 32 times as great as that of still air.

Frostbite (Continued) Caution: Never try to heat a frostbitten part with open heat source, e.g. vehicle exhaust, boiling water or open flame; you will only further damage the fragile tissues. Re-warming is best accomplished under controlled circumstances in the emergency department. If prompt hospital care is not available and you feel re-warming must be done in the field, the best way is to use body heat. Caution: Do not attempt re-warming if there is any chance that the affected part may freeze again. Use either the individual's own body heat or that of a buddy to slowly warm the affected area. The armpits and groin area are good places to gradually warm a frostbitten extremity. Trench Foot or Immersion Foot Do not rub snow on a frostbitten area nor immerse it in boiling water.
Frostbite
Frostbite is the freezing of flesh. Frostbite is caused when the body restricts blood flow to the appendages to conserve core heat. The surface tissues actually freeze, and with continued chilling, the frozen area extends to deeper levels. Note: Frost nip or superficial frostbite may affect the nose, checks and ears, and may appear as a white patch on the skin. Frostbite symptoms are: Sensations of cold or pain. Complete loss of sensation in the affected area. The sensation is described as feeling like a stump, like a block of wood," or "cube-like." Tissue becomes hard and red, and then turns white, white-yellow or mottled blue-white, and cold. Swelling may occur, and blisters may form on the affected area.
Trench foot (also called immersion foot) is caused by moisture trapped against the skin for an extended period (e.g. inside a boot) which waterlogs the tissues. When these boots are worn for long periods without changing socks, the feet become moist and sweaty. Trench foot is commonly found when wearing waterproof or vapor barriertype boots ("Mickey Mouse" boots) for too long. Symptoms of immersion foot are: Pale, wrinkled, loose, spongy, cold, swollen, and waxy skin on the feet. Discoloration develops as the transition to gangrene occurs.
Re-warming of the frostbitten extremity is rarely done in the field. You can cause a great damage by unsuccessful attempts re-warm the frostbitten area. To treat frostbite, Move the casualty to a heated area such as a warming tent or vehicle. Remove or loosen constrictive clothing to allow the blood to circulate freely to the affected area. For deep frostbite, which has penetrated below the upper layers of skin and into the muscles, transport the victim immediately to a medical facility. Do not attempt to thaw the affected area.
To treat and prevent trench foot, Keep the feet dry. Change socks often and air-dry or blot the moisture off. Keep the feet warm. Change socks often and use foot powder to absorb excess moisture. Only wear vapor barrier boots when necessary, and once afflicted, walk only as much as necessary.
17
18
B151236
B151236
Cold Related Injuries (Continued) Cold Related Injuries (Continued)

Hypothermia The bodys first response to cold is the constriction of the blood vessels of the skin, causing a decrease in the amount of heat transported by the blood to the skin. The body does this to keep what heat is being generated for the body core, which houses the vital organs. Hypothermia is commonly brought on when an individual falls into an ice-cold stream or river or is exposed to the elements without adequate clothing. If the body cannot produce enough heat to overcome what is lost through evaporation of the moisture in the wet clothing, it will begin to reduce its core temperature. Hypothermia is defined as a core body temperature of less than 95 F. It may be classified as: Mild (93.2 F to 95 F). Moderate (86 F to 93.2 F). Severe (less than 86 F). Hypothermia in a Tactical Environment Hypothermia (Continued) To treat hypothermia, Evacuate the individual to a medical facility as soon as possible. If transportation is not immediately available, move the individual to a warming shelter or at least out of the elements. Remove all wet clothing and replace with dry items. As with frostbite, gradually warm the body. The body is not producing enough heat, so an external source must be provided. Place as much insulation between the individual and the ground as possible to avoid conductive heat loss. If there is no other shelter, use a sleeping bag. Continuously monitor the victim's respiration and heartbeat; administer CPR, if required, to maintain circulation. Warm liquids in small sips may be given if the victim is conscious.
Symptoms of hypothermia by core body temperature are: Temp 99 to 96 F: Shivering becomes intense and uncontrollable. The ability to perform complex tasks is impaired. Temp 95 F to 91 F: Violent shivering persists. Victims have difficulty speaking and are sluggish in their thinking. Furthermore, victims may be stubborn, hallucinating, and extremely fatigued. Apathy may begin to set in. Temp 90 to 86 F: Shivering decreases and is replaced by strong muscular rigidity. Exposed skin may become blue or puffy. Temp 85 to 81 F: Victims become irrational, lose contact with reality, and drift into a stupor. Pulse and respiration are slowed. Temp 80 to 78 F: Victims lose consciousness; reflexes cease to function. The heartbeat becomes erratic. Temp < 78 F: Failure of the cardiac and respiratory control centers in the brain. Death.
Hypothermia in a wounded patient is accelerated by the body's own survival processes. When subjected to a trauma, the body constricts the flow of blood to the extremities. It concentrates the blood in the torso and brain areasthe very areas where a significant amount of body heat is exchanged through blood vesselsmaking a wounded individual more susceptible to hypothermia. When blood temperature drops below approximately 96 F, the proteins in the blood are affected such that coagulation/clotting will not occur. Hypothermia following a wounding event can occur regardless of ambient temperature. Hypothermia prevention and management must begin at or near the point of injury (POI) by the first responder.
19
20
B151236
B151236

Cold Weather Injury Prevention Use the acronym COLD when preparing for cold-weather operations or treating cold-weather injuries: C: Keep it Clean. The air-trapping capability of clothing is reduced if it is dirty or oily because the weave of the material, in which pockets of air are trapped, becomes clogged. O: Avoid Overheating. In cold weather, inexperienced personnel tend to wear every article of clothing available. This becomes a problem particularly during strenuous activity such as marches, offensive tactics, or even digging in. Overheating causes a chain reactionsweating, rapid cooling because of wet clothing, and, inevitably, the onset of hypothermia. Before the body begins to perspire, loosen the layers of clothing at the closures. If this does not cool the body down, remove a layer. However, it is important to keep the windproof layer (field jacket or parka) on and adjust the layers underneath (long underwear, utility jacket, field jacket liner). Remember, it is better to be slightly cool than too warm. L: Wear clothing Loosely and in Layers. Clothing and footwear that are too tight restrict the blood circulation and increase the danger of frostbite. However, if they are worn too loosely they will lose their insulating ability. When clothes are layered, air is trapped and warmed. This provides excellent insulation for the body. Therefore, several layers of medium weight clothing are more effective than one heavy garment. D: Keep it Dry. Dry clothing ensures maximum effectiveness as an insulator. Small items of clothing (e.g. socks, gloves or mitten inserts, and headgear) can be dried by placing them next to the skin at the waist. Body heat will dry them in a matter of hours. Placing large items in a sleeping bag with the individual can dry larger items overnight.

Cold Weather Injury Prevention (Continued) Additional actions a small unit leader can take to prevent cold-weather injuries are: Closely observe personnel who have previously become cold casualties. There is a tendency for certain persons to succumb to the effects of the cold; these individuals, once they become cold weather casualties, may do so again. Diet is important. The body needs carbohydrates to fuel its heat generation mechanism. Hot meals, consisting of 4500 calories per day, are considered essential for severe cold weather. Water is also important. Ensure your people drink a minimum of 3 1/2 to five quarts per day. As much of this as possible should be hot liquids, such as hot chocolate, broth, or tea. Alcoholic beverages should be avoided. Alcohol dehydrates the body and reduces the body's core temperature. Although alcohol may initially make an individual feel "warm," this is only superficial and ultimately this warmth will be drawn from the core of the body, lowering overall temperature. The importance of individual skills should not be underestimated. Adopt a rigorous training and education program before a cold weather deployment. Detailed supervision is required at all echelons of command to ensure Marines adhere to standard practices when operating in cold weather. Preventing Marines from overdressing or standing around in the cold doing nothing while dressed lightly for movements are just two considerations.
Summary
Teamwork, unit training, and thorough supervision can eliminate or greatly reduce the frequency of field-related injuries. Field-related injuries will diminish the combat effectiveness of a unit and result in an inability to accomplish the mission. When injuries do occur, make sure you and all your Marines know exactly what to do. This lesson will prepare you to render effective first aid for combat-related injuries and to teach your Marines the same skills.
21
22
B151236
References
Reference Number or Author MCRP 3-02G PHTLS Reference Title First Aid Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support: Mil. Edition, 6th Ed. 2006
Glossary of Terms and Acronyms

Term or Acronym CPR F POI WBGT Definition or Identification Cardio pulmonary resuscitation Fahrenheit Point of injury Wet-bulb globe temperature
Notes
23
CASUALTY EVALUATION AND EVACUATION B151256 STUDENT HANDOUT
B151256
Casualty Evaluation and Evacuation

Introduction This lesson will teach you how to correctly diagnose injuries that are not immediately life-threatening but could become so if not properly treated. You will also learn about the prioritizing of casualties and their evacuation. Officers must be able to properly diagnose, triage, and evacuate those Marines wounded in action in order to best ensure their chances for survival. The skills that you will be introduced to in this lesson will be practiced throughout your time at The Basic School. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Primary Survey Four Basic Lifesaving Steps Secondary Survey Nine Diagnostics Signs Triage Procedures Transportation of Casualties Casualty Reporting Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives MCCS 21.03 Given a casualty and a first aid kit, apply a pressure dressing, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.04 Given a casualty, a first aid kit, and available materials, apply a splint to a fracture, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.05 Given a casualty, a first aid kit, and available materials, apply a tourniquet, per MCRP 3-02G. Page 4 8 21 24 30 33 35 35 35 36 36
Importance
In This Lesson
B151256
Casualty Evaluation and Evacuation (Continued)

Learning Objectives (Continued) Terminal Learning Objectives (Continued) MCCS.21.07 Given a casualty and available materials, evacuate a casualty, performing five of the eight carries, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.17 Given simulated combat scenario involving casualties, administer first aid, per FM 21-11 and MCRP 302G. Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS.21.17b Given a simulated combat scenario involving casualties, triage casualties per FM 21-11 and MCRP 302G. MCCS.21.07a Given a casualty and necessary equipment, identify methods of casualty movement, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.07b Given a casualty, individually or as part of a litter while moving and wearing individual field equipment, demonstrate the eight carries, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.07c Given a casualty and available materials, utilize available materials for field expedient litters, per MCRP 3-02G and evacuate a casualty. MCCS.21.01c Given a casualty, a radio, individual field equipment, field expedient litter materials, and a first aid kit, conduct a medical evacuation to appropriately effect advanced medical care for the casualty, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.02b Given a burn casualty and a first aid kit, treat a burn, per MCRP 3-02G. MCCS.21.04a Given the requirement and a rope, bandage, or field expedient tying material, tie basic knots, to appropriately secure wounds or equipment.
B151256
Primary Survey
Casualty Assessment Casualty assessment is a systematic process for assessment of the trauma casualty and is essential for recognizing life-threatening conditions, identifying injuries, and determining priorities of care based on assessment findings. Upon arriving at the point of injury (either in a tactical or garrison environment), the Marine providing care will learn much from a quick, thorough, head-to-toe observation. Utilizing an organized, systematic approach when assessing each trauma casualty helps ensure that injuries will not be missed. Once identified, priorities can be set for each intervention based on the life threatening potential of each injury. The objectives for casualty care are the Civilian versus Tactical Assessment Treatment of the casualty. Prevention of additional casualties. Completion of the mission.
Casualty assessment in a tactical environment and the care to follow are applied under very different circumstances than pre-hospital care in the civilian or medical treatment facility (MTF) setting; however, the format for offering that assessment and care is the same. Civilian and MTF care does not have to take into consideration incoming fire, darkness, environmental factors such as swamps and snow, casualty transportation problems, delays to definitive care, and command decisions based on mission. You should begin an initial survey of all casualties on arrival. During the primary survey, you need only to talk, feel, and observe. No diagnostic equipment is needed. Inquiry should be brief and pertinent; no detailed questioning is necessary at this time. Four diagnostic signs (pulse, respiration, skin color, and state of consciousness) should be evaluated in the primary survey of each casualty. This survey is intended to discover and correct any immediate life-threatening problems. All involved casualties must be assessed initially, stopping only to treat The pulseless, non-breathing casualty. The casualty with massive bleeding. Those in coma or shock.
Primary Survey
B151256
Primary Survey (Continued)

Primary Survey (Continued) During the primary survey, a definitive step-by-step outline of action must be followed. You must remain calm. This attitude will instill confidence in the casualties and others as to your knowledge and ability to handle the situation. A record of initial observations can be started. The Marine providing assistance needs to begin assessing the scene and asking himself/herself the following questions: Step 1 Action Is the scene safe? Scene safety is the primary concern. Any condition (environmental or tactical) that can be considered harmful to either the casualty or the Marine providing assistance must be addressed and corrected to produce the safest scene possible. How many casualties do I have? Triage will be based upon the number a casualties, the access to those casualties, and medical gear available. Do I have any help? The situation may require the Marine providing assistance to work alone. Determine consciousness. Check for the level of consciousness. Call for help. Call for professional medical assistance, by means of either a messenger or radio. Position the casualty. If there is no sign of head, neck or spinal injury, roll casualties to their back. Open the airway. Use head tilt/chin lift method or jaw-thrust, whichever is appropriate. Check for signs of breathing. Look, listen, and feel for signs of exhalation. If no breathing, immediately give two rescue breaths. Check for signs of circulation. Note: Immediately treat any signs of lifethreatening exsanguination. What is the mechanism of injury (MOI)? What caused the injuries? How bad are the injuries? Does the casualty have a C-spine injury? The Marine providing assistance will consider C-spine precautions even if the situation does not allow for proper treatment of a spinal injury.
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14
B151256

Care Under Fire. In a tactical environment, the care rendered at the scene of the injury will most likely occur while the corpsman and the casualty are under effective hostile fire; the threat has not been reduced or the area has not been secured. It is for this reason that a medically correct intervention performed at the wrong time in combat may lead to further casualties. In other words, good medicine may be bad tactics. Because of this, fire superiority is the best medicine on the battlefield. Consider it the first and best measure to any casualty response plan. The casualty must remain engaged as a combatant if appropriate and return fire as needed or directed. Below are considerations to take into account before the evaluation and evacuation of casualties is to begin Return fire/take cover. Less critical casualties may continue to help in order to suppress hostile fire. Direct casualty to move to cover and apply self-aid if able o Try to keep the casualty from sustaining additional wounds. o Direct casualty to control hemorrhage by self-aid if able. Medical personnel may assist in suppressing hostile fire before casualty care (usually in small unit operations) or moving the casualty to a safe position. Limited medical care should be attempted while exposed to hostile fire. Hemorrhage control is the top priority. o Immediately apply tourniquet for life threatening hemorrhaging of the extremities. Exsanguination from extremity wounds is the number one cause of preventable death on the battlefield. o A casualty may exsanguinate before any medical help arrives; therefore, every combatant should carry both a tourniquet and hemostatic dressing. o Casualty may need to apply own tourniquet, if able.
Considerations
B151256

Considerations (Continued) o Special dressings (hemostatic agents) for nonextremity life threatening hemorrhage: QuickClot. HemCon. o Other methods of hemorrhage control, such as direct pressure and pressure dressings may delay moving the casualty to a secure environment and are best used when the hemorrhage is not life-threatening. Medical equipment limitations: o You only have what you can carry. o Consider spread-loading medical equipment (i.e., IV bags, bandages, etc.) throughout the unit. Medical evacuation: o Delays subject to air superiority, weather, and terrain. o Delays may range from 30 minutes to several hours or days (dependent upon the mission). Note: If a victim of a blast or penetrating injury is found without a pulse, respirations, or other signs of life, do not attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Resuscitation on the battlefield will most likely not be successful and should not be attempted unless in a secure setting with no chance of enemy contact. CPR performers will unnecessarily risk themselves unless the scene has been secured.
B151256
Four Basic Lifesaving Steps Overview

The physical process of breathing and blood circulation is so automatic and natural that a person is hardly aware of it. However, if the process were to be interrupted for even a few minutes, a victim would progressively pass through stages of discomfort, unconsciousness, brain damage, and death. An understanding of the cardiopulmonary process will help you select the proper course of action when confronted with a casualty whose breathing and/or heart has stopped. However, an understanding of the importance of oxygen and blood to the bodys survival is crucial.
Importance of Oxygen
Oxygen is vital to all of the body's cells. Without it, the cells quickly deteriorate and die. The rate at which various cells deteriorate depends on their structure, function, and location. The cells of the brain and nervous system die in four to six minutes. Time is critical: 0 1 Minute: Cardiac Irritability begins 0 4 Minutes: Brain Damage not likely 4 6 Minutes: Brain Damage possible 6 10 Minutes: Brain Damage very likely > 10 Minutes: Irreversible Brain Damage Time is Critical! If the brain is deprived of oxygen for 4 to 6 minutes, brain damage is likely to occur. After 6 minutes without oxygen, brain damage is extremely likely Since the brain and nervous system control the other body functions, any interruption in the cardiopulmonary process is extremely dangerous. Opening the airway, rescue breathing, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) moves oxygen to the brain and other organs. For convenience of memory, we call this the ABCs of Basic Life Support.
Importance of Circulation
The number one cause of preventable battlefield death is from extremity exsanguination. The average adult contains approximately 5 liters of blood and upon the loss of even 20%, the body will begin to go into hemorrhagic shock. The onset of this shock will happen quickly, as the body can bleed out from anywhere to 60 120 seconds.
8 Basic Officer Course
B151256
Primary Assessment
First, we must have a procedure for determining what treatment an apparent victim requires. This is known as the primary assessment. It allows us to check rapidly the most vital functions, breathing and heart activity, and enables us to decide exactly what to do next. Determine state of consciousness, Send for help or report to higher Positioning the victim on their back Assess the Basic Life Support ABCs
B151256
Four Basic Lifesaving Steps

The four basic lifesaving steps are: 1: 2: 3: 4: (A) Open the airway. (B) Check for breathing. (C) Check for signs of circulation. Treat for shock. Use the head tilt/chin lift technique to open the airway if there is no sign of head, neck, or spinal injury as shown in the following figure. To open the airway, you must position the victim because there is a natural tendency for the tongue to fall back and close off the airway in an unconscious victim. Step 1 Action Place the hand nearest the victim's head on his or her forehead and apply firm backwards pressure with your palm to tilt the head backward. Place the fingers of your other hand under the bony part of his or her lower jaw at the chin and lift to bring the chin forward.
1 (A) Open the Airway
Note: If a neck/back injury is suspected, do not move the head or neck but use the mouth-to-nose technique, which will be discussed later.
10
B151256
Four Basic Lifesaving Steps (Continued)

2 (B) Check for Breathing Once the airway is open, "look, listen, and feel" for breathing. This means placing the side of your face close to the victim's mouth, looking at his or her chest for movement, listening for escaping air, and feeling for exhalation on the side of your face (see following diagram). Step 1 Action Give two breaths. Give two full breaths to the victim. Seal your mouth over the victim's mouth. The nose of the victim should be pinched while giving breaths and released immediately afterwards. Look, listen, and feel. After giving two breaths, check to make sure you were effective in inflating the victim's lungs and are not hampered by an obstructed airway.
Note: Involuntary muscular action may cause chest movement even when the airway is obstructed. Therefore, it is easy to be misled into thinking that a casualty is adequately breathing by merely watching the victim's chest rise and fall. Remember to listen and feel as well as look.
11
B151256

3 (C) Check for Signs of Circulation Finding signs of circulation can be difficult under even normal circumstances, so look first for signs of movement from the casualty. If there is none, assume that they do not have a pulse. If you are not entirely sure, make a manual check for circulation by means of the carotid or the radial pulse. Find the carotid artery by sliding the fore and middle fingers down the centerline of the neck until it rests in the groove on the side of the neck closest to you. The radial pulse is the one found on the wrist. Feel for a pulse for 5 to 10 seconds. This step completes our assessment. Clearing the Airway. Early in your primary assessment, when attempting to give two breaths, you may find that the victim's airway is obstructed. Obviously, you must correct this problem before you can attempt any other treatment. If your attempted breaths will not inflate the victim's lungs, suspend your primary assessment at this point and concentrate on clearing the airway before continuing. To clear the airway of an unconscious victim, use abdominal thrusts: Step 1 2 3 Action Open the airway using the head tilt/chin lift method. Attempt two mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose breaths. Ensure airway is open during attempts. If successful, continue mouth-to-mouth (or mouthto-nose) resuscitation until the casualty resumes breathing or until competent medical assistance arrives. If unsuccessful in ventilating the victim, quickly reopen the victim's airway using the head tilt/chin lift method again and conduct finger sweep to dislodge objects in the mouth if necessary. If unsuccessful in dislodging the obstruction, attempt six to ten abdominal thrusts.
Abdominal Thrusts (Unconscious Victim)
12
B151256

Abdominal Thrusts Here is how to execute abdominal thrusts (see following diagram): Step 1 2 Action Kneel at his or her side or straddle the individual. Place one of your hands on top of the other with the heel of the bottom hand in the middle of the abdomen, slightly above the navel and below the rib cage. Move forward so that your shoulders are directly over the victim's abdomen and press toward the diaphragm with a quick thrust.
Manual Checks
Use these steps to clear the airway with manual checks. Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 Action Check the mouth for objects. Turn the head up and open the mouth by placing your thumb on the tongue. Pull the jaw out and down toward the chin. Sweep deeply into the mouth and along the cheek with a hooked finger if necessary. Attempt to give two breaths. Continue with abdominal thrusts, sweeps, and breaths until trained medical personnel arrive.
13
B151256

Clearing the Airway: Abdominal Thrusts (Conscious Victim) Also known as the Heimlich Maneuver, abdominal thrusts are also effective in treating a conscious choking victim. The technique is altered to accommodate the victim, who should be moved to a standing position if not already so. If the victim can speak, even slightly, or cough forcefully on demand, he or she has the capability to breathe sufficiently. Keep him or her calm and get him or her to the nearest medical facility where skilled medical personnel can remove the object. Here are the steps to execute the Heimlich Maneuver. Step 1 Action While positioning yourself behind the victim, quickly explain the procedures you are going to perform. Stand behind the victim, wrap your arms around the person's waist, and place the thumb side of your fist against the individual's abdomen slightly above the navel and below the tip of the breastbone. Compress the victim's abdomen with a quick upward thrust toward your shoulders. Attempt abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is cleared or the victim becomes unconscious. If this occurs, be prepared to clear the airway while theyre unconscious.
Abdominal Thrusts/Heimlich Maneuver
3 4
Chest Thrusts
The chest thrust is an alternate technique to use in cases of advanced pregnancy or by small persons on large victims when it is impossible to encircle the victim's abdomen. Step 1 Action Place both hands in the middle of the sternum, making sure the hands are above the lower tip of the breastbone (xiphoid tip). Exert quick thrusts with the hands, which will compress the chest cavity. Attempt chest thrusts until the victim begins to breathe, cough, or loses consciousness. Note: Remember, this technique may not be as effective as the abdominal thrusts because air is not pushed out as forcefully.
2 3
14
B151256

Rescue Breathing. Once you have cleared the airway or your primary assessment reveals that the victim has a pulse but is not breathing, perform rescue breathing. To conduct rescue breathing: Step 1 2 3 4 5 Action Determine unresponsiveness. Tap or gently shake the person, and ask if he or she is okay. Call for help. Turn or position the casualty on his or her back on a firm surface. Use the head tilt/chin lift method to open the airway. Check for breathing. Look, listen, and feel. If there is no sign of breathing, pinch the nose, seal the mouth with yours and give two full breaths. Check for pulse. If the casualty has a pulse, continue to deliver 12 breaths per minute or one breath every 5 seconds. This is the rate of breathing of an average adult at rest.
Mouth-to-Mouth Rescue Breathing
Mouth-to-Nose Rescue Breathing
The mouth-to-nose method is used if you cannot perform mouth-to-mouth breathing because the victim has a severe jaw fracture/mouth wound or his jaws are tightly closed by spasms. Step 1 2 3 Action Blow into the nose while you pinch the lips closed or cover the mouth with your hand. It may be necessary to separate the casualty's lips to allow air to escape during exhalation. The rate of breaths is one every 5 seconds.
Note: The mouth-to-nose technique requires the rescuer to blow almost twice as hard as in the mouth-to-mouth technique.
15
B151256

Chest Pressure/Arm Lift The chest pressure/arm lift method is used when operating in a Chemical, Method Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) environment and the casualty and rescuer are masked. Step 1 Action Place the casualty in a face-up position. Maintain an open airway by placing something under the casualty's shoulders to raise them several inches, allowing his or her head to drop backward. Kneel at the top of the casualty's head. Grasp the victim's wrists and cross them over his or her lower chest in the same location as you place your hands for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Rock forward until your arms are almost straight up and down. Allow the weight of the upper part of your body to push with steady, even, downward pressure to force air out of the casualty's lungs. Immediately release the pressure by rocking back. Pull the casualty's arms outward, upward over his or her head, and backward as far as possible to allow air to flow into the lungs.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR).
If, during the course of your primary assessment, you discover that the victim has no pulse and is not breathing, cardiopulmonary resuscitation is warranted. CPR is easily learned, but it must be performed correctly in order to provide the brain with oxygen and to avoid further injury to the victim. It is possible to achieve effective artificial compression because the heart is located between the solid bone surfaces of the sternum (or breastbone) and the spine. However, as you compress the heart between these surfaces, you must be aware of the location of other vital organs lying under the breastbone and the ribs.
16
B151256
Four Basic Lifesaving Steps (Continued )

Locating Proper Hand Position Follow these steps to locate the proper hand position for CPR. Step 1 Action Run your fingers up the edge of the rib cage until your middle finger fits right into the notch in the center of the chest and your index finger is lying beside it across the lower end of the sternum (in line with the chin). Keep the middle finger in this notch and the index finger on the sternum (breastbone). Place the heel of the hand closest to the head on the sternum next to but not covering the index finger. Place the second hand on top of the first. Fingers may be interlaced or extended. Do not rest your fingers on the casualty's ribs.
2 3
4 5
Caution: As you perform external cardiac compression, you must apply enough pressure to compress the heart between the breastbone and spine without injuring the other organs lying in the same area. The ribs are quite fragile and can crack easily. The pressure of external cardiac compression on a broken bone could drive the splintered edges into the organs lying beneath it. The xiphoid tip, the lower tip of the breastbone, is also a concern. Xiphoid, which means "sword shape," is an appropriate name for this tip because it is a bony point that extends beyond the main bone of the sternum and lies directly over the liver and stomach. Pressure on the xiphoid tip could drive it into these organs, causing serious injury.
17
B151256

Chest Compressions Follow these steps to perform chest compressions in CPR. Step 1 Action Bend from your hips with your arms straight. Compress the chest with your upper body weight falling straight down from your shoulders. Keep your shoulders over your hands and your elbows straight and locked. Remember, the position of the rest of your body is equally important for maximum effectiveness with minimal strain. External cardiac compression requires a good deal of exertion; you must do it as efficiently as possible to maintain your energy and strength to keep the cardiac arrest victim alive. While keeping your hands in place on the chest, position your shoulders directly over the victim's sternum again without bending your arms. If you have very short arms, you may have to kneel several inches away from the victim's side to achieve this position (see following diagram). You must keep your arms straight throughout compression. Bending the elbows tires you out much more quickly and requires a great deal more arm and shoulder strength than when you use your whole body to exert the downward pressure. For an adult, depress the sternum 1.5 to 2 inches. Between compressions, release the pressure completely. Do not Lift your hands off the chest. Bounce against the chest. Change your position in any way.
4 5
You will lose too much time relocating the area for compression if you move your hands; bouncing might injure the ribs. Just rock up, back from your hips, and release the weight of your body so the sternum can then rise and allow the heart to refill. Count aloud to establish a rhythm, i.e. one-andtwo-and-three-and-four-and....
18
B151256
Cycle of Compressions
Give 30 compressions at the rate of 80 to 100 per minute, then two rescue breaths. Although the average pulse of an adult at rest is 60 to 80 beats per minute, you must compress at a more rapid rate to compensate for the pauses incurred during rescue breaths. Check the pulse and breathing after every five cycles and then every 2 minutes thereafter. If a pulse returns but breathing does not, continue with rescue breathing at a rate of 12 breaths per minute.
Recovery Position
If rescue breathing or CPR efforts have been effective and the casualty regains consciousness and the ability to breathe, immediately place him or her in the recovery position (see following diagram).
19
B151256

Recovery Position
When to Stop CPR
Continue rescue breathing or CPR until The mission does not permit further efforts. More competent medical assistance help arrives. You are physically unable to continue due to fatigue. The casualty recovers.
While in a tactical environment, the priority for CPR is reduced. If a victim of a blast or penetrating injury is found without a pulse, respirations, or other signs of life, do not attempt CPR. Resuscitation on the battlefield will most likely not be successful and should not be attempted unless in a secure setting with no chance of enemy contact. CPR performers will unnecessarily risk themselves unless the scene has been secured.
4. Treat for Shock. Refer to Combat Life Saving Student Handout (B151196).
20
B151256
Secondary Survey
Secondary Assessment Goals of a secondary assessment are to: Prepare the casualty or casualties for transport to the next level of care. Reassess all life threatening injuries and treatments. Manage problems associated with the airway and breathing. Ensure pressure dressings, bandages, splinting, or tourniquets are secure enough to withstand rough, rugged transport.
Reassessment
Consider the following in your secondary assessment: Level of consciousness: o What is the level of consciousness? o Has it changed? Airway: Is the airway still open? Breathing: Reassess the chest, insuring rise and fall during respirations. Circulation: o Pulse rate and rhythm. o Skin color and temperature. Reassess previous treatments: o Reassess status of hemorrhage control. o If you had to move the casualty for any reason (tactical situation, scene hazards), ensure that dressings are intact and hemorrhage control was maintained. o Open fractures commonly bleed severely prior to being immobilized and may require re-dressing or re-aligning. Pay particularly close attention to occlusive dressings.
21
B151256
Secondary Survey (Continued)

Head to Toe Assessment (DCAPBTLS) During the secondary assessment, expose only the areas that are completely necessary; cover the casualty when not necessary to prevent hypothermia. Start by gently feeling scalp, moving down to neck, collarbones, ribcage, abdominal area, arms, pelvic area, and finishing with legs. Use the acronym DCAP-BTLS to guide the exam of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis, extremities and posterior body surface. DCAP-BTLS stands for: Deformities. Contusions. Abrasions. Punctures/penetrations. Burns. Tenderness. Lacerations. Swelling.
The following table identifies certain items that should be kept in mind when conducting the head-to-toe examination. Body Part/Area Head Considerations Inspect and palpate the scalp, skull, and facial bones. Assess the pupils. Be alert for raccoon eyes. Assess the mouth and nose for potential airway compromising injuries. Assess the ears and nose for blood and cerebral spinal fluid. Inspect/palpate/treat the C-spine. Dress any injuries prior to applying a C-collar. Inspect the rise and fall during respiration.
Neck
Chest
22
B151256
Secondary Survey (Continued)

Head to Toe Assessment (DCAPBTLS) (Continued) Body Part/Area Abdomen Considerations Look at the abdomen for obvious injuries, i.e., distended abdomen, open wounds, bruising, etc. Abdomen should be soft and supple; feel for areas that are hard, firm, and rigid. If distention is noted, do not palpate the abdomen. Secure open eviscerations. Palpate pelvis for stability and note the casualtys response. Potential pelvic fractures should not be examined repeatedly. If obvious deformity is noted, do not palpate the pelvis. With the help of an assistant, logroll the casualty over and inspect and palpate the posterior. Remember your casualtys injuries and log-roll to the appropriate side! Reassess the casualty after completion of the log roll. Look for major injuries. Be sure all long bone fractures have been splinted at this time. Look for hemorrhage.
Pelvis
Posterior
Lower extremities General Impression of Casualty
After secondary assessment, a decision must be made regarding the need for evacuation versus the casualtys need for further stabilization. Evacuation considerations are based on the level of injuries. Other factors that must be considered are Determining the casualtys estimated blood loss. Keeping the casualty warm. Casualties frequently suffer from hypothermia upon their arrival at a higher echelon treatment facility. Maintaining continual awareness of the tactical situation.
23
B151256
Nine Diagnostic Signs

A rapid but accurate examination of an injured or critically ill casualty is essential for adequate emergency medical care. Such an examination includes observation of: Diagnostic signs: manifestations of changes in body functions. Evaluation of symptoms: evidence of changes in body functions apparent to the casualty that are determined by questioning.
The following nine essential diagnostic signs can be observed rapidly during an examination. Pulse The usual pulse rate in adults is 60 to 100 beats per minute; in children, 80 to 100 beats per minute. The pulse can be palpated (felt by touch) at any area where an artery passes over a bony prominence or is close to the skin. The carotid artery in the neck is the best site to palpate the pulse. Always check the pulse with the casualty lying down or seated. Changes in the rate and volume of the pulse are important findings. The pulse rate is easily checked and reflects the rapidity of the heart contractions. The pulse volume describes the sensation the contraction itself gives to the palpating finger. Normally the pulse is a strong, easily felt impulse reflecting a full blood volume. A rapid, weak pulse can be the result of shock from loss of blood, while a rapid, bounding pulse is present in fright or hypertension. The absence of a pulse means that Respiration The specific artery is blocked or injured. The heart has stopped functioning (cardiac arrest). Death has occurred.
Usually respiration is between 12 and 20 breaths per minute, but well-trained athletes may breathe only six to eight times a minute. Rarely does the rate exceed 20 breaths per minute. Normal respiration is not usually shallow or deep. Record the initial rate and character of respiration when the casualty is first seen; any changes should also be recorded.
24
B151256
Nine Diagnostic Signs (Continued)

Respiration (Continued) Rapid, shallow respirations are seen when a casualty is suffering from shock. Deep, gasping, labored breathing may indicate partial airway obstruction or pulmonary disease. In respiratory depression or respiratory arrest, the chest and abdomen will move very little or not at all with respiration, and the nose and mouth will have little air flow. Frothy sputum with blood at the nose and mouth accompanied by coughing indicates lung damage. Fractured ribs can tear the lungs; foreign bodies (e.g., bullets, knives) can penetrate and lacerate them. In each instance, bleeding within the lung may appear as coughedup pink froth. Frothy pink or bloody sputum is also an indication of pulmonary edema, which can accompany acute cardiac failure or severe lung contusion. Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the pressure of the circulating blood against the walls of the arteries. Since the normal persons arterial system is a closed system, changes in the pressure indicate changes in the: Volume of the blood. Capacity of the vessels. Ability of the heart to pump.
Changes in blood pressure, like those in the pulse, can be rapid. However, they are not as rapid as pulse changes because normal protective mechanisms exist to maintain blood pressure in spite of injury or disease. Blood pressure is determined with the use of a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope. Because specialized testing equipment must be used, the corpsman, not the Marine, will normally determine the blood pressure. Temperature Normal body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37.0 degrees Centigrade). The skin is largely responsible for regulating this temperature by radiation of heat from blood vessels near the skin and the evaporation of water as sweat. Changes in temperature occur as a result of illness or injury.
25
B151256

Temperature (Continued) Cool, clammy (damp) skin is indicative of a general response to a trauma to the body (i.e., blood loss, shock, or heat exhaustion). Because of nervous stimulation, sweat glands become hyperactive and skin blood vessels contract, resulting in cold, pale, wet, or clammy skin. These signs are often the first indication of shock, and they must be recognized as such. Exposure to cold will produce a cool, dry skin. Dry, hot skin may be caused by fever or by exposure to excessive heat, as in heatstroke. Temperature measurement by the use of a thermometer is not normally practical for the Marine in the field. Placing the back of the hand on the casualty's forehead to determine a "normal" temperature is all that can be expected. Skin Color Skin color depends primarily on the presence of circulating blood in subcutaneous blood vessels. In deeply pigmented people, skin color depends primarily on the pigment. Such pigment may hide true skin color changes resulting from illness or injury. In casualties with deeply pigmented skin, color changes may be apparent: In the fingernail beds. In the sclera (white portion of the eye). Under the tongue.
In lightly pigmented casualties where changes may be seen more easily, colors of medical importance are Red: May be present in: o High blood pressure. The casualty who has severe high blood pressure may sometimes be plethoric (the casualty will have dark reddishpurple skin color and all visible blood vessels will be full). o Certain stages of carbon monoxide poisoning. The casualty with carbon monoxide poisoning is usually cherry red. o Heatstroke. Like carbon monoxide poisoning, the casualty with heatstroke is usually cherry red.
26
B151256

Skin Color (Continued) White: A pale, white, ashen, or grayish skin is indicative of insufficient circulation (there is literally not enough blood circulating in the skin) and is seen in casualties who are: o In shock. o Having an acute heart attack. o In certain stages of fright. Blue: A bluish color, cyanosis, results from poor oxygenation of the circulating blood. As a result, blood is very dark, and the overlying tissue appears blue. Cyanosis is caused by respiratory insufficiency due to airway obstruction or inadequate lung function. It is usually first seen in the fingertips and around the mouth. Cyanosis always indicates a significant lack of oxygen and demands rapid correction of the underlying respiratory problem.
Chronic illness may also produce color changes such as the yellow color (jaundice) in liver disease. In such cases, bilirubin, a reddish-yellow pigment normally present in the liver and the gastrointestinal tract, is deposited in the casualty's skin. Pupils The pupils, when normal, are regular in outline and usually the same size. In examination of the pupils, the presence of contact lenses or prostheses (glass eyes) must be considered. Changes and variation in size of one or both pupils are important signs in emergency medical care. Constricted pupils are often present in a drug addict or a casualty with a central nervous system disorder. Dilated pupils indicate a relaxed or unconscious state; such dilation usually occurs rapidly, within thirty seconds after cardiac arrest. Head injury or prior drug use, however, may cause the pupils to remain constricted even in casualties with cardiac arrest.
27
B151256

Pupils (Continued) Variation in the size of the pupils is seen in casualties with head injuries or strokes. In a small percentage of normal persons, anisocoria (unequal pupil size) is found. The incidence of this is so small, however, that in a casualty pupil variation is regarded as a reliable sign of brain damage. Ordinarily, pupils constrict promptly when light shines into the eye; this is a normal protective reaction of the eye. Failure of the pupils to constrict when a light shines into the eye occurs in: Disease. Poisoning. Drug overdose. Injury.
In death, the pupils are widely dilated and fail to respond to light. Level of Consciousness Normally, a person is alert, oriented (knows time, place, and what day it is), and responsive to vocal or physical stimuli. Any change from that state is indicative of illness or injury. Recording such a change is extremely important in emergency medical care. Such changes may vary from mild confusion to deep coma. The state of consciousness of a casualty is probably the single most reliable sign in assessing the status of the nervous system. The level of responsiveness aids in the determination of the casualtys baseline. The responsiveness of the casualty can begin to be assessed from a distance as the Marine providing assistance is approaching a casualty, i.e., Hey, if you can hear me, crawl towards my voice! Coupled with the vital signs, the AVPU scale is one of the best rudimentary diagnostic tools that the Marine providing assistance has in a tactical setting.
28
B151256

Level of Consciousness (Continued) AVPU stands for: Alert and awake. If casualty is alert, determine what happened. Responds to verbal stimuli. Responds to painful stimuli. Unresponsive. If the casualty is unresponsive, assessment and treatments will continue according to the casualtys injuries.
It is extremely important to note the state of consciousness of a casualty at once, and all subsequent changes must be noted. Increasing difficulty in rousing a casualty are signs that indicate an urgent need for prompt attention. This is especially true in the casualty who is unconscious following an injury, rouses and seems normal for a varying period of time (lucid interval), and then suddenly becomes unconscious and collapses. Such a casualty has bleeding inside the skull and needs immediate surgery. Ability to Move The inability of a conscious casualty to move voluntarily is known as paralysis. It may occur as a result of illness or injury. Paralysis of one side of the body (hemiplegia) may occur because of bleeding within the brain or a clot in a vessel (i.e. a stroke). Some drugs, if used over long periods, may also cause paralysis. Inability to move the legs or arms after an accident should be interpreted as injury to the spinal cord until proved otherwise. Inability to move the legs while the arms remain normal indicates a spinal injury below the neck. Paralysis is a particularly important sign, and its presence and onset with regard to an injury must be recorded. The casualty who has a completely severed spinal cord will be paralyzed below the level of the injury immediately and permanently. The casualty who has a spinal injury, in which gradual compression of the cord occurs, experiences a progressive onset of paralysis.
29
B151256

Reaction to Pain Reaction by vocal response or body movement to painful physical stimulation is a normal function of the body. Changes in this reaction may result from loss of sensation following an injury or illness. The loss of voluntary movement of the extremities after an injury is usually accompanied by loss of sensation in these extremities. Occasionally, however, movement is retained, and the casualty complains of numbness or tingling in the extremities. This is an important sign of probable injury of the spinal cord, so ensure mishandling does not occur and aggravate the condition. Severe pain in an extremity with loss of skin sensation may be the result of occlusion of the main artery of the extremity. In such a case, the pulse in the extremity is absent. The ability to move the extremity is usually retained, although it is often held immobile because of pain. Frequently, casualties suffering from hysteria, violent shock, or excessive drug or alcohol use may feel no pain from an injury for several hours. This is not accompanied by paralysis, and usually other signs will support a diagnosis of hysteria or other such reaction.
Triage Procedures
The actions previously described are for use with a single casualty. Quite often, however, the unit leader will be faced with multiple casualties. The leader must decide who will be treated and evacuated first and who can wait. We call this triagea French word meaning "picking, sorting, or choice" and is used to mean the sorting or allocation of casualties according to a system of priorities. Triage is a continuing process and is the responsibility of the best-trained individual at a disaster. The Marine who first arrives on the scene is responsible to begin a screening process and, as soon as or before this action has been taken, to contact the field medical unit for additional equipment and personnel needed.
30
B151256
Triage Procedures (Continued)

Casualties with certain conditions or injuries have a priority for treatment and transportation over others. The three categories in which a casualty may be sorted into are: Urgent. Priority. Routine A severe injury; threatening to life, limb, or eyesight casualties marked as urgent must be treated first at the scene and transported immediately. Such injuries/problems include the following: Airway and breathing difficulties. Gunshot wounds. Spinal or pelvic fractures. Cardiac arrest. Uncontrolled or suspected severe hidden bleeding. Open chest or abdominal wounds. Severe head injuries with evidence of brain damage, no matter how slight. Several medical problems: o Poisonings. o Diabetes with complications. o Cardiac disease with failure. Priority An injury that requires immediate medical attention, but is not threatening to life, limb, or eyesightfor casualties marked as priority, transportation and hospital treatment can be delayed slightly. The following are typical problems or injuries: Burns without complications. Major or multiple fractures. Back injuries without spinal damage. Heat/cold injuriesnot counting heat stroke.
Urgent
31
B151256
Triage Procedures (Continued)

Routine An injury that is not threatening to life, limb or eyesight. Routine casualties are transported or treated last. Examples of routine injuries are Injuries of a minor nature, i.e. sprains, small fractures, minor lacerations, etc. Obviously mortal wounds where death appears reasonably certain. Obviously dead.
Mass Casualties. A mass casualty event is declared when the number and nature of casualties exceeds the skill level, resources, and personnel of those present. It becomes apparent that the philosophy of emergency medical care must change in a disaster with mass casualties. Time spent on one casualty with too many severe injuries will deprive other casualties with less severe but dangerous injuries of the care necessary for survival.
Chemical, Biological, Radiological or Nuclear (CBRN) Casualties. A separate category of triage should also be noted, as it supersedes all others. Casualties as a result of a chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear (CBRN) event are potentially contaminated and must be segregated immediately as an initial step. They must not be allowed to contaminate other casualties, ambulances, or the hospital.
Triage Requirements. Leadership is paramount during triage. Someone must be in command to guide what is being done and to utilize any help as it arrives. This is the duty of the most highly trained Marine or the corpsman. The Marine must establish priorities and, depending on the availability of transport vehicles and local conditions, determine how the casualties will be managed.
32
B151256
Transportation of Casualties
Casualty Movement in a Tactical Situation Transporting casualties is normally the responsibility of medical personnel, i.e., corpsmen. However, when the situation is urgent, and you are required to move the casualty to a casualty collection point or to the casualty evacuation (CasEvac) site, you have to consider the most appropriate means of doing so. To minimize the risk, Control the tactical situation. If hostile fire is not effectively suppressed, it may be necessary to move casualties to cover before they are prepared for transport. Be aware of available assets: o Litters. o Improvised litter material, i.e., ponchos, bivy sacks, ladders, plywood, etc. Make sure everyone understands their role in the movement. Determine which manual carry technique will be most appropriate to the injury: o o o o o o Firemans carry. Drag: One person or two person. Two-person rifle or pack carry. Poncho drag. Litter carry (two-person or four-person). Improvised litters.
Minimizing Risk
Transporting a casualty by litter is safer and more comfortable for him/her than by manual means; it is also easier for you. Manual transportation may be the only feasible method because of the terrain or the combat situation. Casualties carried by manual means must be handled carefully and correctly. Otherwise, their injuries may become more serious or possibly fatal. Manual Carries Review MCRP 3-02G, First Aid, pages B-1 through B-28 for explanations and examples of manual carries and field expedient litters.
33
B151256
Transportation of Casualties (Continued)

Types of CasEvac Transportation. Depending on the urgency of the casualties and the assets available, call for a ground or air CasEvac.
Evacuation times may vary from minutes to days. The multitudes of factors that will affect the ability to evacuate a casualty via ground or air transportation are: o o o o o Availability of aircraft or vehicles. Weather. Tactical situation. Mission. Status of the casualties. Planning considerations when calling for CasEvac via HMMWV ambulance capabilities are Air Transportation M997: Hard back/high back; 4 litters or 8 ambulatory. M1035: Soft back/low back; 2 litters or 3 ambulatory.
Ground Transportation
Planning considerations when calling for air CasEvac are UH-1 Huey: Lightweight transport helicopter; 6 litters or up to 10 ambulatory. CH-46E Sea Knight: Medium transport helicopter; 15 litters or 22 ambulatory. CH-53D/E Sea/Super Stallion: Medium/heavy helicopter; 24 litters or up to 37 ambulatory. V-22 Osprey: Rotary wing helicopter; 12 litters and 24 ambulatory.
With enough advance notice, helicopters sent in support of a CasEvac can be prepared with additional medical personnel and supplies Nurses, independent corpsmen (IDCs), or doctors. Electronic monitoring equipment. Oxygen. IV solutions or blood. Automated external defibrillator (AED). Medications. Bandages. Splints. Spine boards.
34
B151256
Casualty Reporting
Two methods of casualty reporting are: 9-line Casualty Evacuation / Medical Evacuation (CasEvac/MedEvac) Request Casualty Report (CasRep) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Grid coordinates of pick up site (8 digit grid). Radio frequency/NET ID and call sign. Number of casualties by precedence. Special equipment requirement. Number of casualties by type litter/ambulatory. Security at pick up site. Method of marking. Patient nationality and status. Casualty Information / CBRN
9-line CasEvac/MedEvac Request
Casualty Rep
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Name, grade, SSN, unit. Time of incident. Location of incident. Type of wound. Location of wound. Casualty status. Casualty evacuation required? (Y/N). Activity in which casualty engaged.
Summary
Remember the information presented in this lesson and use it to train your Marines. Proper triage, preparation, and evacuation of casualties will save lives. The difference between life and death is measured in minutes after a Marine suffers a severe injury. An individual who is trained in the rapid assessment and evacuation of casualties will be critical in a tactical environment where every second will count. This lesson will prepare you to render effective first aid for combat-related injuries and to teach your Marines the same skills.
References
Reference Number or Author FM 21-11 MCRP 3-02G PHTLS Reference Title First Aid for Soldiers First Aid Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support: Mil. Edition, 6th Ed. 2006
35
B151256

Term or Acronym AED AVPU Definition or Identification Automated external defibrillator Alert and awake. Responds to verbal stimuli. Responds to painful stimuli. Unresponsive. Casualty evacuation Casualty report Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Deformities. Contusions. Abrasions. Punctures/penetrations. Burns. Tenderness. Lacerations. Swelling. Independent corpsman Killed in action Landing zone Medical evacuation Mechanism of injury Medical treatment facility Social security number Wounded in action
CasEvac CasRep CBRN CPR DCAP-BTLS
IDC KIA LZ MedEvac MOI MTF SSN WIA
Notes
36
NIGHT NAVIGATION B283376
B283376
Night Navigation
Night Navigation
Introduction The darkness of night produces a special kind of "friction" that often works to turn simple tasks into complex ones, small sounds into gunfire, and a simple night movement into a clumsy, loud, chaotic, and often ineffective exercise. Success with any undertaking at night or during periods of reduced visibility (i.e., fog, whiteout, etc.) depends totally on the amount of time invested in training under those conditions. To gain and maintain proficiency in night operations (all military operations entail some sort of movement), you must invest the time. The land navigation package at The Basic School (TBS) is designed to develop an ability to navigate both in daylight and in darkness. Although the number of hours directly devoted to night navigation initially seems very few, note that all the skills associated with daytime navigation apply directly to navigation at night. Additionally, the skills you learn to navigate at night will be reinforced at every field exercise that follows. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Land Navigation Review Compass Nomenclature Review Setting and Using the Compass at Night Without Aid of Light Setting and Using the Compass at Night With Aid of Light Determining Pace at Night Avoiding Drift Safety Precautions Review Questions Review Question Answers Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objective MCCS.18.12. Given the requirement, a compass, map, ruler, protractor, and the reference (FM 3-25.26), navigate between given points, to locate 7 of 10 points during daylight and locate 4 of 6 points during darkness. Page 4 6 6 8 8 8 8 9 11 13 13 13 13
Importance
In This Lesson
B283376
Night Navigation
Night Navigation (Continued)

Learning Objectives (Continued) Enabling Learning Objective MCCS.18.02b Given individual field equipment, an azimuth, and designated distance, explain how to utilize the bezel ring to navigate in darkness.
B283376
Night Navigation
Land Navigation Review

Terrain Association Associating the terrain with the map is the most preferred method of navigation. Proficiency in this skill results in a smooth, confident movement with Marines sure of their location at all times. This skill is best developed during daylight, but the techniques learned apply directly to movement at night. Knowledge and awareness of direction, slope (steepness and type), distance, and landforms will reduce the "friction" associated with night navigation and help accomplish the mission. In short, applying the techniques and principles of terrain association is not only possible at night, it is a necessity! Dead reckoning, strictly defined, is a technique that requires little knowledge or awareness of terrain -- it is simply following a designated compass azimuth for a specified distance. This technique is the least desirable for night navigation; dead reckoning is a last-ditch technique to be used only during periods of extremely poor visibility or when navigating over featureless terrain. The limitations of dead reckoning are many, but, due to time constraints, it is frequently the only method of navigation to which many Marines are exposed. The ability to dead reckon is a necessary skill that all Marines must master, but it should not be the only skill mastered. If you cannot see to terrain associate, then fall back on dead reckoning, but not before. Although navigation via terrain association is preferred, it is not realistic in many instances to expect all Marines to develop proficiency in this technique. Factors that would preclude development of or negate the use of terrain association skills include The time required to develop and maintain proficiency. The extreme environmental conditions encountered. Movement over relatively featureless terrain.
Dead Reckoning
Combination of Dead Reckoning and Terrain Association
B283376
Night Navigation
Land Navigation Review (Continued)

Combination of Dead Reckoning and Terrain Association (Continued) Realizing this and because the majority of Marines are currently conditioned to stop "reading terrain" (or even trying to read) the minute the sun goes down (regardless of the ambient light available), a compromise must be met. Thus, movement at night should consist of a combination of dead reckoning and terrain association. Navigation with the total emphasis on terrain association should be used to the extent that ambient light, environmental conditions, and the terrain allow. When factors are such that navigation via terrain association is largely impossible, shift the technique slightly; use dead reckoning with partial emphasis still on terrain association. You must temper the reliance placed on the compass with an awareness of terrain. Even on the blackest of nights, you can tell the relative degree and direction of slopes, as well as the types of landforms (i.e., fingers, draws, hills, etc.), you move over. A careful map study (considering relative slope, direction, and distance between features) prior to movement will result in a detailed knowledge of the terrain to be crossed. This combination of following a careful compass azimuth coupled with a thorough knowledge of the intended route will result in the ability to determine a very accurate estimate of a unit's location after only a few moments under a poncho studying the map. The bottom line is that you should never equate night movement solely with dead reckoning, as it is a waste of time, effort, and training. Remember, an inability to rapidly and accurately determine your location at night could endanger mission accomplishment and the lives of your Marines. Use all the information available -- terrain associate!!
B283376
Night Navigation
Compass Nomenclature Review

Features used at night North seeking arrow (luminous). Bezel ring. Moveable luminous line (rotated by bezel ring). Stationary black index line. Two luminous dots (inside front cover).
Setting and Using the Compass Without the Aid of Light

Convert Magnetic Azimuth from Degrees into Clicks Remember 120 clicks of bezel ring = complete circle (360). Each click = 3 of rotation. To figure in the compass calibration value prior to determining number of clicks. When computing clicks, always round off to the nearest click.
Set the Azimuth on the Compass
Initial position: turn the bezel ring until the moveable luminous line is directly above the stationary black index line. While carefully feeling (listening) for each click, rotate the bezel ring one click at a time in the proper direction (clockwise [CW] or counterclockwise [CCW]). Continue to rotate the bezel until you have counted off the correct number of clicks. Holding the compass firmly in front of your chest (and level), rotate your entire body. Stop when the north-seeking arrow lies under the moveable luminous line. The luminous line will now be pointed toward magnetic north, and the front cover will be pointed in the direction of your magnetic azimuth. Proceed in the direction of the Front Cover. Keep the north-seeking arrow beneath the luminous line. Use "center-hold" method.
B283376
Night Navigation
Setting and Using the Compass Without the Aid of Light (Continued)
Set the Azimuth on the Compass (Continued) Sight across the two luminous dots inside the front cover. If possible, pick out "steering marks" as navigational aids; otherwise, hold the compass flat and steady in front of you and attempt to travel as much as possible in a straight line. The table below lists the steps to convert the magnetic azimuth from degrees into clicks and provides an example.
Step Action
1 Divide azimuth by 3 to obtain the correct number of CCW clicks. Counterclockwise rotation can be used for any azimuth, large or small, but is most effective for azimuths of less than 180.
Example
77 magnetic azimuth 77 3 = 25 2/3 = 26 clicks CCW 163 magnetic azimuth 163 3 = 54 1/3 = 54 clicks CCW 351 magnetic azimuth 351 3 = 117 clicks CCW 351 magnetic azimuth 360 - 351 = 9 9 3 = 3 clicks CW or 117 clicks CCW 242 magnetic azimuth 360 - 242 = 118 118 3 clicks = 39 1/3 = 39 clicks CW = 81 clicks CCW
For azimuths larger than 180, a shorter method is to subtract the azimuth from 360 and divide the difference by 3 to obtain the correct number of clockwise CW clicks.
B283376
Night Navigation
Setting and Using the Compass With Aid of Light

"Lightproof" yourself. Use poncho, shelter half, raincoat, whatever. Set the azimuth on the compass Turn the body of the compass until the desired azimuth can be read below the stationary index line. Keeping the body of the compass stationary, rotate the bezel ring. Stop the movement when the luminous line is above the north-seeking arrow. At this time (when the azimuth can be read beneath the stationary index line and the moveable luminous line is above the north-seeking arrow) the compass is "set", just as if it had been set by the "clicks" technique. Proceed in the direction of the front cover.
Determining Pace at Night

Factors Affecting Pace Methods of Keeping a Pace Count Slope, Surface, Obstacles, Clothing, Stamina, Load, Weather. Visibility. Pace at Night = approximately 1.5 x daytime pace. Ranger beads Knotted cord
Avoiding Drift
Factors Affecting Drift Compensating for Drift Drift is a natural tendency to stray from a straight line of march. Internal tendencies (especially due to right or left handedness) Nature of terrain Obstacles
The best way to deal with drift is to practice an awareness of individual tendencies.
Safety Precautions
Keep one arm in front of your body (preferably in front of your face) so you can feel most large obstacles before you walk into them.
B283376
Night Navigation
Review Questions
Map: Margarita Peak, California, 1:50,000, Sheet 2550 IV, Series V795 Edition 8-NIMA
Question 1
You have been tasked with conducting a night movement from hill 767 in GS 6397 to the horizontal control station in GS 6600. a. What is the grid azimuth (GA) between these points? Answer: b. follow? Answer: c. How many "clicks" and in what direction would you move the bezel ring of your compass? Answer: d. points? Answer: e. Using a rough terrain pace count of 60 paces/100m, what is the pace count between these objectives? Answer: What is the distance, in meters, between these What is the magnetic azimuth (MA) you would
Question 2
You reach your objective (the horizontal control station in GS 6600) and receive orders to continue your night movement. Your new objective is hill 924 in GS 6499. You conduct a quick map study. a. Answer: b. Answer: What is the MA to your new objective? What is the GA to your new objective?
B283376
Night Navigation
Review Questions (Continued) Question 2 (Continued)

You reach your objective (the horizontal control station in GS 6600) and receive orders to continue your night movement. Your new objective is hill 924 in GS 6499. You conduct a quick map study. c. How many "clicks" and in what direction would you move the bezel ring? Answer: d. Describe, in detail, the terrain you will cross en route to your objective. Answer: e. Prior to stepping off, you decide to recalibrate your compass. The calibration point azimuth reads 129 while your compass shot 132. What azimuth would you now follow to your objective? Answer: f. How many "clicks" and in what direction would you now move the bezel ring? Answer: g. Assuming your pace count is 60 paces/100m, how many paces will you travel from (1) Horizontal control station 800 to second unimproved road? Answer: (2) Answer: (3) Answer: Roblar Creek to hill 924? Second unimproved road to Roblar Creek?
10
B283376
Night Navigation
Review Question Answers Question 1

a. b. 47 degrees 33 (1) Utilizing MA grid magnetic (GM) = GA: MA + 14 = 47 degrees MA = 47-14 degrees MA = 33 degrees GM> = 14 degrees E
(2) Utilizing Left Add Right Subtract (LARS): Start at the grid declination line of the declination diagram and travel to the mag declination line. In this case you go to the right, so you would subtract the GM> from the GA. c. 11 clicks CCW 33/3/click = 11 clicks CCW (CCW because the MA is less than 180) 4100m 25m 2460 paces Write equation
d. e.
4100m x 60 paces = # paces 100m
Cancel like units 4100m x 60 paces = # paces 100m and reduce Solve equation 41 x 60 paces = 2460 paces
Or Just reason that because you are traveling 4100m and your pace count is 60 paces per 100m, you should multiply 41 x 60.
11
B283376
Night Navigation
Review Question Answers (Continued) Question 2

a. b. c. 136 degrees GA 238 degrees MA 41 clicks cw
d. At 200 meters crossing an unimproved road, 850 meters in a draw north/northeasterly in direction, 1050 meters crossing an intermittent stream, 1550 meters in a draw running south/southwest, 1850 meters finger running north/northeast, 2000 meters is the objective. e. 241 degrees (change MA = 192 + 3 = 195 to MA = 238 + 3 = 241) f. 40 clicks 238 + 3 = 241 = MA 360 - 241 = 119cw 119 3/click = 39.6 clicks Rounded = 40 clicks cw (1) 150 paces 250m x 60 paces = # paces 100m
g.
2.5 x 60 paces = # paces 150 = # paces (2) 510 paces 850m x 60 paces = # paces 100m 8.5 x 60 paces = # paces 510 = # paces (3) 540 paces 900 m x 60 paces = # paces 100m 9 x 60 paces = # paces 540 = # paces
12
B283376
Night Navigation
Summary
In all previous land navigation classes you were taught the principles of land navigation during the day. During periods of darkness and low visibility these principles remain the same. To be successful you will need to apply these same principles in times of low visibility.
References
Reference Number or Author FM 3-25.26 Reference Title Map Reading and Land Navigation

Term or Acronym Bezel ring 1 Bezel ring click Dead reckoning Drift LARS MAGM=GA Definition or Identification Outer rotating portion of lensatic compass face Equals 3 degrees Following a designated compass azimuth for a specified distance Drift is a natural tendency to stray from a straight line of march Left add right subtract Magnetic azimuth Grid Magnetic = Grid Azimuth
Notes
13
Notes
INTELLIGENCE B2A2157 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2A2157
Intelligence
Intelligence
Introduction The purpose of this period of instruction is to introduce how the Marine Corps intelligence doctrine supports combat operations. It will: Explain the differences between intelligence and information. Provide insight into the relationship between intelligence/information and operations at the company and platoon level. Present an overview of the Marine Corps organic intelligence assets. Cover individual roles and responsibilities in the intelligence process.
Importance
In order to support the ongoing and future operations, you should understand your role as information collectors to support the intelligence effort. What you should take away from this class is the knowledge of how to: Exploit intelligence and information on the enemy, weather, and terrain to successfully accomplish your mission. Determine which organic intelligence assets can satisfy your additional intelligence/information requirements. Identify information of immediate tactical value. Use intelligence to aid you in the decision making process during the conduct of operations.
In This Lesson
This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Information v. Intelligence Objectives and Functions of Intelligence The Intelligence Cycle Intelligence and Operations MAGTF Collection Assets Types of Reconnaissance Intelligence: Roles and Responsibilities Summary References Glossary of Terms & Acronyms Page 4 6 8 11 12 18 19 23 24 24
B2A2157
Intelligence
Intelligence (Continued)
Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS-LDR-1014b. Without the aid of reference, define priority intelligence requirements (PIR) without error. MCCS-LDR-1014c. Without the aid of reference, define intelligence requirements (IR) without error. MCCS-LDR-2101b. Without the aid of references, describe the types of reconnaissance without omission. MCCS-LDR-2101c. Without the aid of reference, describe intelligence resources without omission. Lesson Purpose At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: Without the aid of reference, describe information without error. Without the aid of reference, describe intelligence without error. Without the aid of reference, describe intelligence/information resources without omission.
B2A2157
Intelligence
Information vs. Intelligence

Information Information is unevaluated material of every description, including that derived from observations, reports, rumors, imagery, and other sources which, when processed, may produce intelligence. Combat information is unevaluated data, gathered by or provided directly to the tactical commander because of its highly perishable nature, or the criticality of the situation; cannot be processed into tactical intelligence. Combat information will make up the majority of information that combat leaders will have at their disposal on which to make their decisions and act. Intelligence is the product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of all available information which concerns one or more aspects of nations or of areas of operations and which is immediately or potentially significant to military planning and operations. To be considered intelligence, data must be placed in a context to provide an accurate and meaningful image of the hostile situation. Tactical intelligence is the knowledge of the enemy, weather, and geographic features, which a commander requires for the planning and conduct of combat operations. Tactical intelligence should: Describe the operational environment. Identify key factors in the operational environment that could potentially influence operations. Define and evaluate threat capabilities (strengths and weaknesses). Identify the enemys center of gravity and critical vulnerabilities. Assess potential enemy intentions.
Combat Information
Intelligence
Tactical Intelligence
The three key elements of tactical intelligence are: Terrain. Weather. Enemy.
B2A2157
Intelligence
Information vs. Intelligence (Continued)

Tactical Intelligence (Continued) Terrain. Depending on the type of terrain and our mission, weather will either have a positive or negative effect on mission accomplishment, limiting the enemys COAs or their ability to react effectively to our actions. Terrain, which would normally support operations, may become impassable or untenable due to weather. Weather. When determining how weather will affect friendly/enemy operations consider the following: Personnel. Temperature extremes, precipitation, and low visibility are just some of the factors that affect the human dimension of combat operations. Since weather affects all forces, the side that uses this intelligence/information in their planning will minimize the effects on the human element. Factors for special consideration may include, but are not limited to: o The need for specialized equipment and clothing. o Preparations for dealing with heat and cold injuries. o Providing for additional sustenance and water requirements for troops. Tactics. Regardless of the type of operation, weather will always have a role in the planning and conduct of an operation. Weather is the primary modifier of tactics. The tactics we may wish to use to accomplish our mission may not be feasible due to weather conditions, in which case, an alternate COA may have to be adopted. Utilizing weather intelligence can prevent wasting time developing plans that will be impossible to execute due to adverse weather and may also aid in determining what enemy COAs are possible. Logistics. Weather directly and indirectly (on terrain) affects our logistics capabilities. Winds, precipitation, visibility, and temperature will impact such logisticsminded factors as:
o o o o
Amphibious offloads. Resupply route trafficability. Procurement of specialized equipment. Types and amounts of supplies necessary to conduct operations.
B2A2157
Intelligence
Information vs. Intelligence (Continued)

Tactical Intelligence (Continued) Enemy. Determine enemy capabilities against the friendly mission/SOM. After determining the capabilities, determine enemys most likely course of action (EMLCOA). Identify exploitable vulnerabilities associated with the EMLCOA to aid in planning a friendly COA that will maximize effects against that critical vulnerability. The commander is ultimately responsible for deciding what the likely enemy actions will be and how he will tailor his operations to exploit the enemys vulnerabilities.
Objectives and Functions of Intelligence

Command and control is about making decisions. The primary objective of intelligence is to provide accurate, timely, and relevant knowledge about the enemy (or potential enemy) and the surrounding environment to support the decision making process. In other words, the primary objective of intelligence is to support decision making by reducing uncertainty about the hostile situation to a reasonable level recognizing, of course, that the fog of war renders anything close to absolute certainty impossible. The secondary objective is to assist in protecting friendly forces through counterintelligence. Uncertainty is an attribute of war and pervades any battlefield; it can never be eliminated. Intelligence seeks to cut through the fog of war in order to support the commanders decision making and planning process. To achieve this reduction in the commanders unknowns, intelligence must accomplish four specific actions: Identify and evaluate existing environmental conditions and threat capabilities. Estimate possible enemy courses of action (both present and future) based on environmental conditions and enemy capabilities. Identify friendly vulnerabilities that the enemy may exploit in their Course of Action (COA). Using this intelligence, assist in the development and evaluation of friendly COAs
B2A2157
Intelligence
Objectives and Functions of Intelligence (Continued)

Intelligence deals with unknowns: questions about any unfamiliar area and an independent, hostile enemy who is actively trying to conceal information about his forces and his intentions. Therefore, intelligence gaps will always exist. The best that intelligence can do is to reduce these gaps uncertainty to a reasonable level, which will aid the commanders decision making. Intelligence Functions Support the commanders initial estimate of the situation to support decision making and planning. Develop the situation provide the commander continuous situational awareness to permit flexibility or exploitation of opportunities. Provide Indications and Warning (I&W) to help prevent the enemy from achieving surprise and allow the commander to be proactive vice reactive to enemy actions. Support force protection identifying, locating, and countering the enemys reconnaissance and surveillance assets, intelligence apparatus, and sabotage/terrorism capabilities. Support the targeting process identifying targets, target systems, critical nodes, and high-value/high payoff targets. Support combat assessment essential to determining the overall effectiveness of combat operations.
B2A2157
Intelligence
The Intelligence Cycle

The intelligence cycle is a series of related and continuous activities that translate the need for intelligence about a particular aspect of the operational environment or threat into a knowledge-based product that operation planners receive to aid in decision making. During this cycle: Intelligence needs are identified. A plan is formulated and directions are given for satisfying those needs. Information is collected, processed, and exploited for usable intelligence. That usable intelligence is then transformed into a tailored, useful intelligence product. That product is disseminated and utilized by a commander or unit.
The six interdependent phases of the intelligence cycle (see diagram below) are: Planning and Direction. Collection. Processing and Exploitation. Production. Dissemination. Utilization.
B2A2157
Intelligence
The Intelligence Cycle (Continued)

Planning and Direction Phase Because the possible questions about the enemy and the area of operations are practically infinite, and intelligence assets are limited, the intelligence effort must be well organized. The key to organizing and prioritizing your limited assets is an understanding of: Your mission. The commanders intent. The use of priority intelligence requirements (PIRs) and intelligence requirements (IRs).
Priority Intelligence Requirement (PIR). A PIR is an intelligence requirement associated with a decision that will critically affect the overall success of the units mission. PIRs are always listed in priority order. In designating PIRs, the commander establishes: What he wants to know (intelligence required). Why he wants it (linkage to operational decision making). When he needs it (LTIOV [Last Time Information is Of Value]). How he wants it (format and method of delivery). Intelligence Requirement (IR). IRs are stuff wed like to know, but usually will not affect mission accomplishment if we dont know. IRs can cover the entire spectrum of information needed concerning the operational environment and threat. Common Characteristics of PIRs/IRs. All PIRs and IRs share these common characteristics. Each asks only one question and: Focuses on a specific fact, event, or activity concerning the enemy or the operational environment. Is tied to a specific decision point in mission planning or execution. Provides a clear, concise statement of what intelligence is required. Contains geographic and time elements to focus the requirement.
B2A2157
Intelligence
The Intelligence Cycle (Continued)

Collection Phase During this phase: The collection operations are planned. Assets are positioned to perform their responsibilities of collecting the information and reporting it back to the appropriate unit/section. Balance the capabilities and limitations of all collection assets in order to maximize effectiveness and provide redundancy in collection. PIRs/IRs are re-evaluated and updated.
Processing and Exploitation Phase
During the processing and exploitation phase, collected information is converted into a man readable format more suitable for the production of intelligence. During the production phase, information is: Evaluated to determine relevancy, reliability, and accuracy. Analyzed to isolate specific, significant elements. Integrated with other information and previously developed intelligence. Applied to estimate possible COAs. Produced in a format that will be usable by all who need it.
Production Phase
Dissemination Phase
Getting relevant intelligence to the commander and subordinate units soon enough to enable him to plan and conduct operations, vice react to the enemys own actions, is the goal of the dissemination phase. The intelligence must be: In a usable format. Accurate to the best of abilities. Timely. Disseminated with adequate security.
Utilization Phase
Intelligence has no inherent value; its value is realized only when it is applied to support the commander and operations.
10
B2A2157
Intelligence
Intelligence and Operations

Principles of Intelligence Operations The Marine Corps Warfighting philosophy of intelligence drives operations depends on timely, accurate intelligence for success. Inherent in this principle is that intelligence operations: Intelligence Push vs. Intelligence Pull Remain flexible. Use imagination.
Intelligence is focused downward. Intelligence push sends critical intelligence to the tactical commander. Special attention should be given to answering these three questions: What do I know? Who needs it? Did I get it to them?
Intelligence pull allows the commander to receive additional intelligence support as needed from higher sources. Intelligence collection activities require centralized management and decentralized execution because of the coordination required between separate and usually specialized assets to fulfill the commanders intelligence requirements. Intelligence must be fully and continuously involved in the operations planning process. Intelligence provided must be timely, accurate, disseminated to those who need it, and finally, acted upon by the unit to which it has been given. End-State Operational Units / Collection Assets push raw information to the S-2 / Intelligence section. Resulting intelligence products are utilized by the commander to support & drive operations.
11
B2A2157
Intelligence
MAGTF Collection Assets

Introduction The scarcity of specialized intelligence assets, coupled with the requirement to integrate and focus intelligence operations on satisfying the commands PIRs/IRs, creates the need for centralized leadership of the intelligence effort. At the same time, the Marines tasked with executing intelligence operations are duty experts in their disciplines and should be given latitude in the conduct of intelligence operations. Therefore, intelligence planning takes on a centralized command and control aspect, while the actual execution is still decentralized. Intelligence units whose capabilities support the entire MAGTF are retained under the operational control of the MAGTF commander. The MAGTF G-2/S-2 provides centralized direction for these assets, facilitating the: Unity of effort. Production of all-source intelligence. Effective employment of the limited assets in support of the requirements of the entire MAGTF.
Subordinate elements of the MAGTF retain organic intelligence assets appropriate to their mission and level of command (e.g., divisions reconnaissance battalion and battalions scout sniper platoon). MAGTF level intelligence units are concentrated in the intelligence battalion and radio battalion to enhance centralized command and control of these limited assets. The organic intelligence assets in the Marine Corps are categorized as: Ground combat element intelligence assets. Radio battalion (RadBn). Intelligence battalion. Air combat element intelligence assets.
12
B2A2157
Intelligence
MAGTF Collection Assets (Continued)

Ground Combat Element Intelligence Assets Line Companies/Battalions. Due to the pervasiveness of these units throughout the operational environment, they are the most abundant source of information for the intelligence hierarchy. Regardless of the units mission, Marines are always: o Conducting patrols. o Establishing observation posts (OP)/listening posts (LP). o Conducting or escorting convoys. o Generally moving throughout the operational environment. The limited assets specifically tasked to conduct collection and intelligence missions cannot be everywhere we would like them to be, and even if they are, enemy actions may be taking place elsewhere. All Marines must understand their role as information collectors, and the benefits they reap if they remain alert and aware of their surroundings, and report their observations to higher. Division Reconnaissance Battalions. These units are in general support (GS) to the division. Their mission is to conduct pre- and post-assault reconnaissance for the ground combat element (GCE). Some of their mission taskings may include: o Reconnaissance and surveillance (R&S) of GCE objectives. o Limited hydrographic studies. o Confirmatory beach reporting. o Boat initial terminal guidance (ITG). o Route reconnaissance. o Helicopter Landing Zone studies and ITG. o Terminal control of supporting arms. o Most importantly, observation and reporting on the commands PIRs/IRs.
13
B2A2157
Intelligence

Ground Combat Element Intelligence Assets (Continued) Scout Sniper Platoon. Battalions have one scout sniper platoon which is GS to the battalion. Although the eyes and ears for the battalion commander, the scout sniper platoon may be put in direct support (DS) of a company based on the priority given to that units mission. The scout snipers missions and taskings are generally the same as those of the reconnaissance battalion. However, scout snipers normally dont operate as deep into enemy territory and generally remain within the battalions area of operations or area of influence. In addition to their R&S missions, scout snipers also have the capability of offensive action by delivering long range, precision fires on selected targets. Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (LAR). LAR, because of its mobility, firepower, and ability to act independently, generally operates as another maneuver force. However, its missions of conducting route, zone, and area reconnaissance make it a vital intelligence collection asset. The LAR battalion is particularly suited for: Highly mobile ground reconnaissance; Deep reconnaissance; Counterreconnaissance. A LAR Battalion: o Can support the MAGTF at the operational and tactical level of war by providing information that helps a commander determine when and where to accept or refuse battle. o Performs reconnaissance in accordance with the overall collection plan. o Does not supplant the contributions of other reconnaissance elements. o Operates overtly, relying on mobility, maneuverability, firepower and the mutual support of LAR mission role variants to accomplish reconnaissance missions. o Possess the capability to further develop the situation after gaining enemy contact and may conduct limited objective attacks to secure lightly defended terrain o During reconnaissance operations, LAR may conduct limited objective attacks to secure lightly defended terrain
B2A2157
Intelligence

Ground Combat Element Intelligence Assets (Continued) Radio Battalion (RadBn). RadBn provides groundbased and limited aerial-based signals intelligence (SIGINT) and electronic warfare (EW) capability to support MAGTF operations. In addition to directing the employment of its subordinate elements, RadBn acts as the focal point for MAGTF SIGINT operations by planning, coordinating, and conducting the collection activities of supporting and organic assets. Some of the RadBn missions are to: o Conduct interception, radio direction finding (DF), recording and analysis of communications intelligence (COMINT) and non-communications signals (ELINT), and all SIGINT processing, analysis, production, and reporting. o Conduct EW operations to include electronic attack (EA), electronic support (ES), and electronic protect (EP), against enemy C2 architecture. o Conduct communication security (COMSEC) monitoring of friendly forces to protect communications. o Provide radio reconnaissance teams (RRT) with special insertion/extraction capabilities to provide specified SIGINT and EA support during advance force, pre-assault, and postassault operations. (MCWP 2-15.2, Signals Intelligence)
15
B2A2157
Intelligence

Ground Combat Element Intelligence Assets (Continued) Intelligence Battalion. The intelligence battalion resides under MEF command and is GS to the MEF. The intelligence battalion provides highly specialized, technical support to intelligence operations in the form of: o Imagery intelligence (IMINT). o Sensor employment. o Human intelligence (HUMINT). Intelligence battalion establishes and mans an intelligence operations center and surveillance and reconnaissance center (SARC) under the staff cognizance of the G-2/S-2, providing centralized command and control of MAGTF organic collection assets and all-source fusion of the information collected and reported. Some of the units within the intelligence battalion are the: o Counterintelligence (CI)/HUMINT Company. This unit provides a commander with organic assets trained to operate clandestinely within the indigenous population in an area of operations (AO). Interrogator-translator teams also allow the commander to interrogate enemy prisoners of war (EPWs) or interview locals for pertinent information. They are tasked to provide intelligence to the commander regarding force protection issues and the commands vulnerability to subversion, sabotage, espionage, and terrorism. Imagery Intelligence Platoon (IIP). Provides imagery intelligence from both organic and national assets to support operations and targeting. Ground Sensor Platoon (GSP). Employs numerous types of sensors, including seismic, magnetic, infrared, and thermal, to provide indications and warning (I&W), targeting information, and queuing for intelligence collection. Topographic Platoon. Provides 3-D and other visual graphic intelligence products to support operation planning.
16
B2A2157
Intelligence

Air Combat Element (ACE) Intelligence Assets Just as in the GCE, the Air Combat Element (ACE) has S-2s organic to the squadron, group, and wing levels. In addition, the ACE table of organization maintains specialized aerial collection assets. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) squadron, within the 2nd and 3rd Marine Air Wings, provides real-time imagery intelligence and direct support to targeting and terminal control of supporting arms. Another collection asset currently being fielded is the Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System (ATARS), which is a collection system, designed to attach to the F/A-18. Eventually, the Marine Corps intends to field enough of the F/A-18 ATARS aircraft that they will be strictly a reconnaissance platform. In addition, three EA6B Prowler electronic attack aircraft squadrons are in the Marine Corps inventory, based at Cherry Point and Iwakuni, Japan. Because of their capabilities, the EA-6Bs have been designated as national assets. However, due to their frequent forward deployment, they may be available to provide airborne EW support to tactical commanders.
17
B2A2157
Intelligence
Types of Reconnaissance
Types of Reconnaissance. The information provided by friendly actions serve as a type of reconnaissance. Reconnaissance can be broken down into 3 categories: route, zone, and area.
A route reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information of a specified route and all terrain from which the enemy could influence movement along that route. Route reconnaissance may be oriented on a road or an axis or direction of attack. Route reconnaissance is faster than zone reconnaissance because effort is concentrated along the route and its controlling terrain. A zone reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information concerning all routes, obstacles (to include chemical or radiological contamination), terrain, and enemy forces within a zone defined by boundaries. A zone reconnaissance normally is assigned when: o The enemy situation is vague. o Information concerning cross-country trafficability is desired.
An area reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information concerning the terrain or enemy activity within a prescribed area such as a town, ridgeline, woods, named area of interest (NAIs), or other feature critical to operations. An area reconnaissance is a specialized form of zone reconnaissance and proceeds faster than a zone reconnaissance; the effort is focused on specific terrain feature(s) or enemy forces.
18
B2A2157
Intelligence
Intelligence: Roles and Responsibilities

Commanders Responsibilities Intelligence is an inherent and essential responsibility of command. Just as command and operations are inseparable, so it is with intelligence. Commanders must: Focus the intelligence effort. This is the most important responsibility the commander has in the intelligence process. Without effective guidance, the intelligence effort may wander off the mark and not fulfill the commanders intelligence requirements, which should be assisting in his decision making process. The commander uses his commanders intent, PIRs/IRs, and additional guidance to articulate the commands priorities and concept of intelligence support. These measures should ensure that the limited collection assets are directed at the intelligence requirements that the commander feels are vital to mission accomplishment. Participate in the intelligence process. The commander is ultimately responsible for the results of the intelligence effort. The commander must understand: o The capabilities and limitations of the systems and Marines conducting the effort. o The special requirements and equipment which may be needed. o Finally, what type of products are available for his use. Use intelligence in decision making. All of the effort is for nothing if the commander doesnt utilize the intelligence that is collected and produced. Ultimately, the commander must use his knowledge of intelligence operations, coupled with his own operational experience to make decisions, which will affect the entire unit. Support the intelligence effort. The commander must be prepared to allocate sufficient resources to the intelligence mission, whether they be logistics (special equipment/transportation), command and control assets (radios/additional frequencies), or combat power (protection for R&S teams/react forces).
19
B2A2157
Intelligence
Intelligence: Roles and Responsibilities (Continued)

Commanders Responsibilities (Continued) Evaluate the results of intelligence activities in the form of feedback. This feedback must identify where the intelligence provided met the commanders expectations and where it came up short. The flow of combat information (up, down, and laterally) is critical he and his subordinates primarily rely on this to make decisions, especially during ongoing combat operations.
The intelligence officer manages the effort for the S-2 (Unit Intelligence Officer) Responsibilities commander, acting as the principle advisor on intelligence and implementing activities that carry out the commanders intelligence responsibilities. The intelligence officer is a full participant in the commanders decision making process, ensuring that intelligence is effectively utilized during all phases, from mission planning through execution. Key responsibilities are to: Facilitate understanding and use of intelligence in the planning and execution of operations. Support situation development and the commanders estimate of the situation through the identification of enemy capabilities, strengths, and vulnerabilities, as well as opportunities and limitations presented by the environment. Assist the commander in developing PIRs/IRs. Ensure the commands intelligence requirements are received, understood, and acted upon by organic and supporting intelligence assets. Monitor the effective flow of intelligence throughout the command. Provide battle damage assessment (BDA) and functional system assessment data and analysis to aid the combat assessment process.
20
B2A2157
Intelligence

Individual Marines Role in the Intelligence Process The individual Marine, whether an infantryman, truck driver, or aviator goes everywhere and sees everything. Due to the needs of timeliness, every Marine must be an information collector on the battlefield. Units in contact are the primary means by which information is developed and reported. Examples of information that should be reported to the S-2 as quickly and by the most secure means available are: Information gained as a result of mission. Enemy operations. Miscellaneous operations.
Individual Marines collection and reporting of information during the normal conduct of operations allows the S-2 to gain a better overall picture of the enemys capabilities and intentions. This translates into better situational awareness for the tactical commander and subordinate units allowing them to fight smarter and save lives.
Report Examples
Following are examples of reports or information that would be gathered and sent to higher because of enemy contact or actions by the unit. Situation Report (SITREP): Used to give a brief synopsis to higher of a units: o Location. o Past and planned activities. o Any support requirements.
21
B2A2157
Intelligence

Report Examples (Continued) Contact Report (CONTACREP): Used to report briefly and concisely any enemy contact by consolidating the most important elements of the SITREP and CASREP, while allowing the unit commander to focus on resolving the present situation. Enemy Sighting Report (SPOTREP): Commonly referred to as the SALUTE report, the SPOTREP provides for detailed reporting of: o o o o o o Size. Activity. Location. Unit. Time. Equipment.
Ground force/Air Force/naval force activity should be reported via SPOTREP, however dont feel constrained by the report format if additional observations or comments are warranted. Battle Damage Assessment (BDA): A BDA provides battle damage assessment either from your units fire/CAS missions or previous missions in your AO. Use a Shelling Report (SHELREP) format if receiving or observing enemy indirect fire; a SHELREP will provide pertinent information to higher regarding: o o o o The type of fire received or observed. Duration of fire. Estimated bearing and distance of firing unit. Any battle damage sustained.
Unit Patrolling: Patrol Reports are an invaluable source of information for intelligence since all Marine units conduct patrols. The S-2 should provide the patrol leader with a copy of the units Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) patrol report during the pre-mission intelligence brief. These reports serve to aid the patrol leaders observations during the patrol and assist in remembering details during the patrol debrief. The patrol report should not replace a detailed patrol and communication log but should augment them with information specifically requested by higher.
22
B2A2157
Intelligence

Report Examples (Continued) Electronic warfare is a tactic that is being seen more frequently, even against less sophisticated threats. Report these types of attacks preferably over wire communication or face-to-face, but if necessary over an alternate, secure radio frequency. Use the Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming, and Interference Report (MIJIREP) or Frequency Interference Report (FIRREP) formats. Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming, and Interference Report (MIJIREP): Used to provide a detailed report regarding any intentional attack or interference on friendly communications or GPS signals. Frequency Interference Report (FIRREP): Provides only the most essential elements of the MIJIREP and decreases transmission time. Weather. Report discrepancies between weather briefed and weather encountered and its effects on: o o o o o o Friendly operations. Aircraft. Vehicles. Equipment (specifically weapon systems). Personnel. Estimated effect on enemy operations.
Miscellaneous Observations
Terrain. Report discrepancies between terrain briefed, terrain seen on maps/imagery, and the actual terrain encountered, such as: o New hazards to navigation. o Effect on friendly operations. o Estimated effect on enemy operations.
Summary
Understanding how the Marine Corps intelligence doctrine supports combat operations will provide insight into how intelligence and information support operations at the company and platoon level. Additionally, it gives you a greater knowledge of your role in the intelligence process. When you know how to exploit the exploit intelligence and information on the enemy, weather, and terrain, you will be able to accomplish your mission.
23
B2A2157
Intelligence
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 2 MCWP 2-1 MCWP 2-12 MCO 3461.1 MCRP 3-11.1A Reference Title Intelligence Intelligence Operations MAGTF Intelligence Productions and Analysis Enemy Prisoners of War, Retain Personnel, Civilian Internees and Other Detainees Commanders Tactical Notebook

Term or Acronym ACE AO ATARS BDA CI COA COMINT COMSEC CONTACREP DF DS EA EP ELINT EMLCOA EPW ES EW FIRREP FMTU GCE GS GSP HUMINT IIP IMINT IR I&W ITG LAR LP LTIOV MAGTF Definition or Identification Air combat element Area of operations Advanced tactical airborne reconnaissance system Battle damage assessment Counterintelligence Course of action Communications intelligence Communications security Contact Report Direction finding Direct support Electronic attack Electronic protect Non-communications signals Enemys most likely course of action Enemy prisoner of war Electronic support Electronic warfare Frequency Interference Report Foreign military training unit Ground combat element General support Ground sensor platoon Human intelligence Imagery intelligence platoon Imagery intelligence Intelligence requirements Indications and warning Initial terminal guidance Light armored reconnaissance Listening post Last time information is of value Marine Air Ground Task Force
24
B2A2157
Intelligence
Glossary of Terms and Acronyms (Continued)

Term or Acronym MARSOC MCSOSG MEF MEU MIJIREP MSOB MSOC MSOS OP PIR NAI RadBn R&S RRT SALUTE SARC SCAMP SHELREP SIGINT SITREP SOCOM SOP SPOTREP UAV Definition or Identification Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command Marine Special Operations Support Group Marine Expeditionary Force Marine Expeditionary Unit Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming and Interference Report Marine special operations battalion Marine special operations company Marine Special Operations School Observation post Priority intelligence requirements Named area of interest Radio battalion Reconnaissance and surveillance Radio reconnaissance team Size, activity, location, unit, time, equipment surveillance and reconnaissance center Sensor Control and Management Platoon Shelling Report Signals intelligence Situation Report United States Special Operations Command Standard Operating Procedure Enemy Sighting Report Unmanned aerial vehicle
Notes
25
Notes
ENEMY THREAT WEAPONS B2A2177 STUDENT HANDOUT/SELF PACED INSTRUCTION
B2A2177
Enemy Threat Weapons

Introduction In 1979, the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. The Soviets assumed this would be a short uneventful battle; however, the Mujahadeen had other plans. The Mujahadeen are guardians of the Afghani way of live and territory. The Soviets went into Afghanistan with the latest weapons to include the AK-74, AKS-74, and AKSU-74, which replaced the venerable AK-47 in the Soviet Arsenals. The Mujahadeen were armed with Soviet-made AK-47s. This twist of fate would prove to be fatal to the Soviets. For nearly 11 years, the Mujahadeen repelled the Soviet attacks with Soviet-made weapons. The Mujahadeen also captured many newer Soviet small arms, which augmented their supplies of weaponry. In 1989, the Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan back to the other side of the mountain. The Mujahadeen thwarted a communist takeover with their strong will to resist and the AK-47. This is important to you because it illustrates what an effective weapon the AK-47 is, and in the hands of a well-trained rifleman, what can be accomplished. This is important to you as a Marine because there is not a battlefield or conflict that you will be deployed to, where you will not find a Kalashnikov AK-47 or variant. This lesson will cover history, evolution, description, and characteristics of foreign weapons. The primary focus will be on the Kalashnikov family of assault rifles known as the AK-47. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic History of the AK-47 Assault Rifle Evolution of the AK-47 Assault Rifle Reproduction and Copies Additional Foreign Weapons Reference Material Various Rifles and Assault Rifles of the World Small Arms Weapons of the Enemy The Global Picture, Supply and Demand Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 4 8 17 22 27 29 30 31 31 31 31
Importance
In This Lesson
B2A2177
Enemy Threat Weapons (Continued)

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives MCCS-PAT-2204.Given a mission and suspected combatant(s) equipped with threat weapon(s), and indicators of sight and/or sound, identify threat weapons and their capabilities to report enemy information and accomplish the mission.
B2A2177
History of the AK-47 Assault Rifle
Sturmgewehr 44 (MP 44) Father of Modern Assault Rifles 7.92 x 33mm Kurz Intermediate Origin. In 1941, during World War II, a Soviet tank commander named Mikhail Timofeyvich Kalashnikov was wounded in battle on the Eastern Front. His tank was hit by a German artillery round injuring him severely by the shrapnel. During Mikhail Kalashnikovs long convalescence, he studied automatic weapons. Kalashnikov was previously awarded for engineering designs and improvements to the T-34 while serving as a tank commander. Kalashnikov entered the Soviet small arms engineering competition to design a superior assault rifle. Kalashnikovs first design showed no real improvement over existing rifles. In 1944, the Soviets captured many German weapons, and they were sent back for examination. One weapon in particular was a great success for the Germans and would have a profound impact on all small arms. This rifle was the Sturmgewehr 44 (StGw 44), the first successful assault rifle and the father of all modern assault rifles. Literally translated Sturmgewehr means assault rifle. The Soviets were very impressed with this weapon and raced to design an equivalent commissioning many small arms designers. o In 1947, the Soviet equivalent was born, the Avtomata Kalashnikova obstractz 1947 (Automatic Kalashnikov), (AK-47) Assault Rifle. For the next two years, it would be tested and refined. After some arduous field-testing and some minor changes, the weapon was accepted into service at the end of 1949. By the mid 50s the AK-47 was in use as the primary Soviet infantry weapon and other communist nations. The design closely resembled the StGw 44. o The cartridge for the Soviet model was even modeled after the intermediate German cartridge that the StGw 44 fired, the 7.92 x 33mm Kurz. The Soviet round derived was the 7.62 x 39mm (M1943/M43) intermediate cartridge. The AK-47 is not the best assault rifle but it certainly is the most distributed. o
B2A2177
History of the AK-47 Assault Rifle (Continued)

AK-47 Obstractz. The original model came into service in 1949 and serves as a template to many different variants throughout the world today. As aforementioned, the AK-47 is widely distributed; therefore, it is a very popular model. Unfortunately, the AK-47 is not without it faults. There is no locking device that lets the operator know when the weapon has run dry, and the bolt cannot be locked to the rear for reloads and observation of the chamber area. It has relatively poor accuracy of only about 300 meters. This original model is very rare and not circulated. \
Stamped Steel Receiver
No Finger Groove or Dimples
AK-47 Obstractz Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes Soviet Union (Russia) 7.62 x 39mm (M43 intermediate cartridge) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 meters The original AK-47 produced from 1947 to late 1950 had a stamped metal receiver and no finger grooves or dimples.
B2A2177

The AK-47. The AK-47 was improved in late 1950, yet it was very expensive to manufacture because the receiver is comprised of milled (forged) steel, meaning the receiver started as a block of steel and machinists had to cut or mill the steel to shape and hollow. The milled steel receiver also resulted in a much heavier weapon. The AK-47 was still a very successful weapon and well respected for its power of endurance. There are several features that easily identify the original AK-47 model from more current models. The front sight post is about inch wider. There are four small holes on the gas cylinder tube. The sights are graduated to only 800 meters. The receiver is solid steel, and there is a 3-inch finger groove on the front of the receiver. A common misconception is that the AK-47 will fire the NATO 7.62 x 51mm (.308) round. This is not true, the rounds are not interchangeable! Wider front sight post assembly.
Sights graduated to 800 meters.
3 finger groove on receiver. 4 holes on each side for Gas venting.
Milled or forged metal receiver.
AK-47 Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Soviet Union (Russia) 7.62 x 39mm (M1943 intermediate cartridge) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 meters
B2A2177

Characteristics of the AK-47 Assault Rifle. The AK-47 assault rifle is a gas operated, shoulder fired, air-cooled weapon that fires from the closed bolt position. The weapon has a closed gas piston and rod, which are permanently attached to the bolt carrier. A standard 30 round detachable box magazine feeds the weapon. There are also 40 round and 75 round drum magazines in use. The weapon is chambered for the M43 7.62 x 39mm cartridge. The weapon fires automatic and semi-automatic. The weapons maximum effective range is 300 meters. This is largely because the sights are not calibrated for deflection (windage). The sighting system on the AK series has windage and elevation; however, the windage is adjusted on the front sight with a tool (much like drifting M9 Pistol sights). Technical data of the AK-47 Assault rifle is as follows: AK-47 Assault Rifle 7.62 x 39mm (AK-47)/ 5.45 x 39.5mm (AK-74) Gas (Long Stroke Piston) Rotating Bolt 34.25 inches (approximately) 9 lbs 7 oz (unloaded); 7.75 lbs (AKMS) 16.34 inches 300 meters 710 m/sec (2330 ft/sec) Post w/wings, Rabbit ears Tangent graduated to 800 meters (1000m AKM) fixed deviation 14.5 inches (approximately) 30 round detachable box Cyclic 750 rounds per minute
Caliber
Operating System Locking System Length Weight Barrel Length Max Effective Range Muzzle Velocity Front Sight Rear Sight
Line of Sight Magazine Rate of Fire
B2A2177
Evolution of the AK-47 Assault Rifle

AKS. You learned that the AK-47 came into service in 1949; the weapon was then modified into the AKS (Avtomata Kalashnikova Skladyvayushchimsys) that entered service in late 1950. The S stands for stock. The AKS is an AK-47 with a folding double strut metal stock. The stock is folded underneath the weapon by depressing the press-button release. This model offered more versatility due to it compact nature. This model was used mostly with Russian airborne and mechanized infantry troops. The weapon has been replaced in the Russian arsenal and is mainly exported to other countries.
AKS Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Soviet Union (Russia) 7.62 x 39mm (M1943 intermediate cartridge) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 meters
B2A2177
Evolution of the AK-47 Assault Rifle (Continued)

AKM. In 1959 the AKM (Avtomata Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniyi) entered service and replaced the original AK-47s. The AKM is an AK-47 assault rifle with a few modifications. The M stands for modernization. Some models were fitted with a spoon-type compensator. The sights were graduated to 1000 meters. The most notable difference is the stamped metal receiver replaced the heavier milled steel receiver. This resulted in a lighter weapon. The stamped receiver was much more inexpensive and the weapon could be more readily mass-produced. The AKM was also fitted with a rate reducing mechanism (trigger delay mechanism) for added reliability and better control during automatic fire. This mechanism imposes a minute resistance on the forward movement of the hammer, which takes the cyclic rate of fire down to 650 rounds per minute. The weapon was also fitted with a bayonet and scabbard which when connected transformed into all-purpose wire cutters. Note the different shape of the pistol grip, the dimple in the stamped metal receiver and the bayonet and wire cutter scabbard. 1000-meter sights
Bayonet
Re-shaped Pistol Grip
Stamped Steel Receiver
Dimpled Slot in Receiver
Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range
AKM Soviet Union (Russia) 7.62 x 39mm (M43 intermediate cartridge) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 400 meters
B2A2177

AKMS. During the early 1960s the AKMS was developed. The AKMS (Avtomata Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniyi Skladyvayushchimsys) is the modernized version with a folding double strut metal stock. This weapon replaced the AKS, and was outfitted by paratroopers, mechanized infantry, and Spetznaz troops.
AKMS Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Soviet Union (Russia) 7.62 x 39mm (M43 intermediate cartridge) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 400 meters
10
B2A2177

AK-74. This weapon was developed in 1974 and came into service in 1975. Captured United States (US) M16A1 Service rifles from the Vietnam War were sent to Russia for evaluation and experimentation of a Soviet equivalent of the high velocity, small bore rifle. In 1974, this resulted in the manufacture of the AK-74. This new weapon still used the AK-47 template; however, it incorporated some enhanced features. The AK-74 has a true compensator and it is chambered for the Soviet 5.45 x 39.5mm round. This compensator greatly reduces muzzle climb and reduces recoil, therefore it is arguably the best in the world. Another notable difference is in the furniture. It has lighter, orange plastic magazines with stiffening fillets, sometimes plum (black) in color. The accuracy of the weapon is also improved. This is the standard issue for the Russian military troops. This weapon will not fire the NATO 5.56 x 45mm cartridge.
AKMS Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Soviet Union (Russia) 5.45 x 39.5 mm Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 500 meters
11
B2A2177

AKS-74. In 1979, this model, the AK-74 with a folding skeletonized metal stock was issued. It is used by airborne and mechanized infantry troops.
Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range
AKS-74 Soviet Union (Russia) 5.45 x 39.5 mm Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 500 meters
12
B2A2177

AKSU-74 This model was first reported in 1983 in Afghanistan. This weapon is known as the shorty. This is the submachine gun version, although it still fires rifle ammunition. The barrel and furniture have been shortened. Because the weapon is much shorter, the range is also decreased, however not by much due to the bell shaped flash-hider. The AKSS-74 was a 7.62 x 39 version and was not very popular. The AKSU-74 is the weapon that Spetznaz most frequently use. The top version below is set-up for special force operations; it features a suppressor and grenade launcher.
Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes
AKSU-74 Soviet Union (Russia) 5.45 x 39.5 mm Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 200-300 meters Extremely versatile weapon with many sub-variants.
13
B2A2177

Exterior Nomenclature (AKM).
a. Muzzle (Compensator). Reduces muzzle-climb. b. Front sight Assembly. Houses the front sight post. c. Gas Cylinder d. Gas Cylinder Tube e. Operating handle. Feeds and chambers rounds. Unlike the M16A2 service rifle, it does not lock to the rear when the weapon has run dry, and there is no mechanical device to lock to the rear for observation of the chamber. f. Selector Lever. There are three positions, the upward position is safe, the middle position is automatic, and the down position is semi-automatic. When the safety is engaged, the bolt cannot be pulled all the way to the rear. g. Receiver. Milled steel on the original weapon, stamped steel on the all other models. It houses the operating group and all other major components. h. Butt Stock. Wood or plastic on some models. Can be skeletonized folding metal stock as well.
14
B2A2177

Exterior Nomenclature (AKM) (Continued).
i. j. k. l. m.
Bayonet & Scabbard Barrel Assembly Houses the round for firing and directs projectile, hand grips are attached to this assembly. Hand guards (Fore end) Magazine 30 round detachable box magazine. Rear Sight Assembly. Sights are marked to 800 meters on the Ak-47 and 1000 meters on the AKM. Effective range is roughly 300 meters. The Ak-74 has a range of 500 meters. Magazine Catch Trigger Bolt (Dust) Cover Pistol Grip
n. o. p. q.
15
B2A2177

Interior Nomenclature (AKM).
a. Drive Spring Guide and Drive Spring b. Bolt c. Operating Rod d. Piston e. Follower f. Magazine Spring g. Cleaning Rod h. Lands and Grooves (Bore)
16
B2A2177
Reproductions and Copies

The AK-47 has evolved throughout the years and has been reproduced by other countries into many variants. The AK-47 is a favorite with terrorist organizations and third world countries. Over 70 million AK-47 or variants have been produced, and some 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 exist today. The weapon is inexpensive to manufacture and easily obtainable. Many third world nations and communist bloc countries use the AK and currently it is used in 78 nations. The AK series is manufactured in eleven different countries. Countries that have duplicated the design and renamed the weapon are as follows: Bulgaria (AKM) Poland (PMK) East Germany (MPiKMS) China (M-22) Hungary (AMD-65) Finland (M70) North Korea (Type 58) Yugoslavia (Zastava M64-M80) Egypt (MISR) Romania (AIM) Iraq (Tabuk)
Other countries have at designed weapons that are very similar to the AK-47 but have changed the cosmetic features or operational features. These countries include: Czechoslovakia (Vz-58v/p) Israel (Galil) South Africa (R4) Belgium (PNC) Sweden (FNC80)
There is even a model manufactured in the United States.
17
B2A2177
Reproductions and Copies (Continued)

Below are partial reprintings of the various AK-47 replicas found throughout the world. M-22 (China)
M-22 (China) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes Peoples Republic of China 7.62 x 39 mm (M43) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300 meters The M-22 is a direct copy of the AK-47.
18
B2A2177

Below are partial reprintings of the various AK-47 replicas found throughout the world (Continued). Type 58 (North Korea)
Type 58 (North Korea) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes North Korea 7.62 x 39 mm (M43) Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 300-400 meters The Type 58 is a direct copy of the AK-47.
19
B2A2177

Below are partial reprintings of the various AK-47 replicas found throughout the world (Continued). MPiKM 74 (East Germany)
MPiKM 74 (East Germany) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range East Germany 5.45 x 39.5 mm Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 500 meters
20
B2A2177

Below are partial reprintings of the various AK-47 replicas found throughout the world (Continued). Tabuk (Iraq)
Tabuk (Iraq) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes Iraq 7.62 x 39 mm Gas Rotating Bolt 30 round detachable box magazine 200-400 meters There are several Iraqi models with various calibers; some models have serrations on the barrel increasing surface area, reducing heat. The Tabuk features BG-15 grenade launcher sights.
21
B2A2177
Additional Foreign Weapons Reference Material

Below are examples of other enemy threat weapons that have been used against US forces in the past. They include, but are not limited to, sniper rifles, machine guns (light, medium, and heavy) and Rocket Propelled Grenades (RPG).
Machine Guns. o RPD (Ruchnoi Pulemet Degtyyarev) (Russia).
RPD (Russia) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Russia 7.62 x 39 mm Gas Locking leaf 100 RD. non-disintegrating metal link 800 meters
22
B2A2177
Additional Foreign Weapons Reference Material (Continued)

o RPK (RUCHNOI PULEMET KALASHNIKOV) (Russia).
RPK (Russia) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Russia 7.62 x 39 mm Gas Rotary bolt 30/40 round magazine or 75 round drum 800 meters
23
B2A2177

o RPK-74 (Russia).
RPK-74 (Russia) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Russia 5.45 x 39 mm Gas Rotary bolt Same as AK-74 800 meters
24
B2A2177

o PKM (Russia).
pkm (Russia) Country of Origin Caliber Operation Locking Feeding Effective Range Notes Russia 7.62 x 54 mm Gas Locking leaf 250 RD. non-disintegrating metal link 1000 meters There are other variants of this weapon system (PKMS and PKMSN) that include the ability to mount to a heavy tripod and the use of night-vision optics.
25
B2A2177

Rocket Propelled Grenade (RPG).
o Producers and variants: Iran (Nader) China (Type 69) Egypt (Sakr PG-7) Iraq (Al-Nassira) Pakistan (RPG-7) Romania (AG-7S) Bulgaria (RPG-7) Russia (RPG-7) o Caliber: 40mm (TUBE) Warhead: 85mm grenade o Characteristics: Shoulder fired, muzzle loaded, antitank and antipersonnel grenade launcher. o Effective Range: 300m - Moving target 500m - Stationary 920m - Area target 1100m - Antipersonnel o Armor Penetration: approx 12 inches conventional armor plate.
26
B2A2177
Various Rifles and Assault Rifles of the World

SKS (Russia).
SVT 40 (Russia).
27
B2A2177
Various Rifles and Assault Rifles of the World

Sniper Rifles. o SVD/Dragunov (Russia).
SVD/Dragunov (Russia) Country of Origin Russia Caliber 7.62 x 54 mm Operating System Semiautomatic Overall length 47.9 inches Magazine capacity 10-round detachable Sights Telescope: 4x pso-1; BDC: 0-1, 300m Front: Hooded post Rear: Tangent with notch o FPK (Romania).
Country of Origin Caliber Operating System Overall length Magazine capacity Sights
FPK (Romania) Romania 7.62 x 54 mm Rimmed Semiautomatic 45.4 inches 10-round detachable box type Telescope: LSP (Romanian copy of the Soviet pso-1); BDC: 100-1,000m with 1100, 1200, 1300 m reference points. Front: Hooded post Rear: Sliding unshaped notch
28
B2A2177
Small Arms Weapons of the Enemy
RPK 7.62 x 39mm (RPK-74 5.45 x 39.5mm)
AK-74 5.56 x 39.5mm
AKS 7.62 x 39mm
PM (Makarov) 9 x 18mm
29
B2A2177
30
B2A2177
Summary
During this lesson we covered history, characteristics, and nomenclature of the AK-47 Assault Rifle. You also learned how the weapon has evolved throughout the years and why it has been the weapon of choice for the enemy. During this lesson you also learned of the many reproductions and copies that exist. You also learned how to disassemble and assemble the AK-47 Assault Rifle. With knowledge gained in this class the student will be able to instruct all of the aspects covered. Remember, there is not a battlefield in the world that Marines will be deployed to where they will not face the enemy wielding an AK-47 Assault Rifle.
References
Reference Number or Author Department of the Army Janes Guns Recognition Guide MCRP 3-01A SW107 Reference Title Operators Manual for the AK-47 Assault Rifle Military Small Arms of the 20th Century Rifle Marksmanship Foreign Small Arms, Small Arms Weapons Instructor Course, WTBN

Term or Acronym AKM AKMS AKS RPD RPG RPK US Definition or Identification Avtomata Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniyi Avtomata Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniyi Skladyvayushchimsys Avtomata Kalashnikova Skladyvayushchimsys Ruchnoi Pulemet Degtyyarev Rocket Propelled Grenades Ruchnoi Pulemet Kalashnikov United States
Notes
31
Notes
ENEMY PRISONERS OF WAR/DETAINEES B2A2257 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2A2257
Enemy Prisoners of War/Detainees

Introduction This purpose of this class is to provide basic instruction on the handling procedures and responsibilities for the administration and treatment of enemy prisoners of war (EPWs) and other detainees (OD) in the custody of United States (US) Armed Forces. All Marines are required to obey the laws and rules pertaining to detainees. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic EPW Handling Requirements and Considerations Search Segregate Silence Safeguard Speed Tag Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 3 5 9 11 12 14 15 17 17 17 17
Importance
In this Lesson
Learning Objectives
Terminal Learning Objective 0300-PAT-1006. Given a known or suspected hostile individual, handle detainees in accordance with 5Ss and a T. Enabling Learning Objectives 0300-PAT-1006a. Without the aid of reference, define detainees without error. 0300-PAT-1006b. Without the aid of reference, define enemy prisoner of war without error. 0300-PAT-1006c. Without the aid of reference, describe the detainee handling process, without omission.
B2A2257
Enemy Prisoner of War Handling Requirements and Considerations

The term Enemy Prisoner of War (EPW) refers to a detained person as defined in Articles 4 and 5 of the Geneva Convention. It is one who, while engaged in combat under orders of his or her government, is captured by the armed forces of the enemy. As such, he or she is entitled to the combatants privilege of immunity from the municipal law of the capturing state for warlike acts that do not amount to breaches of the law of armed conflict. For example, a prisoner of war may be, but is not limited to, any person belonging to one of the following categories who has fallen into the power of the enemy: A member of the armed forces, organized militia or volunteer corps. A person who accompanies the armed forces without actually being a member thereof . A member of a merchant marine or civilian aircraft crew not qualifying for more favorable treatment . Individuals who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to resist invading forces.
An additional category is that of Other Detainee (OD). These are individuals (frequently known simply as detainees) who are in the custody of the US Armed Forces but who have not been classified as an EPW. They shall be treated as EPWs until their legal status is ascertained by competent authority.
Legal Requirements
You are required to treat any prisoner in your custody in accordance with the rules of the Geneva Convention. The Geneva Convention is a treaty between the US and over 100 other nations. A US treaty is a Federal law and as any other Federal law, must be obeyed. Some of the rules found in the Geneva Convention are repeated in the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) as well as Marine regulations, directives and orders (for example; the rule against torturing EPWs). All Marines are required to obey these rules. The Geneva Convention could be compared to the US Bill of Rights. Just as the Bill of Rights gives American citizens certain rights and protection, the Geneva Convention gives people who become war victims (e.g., sick, wounded, or ship-wrecked soldiers or sailors) protection from the enemy soldiers who take them into custody.
B2A2257
EPW Handling Requirements and Considerations (Continued)

Initial Actions Upon Capture The commanding officer of the capturing unit will ensure that as soon as an EPW is captured or turned over, the following routine security guidelines are followed. These guidelines are: Search. Silence. Segregate. Safeguard. Speed. Tag.
They are commonly referred to as the 5 Ss and a T.
B2A2257
Search
Immediately upon capture, the EPWs are disarmed and searched for concealed weapons, equipment and documents of particular intelligence value, using males to search males and females to search female prisoners, when possible. Until each EPW is searched, we must be particularly alert to prevent the use of concealed weapons or the destruction of documents and/or equipment. A complete and thorough search is required unless the number of EPWs captured, enemy action or other circumstances make such a search impractical.
EPW Search Team
An EPW Search team consists of a cover man and a search man. The cover man is responsible for providing protection for the individual who is conducting the search of an EPW. The cover man is armed and positions himself in such a manner that he never has the search man between himself and the EPW (i.e. search man and cover man are at a 90 offset. This may require that the cover man move around the EPW as the search is being conducted. The cover man should remain alert; approximately 4-6 feet from the search man and never take his eyes off the EPW. There are three types of searches: hasty, detailed, and strip search. Hasty Search When conducting a hasty search, the searcher quickly pats down the EPW looking for any obvious weapons and/or documents and equipment. Detailed Search This is a more thorough search, made in a secure location or before transport of the EPW. Before conducting the search, determine if the searcher will have the EPWs lined up facing a wall, prone position or the push up position. Strip Search A strip search is performed by removing all clothing and objects from the EPW. It is an in-depth search that only qualified personnel (i.e., a Medical Officer or Human Intelligence [HUMINT)/Counterintelligence [CI] personnel) can perform.
Types of Searches
B2A2257
Search (Continued) Procedure for Conducting a Search

Performing a thorough and safe search is crucial, especially when there may be multiple EPWs, a significant amount of time until the EPWs can be delivered to higher or they may be of significant intelligence value. Below are several considerations when performing a search of an EPW. When conducting searches on female EPWs, the searcher should be a female, but if someone other than a woman is conducting the search, then the order of preference for the searcher is: a Medical Officer (doctor), officer, corpsman, or responsible enlisted Marine. Search man either gives his weapon to cover man or secures it behind his back. Locate and remove weapons from the EPW to prevent resistance or attack. Before starting the search, determine if the EPW is dead or wounded. Enemy tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) may include feigning injury in order to lure US personnel within range of Improvised Explosive Devices. However, if wounded, remember that EPWs must be given first aid. The severity of the wound determines whether he is treated before or after the search. Search from head to toe, one side of the body (left or right), then switch hands and search the other side. Ensure that the search is conducted in an organized and methodical manner. Searcher must also ensure that they search from head to toe, including all headgear, collar, sleeves, pockets, waist, legs, footgear, and all individual gear.
Frequently, EPWs may have documents or other items that will have intelligence value. Insure that they are removed from the EPW, collected, tagged with all EPW information attached, and given to the unit S-2 in a timely manner. Appropriate intelligence sources will be notified when EPWs are found in possession of large sums of US or foreign currency. Proper receipts will be prepared to account for all property that is taken from the EPW.
B2A2257
Search (Continued) Procedure for Conducting a Search (Continued)

When searching an EPW, you must decide what things an EPW should be allowed to keep in his possession. Examples of items that an EPW may retain: Items of identification such as military ID card, dog tags, or a letter of authorization, reflecting a civilian EPWs status as an individual permitted to accompany the armed forces in the field, should never be taken away from an EPW. In some instances this identification is necessary to convince a captor that his prisoner is not a spy. Religious items and badges of rank and personal decorations may be retained by an EPW. These items have no military intelligence value and will not help an EPW to escape. These items are the personal property of the EPW. EPWs are also allowed to keep personal protective equipment, such as field protective mask, flak jacket, and helmet after they have been thoroughly searched. These materials may be given back to the EPW immediately after the search or they may be given back upon arrival at a higher detention facility.
Prisoners from whom personal property is taken should be given a written receipt for their property. Example of items that EPWs may not retain: Weapons. Any item (e.g., a compass or map) which may facilitate escape.
This rule should not be taken to an extreme level. While confiscating an EPWs boots would tend to decrease his ability to escape, you are not permitted to do this. In general, EPWs should remain in possession of all articles of personal use such as their clothing, food, and personal equipment.
B2A2257
Search (Continued) Procedure for Conducting a Search (Continued)

If an EPW has high-value personal items (e.g., an expensive watch), it may not be confiscated (taken away without an obligation to return it) because it has no military value. However, if an EPW has such an item in his possession, it may subject the EPW to robbery, possibly accompanied by physical harm, by other EPWs. For his own safety, the watch should be impounded, taken away with an obligation to return it when the EPW is released from captivity. Another reason to keep items of value out of the possession of EPWs is that such items may be used as a means to bribe guards or to pay others to set up an escape. As a rule, money and articles of value may be impounded for reasons of security, but only by order of an officer. A receipt must be given to the EPW. Confiscating items with no military value can be characterized as looting, which could be considered a violation of the Geneva Convention and the UCMJ. You should not confiscate personal field rations, winter coats, shelter halves, and/or first aid kits even if you or your fellow Marines have an urgent need for these items. Confiscation is prohibited unless the EPWs have no need for the articles or satisfactory substitutes are given to the EPWs.
B2A2257
Segregate
Segregation The segregation of EPWs by categories first requires that individual EPWs be identified as belonging to a particular category. While time does not permit the detailed interrogation of EPWs to make all such determinations, it may be possible to readily identify and separate EPWs, according to the following categories: Male and Female. Officer and Enlisted. Military and Civilian. Ethnic groups. Old and Young.
If circumstances permit, segregation of EPWs by these categories is desirable and will serve to facilitate follow-on HUMINT interrogation. It may also be necessary to segregate EPWs by nationality, religion, and specific ideology. This segregation ensures the security, health, and welfare of the prisoners. Along with silencing the EPWs, it serves to diminish their immediate ability to mount a resistance and attempt to escape. Segregation should prevent prisoners from communicating by voice or visual means. Guards will communicate with the prisoners only to give commands and instructions.
B2A2257
Segregate (Continued)
Segregation of EPW and Medical Care (Continued) EPWs that are wounded are entitled to medical assistance and will not be denied immediate first aid or medical care, as appropriate. However, priority for medical care will go to friendly casualties first. Medical care, medical equipment and supplies to permit the administering of emergency first aid, will be available at each EPW collection point and EPW holding area. For evacuation purposes, EPWs are classified as walking wounded, non-walking wounded or sick. Walking wounded EPWs are evacuated through military police EPW evacuation channels. Non-walking wounded and the sick are delivered to the nearest medical aid station and evacuated through medical channels. At all times, EPWs and detained personnel will remain physically segregated from US and allied patients during their medical care in order to maintain security.
10
B2A2257
Silence
Do not let the EPWs talk to each other. This keeps them from planning escapes, fabricating stories, threatening one another and cautioning each other on security. If necessary, use gags or seclude them. Be aware that there may be theatre-specific regulations regarding the proper silencing of EPWs. Along with the segregation of the EPWs, this step serves to diminish their immediate ability to mount a resistance and attempt to escape. While EPWs should remain silenced, report anything an EPW says or does in detainment prior to hand-off to higher. Tactical Questioning of EPWs EPW may be interrogated in the combat zone, however this is to be only conducted by properly trained personnel, i.e., HUMINT/CI Marines. The use of physical or mental torture or any coercion to compel prisoners to provide information is prohibited. Prisoners may not be threatened, insulted, or exposed to unpleasant or disparate treatment of any kind because of their refusal to answer questions. Interrogations will normally be performed by intelligence or counterintelligence personnel.
11
B2A2257
Safeguard
Safeguard Under all circumstances, EPWs will receive humane treatment without distinction founded on race, nationality, religious belief, political opinions or other similar criteria. The EPW may not be murdered, mutilated, tortured, degraded or punished for alleged criminal acts without a previous judgment pronounced by a legally constituted court. Remember, individuals, as well as capturing nations are responsible for acts that are committed against EPWs in violation of the Geneva Convention. As a result, EPWs are safeguarded as they are moved and they must be restrained but not abused. The obligation to safeguard includes allowing an EPW to retain items of personal protection (e.g., helmets and flak jackets) as the Geneva Convention forbids a captor from placing an EPW at greater risk than his captors. If the Marines who capture an EPW are wearing their helmets and flak jackets, these items of personal protection should not be confiscated from the EPWs. Once an EPW is sent to the rear and interned in a safe facility removed from the area of operations, the items of personal protection may then be confiscated. This does not include weapons of any sort. The obligation to safeguard prisoners includes preventing or stopping any/all violent action that occurs between EPWs while they are being detained. If the unit is going to reach a friendly position relatively soon, prisoners are not given food or water until they have been questioned. If the unit will not return to a friendly position for a long period, food and water are provided to prisoners. Prisoners will not be located next to obvious targets such as ammunition sites, fuel facilities, or communications equipment. First aid and medical treatment will be provided to the same extent that the US provides to its own forces. Sick and wounded prisoners will be evacuated separately, but in the same manner as US and allied forces. Accountability and security of prisoners and their possessions in medical facilities is the responsibility of the respective echelon commander.
12
B2A2257
Safeguard (Continued)
Safeguard (Continued) Repatriation (return) of EPWs should not be considered until directed by higher headquarters. Prisoners will not be forcefully repatriated against their will. Prisoners who refuse repatriation will be treated as prisoners of war until their legal status and further disposition can be determined by competent authority. While it is unlikely to occur, there are special policies pertaining to the temporary detention of EPWs aboard US Naval Vessels Detention of EPW on board naval vessels will be limited. EPW recovered at sea may be temporarily held on board as operational needs dictate, pending a reasonable opportunity to transfer them to a shore facility, or to another vessel for transfer to a shore facility. EPW may be temporarily held aboard naval vessels while being transported between land facilities. They may also be treated and temporarily quartered aboard naval vessels incidental to their treatment, to receive necessary and appropriate medical attention if such detention would appreciably improve their health or safety prospects. Holding of EPW on vessels must be temporary, limited to the minimum period necessary to evacuate them from the combat zone or to avoid significant harm that would be faced if detained on land. Use of immobilized vessels for temporary holding of EPW is not authorized without Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) approval.
13
B2A2257
Speed
Speed is required in getting the EPWs humanely evacuated to a designated Collection Point. The Collection Point is a specific area where the prisoners are kept until coordination is made to move the EPWs to a permanent holding facility. The coordination to move the EPWs will be done as soon as possible and the Unit Leader will determine how the EPWs will be safely moved to the rear for questioning by the unit S-2 or appropriated HUMINT/CI personnel. EPWs presumed to have significant intelligence value should be separated immediately from other EPWs and may be sped to a separate Collection Point so that their knowledge can be acted upon in a timely manner. This intelligence gained from EPWs is one of the best sources of information. The sooner the information is available the better. During transport, instructions given to prisoners during evacuation from the combat zone will be, if possible, in their own language and as brief as possible. When military necessity requires delay in evacuation beyond a reasonable period, health and comfort items will be issued, such as food, potable water, appropriate clothing, shelter, and medical attention. Prisoners will not be unnecessarily exposed to danger while awaiting evacuation. The capturing unit may keep prisoners in the combat zone in cases where, due to wounds or sickness, prompt evacuation would be more dangerous to their survival than retention in the combat zone.
14
B2A2257
Tag
All prisoners of war and retained persons will, at the time of capture, be tagged using the appropriate forms. This accountability enables the Commander to properly account for the handling of the EPW and their possessions. Additionally, it enables the Commander to take follow-on action (either military or legal) against the enemy. If equipment, documents, or personal property is confiscated during the search, it must be tagged and administratively accounted for by the capturing unit. As soon as you capture an EPW, you must complete a capture tag. The capture tag must indicate the following information: Name of the EPW. Rank. Service number. Date of birth. Date of capture. EPWs unit. Location of capture. Capturing unit. Special circumstances of capture. Description of weapons/documents.
A capture tag, each of which contains the 10 items listed above, is perforated in three parts. The form is individually numbered and is constructed of durable, waterproof, tear-resistant material, and has reinforced eye-holes at the top of parts A and C. Part A is attached to the detainee with wire, string, or other type of durable material. Part B is retained by the capturing unit and maintained in the units records. Part C is attached to the property confiscated from the detainee, so that it may later be matched to that detainee. Due to the confusion that is normally present on the battlefield, front-line Marines are not always able to complete the capture tag. All personnel who handle EPWs should be trained in the importance of filling out the tag and in the units administrative standard operating procedure (SOP) for handling EPW paperwork. If the Marine who captured the EPW has been unable to fill out the capture tag, the person who accepts custody of the EPW for purposes of guarding or transporting them must fill in the missing information immediately upon taking custody of the EPW. Other documents that may need to be filled out when dealing with EPWs: Coalition Provisional Authority Forces Apprehension Forms (CPA form) DA Form 2823, Sworn Statements NAVMC 11130, Statement of Force
15
B2A2257
Tag (Continued)
16
B2A2257
Summary
Remember the information presented here and in the corresponding lecture, and use it to train your Marines. Proper EPW handling procedures ensure that Marines are acting in accordance with the Law of Armed Conflict and the Geneva Convention. Additionally, the safety precautions could potentially save the lives of your Marines.
References
Reference Number or Author MCO 3461.1 MCRP 3-11.1a Reference Title Enemy Prisoners of War, Retained Personnel, Civilian Internees and Other Detainees Commanders Tactical Notebook

Term or Acronym CI EPW HUMINT OD SECDEF SOP TTP UCMJ US Definition or Identification Counterintelligence Enemy prisoner of war Human intelligence Other detainees Secretary of Defense Standard operating procedure Tactics, techniques, and procedures Uniform Code of Military Justice United States
Notes
17
Notes
DECISION MAKING B2B2277 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision-Making
Introduction and Importance As Marine Corps Officers, we are primarily decision makers. Our weapon is the unit we command. We decide on a course of action and then clearly communicate that decision to our unit. Our Marines translate that decision into action. As future combat leaders you will be required to make decisions in combat. You must begin to understand the importance of how you make decisions, and the importance of making risked-based decisions in a time competitive environment. MCDP 1 Warfighting, introduced you to the nature of war which is inherently violent and chaotic, which we mitigate through clear communication of intent and simple plans. It discussed maneuver warfare, the theory of which is to strike the enemys critical vulnerability (the decisive time and place) with massed fires to bend the enemy to our will. In Tactical Fundamentals, you learned in depth the Nine Principles of War and the Six Tactical Tenets; evaluative concepts that operate congruently to your tactical planning. In This Lesson This lesson gives you a detailed study of how humans make decisions and how understanding how we make decisions will allow you to better employ your Marines. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic The Importance of Decision Making Decision-Making Stimuli Two Methods of Decision Making Analytical Decision Making Recognitional Decision Making Decision Making Variables The Decision Making Cycle: The Boyd Cycle Adaptive Decision Making & The Boyd Cycle Adaptive Vs. Non-Adaptive Decision Making The Consequences of Over-Flexibility Decision Making Concept: Wargaming Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes
Prerequisites
Page 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 11 13 13 14 8 9 9 9
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision-Making (Continued)
Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objective MCCS-OFF-2102K. Given a mission and commander's intent in a changing garrison, training, or combat situation, while serving as a leader of Marines, integrate maneuver warfare into decision-making to accomplish the mission.
B2B2277
Decision-Making
The Importance of Decision-Making

Lets say we are a football team. Consider the commander the quarterback. The week before a game, the team will prepare focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of the opposing team. Because the team has a week to prepare, the preparation process is very deliberative; observing video, past games, and orienting on where they can most effectively defeat the opposing team. They will then decide on the plan to defeat the team and learn and employ that plan through practice sessions during the week. When it comes time to conduct the game, early in the game our team will observe the opposing teams strategy through the play of the game. With the aid of the coaches, the quarterback will orient on the gaps observed, make decisions before every play, and act on those decisions. In this case, the decision making process is less deliberative than during the preparation the week prior due to the compressed time of the game. Another reason for the increased tempo of decision making is the team realizes that if they do not observe, orient, decide, and act on their opponents quick enough, they will be at a disadvantage throughout the game. If the opposition identifies our weaknesses faster than we identify theirs, they can quickly decrease the risk of our team scoring. It is now the last two minutes of the final quarter. We need one more score to defeat the opposing team and we have the length of the field to travel. How and why would the quarterbacks decision making process change? The answer seems elementary. With only two minutes left, time is now severely compressed. The quarterback must quickly observe the weakness of the defending team, orient on the gaps in that defense, decide on a play, and act on that decision. If the quarterback is too slow in this regard due to over-abundant caution, or takes too long to make a decision and lead the team in its execution, then the time will run out and the game will be lost. In this case, the astute quarterback will assume the risk of acting without long deliberation so as to not run out of time. Additionally, the quarterback will hurry-up the team to keep the defense on their heels, hoping to make the opposing team less responsive to the fast tempo play. Success in combat is similar to our football example. Success becomes determined by a leaders ability to make time competitive decisions, communicate them clearly to his subordinates, and impose his will in order to turn decision into action. Warfighting describes all actions in conflict as initiative to act or a response to action. The purpose of making decisions is to adapt our action to the enemys action, making and acting on effective decisions faster than the enemy in order to exploit fleeting opportunities, gain and maintain the initiative, forcing the enemy to react to our influence. Like the quarterback above, we seek to keep the enemy on their heels and less responsive to our fast tempo execution. As company grade officers, we operate at the tactical level of warfare. At this level, opponents may frequently observe one another and react more quickly. At our level, the time-critical nature of battlefield decisions is acute.
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision-Making Stimuli
Decision making is not a Marine Corps phenomenon; you have been making decisions for most of your life. It is important to understand what has unconsciously caused you to make decisions, in order to consciously shape their influence on future decisions. When presented with information, we decide on courses of action based upon three general criteria: Rational Calculation We have a natural aversion to uncertainty. We dont like to be wrong. In rational calculation, we try to perfectly predict our results by analyzing and comparing large amounts of data. Frequently we construct matrices and charts to compare different options available. Large staffs of subject matter experts plan using rational calculation. Rational calculation is the foundation of analytical decision-making. In many cases rational calculation requires time to accomplish, so we generally see this type of decision making prominently during a preparatory phase. That is not to say it is not used during a conduct or a follow-up phase. In our above example, the week of preparation prior to the game is filled with rational calculation and analytical decision making. When making decisions by intuition, we base our actions on what just feels right or what we just know is the right choice. The driving force behind intuitive decisions is our experience base (available in subconscious and conscious memory) for analysis and comparison. Often we may not recall any experiences similar to our current situation. However, our mind will match the pattern we observe with one we have on file and then to predict the most reasonable result. Intuition is the foundation of recognitional decision-making. In the football example, the quarterback may or may not employ gut feeling in varying degrees throughout the game in conjunction with rational calculation. Decisions based on emotion or chance do not consider plausible expectations of the desired result. Such decisions are made based on what we want to be true without regard for reality. Combat leaders should refrain from making emotional decisions.
Intuition/Gut Feeling
Emotion/Chance
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Two Methods of Decision-Making

In describing the three types of decision making stimuli, we have identified two methods of decision-making; analytical and recognitional. The table below shows when to use each method and their advantages and disadvantages. Method Analytical Use when time is Not critical Advantages Can justify decision to others Manages large amount of information Relies on subject matter expert contributions Decision maker can feel as comfortable as possible while dealing with uncertainty Requires little time Requires relatively little current information Requires less planning time Leads to increased tempo and increases ability to maintain the initiative against the enemy Disadvantages Time consuming Requires large amount of information input Does not develop decision-making abilities of those involved
Recognitional
Critical; during crisis situations
Requires large experience base on the subject before the crisis Requires moral courage Decision maker assumes increased risk without group absolution from staff planning
Analytical Decision Making

Analytical Decision Making is the most comprehensive and accurate type of decision making. The reason is the time available allows for a detailed review of the situation which subsequently leads to a decision and resulting action. Your Tactical Planning classes will take you through the methods and tools we use to conduct an analytical decision making process prior to execution. Remember however that Analytical Decision Making is not limited to the preparation phase of an operation. It continues into the conduct and follow-up phases as well, albeit to a lesser degree due to the nature of those environments.
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Recognitional Decision Making

Recognitional Decision Making or recognition-primed decision making is a model of how people make quick, effective decisions when faced with complex situations. It often occurs subconsciously. Recognitional Decision Making inherently assumes more risk, as less than perfect information is rapidly processed and acted upon. To ensure that unnecessary risk is mitigated during Recognitional Decision Making, training and experience is paramount. Repetitive training, rehearsals, and experience allows for faster recognition of key variables that will drive one towards a particular decision. Take our football example above. During the hurry-up offense, what increases the quarterbacks ability to conduct recognitional decision making and lead the team in that action? The practice during the weeks preparation for the game trains the quarterback to pick up opposing team patterns and subsequent actions faster. There are two types of decision making strategies that we consider recognition-primed: Feature-Matching The decision-maker identifies that he or she has personally experienced the elements of a given situation. This experience can be a result of past actions, training, or rehearsing a plan. Comparison based on the previous personal experience allows for quicker decision making given the same situation but different time and place. _______________________________________________ The retrieval of stored information derived from a similar situation. This is a comparison of the elements and results of a similar situation that the decision-maker has previously observed or read about. This usually occurs as a result of past studies. For example, a football player has watched tape of an opponent in preparation for an upcoming game. When the player sees a similar situation emerge, the decision capability increases in speed.
Reason by Analogy
Both types require pattern recognition to occur. We identify patterns based on experiences (Feature-Matching) or by historical references studied (Reason by Analogy). Pattern recognition improves in speed and accuracy the more we experience a certain collection of events. We accomplish this through training. Chunking: To aid our pattern recognition, chunking is a tool we use to increase our capability to recollect past complex patterns. The chunking concept is to recollect passed patterns by chunking the information into reconcilable components. For example if you were given the task to recollect the following: T-W-A-I-B-M-C-I-A-C-B-S; recollection as a whole would be difficult. However if the information were chunked for example: TWA-IBM-CIA-CBS recollection of the information would be faster due to the recognizable pattern of the information. This relates to the two types of Recognitional Decision Making because one can orient on larger amounts of information through information patterns, thus speeding up the decision making process.
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision-Making Variables
In either Analytical Decision Making or Recognitional Decision Making, when faced with the likely prospect of failure amidst a sea of uncertain, vague, and contradictory information, most people are extremely hesitant to make a decision. We tend to forget that the enemy is also facing a similar information shortfall. Understanding the factors that degrade our decision-making ability on the battlefield and realizing that they will never be absent are absolutely vital to relevant decisions in conflict. As leaders, we must guard against waiting for a perfect sight picture, which may never come, leading to inaction. The below variables are those commonly seen in all types of decision making. Understanding these variables allows us to plan and execute in uncertainty although the plan will be less than perfect. This is known as The 70% Solution. Risk This is the expectation that the future holds the possibility of more than one result. It is inherent in every decision as well as indecision. _______________________________________________ The sum of all the inputs, often from multiple sources, in a given situation. We must learn to identify exactly how much information we need to make an effective decision. Too much information will slow down our processing time; too little information will cause unnecessary risk. _______________________________________________ A constraint imposed either by the mission or the enemy, requiring action to occur at a certain instant. It will often drive information accumulation and risk threshold. _______________________________________________ Decisions will never be made without doubt or with complete protection from error. The goal is to attain the highest degree of precision, relative to the amount of information and the given time constraints. _______________________________________________ Knowledge gained through exposure to an event or idea that has been stored in your memory. It drives information comparison and analysis. The larger experience database, the more we reduce risk, uncertainty, and the amount of information necessary to make a decision. _______________________________________________ External factors that influence decision-making, often without the preconceived realization it is happening. We must learn to recognize these external factors and mitigate or control their influence in our decision-making process.
Information
Time
Certainty
Experience
Human Factors
B2B2277
Decision-Making
The Decision Making Cycle: Boyd Cycle

In our example of the football team, and description of Analytical and Recognitional Decision Making, we have eluded to the Boyd Cycle throughout our analysis. The Boyd Cycle, also known as The OODA Loop is a concept coined by USAF Colonel John Boyd, used to describe a reoccurring decision making cycle. The goal is to process the cycle quickly and continuously, allowing the individual to react to the changing environment more quickly than his opponent. The OODA stands for the four elements of decision making as defined by Col Boyd. The four elements are Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) and are described below: Observe Continued awareness of yourself, your surroundings, and your enemy; along with any changes in the situation surrounding those variables. As it relates to tactical action, consider tools used by a hunter who searches and area, actively looks for prey, tracks the prey, watching what the prey is doing or is about to do. In this regard, the hunter can begin to anticipate future moves and get into the mind of the prey. Upon observation, one begins to develop a mental image of the situation seen, gaining awareness. With this awareness, recognition that a decision is necessary in order to influence the situation usually follows. This is where we diagnose, recognize, and analyze changes in the environment we have observed. _______________________________________________ After recognition that a decision is necessary, a course of action is determined. In this case, decisiveness is sought, frequently with an acceptable degree of risk. Effective and succinct communication of this decision is key when we talk about leading subordinates. _______________________________________________ Timely and tactically sound decisions are useless alone. In order to influence the situation effectively, leaders must turn decision into action in a time competitive environment.
Orient
Decide
Act
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision-Making Cycles (Continued)

The OODA loop is applicable throughout the phases of any operation. Revisit our football example. In the case of the preparatory phase, the team observes and analyzes their opponent by view past footage. The team orients on the situation, gaining an awareness of their opponent, identifying where their preparatory actions can affect their opposing team. The team then decides on a course of action or series of plays to exploit the opportunities oriented on. Finally, the team acts on this decision, practicing and rehearsing the plays prior to execution. This preparatory phase is heavy on rational calculation and analytical decision making because the time is available to conduct the analysis. When game time comes around, the OODA loop remains and is continuous, occurring with each play. The team observes actions taken by the opposing team throughout the course of play. They orient on the fleeting opportunities by gaining awareness of how the opposition is playing. The quarterback then decides on the next play to run, communicates the play to the teammates, and leads them through execution. In this case, analytical decision making is decreased, while recognitional decision making increases due to the compressed timeline (think play clock). Note that if the play is not effectively communicated, the action may fail. Also note that the decision made by the quarterback is inherently riskier than it would be if the quarterback had the time available to be more analytical. Earlier we asked: What increases the quarterbacks ability to conduct recognitional decision making and lead the team in that action? The answer is the practice conducted during the preparatory phase. The practice increases the quarterbacks recognition by: observing opponent actions over and over again, for which the quarterback can identify patterns; orient faster on those patterns through chunking, feature matching, or reason by analogy; make a decision before the next play; and act. At the most recognitional level, think about the quarterback who receives the ball and steps backwards to make a pass. Before the pass is thrown, the quarterback recognizes that gaps are beginning to form in the teams perimeter allowing the opposing force access to the quarterback. In this case the opposing team has the initiative over the quarterback. If the quarterback is unable to observe, orient, decide, and act quick enough, the quarterback will stay in place, frozen by inaction, and will be tackled. In this case the quarterbacks OODA Loop is larger than the opposing team, as it takes longer for him to make a decision on a course of action. If the quarterbacks OODA Loop is smaller than the opposing team, then the quarterback will: observe the gaps forming; orient on the danger they present and the opportunities available to regain the initiative; decide to run out of the perimeter; and act on that decision quickly. Note the applicability of the OODA Loop to both preparation and conduct of the action. Also note the quarterbacks ability to adapt action to what is being observed and oriented on. If the quarterback fell in love with his plan of a pass, then adaptation to the situation may not have happened, a decision to not change course would have been made, and the quarterback would have been tackled. This brings us to the relationship between the Boyd Cycle and Adaptive Decision Making.
10
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Adaptive Decision Making, The Boyd Cycle, & MCDP 1-3

According to MCDP 1, Warfighting: The military profession is a thinking professionSince war is a fluid phenomenon, its conduct requires flexibility of thought. Revisit your Tactical Fundamentals class, in which you were taught the Six Tactical Tenets and the Nine Principles of War. Note their applicability to Decision Making in the contexts we have discussed: Six Tactical Tenets Achieving a Decision Gaining an Advantage Being Faster Adapting Cooperating Exploiting Success Nine Principles of War Mass Offensive Objective Security Economy of Force Maneuver Unity of Command Surprise Simplicity At the very heart of how the Marine Corps conducts war is the concept of maneuver. In your Tactical Fundamentals class you learned about Temporal Maneuver; maneuver achieved in time by building an ever increasing tempo so as to gain and advantage, act faster, and steal the initiative from the enemy. Part of this concept is the ability to adapt to the ever changing environment allowing us to observe changes, orient on opportunities, decide on a plan to exploit those opportunities, and act. In this case, our adaptability is allowing us to achieve a decision, gain an advantage, and act faster by adapting to the environment. This happens throughout all phases of the operation, preparation, conduct, and follow-up.
11
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Adaptive Decision Making, The Boyd Cycle, & MCDP 1-3 (Continued)
As previously discussed, the goal of Decision Making in the Marine Corps is to be able to make time-competitive decisions based on a keen awareness of the situation; to turn those decisions into action faster than your enemy. As such, the concept of Adaptable Decision Making is nothing new in the Marine Corps. We have always sought to achieve an advantage over our enemies by seeking to adapt to changes in the situation faster than the enemy. Succinctly, Adaptable Decision Making can be defined as: decision making originating from an effective change to an altered situation. An effective Adaptive Leader employs a continuous OODA Loop throughout all phases of an operation that allows for an advantage gain over opponents. Adaptive Leaders often display the following characteristics: Personality Related Characteristics Self-sufficient Resilient Open to Change Motivated by Achievement Tolerant of Ambiguity Willing to Learn Cognitive Ability Problem Solver Communicates Well Awareness of Self and Others Knowledge of Material Experience with Material
Cognitive Characteristics Interpersonal Characteristics Domain Specific Experience
These characteristics are important to develop in order to become an Adaptive Leader. For example, someone who is intolerant of ambiguity will wait for a perfect sight picture, and squander an opportunity to adapt to a situation faster than the enemy. In other words the leader will fail to orient and decide fast enough to take meaningful action. A leader who is unwilling to make mistakes or has an unhealthy fear of failure will often not learn from their mistakes, or adopt a zero-defect mentality, and therefore will not take the chance of adapting due to the fear that the resulting action will fail. A leader that cannot communicate well will not adapt to a situation because their communication to subordinates will not facilitate action.
12
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Adaptive Decision Making vs. Non-Adaptive Decision Making
The Consequences of Over-Flexibility

So far, we have identified the relationship between the Analytical and Recognitional Decision Making and how it applies to the different phases of an operation. We have further discussed the OODA Loop both in how it applies to Analytical Decision Making and Recognitional Decision Making. We have explored the relationship between the concept of Adaptable Decision Making, the Boyd Cycle, and how it relates to our tactical and warfighting philosophy. While adaptability is seen as a crucial adjunct throughout decision making, the astute leader must guard against being over flexible. Overflexibility adds unnecessary risks to your decision making. An Adaptive Leader uses adaptability for increased effectiveness. A focus on flexibility will lead simply to change, not necessarily effective change. For example, if you become over-influenced by the situation, it may drive not just your decision making, but also you behavior. The effective Adaptive Leader must be able to balance changing in response to the environment with proactively shaping the environment. Over-flexibility can erode ones moral compass where change is made, however discipline is not. Over-flexibility can also lead to inconsistent leadership. Constant changing of positions and decisions can lead to a subordinate loss of confidence, which is also detrimental to an operation. Finally, an over-flexible leader often seeks to change that which already works. In this case, unnecessary change could have negative impacts on not only action outcome, but also subordinate effort.
13
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Decision Making Concept: Wargaming

Returning to the concept of Analytical Decision Making, when time is available, we often utilize a concept of Wargaming. Wargaming is a technique in which we analyze a plan that we have developed and identify possible friction points that may cause the plan to fail. In other words, we assess what could go wrong with our plan. These reasons could be based on enemy activity, friendly activity, or the effects of terrain and weather. Through Wargaming, we can identify shortfalls in our plan, select the most likely friction points, and we can either change our plan to mitigate those friction points, or we can build secondary plans allowing us to be more adaptable on the battlefield. One must be careful however to not Wargame to death and identify only the most likely friction points. Failure to Wargame is usually the result of a commander falling in love with their plan, a concept counterintuitive to the Adaptive Leader. An example of failed Wargaming is seen in the story Blackhawk Down. During the operation, US military personnel lost the initiative because an analysis was not conducted to identify possible friction points. Access to limited routes to and from the objective were not questioned. As a result vehicles were canalized or blocked by insurgent forces. Need for reinforcement was not considered, and as a result was unavailable when needed. Had recent tactics against the Soviets in Afghanistan (utilizing RPGs in a ground to air capacity) been evaluated, the plan for the use of helicopters may have been changed. At the individual level, Wargaming may have identified that if effects of the enemy pushed the operation into the night, night vision devices would be needed. Recollect the scene in the movie Gettysburg where General Buford arrives at the Lutheran Theological Seminary shown in your Tactical Fundamentals class. Here, throughout his METT-TC process, General Buford successfully wargames actions to take place on the battlefield. As a result of his process, he appropriately adjusts his plan. The value of Wargaming is significant provided it focuses on the most likely scenarios. When done properly, it adds depth and adaptability to our plans and increases our tempo in execution.
14
B2B2277
Decision-Making
Summary
What You Have Learned: As Marine Corps leaders, we make decisions; making good decisions requires continual awareness in the complex and ever-changing environment of combat. To be successful decision-makers in times of friction and uncertainty we must have a large base of experience from which to draw correlations. We must have the moral courage to make decisions with an acceptable degree of risk in a timecompetitive environment, in order to gain and maintain the initiative over our enemy. Ultimately, the lives of your Marines will depend on the quality of the foundation of experience you build to make decisions, your decisiveness, and your ability to turn decision into action quicker than your enemy. Where You Are Going Next: In Tactical Planning I, you will learn the tools and techniques we utilize to perform analytical decision making. Ultimately, you will learn how to take an order from your commander, analyze the mission, decide on an action, communicate that action, and act while maintaining continuous awareness of an everchanging situation.
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 1 MCDP 1-3 MCRP 6-11B MCWP 3-11.1 Reference Title Warfighting Tactics Discussion Guide for Marine Corps Values Marine Rifle Company/Platoon

Term or Acronym USAF OODA Definition or Identification United States Air Force Boyd Cycle (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act)
Notes
15
Notes
16
COMBAT ORDERS FOUNDATIONS B2B2377 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2B2377
Combat Orders Foundations

Introduction and Importance Combat orders instruction at The Basic School (TBS) is a detailed, rigorous package that strives to develop and evaluate your ability to communicate a tactical decision to peers and subordinates in order to execute your plan in a time-competitive environment. The primary focus throughout the instruction and evaluation will be on decisive action, which cannot be achieved in the absence of clearly communicated orders. Significant events from the combat orders package include: The Combat Orders Foundations Class, The Combat Orders Discussion Group, and the Combat Orders Evaluation. Keep the following points in mind as you read this handout. MCDP 1 Warfighting, introduced you to the nature of war which is inherently violent and chaotic, which we mitigate through clear communication of intent and simple plans. It discussed maneuver warfare, the theory of which is to strike the enemys critical vulnerability (the decisive time and place) with massed fires to bend the enemy to our will. In Decision Making, you learned the importance of decisiveness in a time compressed environment, and how that relates to maneuver warfare. This was illustrated by the Boyd Cycle (OODA Loop) in which maneuver in time is achieved through an increased tempo of action. You also learned that as a leader and a Warfighter, you must be comfortable with making reasonable assumptions, supported by fact, to drive your operations. The ability to do this was defined by the 70% Solution. Finally, in Tactical Planning, you learned the Six Troop Leading Steps (BAMCIS) which serve as a guide to design and execute our plan on receipt of highers plan. You were introduced to the Tactical Though Process, defined as:
METT-TC -> EMLCOA -> COG/CV/EXP-> SOM -> FSP -> Tasks
Prerequisites
and its relation to BAMCIS. Now we will take a look at the process used by higher to communicate highers decision into tactical action, and how you will utilize highers communication to plan for and communicate your own decision. Here, we look to go from B to C in BAMCIS.
B2B2377
Combat Orders Foundations (Continued)

In This Lesson Initially, we shall discuss the combat orders fundamentals and foundations. We shall also review three types of orders, the required information, and various techniques for effective issue and receipt of combat orders. We shall review some examples that are included at the end of the student handout. Through out the lesson, we will relate back to Tactical Planning I, as order development is a key component in the tactical acumen of the officer of Marines. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Combat Orders Fundamentals Types of Orders Order Format Techniques for Issuing an Order Summary References Notes Appendix A Offensive Squad Operations Appendix B Offensive Platoon Operations Appendix C Example of a Platoon Offensive Order Appendix D Example of a Platoon (Reinforced) Defense Order Appendix E Combat Orders Flow Chart Page 6 7 10 25 27 27 29 30 34 40 51 66
B2B2377

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives 0300-PAT-2001. Given an order from higher, develop a warning order to ensure the unit is prepared for combat. 0300-PAT-2002. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, write a combat order to accomplish the mission. Enabling Learning Objectives 0300-PAT-2002a. Without the aid of reference, describe the elements of the combat order without omission. 0300-PAT-2002b. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the enemy's most likely course of action (EMLCOA), to develop a scheme of maneuver. 0300-PAT-2002c. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the enemy's center of gravity to develop a scheme of maneuver. 0300-PAT-2002d. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the enemy's critical vulnerability to develop a scheme of maneuver. 0300-PAT-2002e. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the friendly situation to develop a scheme of maneuver. 0300-PAT-2002f. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop a mission statement to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002g. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop a commander's intent to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002h. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop a scheme of maneuver to accomplish the mission.
B2B2377

Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objectives (Continued) 0300-PAT-2002i. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop subordinate tasks to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002j. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop coordinating instructions to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002k. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, develop a signal plan to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002l. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the location of key leaders to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-2002m. Given an order from higher and a mental estimate of the situation, determine the succession of command to accomplish the mission. 0300-PAT-1003d. Given a mission and commander's intent, develop a detainee handling plan to prepare for potential detainees during operations. MCCS-CSS-2302g Given a mission and commander's intent, develop a plan for logistics to support operations. MCCS-MED-2103d Given a mission and commander's intent, develop a casualty evacuation plan(s) to prepare for potential casualties during operations.
B2B2377
Combat Orders Fundamentals

MCRP 5-2A, Operational Terms and Graphics, defines an order as, A communication, written, oral, or by signal, which conveys instructions from a superior to a subordinate. In a broad sense, the term order and command are synonymous. However, an order implies discretion as to the details of execution whereas a command does not. In essence, combat orders express the will of the commander. They must be brief, clear, and definite. A decision, however promising, will fail if the commander cannot effectively communicate his/her decision to.. Effective orders planning, writing and delivery allows the commander to effectively communicate and act. The essential thing is action. Action has three stages: the decision must be born of thought, the order or preparation for execution, and the execution itself. All three stages are governed by the will. General Hans Von Seekt In other words, General Von Seekt has identified the importance of Decide, Communicate, and Act. A commanders ability to deliver orders corresponds directly to his tactical skill. If the commander conducts an accurate estimate of the situation and arrives at a definite tactical decision, then he typically issues an effective order. Conversely, a commander who cannot make a decision often will not produce an effective order. Delivering combat orders, like tactical decision-making, is an art. To be effective, commanders must frequently practice making decisions and articulating orders. A competent commander avoids highly formalized formats or lengthy order procedures. They limit his/her flexibility and increase the potential for miscommunication. Often, the commander must individualize orders to best match the abilities of those who receive it. (See Von Schnells Battle Leadership). A commander will issue a more detailed order to inexperienced or unfamiliar subordinates than to those with whom he/she knows and trusts. Mission tactics are crucial to the art of combat orders. Von Schnell describes them as follows: We use what we term mission tactics; orders are not written out in the minute detail, a mission is merely given to the commander. How it shall be carried out is his problem. This is done because the commander on the ground is the only one who can correctly judge existing conditions and take proper action if a change occurs in the situation. There is also a strong psychological reason for these mission tactics. The commander, who can make his own decisions within the limits of his mission, feels responsible for what he does. Consequently, he will accomplish more because he will act in accordance with his own psychological individuality. Give the same independence to your platoon and squad leaders
B2B2377
Combat Orders Fundamentals (Continued)

There will be situations (such as with less experienced units) where more detailed control is necessary and mission tactics may not be practical. More detailed control is often applied to peacetime live-fire exercises when there is greater emphasis on precision than flexibility. Use mission-type orders whenever the situation allows, but their usage shall not excuse analysis or relax discipline. According to Sun Tzu, speed is the essence of war. Orders must be executed in a timely manner. General Patton observed, that a good plan violently executed now is better than a perfect plan executed next week. In his review of some lessons learned by the United States (US) Army in World War I, General George C. Marshall wrote: In studying the examples of the orders issued to our troops in France, several important points deserve consideration in determining the relative excellence of the orders issued. It is frequently the case that what appears to have been a model order was actually the reverse, and a poorly and apparently hastily prepared order will often be erroneously condemned. Many orders, models in their form, failed to reach the troops in time to affect their actions, and many apparently crude and fragmentary instructions did reach front-line commanders in time to enable the purpose of higher command to be carried out on the battlefield. It is apparent that unless an order is issued in time for its instructions to percolate down throughout the organization sufficiently in advance of an engagement to enable each commander to arrange his unit accordingly, that order is a failure, however perfect it may appear on paper. Our troops suffered much from the delays involved in preparing long and complicated orders due to the failure of the staffto recognize that speed was more important than technique. According to MCDP 5 (Planning), the more urgent the situation, the greater need for brevity and simplicity. Remember that an effective combat order is much more than merely passing information. You must convey your will. A good order is as much inspiration as information. The confidence and enthusiasm in which you deliver your order is as important as the order itself.
Types of Orders
Combat orders are distinguished from administrative orders by their purpose and tactical action. There are several types of combat orders; the most common are the: Operation Order. Warning Order. Fragmentary Order.
B2B2377
Types of Orders (Continued)

Operation Order An operation order is a directive issued by a commander to subordinate commanders for the purpose of effecting the coordinated execution of an operation. Commanders at all echelons use them. They can be issued orally or in writing. When written, they can be only a page or two long or as thick as a phone book. You may also hear them referred to as five-paragraph orders. When dealing with small units, operation orders are often referred to by the action they intend. For example: Squad attack order. Patrol order. Platoon attack order. Platoon (rein) attack order. Convoy order.
Large scale operations orders often have several annexes that contain specific details on fire support, communication, air or maritime movement, etc. Annexes are common in battalion and higher orders, but uncommon in typical platoon attack orders. You will not deal with annexes during the Basic Officer Course (BOC). What you will use during the BOC is a version of the five-paragraph operations order format specially adapted for use by companies, platoons, and squads. (See appendices.) The same format is in the latest version of your Commander's Tactical Notebook.
B2B2377
Types of Orders (Continued)

Warning Order A warning order is a preliminary notice of an order or action which is to follow. It is issued by the commander at the outset of receipt of an order from higher. The warning order is issued prior to beginning the planning process (i. e. the B in BAMCIS) in order to allow subordinate leaders and units to maximize their preparation time. At the conclusion of your initial planning, a warning order can be re-issued or updated. In order to create a warning order, it is ideal that you identify all the pertinent information categorized within the 5-paragraph order format from higher. There are different methods of disseminating the information to your Marines. In Patrolling Operations, you will learn some of the most common methods of issuing a warning order to your subordinates. Don't delay issuing a warning order because you don't have all the information you would like to have. Once more information is received you can publish a second warning order or update the previously issued warning order.
Fragmentary Order
A fragmentary order (or Frag-O) is an abbreviated form of an operation order, usually issued on a day-to-day basis that eliminates the need for restating information contained in a basic operations order. It may be issued in sections. Fragmentary orders are often necessary due to enemy action. Remember no plan survives contact with the enemy. Expect fragmentary orders in most operations. They can only be issued if a complete combat order (known as a base order) has been previously issued. Fragmentary orders should cover only the information that has changed since the issuance of the base order. Frequently, the information changed pertains to enemy situation, mission, and execution of the plan. Fragmentary orders are an important technique to keep orders short. (It is recommended that if there are no changes to a particular paragraph, subparagraph, or section, in order to alleviate any potential confusion, the order issuer shall state the name of the section and No changes.)
B2B2377
Orders Format
Combat orders come in a variety of forms. They range from a few hasty instructions shouted by a squad leader in the heat of battle to a phonebook-sized written operations order for a joint task force signed by the joint force commander. Your combat orders instruction at TBS is focused at the lower end of the spectrum, including concise attack or patrol orders delivered orally to squad and platoon elements.
Formats
Several nations have agreed to use the format contained in standard agreement (STANAG 2014). Most Marines will recognize it as the five-paragraph order format, otherwise known as SMEAC. Nearly all combat orders used by the US Armed Forces and NATO allies are based on all or part of the five-paragraph format. (See Appendix A.) Remember one of the Ss of MOOSEMUSS is Simplicity. A short, simple order that efficiently conveys your will is superior to a lengthy, complicated order that invites ambiguity. Do not allow your decision to become lost in a series of paragraphs, subparagraphs, alpha-numerics, and acronyms. As it clearly states in Planning (MCDP 5), content, clarity, and conciseness are more important than format.
10
B2B2377
Order Format (Continued)

O-SMEAC There are six main sections to the Five Paragraph Order. They are as follows Orientation Situation Mission Execution Administration & Logistics Command & Signal
I II III IV V
This is what you will receive from higher that will set into motion the Troop Leading Steps. Once you arrive at the C in BAMCIS you will utilize this same format to communicate your plan. There are many subparagraphs, sections, and subsections that serve to structure the order issue so that required information is included, delivered, and issued in a clear manner. In the Student Handout appendices, there are several templates that can be used as a reference for various evolutions. Orientation The orientation is a general overview which serves two purposes. First, it is an opportunity for the commander to orient subordinates to the medium by which the order is issued, whether it is a terrain model, a whiteboard, a sand table, etc. This allows appropriate subordinate understanding on delivery of the order. The second (and perhaps most important) purpose is to define and describe the battle space being operated in. Much of this information comes from the analysis of Terrain and Weather gleaned from the commanders Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC). To accomplish these two goals, included in the Orientation are several critical elements of information such as current location, direction of north, key terrain, tactical control measures within the Area of Operations (AO), weather, illumination, visibility, a local history of the area/population, enemy positions, and direction of attack.
11
B2B2377

Paragraph I: Situation The first paragraph is the Situation which encompasses three subparagraphs: Enemy Situation, Friendly Situation, and Attachments/ Detachments. Each of these is a critical component of information that must be disseminated to subordinates. Enemy Situation. The Enemy situation is divided into three sections: Enemy Composition, Disposition and Strength; Enemy Capabilities/Limitations; and Enemys Most Likely Course of Action. o Composition, Disposition and Strength. The composition disposition and strength section answers the questions, Who is the enemy?, What do they bring to the fight? and What are they doing? These are facts about the enemy given to us from higher who at this point has already conducted a thorough estimate of the situation. An acronym used to describe the enemy forces is SALUTE which stands for Size, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, and Equipment. o Capabilities/Limitations. The Capabilities/Limitations section answers the question, What can the enemy do and how likely is it to occur? An acronym used to describe the enemys capabilities is DRAW-D, which stands for the enemys capability and likelihood to: Defend, Reinforce, Attack, Withdraw, and Delay. The commander uses the facts listed in composition, disposition and strength to evaluate and estimate the enemys ability and likelihood of committing each action in DRAW-D.
12
B2B2377

Paragraph I: Situation (Continued) Enemy Situation (Continued). o Enemys Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA). Following a thorough estimate of the situation (METT-TC) the commander determines the enemys most likely action. Consider this the commanders prediction of the enemy Scheme of Maneuver. In general, the EMLCOA should contain two pieces of information: 1. A detailed description of what the enemy is doing now. 2. A detailed description of what the enemy will do on contact. Friendly Situation. The Friendly situation is divided into three sections: Highers Mission/Intent, Adjacent Units, and Supporting Units. Often, leaders refer to the acronym HAS. o Highers Mission/Intent. Commanders and leaders must be aware of operations two-levels higher to ensure their plan is nested with higher. This means that a squad leader must be apprised of the Companys plan, a platoon commander must be appraised of the Battalions plan, and so on. Therefore, within an order, the mission and intent of the leader one-level higher than the commander issuing the order is communicated to subordinates. At a minimum, highers complete mission statement and endstate is communicated. o Adjacent Units. This information is included in orders to provide subordinates with sufficient information to understand the operational environment around them in the geo-spatial dynamic. At a minimum, adjacent unit movement and effects of fires are important considerations that must be disseminated to subordinates. The seasoned commander will communicate the mission of each adjacent unit in addition to location. This allows a commander and his subordinates to execute the mission of an adjacent unit should he/she be called upon from higher to do so.
B2B2377

Paragraph I: Situation (Continued) o Supporting Units. Information on units supporting the operation is provided to inform all subordinates of these assets. For example, any fire support assets should be identified with their locations, azimuths of fire, contact information, employment (General Support (GS) or Direct Support (DS)), and any priority of fires. In addition, any available air assets should also be listed (whether they are capable of CAS or extraction assistance). Attachments/Detachments. Any attachments that a higher command attached to your unit will be listed here. This includes any of the following: Machinegun (MG) squads, Assault teams, Forward Observer teams, Sniper teams, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel, military working dog (MWD) teams, civilian journalists, hospital corpsmen, and any other personnel not organic to your unit. These personnel must be included in your administrative reports and provided for (chow, water, etc). Attachments must receive tasking in the Task portion of the Execution Paragraph.
NOTE:
At this point lets relate back to your Tactical Planning I class. In conducting your Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC) the information in the Orientation and Situation paragraph from higher provides the basis for your analysis of the Enemy (METT-TC), your analysis of Troops and Fire Support Available (METT-TC), and your analysis of the Terrain and Weather in the battle space. (METT-TC). Always remember, you must analyze the information provided in highers order to complete your own.
14
B2B2377

Paragraph II: Mission The second paragraph in the order is the mission statement. A mission statement is composed of two parts, a task and a purpose. When read from highers order this is the mission one level above you. (Remember, an effective commander is always relating two-levels higher to ensure nesting.) The mission statement is normally identical to the tasking statement issued to you by your higher command. This mission statement must include the answers to the 5 Ws: Who, What, When, Where, and Why. The Why (also known as purpose) is the most important part of the statement because it informs subordinates of the reason the task must be accomplished. If the underlying premise for the task is understood, subordinate unit leaders will be able to adjust missionbased actions at various points of friction should the unit commander not be present. Thus, the unit will have a better chance of overall mission accomplishment.
Again, lets relate back to your Tactical Planning class. At this point from highers order you have some of the information needed to begin conducting your analysis of the Mission (METT-TC).
NOTE: Paragraph III: Execution
The Execution paragraph is where the unit leader describes and conveys his plan for accomplishing the unit mission. It includes four main subparagraphs: Commanders Intent, Concept of Operations, Tasks, and Coordinating Instructions. Commanders Intent. This subparagraph is described in terms of three components: the Purpose of the operation, Method of exploitation and desired Endstate. Remember, as per Warfighting, Understanding the intent of our commander allows us to exercise initiative in harmony with the commanders desires.A clear expression and understanding of intent is essential to unity of effort. (MCDP 1)
15
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) Commanders Intent (Continued) o Purpose. Statement of the purpose for conducting the operation. This should include the In order to portion of the mission statement i.e. the why. It is re-communicated to ensure subordinates comprehension. o Method. Statement of the commanders overarching plan for exploitation of the enemys critical vulnerability and mission success. The method should include: Enemy Center of Gravity. Our Warfighting doctrine is based in the concept of maneuver warfare, in which we avoid surfaces and mass our firepower at the enemy weakness. To do this, the commander, after having completed their estimate of the situation (METT-TC) and prediction of the enemys scheme of maneuver (EMLCOA), will determine what provides strength to the enemy. This is communicated in the order to ensure subordinate avoidance and allow subordinates to conduct their own analysis of the enemy. The Strength critical to the enemy which, if eliminated, will bend the enemy to our will is the Enemys Center of Gravity. The unit commander should identify the Enemys Center of Gravity that corresponds to the enemys most likely course of action as described in Paragraph I, subparagraph A, section 1 (Enemy Forces). Enemy Critical Vulnerability. The converse of the Enemys Center of Gravity is where we seek to mass our force. The Weakness which, if exploited, will do the most significant damage to the enemys resistance is called the Enemys Critical Vulnerability. Consider the critical vulnerability as the weakness that allows us to eliminate the Enemy Center of Gravity with our directly attacking the center of gravity. As with the Enemys Center of Gravity, the commander should identify the Enemys Critical Vulnerability as befitting the enemys most likely course of action as described in Paragraph I, subparagraph A, section 1 (Enemy Forces).
16
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) Commanders Intent (Continued) Exploitation plan. Is the identified plan of how the enemys critical vulnerability will be exploited by the units scheme of maneuver. For example: if the enemys CV is exposed flanks then an exploitation plan may be to mass firepower on the enemys flank.
o Endstate. The commander will describe what he envisions after the dust of the battle has settled. This Endstate is relative to enemy units, friendly units, and terrain. Ensuring that the desired endstate is pushed to all subordinates provides for flexibility on the battlefield, for if all subordinates clearly understand the desired endstate, they are capable of independently driving that goal even if the original proposed plan goes awry.
Concept of Operations. The unit commander will explain his detailed plan in the Concept of Operations. The two components within this subparagraph are the Scheme of Maneuver and the Fire Support Plan. Offensive and defensive schemes of maneuver each have separate and specific essential elements that must be included in the unit commanders order. Communication of these elements should be anonymous, sequential and thorough.
17
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) o Offensive Scheme of Maneuver. This section describes the plan by which the unit commander has decided he will exploit the enemys critical vulnerability. The plan must be anonymous so as not to create the potential for subordinate units to isolate their attention to solely their role. The plan must be sequential so as to create a chronological structure to the operation which translates into clarity among subordinates and order recipients. The plan must be thorough and include all required information but not belabor details. When communicating, unit commanders are encouraged to walk the dog during the scheme of maneuver, which entails physically manipulating some graphic along a physical representation of the terrain through the various tactical control measures. There are five essential elements of the offensive scheme of maneuver which include: Distribution of Forces, Form of Maneuver, Direction of Attack, TCMs, and Consolidation. Distribution of Forces. The commander should specify the breakdown of his forces. This consists of identifying a Main Effort (where the commander looks to mass his combat power or weight the Main Effort) and several Supporting Efforts (where combat power is economized). This must be specified for all subordinates. Form of Maneuver. The commander must specify the form of maneuver to be incorporated in the operation. The forms of maneuver are: frontal attack, flanking attack, envelopment, turning movement, infiltration, and penetration. (as per MCDP 1-0: 7-16) While at TBS, you will most likely use either the frontal or flanking attack. Direction of Attack. The unit commander should specify the direction of attack. This direction indicates the general direction from the Assembly Area (AA) to the Objective. Direction of attack is the direction of movement upon crossing the line of departure (LD).
18
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) Concept of Operations (Continued) o Offensive Scheme of Maneuver (Continued). TCMs. The commander must brief sequentially all the tactical control measures used within the operation and the required actions at each. These are the geographic locations that exist for the unit commander to assign responsibility, coordinate fire and maneuver, and control operations. Examples include the Assembly Area (AA), the Attack Position, the Line of Departure (LD), a Release Point (RP), the Assault Position, and the Objective. They should be identified to all subordinates during the order. Consolidation. The unit commander should specify his plan for actions upon consolidation. This can be distributed into assignments by utilizing the clock method (10-2 oclock, 2-6, 610) to assign areas of responsibilities to subordinate units. This should also include information pertaining to security, resupply, and casualty evacuation among other concerns. o Defensive Scheme of Maneuver. This section describes the plan by which the unit commander has decided he will exploit the enemys critical vulnerability. As with an offensive scheme of maneuver, the plan should be anonymous, sequential, and thorough. There are six essential elements of the defensive scheme of maneuver which include: Distribution of Forces, Orientation of the Defense, Occupation Plan, Type and Technique of Position Defense, TCMs, and the Security Plan. You will get an indepth look at defensive orders during your Platoon Operations class.
19
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) o Defensive Scheme of Maneuver (continued). Distribution of Forces. As with offensive operations, the unit commander should specify the breakdown of his forces. The Main Effort is weighted to counter the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action. Orientation of the Defense. The unit commander should specify the general cardinal direction to which the defensive position will be oriented. This direction should indicate the general direction from which the enemy attack is suspected. Occupation Plan. The unit commander should identify the plan by which the unit will occupy the defensive position. There are three recognized methods of occupation: Crows Foot, Bent-L, and a combination method. In Platoon Operations, you will learn how to employ these methods. Type and Technique of Position Defense. The unit commander should identify to subordinates the type of defensive position desired. According to FMFM 6-4 (Marine Rifle Company/Platoon), there are two types of Position Defense: strongpoint and battle position. There are three techniques of a battle position defense: linear, perimeter, and reverse slope. These terms will be explained in depth later in Platoon Operations. TCMs. The unit commander must include all the TCMs used within the operation and actions required at each. These are the geographic locations that exist for the unit commander to assign responsibility, coordinate fire and maneuver, and control operations. Examples of common tactical control measures to be used in a defensive scheme of maneuver include the AA, Boundaries, Objective Rally Point (ORP), Left Lateral Limit, Right Lateral Limit, Forward Line of Troops (FLOT), Target Reference Points (TRP), Trigger Lines, Listening Post/Observation Post (LP/OP),
20
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) o Defensive Scheme of Maneuver (continued). TCMs (Continued). Final Protective Lines (FPL), Principle Directions of Fire (PDF), and the Final Protective Fires (FPF). These TCMs are to be included at the unit commanders discretion as required to clearly explain the plan. Security Plan. The unit commander should describe the desired security plan envisioned for the defensive position. The security plan portion of the Scheme of Maneuver should identify tentative locations of any LP/OPs, the tentative barrier plans (to include wire, obstacles, ditches, and minefields), alternate and supplementary positions, planned patrolling effort, and proposed readiness conditions (25% security, etc.). o Fire Support Plan. The commander will indicate the task (Suppress, Neutralize, or Destroy) and purpose (In order to) of his fire support plan. He will indicate what indirect fire asset(s) he plans to use to support the operation. The assets discussed here must either be organic to the unit or must have been discussed earlier in the order in Paragraph I, Subparagraph B, Section 2 (Situation, Friendly, Supporting). The fire support plan should mention any targets that support the operation (by target number), the target description, the respective fire support agency, the shell/fuse combination desired, the frequency upon which the fires shall be requested, and the primary and alternate observers for the fires. Tasks. The commander will task his subordinate units in this subparagraph. Subordinate leaders use their task from higher as the primary piece of their mission analysis when they are conducting their Estimate of the Situation. (METT-TC) Therefore, a tasking statement is required to include all the same criteria as for a mission statement, including the answers to the 5 Ws: Who, What, When, Where, and Why. Who refers to the subordinate unit designated to accomplish the task assigned.
21
B2B2377

Paragraph III: Execution (Continued) Tasks (Continued). For all offensive (and defensive) operations, the what refers to the assigned tactical task. The astute commander uses appropriate tactical tasks (listed in MCDP 1-0 and the Ops Terms and Graphics Student Handout) to ensure subordinate comprehension of what the commander wants to occur. Further, use of non-tactical tasks invites interpretation and ambiguity that increases internal friction. (Note: If the operation is not offensive or defensive in nature, the subordinate units are not required to receive tactical tasks. An example of this would be convoy operations.) When refers to the time the assigned task is required to occur. Where refers to the geographic location at which the effects of the tactical task are required. Why is identified as the most important because it informs subordinates of the reason the task must be accomplished. If the underlying premise for the task is understood, there is a greater chance that the mission will be successfully accomplished. The purpose should be related to the higher units endstate as briefed earlier. During communication of the order, the commander will again walk the dog, but with graphics that accurately depict the designated subordinate units. Coordinating Instructions. Any instructions that are not included in tasks and that pertain to two or more subordinate units are included in this subparagraph. The unit commander will identify many general details that are imperative for mission success. Some details include a timeline, priority of rehearsals, lost Marine plan (by phase), a no-communications plan, establishment of priorities of work, the designation of a base unit, all TCMs, the Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) level, go/no-go criteria, abort criteria, and immediate action (IA) drills.
NOTE:
Relating back to your Tactical Planning class, at this point, having been given highers Commanders Intent, Scheme of Maneuver, Fire Support Plan, Tasking Statements to subordinates (you), and Coordinating Instructions to include the timeline, you have additional information to continue your analysis of the Mission (METT-TC), Troops and Fire Support Available (METT-TC), and Time (METT-TC). Always remember, you must analyze the information provided in highers order to complete your own.
Paragraph IV: Administration and Logistics
In this paragraph, the unit commander identifies the administrative and logistical information necessary for the operation to be successful. There are two subparagraphs in Paragraph IV: Administration and Logistics.
22
B2B2377

Paragraph IV: Administration and Logistics (Continued) Administration. The unit commander will explain his plan for all administrative issues in this subparagraph. He will specify locations and points of contact for all wounded in action (WIA), killed in action (KIA), and Enemy prisoners of war (EPWs) during the operation. This includes a detailed casualty evacuation (CASEVAC) plan to move the casualty to the next higher echelon of care. Logistics. In this subparagraph, the unit commander presents his plan for all logistics issues. In addition, he identifies the preparations for receiving required equipment for the operation. Resupply issues are also briefed, such as time/location and priority of units.
Paragraph V: Command and Signal
This paragraph concentrates on the unit commanders plan for command and control during the operation. There are two subparagraphs in this section: Signal and Command. Signal. The Signal subparagraph contains crucial communication-related information such as the established primary/alternate Challenge and Password, primary/alternate radio frequencies to be used during the operation, and any other signals (pyro, smoke) that the unit commander has designated to include in his Scheme of Maneuver. Signals must be Original, Appropriate and Redundant in accordance to what is available and what is the desired effect. The location of a copy of the Communications/ Electronic Operational Instructions (CEOI) should also be briefed. Command. Within this subparagraph, there are two sections: Location of Key Personnel and Succession of Command. o Location of Key Personnel. The unit commander shall specify the location of each key individual throughout the entire operation. If the location of various key personnel is to change due to the determined Scheme of Maneuver, the unit commander shall identify this and disseminate the information to the subordinate units.
23
B2B2377

Paragraph V: Command and Signal (Continued) Command. (Continued) o Succession of Command. The unit commander shall determine the succession of command among his subordinate unit leaders. This should be somewhat dependent upon the Scheme of Maneuver.
One last relation back to your Tactical Planning I Class. At this point you have all the information from higher needed to conduct your Tactical Planning. So how would it work? In general terms: on receipt of an order from higher, you would issue a Warning Order to your subordinates with enough information to allow them to start their initial planning. You would then Begin Planning (BAMCIS), during which you would conduct an Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC) utilizing the information contained in highers order. Your Estimate of the Situation will allow you to predict what you believe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA) will be. This prediction provides the basis of your Center of Gravity (COG) / Critical Vulnerability (CV) / Exploitation (EXP) analysis of the enemy. Once completed, you can begin to formulate what you believe your Scheme of Maneuver (SOM) will be to exploit the Enemys CV. You will support your initial SOM with an initial Fire Support Plan (FSP) and you will determine the Tasks your subordinate units must complete to make your SOM happen. Hence in Begin the Planning (BAMCIS): METT-TC -> EMLCOA -> COG/CV/EXP -> SOM -> FSP -> Tasks As you move forward, your Tactical Planning II class will show in-depth how to take an order from higher, conduct your Troop Leading Steps (BAMCIS), and Complete your Plan (BAMCIS). REMEMBER: You must analyze, not regurgitate, the information provided in highers order to complete your own.
NOTE:
24
B2B2377
Techniques for Issuing an Order

Terrain Model: Use of the terrain model is the gold-standard in communicating an order. In effect, it is a scaled down model of the battle space that the commander uses in conjunction with Issuing the Order (BAMCIS). An effective terrain model will allow your Marines to visualize the battle space they will be operating in, the enemy they are engaging, and the Scheme of Maneuver (SOM) being executed. The astute commander will evaluate their terrain model by asking the following question: If someone with basic military knowledge were to look at my terrain model, could that person generally know the terrain, enemy SOM, and friendly SOM without explanation? The following is a partial list of items displayed on a terrain model: o North-seeking arrow o Grid lines o Water features o Vegetation o Relief features o Boundaries o Known trails o Landing Zones o Built-up areas o Tactical Control Measures (TCMs) o Targets o Main Supply Routes (MSRs)
Prioritization. In combat, time is crucial. You will never have enough time to create and issue as thorough an order as desired. As you execute the troopleading steps and begin the planning, it is constructive to issue a Warning Order to allow your unit the maximum amount of preparation time. Then, analyze the situation, mission, and execution. Leave the less critical portions of your order until the order completion phase. All-Hands. When necessary, issue your order to all your Marines. At the company level and below you may have the opportunity to issue orders to the entire unit at once. This is a good method of communicating your will to allhands. However, the tactical situation will often not permit the use of this technique. Identify the key leadership within your unit that will be your required audience for all orders; squad leaders, guide, attachments, etc. However, don't always expect your subordinate leaders to come to you. They may be restrained from movement due to combat, mission, or any other situation. One method is to visit each of your subordinate leaders personally and issue your order individually. 1/3, 2/3 Rule. Give subordinate leaders enough time to prepare and issue their own orders. Divide your available time in thirds. Use one-third yourself, and give the remaining two-thirds of the time to subordinate leaders.
25
B2B2377
Techniques for Issuing an Order (Continued)

Visual Aids. If possible, issue your order on the terrain where you will act. If that is not possible, issue your order using a terrain model. You will be expected to build and use terrain models when issuing your orders at TBS. You can use wire, string, yarn, colored chalk, laminated index cards, and even small plastic toys as a means of graphically communicating your order. Establish Command Presence. Never permit sleeping, talking, eating, or any other distraction during your order. Conduct a roll call prior to issuing your order to ensure that key personnel are present. Position your subordinate leaders. Require note-taking among order recipients. When issuing an order the commander must remember, you are ordering your Marines to engage in violence, inherently dangerous, filled with chaos and confusion. You are telling your Marines to kill (justly) which is counterintuitive to human nature. Therefore, the commander must inspire confidence and motivation through their order issuance. The commander that fails to do so puts their subordinates at an immediate mental disadvantage. Oral Communication. When possible, issue your order in person. Much communication is nonverbal; you can better communicate to your subordinate leaders when you present them the order using aids such as terrain models, sand tables, white boards, etc. (A picture is worth a thousand words.) Attentive leaders can accurately gauge a subordinates comprehension. An orally presented order flows naturally into back-briefs. Written orders are best reserved for larger units whose size preclude oral orders or when recording operations for historical reasons. Another technique is to use an active voice and direct language that conveys confidence. Avoid vague terms, qualifiers, or gratuitous phrases. Terms such as conduct a rehearsal, if you can manage it, attack vigorously, and radioman shall maintain radio communication only serve to dilute the clarity and energy of your order. Avoid them. Know your order. In issuing your order, you are ordering your Marines to execute your scheme of maneuver. While they will execute because they are good Marines, never forget that the order issue bears similarity to a sales pitch. You must sell your Marines to not just execute the plan, but also to believe in the plan. It is common to have notes during an order issue, but do not read your order. This undermines the confidence your Marines will have in your plan. You will have difficulty inspiring confidence in your decision if you are reading it. If your understanding of the enemy situation or your scheme of maneuver is so involved that you cant brief without reading, you probably need to rethink your decision. It may be too complex.
26
B2B2377
Techniques for Issuing an Order (Continued)

Succinct. Keep orders short and to the point. Planning (MCDP 5) states, Directives should be as clear, simple, and concise as each situation permits. Elaborateness and extreme detail are not generally characteristics of effective plans and orders Short sentences are easily understood. Superfluous, trite, or trivial phrases weaken an order and create ambiguity. Keep in mind that combat is extremely stressful and your Marines will be exhausted, scared, hot, cold, etc. Their attention span will be short. They will not listen to orders that are too long or complicated. Avoid excessive formality or informality when issuing orders. Use a natural conversational tone. You are not required to announce each paragraph and subparagraph when giving your order, however it may assist the flow of the order. You can stay with the format without resorting to this timeconsuming, excessively formal habit. Never allow your orders to degenerate into a casual dialogue. Your order should convey confidence and authority, leaving all who hear little doubt that you are giving an order. Interaction. Interact with the order recipients. While notes are often needed for referral, do not read your order. Focus on the Marines, for they are to be sent into harms way to execute your decisions. You must present the order as if you have absolute confidence in its success. You will experience difficulty inspiring confidence in your decision if you convey uncertainty, lack of familiarity, or doubt. Once you finish delivering your order, field questions from the audience. Then, ask questions of subordinates and demand back-briefs from key subordinate leaders in order to ensure there is full comprehension. Questions. You will want the order recipients to be clear on the orientation, so allow them the opportunity to ask questions before you begin your actual order. However, before beginning to brief the Situation, instruct the group to hold all their questions until the end of the order. This will eliminate questions that interrupt the flow of your order or may be answered later in the order.
Summary
What You Have Learned: During this lesson, we discussed the fundamentals and foundations of combat orders and the role they play in converting decision into communication and therefore action. We focused on three types of orders (Warning Order, Operation Order, and Fragmentary Order); each has a specific purpose and application. Several techniques have been identified as directly contributing to mission accomplishment; they are listed in this section as guidance to which adherence is recommended. Where You are Going Next: In Tactical Planning II, you will learn how to take an order issued from higher, Begin Planning (BAMCIS) utilizing the Tactical Thought Process, Arrange Recon and Make Recon (BAMCIS) to answer questions encountered or assumptions made during planning, and Complete the Plan (BAMCIS).
27
B2B2377
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 1 MCDP 1-0 MCDP 5 MCRP 3-11.1A MCWP 3-11.1 MCWP 3-11.2 Reference Title Warfighting Marine Corps Operations Planning Commanders Tactical Handbook Marine Rifle Company/Platoon Marine Rifle Squad

Term or Acronym AA AO BOC CCP CEOI COC DOF DRAW-D EMLCOA EOD EPW Definition or Identification Assembly area Area of operations Basic Officer Course Casualty Collection Point Communications/electronic operational instructions Command operations center Direction of fire Defend, reinforce, attack, withdraw, and delay Enemys most likely course of action Explosive ordnance disposal Enemy prisoners of war
28
B2B2377

Term or Acronym FPL FLOT Frag-O HAS IAW IOT KIA LD LP MG MOPP MSR MWD NVD OODA OP ORP O-SMEAC PDF POF RTO SALUTE TBS TCM TRP TTP US WIA Definition or Identification Final protective lines Forward line of troops Fragmentary order Highers mission/intent, adjacent units, and supporting units In accordance with In order to Killed in action Line of departure Listening post Machinegun Mission Oriented Protective Posture Main supply route Military working dog Night vision device Observation, orientation, decision, and action Observation post Objective rally point Orientation, situation, mission, execution, administration & logistics, command & signal Principle directions of fire Priority of fire Radio/Telephone operator Size, activity, location, unit, time, and equipment The Basic School Tactical control measure Target reference point Tactics, techniques, and procedures United States Wounded in action
Notes
29
B2B2377
Appendix A
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Squad Operations Orientation. What information does the squad need in order to accomplish the mission? I Is the terrain model properly marked? (Grid lines, N-seeking arrow, water features, vegetation, relief features, boundaries, known trails, landing zones, built-up areas, TCMs, targets, MSRs, etc.) What is the astronomical data for the operation? What is the weather situation? What is the visibility of the area? What has the operational tempo been as of late? What is the local history of the area?
Situation A. What is the Enemy Situation for your Enemy? (1) Describe the Enemy Forces (SALUTE): What is their Size? What is their Activity? What is their Location? What is their Unit (and what are their TTPs)? What Time were they observed? What Equipment do they have? Describe the Enemy Capabilities or Limitations (DRAW-D): Can the Enemy Defend? How long? Can the Enemy Reinforce? How long? Can the Enemy Attack? Can the Enemy Withdraw? Can the Enemy Delay? Describe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA): I believe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action is to.
(2)
(3)
B.
What is the Friendly Situation? (1) What was Highers Mission? What was Highers Endstate?
30
B2B2377
Appendix A (Continued)
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Squad Operations (Continued) I Situation, B. What is the Friendly Situation? (Continued)
(2)
What units are Adjacent? Who is to the Left? What is their Mission? Who is to the Right? What is their Mission? Who is to the Front? What is their Mission? Who is to the Rear? What is their Mission? What units are Supporting? What is their Command Relationship (GS/DS/ATT)? What is their location? What is their Direction of Fire (DOF)? What is the Priority of Fires (POF)?
(3)
C.
What units are Attached? Date/Time effective? What units are Detached? Date/Time effective?
II
Mission Who is to accomplish the task? What is the tactical Task assigned? When is the Task to be executed? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed? Execution A. Describe your Commander's Intent: (1) (2) (3) (4) What is the Purpose of your mission? What have you identified as your enemys Center of Gravity and Critical Vulnerability? What is the Plan for Exploitation of the enemys CV? What is your desired Endstate?
III
B. Describe the Concept of Operations: (1) Explain the Scheme of Maneuver: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. What is the Distribution of Forces for your plan? What is the Form of Maneuver you will use? What is the Direction of Attack? What are the Tactical Control Measures you have designated? What formations will be used from TCM to TCM? What is the Plan for Consolidation?
31
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Squad Operations III Execution B. Describe the Concept of Operations (Continued). (2) Explain the Fire Support Plan: i. State the purpose of the Fire Support Plan. (The purpose of my Fire Support Plan is to.) ii. What targets have you planned in support of the operation? What are the grid coordinates? iii. What shell/fuse combination have you determined to be most effective? iv. Who is the Primary Observer? Who is Alternate? v. What is the established trigger? vi. On what frequency will the fires be requested?
C. Issue Tasks to the subordinate units: Who is to accomplish the task? What is the tactical Task assigned? (See Appendix C, MCDP 1-0.) When is the Task to be executed? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed? (Tasks incorporate many details: Aid and Litter Teams, EPW Teams, etc. It is not recommended that tasks such as Navigator and Pace Counter are made at the squad level due to manpower restrictions.) D. Brief the Coordinating Instructions: What is the timeline you have created? What is the lost Marine Plan by phase? What are the priorities of work? What is the Base Unit? What are all the Tactical Control Measures incorporated into your SOM? What is the priority of rehearsals you have designated? What is the No-Communications Plan by stage? What is the required MOPP level for the operation? What are the Rules of Engagement for the operation? What are the Go/No-Go criteria? What are the Abort Criteria?
32
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Squad Operations (Continued) IV Administration and Logistics A. Brief any Administration information: How many Marines are present? Where shall all WIAs be collected? By phase? Where shall all KIAs be collected? By phase? Where shall EPWs be collected? By phase? Where is the Corpsmans location? What is the CasEvac Plan? B. Brief any Logistics information that was not outlined earlier in your Warning Order: How much ammunition is required? What pyro is allotted to the unit? When shall logistics requirements be requested? How much chow is required? How much water is required? What night vision assets are required? What is the resupply plan? Who has priority? What are the transportation capabilities?
Command and Signal A. Brief any Signal information: What are the frequencies for the operation? Where is the CEOI located? What is the primary Challenge/Password? Alternate? What is the Running Password? What is the Signal Plan? Primary signals? Alternate? B. Brief the required Command information: (1) What is the Location of Key Personnel? Where is the Platoon Commander located? Where is the Platoon Sergeant located? Where is the Squad Leader located? (2) What is the Succession of Command? Who is designated if the Squad Leader is gone? Who is designated if the replacement is gone?
33
B2B2377
Appendix B
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations Command Operations Center (COC) coordination. (For further information, see Appendix I of the Platoon Commanders Tactical Handbook [MCRP 3-11.1A].) A. S-1: Admin B. S-2: Intelligence C. S-3: Operations D. S-4: Supply/Logistics E. S-6: Communications Orientation. What information does the platoon need in order to successfully accomplish the mission? I Is the terrain model properly marked? (Grid lines, N-seeking arrow, water features, vegetation, relief features, boundaries, known trails, landing zones, built-up areas, TCMs, targets, MSRs, etc.) What is the astronomical data for the operation? What is the weather situation? What is the visibility of the area? What has the operational tempo been as of late? What is the local history of the area?
Situation A. What is the Enemy Situation for your Enemy? (1) Describe the Enemy Forces (SALUTE): What is their Size? What is their Activity? What is their Location? What is their Unit (and what are their TTPs)? What Time were they observed? What Equipment do they have? Describe the Enemy Capabilities or Limitations (DRAW-D): Can the Enemy Defend? How long? Can the Enemy Reinforce? How long? Can the Enemy Attack? Can the Enemy Withdraw? Can the Enemy Delay?
(2)
34
B2B2377
Appendix B (Continued)
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations I Situation (Continued) (3) Describe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA), based upon your assumption of enemy contact or observation during the movement or upon the assault on the objective. I believe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action is to. B. What is the Friendly Situation? (1) (2) What was Highers Mission? What was Highers Endstate? What units are Adjacent? Can you use them for support if needed? Do you have communication with them in case you must make coordination? Who is to the Left? What is their Mission? Who is to the Right? What is their Mission? Who is to the Front? What is their Mission? Who is to the Rear? What is their Mission? What units are Supporting? What is their Command Relationship (GS/DS/ATT)? What is their location? What is the Priority of Fires? Where are the Company 60mm mortars?
(3)
C.
What units/individuals are Attached/Detached? (1) What is the status of the Attachments? i. What is the date/time effective? ii. Who is attached? Are they added to the roster? iii. Are they familiar with the Immediate Actions? iv. Are they present at the order? v. Are they present at rehearsals? What is the status of the Detachments? i. What units are Detached? ii. What is the date/time effective? iii. What is the link-up plan?
(2)
35
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations (Continued) II Mission Who is to accomplish the Task assigned? What is the Task assigned? When is the Task to be executed? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed? III Execution A. Describe your Commander's Intent: (1) (2) (3) (4) What is the purpose of your mission? What have you identified as your enemys Center of Gravity and Critical Vulnerability? What is your Exploitation Plan? What is your desired Endstate? What do you envision as a successful attack?
B.
Describe the Concept of Operations: (1) Explain the Scheme of Maneuver: i. ii. iii. iv. v. (2) What is the Distribution of Forces? What subunits do you need to identify as a Main Effort? Supporting Efforts? What is the Form of Maneuver? What is the Direction of Attack? What are the Tactical Control Measures? What formations will be used between TCMs? What is the plan for Consolidation?
Explain the Fire Support Plan: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. State the purpose of the Fire Support Plan. (The purpose of my Fire Support Plan is to.) What targets have been planned in support of the operation? What are the grid coordinates? What shell/fuse combination is desired? Who is the Primary Observer? Who is Alternate? Are observers proficient with the Call-For-Fire? On what frequency will the fires be requested? What Priority Targets are planned? Is the List of Targets submitted to the COC?
36
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations III Execution (Continued) C. Issue Tasks to the subordinate units. (Note: Many tasks should have been already assigned in the Warning Order.) Who is to accomplish the Task? -Platoon Sergeant -Squad leaders -Radio/Telephone Operator (RTO) -Aid and Litter Teams -EPW Teams -Navigator -Pace Counter What is the tactical Task assigned? (See Appendix C, MCDP 1-0.) When is the Task to be executed? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed? D. Brief the Coordinating Instructions: What is the timeline? What are the priorities of work? How do they fit the timeline? What is the priority of rehearsals? How do they fit? What is the lost Marine plan by stage? What is the Base Unit? What are all the Tactical Control Measures? What is the no-communications plan by stage? What is the required MOPP level for the operation? What are the Rules of Engagement for the operation? What are the Go/No-Go criteria? What are the Abort criteria? Are there any CCIRs from higher? Have you scheduled a weapons test-fire? What are the Immediate Actions? -Enemy contact -Linear Danger Area -Cross-Compartmental Danger Area -Load ambush site -Break contact -CasEvac
37
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations (Continued) IV Administration and Logistics A. Brief any Administration information: How many Marines are present? Where shall all WIAs be collected? By phase? Where shall all KIAs be collected? By phase? Where shall EPWs be collected? By phase? Where is the Corpsmans location? What is the CasEvac Plan? B. Brief any Logistics information not outlined in the Warning Order: How much ammunition is required? What pyro is allotted to the unit? When shall logistics requirements be requested? How much chow is required? How much water is required? What night vision assets are required? What long-range vision assets are required? What is the resupply plan? Who has priority? What are the transportation capabilities? V Command and Signal A. Brief any Signal information: What are the frequencies for the operation? Where is the CEOI located? What is the primary Challenge/Password? Alternate? What is the Running Password? What is the Signal Plan? Primary signals? Alternate? Are the signals original? Appropriate? Redundant? What are the Hand/Arm Signals to be used? B. Brief the required Command information: (1) What is the Location of Key Personnel? Where is the Platoon Commander located? Where is the Platoon Sergeant located? Where are the Squad Leaders? Where is the Guide? Where is the Corpsman? Where is the Radio/Telephone Operator located?
38
B2B2377
Five-Paragraph Order Format for Offensive Platoon Operations V Command and Signal (Continued) (2) What is the Succession of Command? Who is designated to assume command if the Platoon Commander is gone? (Note: Command designation is often dependent upon geographic location rather than seniority. For instance, if a Platoon Commander is located with the ME squad and assigns his Platoon Sergeant to be with a SE squad at a SBF position, the ME squad leader may be best positioned to assume command rather than the Platoon Sergeant. Once the attack is complete, the Platoon Sergeant could assume command.)
39
B2B2377
Appendix C
Example of a Platoon Offense Order General Situation. The student will be acting as 1st Squad Leader, 1st Platoon, Company E, BLT 2/2, 24th MEU, IIMEF in support of Operation Jungle Fury, 3-02. Two weeks ago, the 24th MEU conducted an unopposed amphibious landing on the coast of Centralia in support of the Centralian governments request for military assistance against ongoing CRF activity. Upon initial insert, the MEU established several Logistics Staging Areas (LSAs) vic of Camp Rommel (TH255 496). For the last several days, BLT 2/2 has been attacking north to destroy the CRF combat power within the Bn Area of Operations (AO). Company E is currently on the left flank of the BLT. It is believed that the CRF forces within the assigned company AO are currently conducting resupply and reinforcement for their dispersed units. 1st Platoon is on the left flank of Company E. 1st Platoon is currently located at the Company Assembly Area (Co AA). Orientation. North is as depicted. The platoons assigned area of operations is bordered by the 55-Northing to the North, Route Grant to the East (route inclusive), Route Eisenhower (route exclusive) to the South, and the 20-Easting to the West. There are several tactical control measures within the platoon area of operation: Co AA (TH231 502), PIt Atk Pos (TH 226 507), the LD (stream running N-S vic 51-Northing), SRP (TH 2210 5095), Plt(-) Aslt Pos (TH 227 528), Hill 355/Co Obj C (TH 229 520), and Hill 310/PIt Obj 1 (TH 215 520). There are several pieces of terrain within the assigned area of operations: Hill 210, Hill 390, Hill 230, Hill 280, Hill 265, West Creek, and East Creek. Hill 280 is key terrain because it has visibility of Hill 355/Co Obj C and the open terrain to the south. Hill 390 is key terrain due to its visibility of the Platoon Assault Position. Both East and West Creek are fordable. West Creek is a covered and concealed avenue of approach. Routes Eisenhower and Grant are high speed avenues of approach. One pertinent tactical control measure that does not lie within the platoon zone of action is Bn Obj 2 (TH 258 550); Bn Obj 2 approximately three and a half kilometers to the NE. According to map reconnaissance, there are two potential LZs within the platoon area of operations: LZ Magpie (TH 227 531) and LZ Condor (TH 211 528). The terrain is comprised of rolling hills, compartmentalized fingers and sloping draws. Many intermittent streams exist within the AO, however they are dependent upon precipitation and seasonal weather patterns. The vegetation is made up of primarily medium-growth deciduous trees, sporadic coniferous representation, low scrub brush, and frequent patches of dense new growth and low-lying vines. Visibility of open terrain can extend to 700m from the high ground. Typical visibility is limited to 400500m from the high ground and 100-200m in the low ground. Visibility within the densely wooded areas (especially the dense draws along the stream) seldom exceeds 50m. Dismounted infantry movement is unrestricted throughout the platoon AO. Wheeled and tracked vehicle traffic is unrestricted on the improved road surfaces (Routes Grant and Eisenhower) and severely restricted off of the improved road surfaces. The high temperatures will be around the low 60s over the next three days, with lows heading down to the upper 30s. The weather is currently sunny and clear, however there is a 70% chance of precipitation within then next three to five hours. Illumination will be below 10% between dusk and 2330, after which illumination will increase to 65-70%.
B2B2377
Appendix C (Continued)
Example of a Platoon Offense Order (Continued) I Situation A. Enemy Situation 1. Composition, Disposition and Strength (SALUTE) A CRF Plt(-) is known to be operating vic Bn Obj 2. Last night at 2000, a CRF Sqd(+) was observed preparing fighting positions on the southern side of Hill 355, Co Obj C. The CRF was observed with Soviet-era small arms and equipment. From knowledge of the enemy gained over the past two weeks, the CRF has limited 82mm indirect fire capability and very limited communications equipment. The CRF are wearing desert utilities. 2. Enemy Capabilities and Limitations (DRAW-D) The EN CRF Sqd(+) is capable of and likely to delay movement N along Route Grant. Withdrawal is possible and likely should their position become untenable and a reinforcement of the CRF Plt(-) is necessary. The CRF Sqd(+) has no means to reinforce internally. They can reinforce, or be reinforced by, the Plt(-) within one hour. Reinforcement of the Sqd(+) position is unlikely as they are not the Main Effort. It is believed that the EN Sqd has limited capability to attack or defend for a sustained period of time. A sustained counter attack is unlikely as the EN is willing to trade Hill 355 for time. 3. Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA) The EN CRF Sqd(+) on Co Obj C is oriented SE attempting to control advance along Route Grant. The EN Sqd(+) is a forward position designed to delay movement north allowing the Plt (-) on Bn Obj 2 to prepare for our advance. The enemy believes our primary avenue of approach will use Route Grant as a guiding feature north and our alternate avenue of approach will be NE along East Creek. The EN CRF Sqd(+) has at least two RPK machine guns, one of which is oriented SE along Route Grant and another which is oriented S. I believe the EN engagement area is defined by the following: right lateral limit from right flank (TH 227 518) to TH 225 551; left lateral limit from left flank (TH 231 518) to TH 234 514. At no point in time does the enemys forward limit extend south of the 51 northing. On contact, the Sqd(+) on Co Obj C will initially attempt to delay our advance, trading space for time. After determining the situation untenable, the EN Sqd(+) will then withdraw NE via the most covered and concealed route, using East Creek as a guiding feature, to warn and reinforce the Plt(-) vic Bn Obj 2. The EN CRF Sqd(+) is expected to have an LP/OP on the east side of Hill 280 which allows visibility of East Creek and the open ground south of the objective. This LP/OP will be supported by an 82mm target vic of TH 228 512. Given their size, the enemy will not be able to conduct a patrolling effort in support of their position on Hill 355. B. Friendly Situation
41
B2B2377
1. Highers Mission and Intent. At 1200, Company E destroys the EN CRF Plt(-) on Bn Obj 2 lOT prevent the EN from interfering with the Bn ME
42
B2B2377
(Company F) attack on Bn Obj 1. The company commanders desired Endstate is that no EN forces within the company area of operations interfere with the Bn ME attack on Bn Obj 1. 2. Adjacent Units a. East- At 1200, Co E(-) destroys the EN Plt(-) vic Bn Obj 2 lOT prevent the EN forces from interfering with the Bn ME (Company F) attack on Bn Obj 1. b. South- Elements of the 24th MEU MCLB have established LSAs vic Camp Rommel. Wpns Co, BLT 2/2 is conducting vehicular patrols of the MSR/ASR network within the 24th MEU Area of Operations, including Route Eisenhower. c. West- No friendly units are currently operating to the West. d. North- No friendly units are currently operating to the North. 3. Supporting Units a. Company 60mm mortars are located in the Co AA (TH 230 502). They are in GS of all platoons; POF is 1, 3, 2. b. B 1/10 is located vic Camp Fabius (TH 309 389) and is in GS of BLT 2/2. POF is F, E, G. c. Bn 81mm mortars are located in a Mortar Firing Position (MFP) vic Camp Rommel (TH 255 496). The platoon is in GS of the BLT. POF is E, F, G. C. Attachments/detachments. None. II Mission. We are SE2. At 1200, 1st Platoon destroys the EN CRF forces on Co Obj C lOT prevent the EN from interfering with Company E ME attack on Co Obj A. O/S, displace by unit via the most direct route to Bn Obj 2 lOT conduct link-up with Company E(-). Execution A. Commanders Intent. The purpose of our mission is to prevent the EN from interfering with Company E ME attack on Bn Obj 2. The ENs COG is their ability to mass direct fires south/southeast from their covered and concealed defensive fighting positions. Their CV is their exposed northwest flank, accessible by the covered and concealed avenue of approach of West Creek. 1st Platoon will exploit this CV by conducting a flanking attack, assaulting from the SE, massing direct and indirect fires, disrupting their ability to withdraw north. The desired end state is the enemy on Co Obj C destroyed, preventing their interference with the Company ME attack on Bn Obj 2. B. Concept of Operations. 1. Scheme of Maneuver. 1st Platoon will have one squad as the ME and two squads as SE1 and SE2. 1st Platoon will conduct a flanking attack on Co Obj C with three squads online. The direction of attack is north. 1st Platoon will depart the Co AA in a platoon column (SE1-MESE2) and move to the PIt Atk Pos where I will establish priority target YF2034 and request permission to cross the LD. Upon crossing the LD, the platoon will continue movement to the Plt Aslt Pos in a platoon column
III
B2B2377
(SE1-ME-SE2). From the LD we will cross East Creek, utilize the covered and concealed avenue of approach of West Creek, move along the west side of Hill 280 and Hill 390, and occupy the Plt Aslt Pos from W to E. O/O, the platoon will transition to a platoon online, oriented SE. Once the platoon has occupied the Aslt Pos, I will establish priority target YF1012 and initiate (2) minutes of suppression from the Co 60m mortars on Co Obj C. As the indirect fires lift, we will assault through Co Obj C from NW to SE with three squads on line. Upon assaulting through the objective (on my command), the platoon will establish a hasty 180 oriented SE. SE1 will have from 9 oclock to 11 oclock, the ME will have from 11 oclock to 1 oclock, and SE2 will have from 1 oclock to 3 oclock. O/S, the platoon will consolidate on Co Obj C, oriented E. SE1 will have from 6 oclock to 10 oclock, the ME will have from 10 oclock to 2 oclock and SE2 will have from 2 oclock to 6 oclock. O/S, 1st Platoon will displace by unit via the most direct route to Bn Obj 2. I have already conducted crossboundary coordination with the Company Commander regarding the potential fires crossing Route Grant. 2. Fire Support Plan. The purpose of my fire support plan is to suppress the EN CRF forces on Co Obj C lOT allow the Plt(-) to close within direct fire weapons range of the EN position. There are two pre-planned targets for the operation:
Target Kn Def Pos Susp LP/OP Number YF 1012 YF 1020 Location Co Obj C / TH 230 524 Hill 280 / TH 225 516 Shell/Fuse HE/Q HE/Q Obs SL SL Agency Co 60s Co 60s
C. Tasks 1. 1st Squad. You are the Platoon ME. At 1200, destroy the center 1/3 of the EN CRF Sqd(+) on Co Obj C lOT prevent the EN forces from interfering with the Company E ME atk on Bn Obj 2. BPT continue the attack to the North. 2. 2nd Squad. You are the SE1. At 1200, destroy the left 1/3 of the EN CRF Sqd(+)on Co Obj C lOT prevent the EN forces from interfering with the Company E ME atk on Bn Obj 2. Identify a FT Aid and Litter Team. BPT assume the ME. BPT continue the attack to the North. 3. 3rd Squad. You are the SE2. At 1200, destroy the right 1/3 of the EN CRF Sqd(+)on Co Obj C lOT prevent the EN forces from interfering with the Company E ME atk on Bn Obj 2. Identify a FT Search and EPW Team. BPT assume the ME. BPT continue the attack to the North.
44
B2B2377
D. Coordinating Instructions 1. Timeline 0800 Squad leaders conduct back-briefs confirming the SOM, FSP, signal plan and other critical information. Marines draw ammunition, chow, water, comm. assets, and any other logistics needs. 0845 Initial inspections by the squad leaders. 0900 Squad leaders time (orders, squad rehearsals, etc.). 1000 Platoon rehearsals (see priorities of rehearsals) 1100 Final inspections (Plt Sgt and PIt Commander) 1120 Movement from Co AA to PIt Atk Pos. Request permission to cross the LD. 1200 1st Platoon crosses the LD. 2. Priority of Rehearsals a. Actions on objective b. Changing formations on the move c. Communications rehearsals d. Actions upon consolidation 3. Lost Marine Plan a. Co AA LD. If a Marine becomes separated from the platoon between the Co AA and the LD, the lost Marine will return to the last identified rally point and wait for (30) minutes. After (30) minutes have passed, the Marine will orient themselves to the terrain and head south to the improved surface road (Route Eisenhower). Once at the improved surface road, the Marine will turn left and, remaining in the treeline on the north side of Route Eisenhower, proceed to the Co AA. When challenged, the lost Marine will execute the near/far recognition signal as per company SOP. Once inside the Co AA, the Marine will report to the Co 1st Sgt at the Co AA. b. LD Platoon Aslt Pos. If a Marine becomes separated from the platoon between the LD and the PIt(-) AsIt Pos, the lost Marine will orient themselves to the terrain and head south until he meets West Creek. The lost Marine will not cross West Creek, and will instead move south in trace of the creek until he arrives at the junction of East and West Creeks. Once at the junction, the lost Marine will wait for (1) hour. After (1) hour has passed, the Marine will orient themselves to the terrain using the location of the sun as a primary guiding feature and head south (crossing East Creek) to the improved surface road (Route Eisenhower). Once at the improved surface road, the Marine will turn left and, remaining in the treeline on the north side of Route Eisenhower, proceed to the Co AA. When challenged, the lost Marine will execute the near/far recognition signal as per company SOP. Once inside the Co AA, the Marine will report to the Co 1st Sgt at the Co CP.
45
B2B2377
c. PIatoon AsIt Pos Co Obj C. If a Marine becomes separated from the platoon between the Plt(-) AsIt Pos and Co Obj C, the lost Marine will retrace their steps to the AsIt Pos and wait there for (1) hour. After (1) hour, if the lost Marine has not seen the appropriate consolidation signal (YSMK), he will orient himself to the terrain and head south until he meets West Creek. The lost Marine will not cross West Creek, and will instead move south in trace of the creek until he arrives at the junction of East and West Creeks. Once at the junction, the lost Marine will wait for (1) hour. After (1) hour has passed, the Marine will orient themselves to the terrain and head south (crossing East Creek) to the improved surface road (Route Eisenhower). Once at the improved surface road, the Marine will turn left and, remaining in the treeline on the north side of Route Eisenhower, proceed to the Co AA. When challenged, the lost Marine will execute the near/far recognition signal as per company SOP. Once inside the Co AA, the Marine will report to the Co CP and check in with the Co 1st Sgt. 4. No Comm Plan. If communication capability is lost at any time, we will continue the operation while still attempting to regain communication. Upon occupation of the Platoon AsIt Pos, if communications have not been restored, we will conduct the attack without any indirect fires. Upon platoon consolidation on Co Obj C, we will establish communication and conduct link-up with Company E(-) via other means (messenger). 5. Weapons Test Fire. Test fires are unauthorized for this operation. 6. Base Unit. The base unit for the Plt(-) attack will be 1st Squad (ME). IV Administration and Logistics A. Administration 1. EPWs. All EPWs will be treated lAW the 5 Ss and a T; (Search, Silence, Secure, Segregate, Speed to the rear and Tagged). Each EPW will be searched, face down, palms up, two Marines per EPW. The searching Marine will be covered by at least one Marine. We will silence with gauze and black-out goggles and secure with flex cuffs. We will segregate by rank if possible. Each EPW will be tagged with standard NATO tags and items discovered during the search will be bagged and stapled to the back of their clothing. The Platoon Guide will be the POC for coordinating extraction of all EPWs to the BN S-4 located at the COC(rear). Immediately upon initial EPW detention, contact the Platoon Guide over the PIt Tac Net. Upon consolidation at Co Obj C, all EPWs should be brought to the Platoon Guide located at the 3 oclock position (12 oclock is E). The Platoon Guide will coordinate EPW extraction via the Co GySgt and the Bn S-4. Primary means of EPW extraction will be via ground by Weapons Company on Route Grant.
46
B2B2377
2. WIA/KIA. If any urgent or priority casualties are sustained, all unit leaders will immediately notify the platoon commander over the PIt Tac Net. The Platoon Sergeant will coordinate all extraction of casualties from the platoon AO via the Co GySgt or the Bn S-3. If casualties are sustained between the Co AA and the LD, the unit leader will make the decision to detach an Aid and Litter Team to extract the casualty from the zone of action and conduct link-up with the Weapons Company vehicular patrols along Route Eisenhower. Any urgent casualties sustained between the LD and the PIt(-) AsIt Pos will be extracted either along Route Eisenhower, from LZ Magpie (227 531), or from other feasible LZs as determined during movement. Any urgent casualties sustained between the Plt(-) AsIt Pos and Co Obj C will be collected at the Plt(-) AsIt Pos until Co Obj C is determined to be secure. Once Co Obj C has been secured, the Casualty Collection Point (CCP) will be established at the 6 oclock position. The point of contact for all casualties will be the Platoon Corpsman. The Platoon Corpsman will triage the WIA and treat as required prior to evacuation. Urgent and priority casualties will be coordinated through the company and will be conducted by air from the most tenable LZ vic Co Obj C. If we have no communications capability and sustain urgent casualties, O/O the designated Aid and Litter team will transport the casualty via the most direct route to Route Grant. Upon reaching the road, the A&L team will alert passing Weapons Company patrols to our location and our request for medevac via violet smoke. Upon visual confirmation of a passing Weapons Company patrol, we will conduct near/far recognition and evacuate the casualty to the Bn BAS located vic Camp Rommel. In the case that no Weapons Company patrol is in the area, the A&L team will continue movement S along the W side of Route Grant until they reach the Co AA. At the Co AA, they shall immediately bring the casualty to the Co Corpsman for follow-on treatment and check in with the Co 1st Sgt. B. Logistics. 1. Ammunition. All Marines will have a standard fighting load before stepping off from the Co AA: (8) magazines 5.56mm for all M16 service rifles and (3) drums 5.56 link per SAW. In addition, all M203 grenade launchers will have (3) HEDP and (3) ILA 40mm rounds. 2. Chow. All Marines will step off from the AA with (2) DOS chow. 3. Water. All Marines will step off from the AA with (2) full canteens and (1) full camelback. 4. Communications. Each squad will draw one (1) PRC 119, each with two batteries. 5. Pole-less litters. Each fire team will have (1) pole-less litter. 6. Flex cuffs. Each fire team will have (3) EPW kits consisting of flex cuffs, black-out goggles, and NATO EPW tags. 7. Pyro. All squads must draw (3) RSC, (3) GSP, (3) YSMK, (3) GSMK and (3) WSC.
B2B2377
8. Resupply. The PIt Sgt will coordinate resupply upon consolidation on Co Obj C. V Command and Signal A. Signal 1. Signal Plan Event Primary Alternate Tertiary Transition online (AsltPos) H/A Messenger None Initiate suppression Radio None None Co Obj C secure Radio GSP None Cease fire WSC Voice H/A Hasty 180 Voice Hand/Arm Messenger Consolidate YSmk Voice Hand/Arm 1st Platoon Displacement Radio Messenger None 2. Frequencies and Callsigns Unit Callsign Frequency Company Tac Godfather 112 Company Mortars Godfather Mortars 112 1 Platoon Tac Cannibal 310 2 Platoon Tac Reaper 315 Wpns Co Tac CAAT Red 150 BN Mortars Saipan Mortars 200 Bravo, 1/10 Brimstone 176 3. Challenge and Password Primary: Spider/Castle Alternate: Numbers adding up to 9 Running: Cookie Jar 4. Location of the CEOI. All CEOIs shall be retained in the right shoulder pocket by the Platoon Commander, Platoon Sergeant, all squad leaders, the Plt Guide, and the Plt RTO. 5. Reports. The Plt RTO, Plt Sgt, Plt Guide, and all squad leaders are required to have copies of all required reporting formats at all times. a. SALUTE Report Line 1 Size Line 2 Activity Line 3 Location Line 4 Unit Line 5 Time Line 6 Equipment Line 7 Notes
48
B2B2377
b. 9-Line Medevac Request Line 1 Location of pick-up site Line 2 Radio frequency, callsign Line 3 Number of patients by precedence __(a) Urgent __(c) Priority __(d) Routine Line 4 Special Equipment __(a) None __(b) Hoist __(c) Extract equip. __(d) Ventilator Line 5 No. of Patients (by type) __(l) litter __(a) ambulatory Line 6 Security of pickup site (n) no EN (p) possible EN (e) EN in area (x) EN/escort req. Line 7 Method of marking (a) panels (b) pyro (c) smoke (d) none (e) other Line 8 Patient nationality/status (a) US mil (b) US civ (c) Non-US mil (d) Non-US civ (e) EPW Line 9 NBCR (n) nuclear (b) biological (c) chemical (r) radioactive c. Personnel, Equipment, Weapons Accountability (PEWAC) Line 1 Callsign Line 2 Time Line 3 Grid location Line 4 Number of students in the field Line 5 Number of students in the rear Line 6 M16 Line 7 M203 Line 8 M249 Line 9 M240G Line 10 NVGs Line 11 Binoculars Line 12 PRC 119 d. Daily Logistics Summary (LogSum) Line 1 Callsign Line 2 Time Line 3 Grid location Line 4 Water (1 qt canteens per Marine) Line 5 5.56mm blank (loose) Line 6 5.56mm blank (link) Line 7 7.62mm blank (link) Line 8 Smoke/Pyro (all colors)
49
B2B2377
B. Command 1. Location of Key Leaders. I will travel with 1st Squad (ME). The Platoon Sergeant and Platoon Guide will travel with 2nd Squad (SE 1). Upon consolidation, I will be in the Platoon CP in the center of the position. The Platoon Sergeant and the Platoon Corpsman will be at the 6 oclock position. The Platoon Guide will be at the 3 oclock position. The Company CO will be located with the Company E(-) ME vic Bn Obj 2. The Co GySgt is located at the Co AA. 2. Succession of Command. 1st Squad Leader, Platoon Sergeant, Platoon Guide, 2nd Squad Leader, 3rd Squad Leader The time is now 0800. Are there any questions?
50
B2B2377
Plt Offense Order Map
51
B2B2377
Appendix D
Example of a Platoon (Rein) Defense Order General Situation. This defensive order was created by the 1st Platoon commander, Company E, BLT 2/2, 24th MEU, IIMEF in support of Operation Jungle Fury, 3-02. Two weeks ago, the 24th MEU conducted an unopposed amphibious landing on the coast of Centralia in support of the Centralian governments request for military assistance against ongoing Centralian Revolutionary Force (CRF) activity. Upon initial insert, the MEU established several Logistics Staging Areas (LSAs) vic of Camp Rommel (255 496). For the last several days, BLT 2/2 has been attacking north to destroy the CRF combat power within the Bn Area of Operations (AO). Within the last twenty-four hours, 1st Platoon secured Co Obj C and Plt Obj 1 as depicted within the platoon area of operations. However, it is suspected that the CRF is preparing to mount a counterattack on the Co AA (230 502). The platoon is currently located vic Hill 390. Orientation. North is as depicted. The companys area of operations is bordered by the 55-Northing to the North, the 28-Easting to the East, Route Eisenhower (route exclusive) to the South, and the 19-Easting to the West. The platoons assigned area of operations is bordered by the 55-Northing to the North, the 25-Easting to the East, Route Eisenhower (route exclusive) to the South, and the 22-Easting to the West. There are several pieces of terrain within the assigned area of operations: Hill 390, Hill 250, Hill 280, Hill 265, Hill 320, West Creek, and East Creek. Both East and West Creek are fordable. East Creek is a partially concealed avenue of approach. Routes Eisenhower and Grant are high speed avenues of approach. According to map reconnaissance, there are two potential LZs within the platoon area of operations: LZ Magpie (TH 227 531) and LZ Bluebird (TH 239 519). The terrain is comprised of rolling hills, compartmentalized fingers and sloping draws. Many intermittent streams exist within the AO, however they are dependent upon precipitation and seasonal weather patterns. The vegetation is made up of primarily medium-growth deciduous trees, sporadic coniferous representation, low scrub brush, and frequent patches of dense new growth and low-lying vines. Visibility of open terrain can extend to 700m from the high ground. Typical visibility is is limited to 400-500m from the high ground and 100200m in the low ground. Visibility within the densely wooded areas (especially the dense draws along the stream) seldom exceeds 50m. Dismounted infantry movement is unrestricted throughout the platoon AO. Wheeled and tracked vehicle traffic is unrestricted on the improved road surfaces (Routes Grant and Eisenhower) and severely restricted off of the improved road surfaces. The high temperatures will be around the low 60s over the next three days, with lows heading down to the upper 30s. The weather is currently sunny and clear, however there is a 70% chance of precipitation within then next three to five hours. Sunrise was at 0627 and sunset will be at 2016. Illumination will be below 10% between dusk and 2330, after which illumination will increase to 65-70%.
52
B2B2377
Appendix D (Continued)
I Situation A. Enemy Situation 1. Enemy Forces (SALUTE) Over the past twenty-four hours, a CRF Co(-) has been conducting infiltration into the companys area of operations from the north. The CRF was observed with Soviet-era small arms and equipment. From knowledge of the enemy gained over the past two weeks, the CRF has limited 82mm indirect fire capability and very limited communications equipment. The CRF are wearing desert-pattern utilities. 2. Enemy Capabilities and Limitations (DRAW-D) The EN CRF Co(-) is capable of conducting platoon sized attacks on any of the various forward BLT positions. A Co(-) attack is possible but unlikely before they reach an assault position to attack the Co AA . The CRF Co(-) is capable of internal reinforcement, however it will take at least an hour. External reinforcement is unlikely. The enemy can establish hasty defensive positions and delay the BNs advance to the north, however they are not able to block our movement. The CRF is also capable of conducting limited night operations. 3. Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA) The EN CRF Co(-) is attempting to infiltrate south, moving in platoon sized units along multiple avenues of approach. Units infiltrating in our area of operations will use Route Grant and East Creek as guiding features. The CRF Co(-) will attempt to mass their forces east of the Co AA and attack the Co AA west to east NLT 0630 tomorrow morning IOT seize control of Route Eisenhower. One platoon will move south along the west side of Route Grant and the SE along East Creek attempting to maximize its limited cover and concealment. On contact, the enemy will attempt to establish a hasty support by fire position and maneuver on our flank. If counter-attacked, the enemy will attempt to withdraw N to regroup. B. Friendly Situation 1. Highers Mission and Intent. NLT 0500, Company E blocks the EN Co(-) advance south IOT prevent EN from establishing access to Route Eisenhower. The company commanders desired Endstate is that the company retains the ability to conduct offensive operations within the AO while retaining usage of the Co AA. 2. Adjacent Units a. East- Elements of the BLT STA platoon are currently establishing LP/OPs vic of an EN fuel farm (256 530). b. South- Company E(-) is currently preparing to conduct further offensive operations within the AO. Elements of the 24th MEU MCLB have established LSAs vic Camp Rommel. Wpns Co, BLT 2/2 is conducting vehicular patrols of the MSR/ASR network within the 24th MEU Area of Operations, including Route Eisenhower. c. West- No friendly units are currently operating to the West. d. North- No friendly units are currently operating to the North.
B2B2377
3. Supporting Units a. Company 60mm mortars are located in the Co AA (231 502). They are in DS of 1st platoon. 1st Platoon has (1) FPF. b. B 1/10 is located vic Camp Fabius (309 389) and is in GS of BLT 2/2. POF is F, E, G. c. Bn 81mm mortars are located in a Mortar Firing Position (MFP) vic Camp Rommel (255 496). The platoon is in GS of the BLT. POF is E, F, G. C. Attachments/detachments. We have (1) MG squad and (1) Assault team attached immediately. II Mission. We are the Co ME. NLT 0500, 1st Platoon blocks the EN CRF Co(-) from advancing south along Route Grant and East Creek vic Hill 355 IOT prevent EN forces from interfering with Company E(-) conduct of offensive operations within the company AO. BPT continue the attack to the North. Execution A. Commanders Intent. The purpose of our mission is prevent EN forces from interfering with Company E(-) conduct of offensive operations within the company AO. The EN COG is their dispersed routes, making it difficult to interrupt their movement as they utilize multiple concealed avenues of approach prior to massing for an attack on the Co AA. Their CV is their inability to rapidly mass effective fires prior to linking up and conducting their assault on the Co AA. 1st Platoon will exploit this CV by massing direct and indirect fires along the most likely avenue of approach from a battle position on Hill 355, and disrupting movement along alternate avenues of approach with a dedicated patrolling effort. The desired end state is that the EN forces are prevented from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. B. Concept of Operations. 1. Scheme of Maneuver. 1st Platoon will have one ME and four supporting efforts (SE1, SE2, SE3, and SE4). O/O, 1st Platoon will establish a linear defense oriented north in a platoon battle position vic Hill 355. 1st Platoon is currently vic Hill 390. We will depart our current position in a platoon tactical column (ME, SE4, SE3, SE1, SE2) and move to the Objective Rally Point (ORP, TH 225 519). Upon occupation of the ORP, we will establish hasty perimeter security: ME from 10 to 2, SE1 from 2 to 6, SE2 from 6 to 10. SE3 and SE4 will be located in the center of the platoon 360. O/O, 1st Platoon will detach a Leaders Reconnaissance element to reconnoiter the tentative defensive position vic Hill 355. The Leaders Reconnaissance (LR) element will consist of the Platoon Commander, the Plt Guide, the ME squad leader, MG squad leader, senior fire-team leaders from SE1 and SE2, two Marines designated as an LP/OP (to be emplaced during the LR), and two Marines for security. The LR element will have the following priorities: (1) identify/confirm the engagement area (EA), (2) confirm the location of the platoon battle position, and (3) emplace the LP/OP to gain early warning
III
Comment [m1]: What is the connecting file between the En COG, CV and the SOM?
B2B2377
of EN movement within the platoon AO. Upon completion, the LR element will conduct link-up with platoon(-) vic the ORP, leaving the Plt Guide and (1) security Marine at the established Squad Release Point (SRP). 1st Platoon will move from the ORP to the SRP (TH 229 519) and occupy the defensive position using the crows foot occupation method. The linear battle position (BP) will be comprised of three squad BPs: SE1 on the left flank of the defense, the ME in the center, and SE2 on the right flank maintaining visible contact with Route Grant. SE3 will co-locate with the ME and establish interlocking FPLs across the frontage of the battle position. SE4 will emplace between the ME and SE2 and establish a PDF on Route Grant. Upon occupation of the squad BPs, squad leaders shall immediately establish security within their assigned sectors of fire and proceed to accomplish the priorities of work (as detailed in the Coordinating Instructions). O/O, 1st Platoon will conduct constant security patrols to the north of the established battle position. As per the established timeline (in the Coordinating Instructions), 1st Platoon will emplace tactical, supplementary, and protective wire in addition to (16) claymore mines as the security plan. Trip flares, flash-bangs, and other early warning devices will be emplaced IOT provide early warning of EN advance into the EA. Upon the EN advance south along Route Grant, they will be canalized into the EA (TH 230 527) and delayed by the obstacle plan. I will call for indirect fires from the Co 60mm mortars (Tgt Number YF 2391) as the EN crosses the Trigger Line Green (TH 528northing). Due to the 55-second time-of-flight for the mortar rounds, they should impact within the EA as the EN begins to cross the Trigger Line Blue (TH 526-northing). As the EN crosses Trigger Line Blue, the MG squad will engage EN targets of opportunity within the assigned sector of fire in accordance with target precedence. O/O, the Plt Guide will commit the LEU as directed to occupy supplementary positions or to conduct a counterattack. O/S, the platoon will cease fires. Immediately upon ceasing fires, the squad leaders will send ACE reports to the Plt Sgt. 2. Fire Support Plan. The purpose of my fire support plan is to neutralize the EN CRF Co(-) in the engagement area lOT prevent the CRF from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. I have planned three targets for the operation:
Target Likely EN location/Engagement Area Number YF 2391 Location TH 230 527 Shell/Fuse HE/Q Obs Plt Comm Agency Co 60s
Susp EN Avenue of Approach
YF 1476
230 532
Illum
Patrol
B 1/10
Final Protective Fires (FPF)
YF 2395
TH 230 524, L 90m, Att 2000
HE/Delay
Plt Comm
Co 60s
55
B2B2377
3. Obstacle Plan. The purpose of my obstacle plan is to block the EN CRF Co(-) IOT allow the massing of our direct fire weapons within the established engagement area. I plan to accomplish this by reinforcing existing natural obstacles such as the stream and dense vegetation.
Obstacle Doublestrand Tactical Wire Doublestrand Tactical Wire Purpose Fix Turn No. 1A 1B Location TH 228 528 TH 231 526 Attitude 2000 1000 Size 400m 400m Emplacing Unit 1 Platoon 1 Platoon
st st st
NLT X + 2h X + 2h
Protective Wire
Block
1C
TH 230 524
1700
300m
1 Platoon
X + 2h
C. Tasks 1. 1st Squad. You are the Platoon ME. NLT 0500, destroy the EN CRF Co(-) vic of your assigned sector of fire within the EA IOT prevent EN from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. Establish a squad BP in the center 1/3 of the platoon linear battle position. BPT displace to alternate positions. 2. 2nd Squad. You are the SE1. NLT 0500, destroy the EN CRF Co(-) vic of your assigned sector of fire within the EA IOT prevent EN from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. Establish a squad BP in the left 1/3 of the platoon linear battle position. Identify four Marines to assume the duties of an Aid and Litter Team to assist in extraction of any casualties. Identify four Marines to assume the role of a Search and EPW Team to process and safeguard any detained EPWs. BPT displace to alternate and/or supplementary positions. 3. 3rd Squad. You are the SE2. NLT 0500, destroy the EN CRF Co(-) vic of your assigned sector of fire within the EA IOT prevent EN from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. Establish a squad BP in the right 1/3 of the platoon linear battle position. Ensure that you are visibly tied in with Route Grant. You have the Assault Squad in DS of your mission. Coordinate with the Assault Squad Leader to integrate them into your squad battle position. Upon occupation, identify four Marines to initiate the platoon patrolling efforts and have them report to the Platoon Guide vic the platoon CP. BPT displace to alternate and/or supplementary positions. 4. Machine Gun Squad. You are the SE3. O/O, destroy the EN CRF Co(-) within the EA IOT prevent the EN from conducting offensive operations against the Co AA. Establish two MG fighting positions vic of the 1st Squad (ME) BP. Establish an FPL along the frontage of the platoon battle position and complete the range cards as per the timeline. Be sure to retain (1) range card with each weapon system. Engagement Criteria: squad-size or larger CRF element. Target Precedence: CRF squad-sized formations, identified key CRF leadership, identified CRF communication assets. Establish a trigger line vic the TH 526-northing.
56
B2B2377
Save 200 rounds for the FPL. O/S, fire the FPL. Notify the Plt Sgt if you need a resupply of ammunition. 5. Assault Team. You are SE4. You are in DS of 3rd Squad. O/O, destroy targets of opportunity within your sector of fire IOT prevent EN advance S along Route Grant. NLT 0500, establish a fighting position ISO your sector of fire. Designate hot and cold positions. Establish a PDF oriented N along Route Grant. Target precedence: light-skinned vehicles, CSW, command and control assets. Engagement criteria: engage in accordance with target precedence as EN crosses Trigger Line Blue. BPT displace to supplementary positions and establish a PDF to support a supplementary mission. BPT displace to alternate positions. 6. Platoon Sergeant. Ensure that each Marine has the required chow, water, communication assets, ammunition, and any other equipment as per Paragraph IV and V. Supervise the final inspections prior to the platoon movement to the ORP. Report any discrepancies to me ASAP. In the ORP, establish and maintain perimeter security. Upon occupation, assume the role as the POC for any casualties and coordinate their extraction via the Co GySgt. Establish a Casualty Collection Point (CCP) 50m S of the platoon CP. Supervise implementation of the priorities of work and ensure that the timeline is accomplished. Coordinate with the Co GySgt for logistics resupply as required. Identify personnel as required to man the LP/OP and the FT-sized patrol. 7. Platoon Guide. Accompany the LR and establish a SRP. Maintain security until the platoon arrives at the SRP, at which time you will direct the squads to their respective fire-team release points. Upon occupation, ensure a terrain model is built vic the platoon CP and supervise the preparation of the initial security patrol. Upon identification of the LEU, ensure that the squad leader is conducting rehearsals of the occupation of the supplementary positions. Upon EN contact, BPT commit the LEU as directed by the Platoon Commander. Assume the role as the POC for any EPWs and coordinate their extraction to the Co AA lAW the 5 Ss and T and through the Co 1stSgt. 8. LP/OP personnel. The 2-man LP/OP manning obligation will be rotated among squads, thus each Marine must be familiar with the task. O/O, establish an LP/OP vic 228 532 IOT provide early warning of EN activity within the platoon AO. Establish a concealed position providing the best observation of likely EN avenues of approach. Report any suspected or observed EN activity. Do not engage EN with direct fire weapons unless you are engaged first. Emplace (2) Claymore mines ISO your position. However, do not engage with them unless EN contact is imminent and only do so IOT provide standoff while you break contact and withdraw along an identified route back to the platoon defense. Create and improve a terrain sketch from your position that indicates surrounding terrain with direction (in mils) and distance (in meters) to various TRPs. Use this terrain sketch to call for fire on EN troop movements within the AO, provided you can maintain a concealed position while doing so.
B2B2377
Ensure that you conduct radio checks with the Plt CP every 30min via the Plt Tac Net. Ensure that you have at least (1) fresh battery at all times. 9. Patrol personnel. The constant FT-sized patrolling effort north of our platoon battle position will be rotated among squads, thus each Marine must be familiar with the task. O/O, conduct security patrols north of the platoon BP IOT provide early warning of EN activity within the platoon AO. Report any suspected or observed EN activity to the platoon CP. BPT call for indirect fires from the BN 81mm mortar section during conduct of the patrol IOT disrupt EN formations and suspected Leaders Reconnaissance elements. Do not engage EN with direct fire weapons unless you are engaged first, in which case immediately break contact to a covered and concealed position. BPT link up with the LP/OP on each patrol. 10. Least Engaged Unit (LEU). Upon occupation of the platoon defense, a LEU will be identified to (O/S) occupy designated supplementary positions. O/S, displace from your primary squad battle position and occupy the designated supplementary positions as directed by the Plt Guide or designate. BPT conduct a counterattack as directed by the Platoon Commander. Conduct rehearsals as needed to ensure a hasty and tactical occupation. D. Coordinating Instructions 1. Timeline 1000 Platoon order issue 1115 Squad leaders time (orders, rehearsals, draw ammunition, water, chow, batteries, initial inspections, pre-combat checks, etc.) 1200 Platoon commander backbrief with Co CO/Artillery FO (Fire Support planning, COC coordination, etc.) 1300 Final inspections (Plt Sgt, Plt Commander) 1330 Platoon movement to ORP 1400 Platoon arrives at ORP/LR departs X Occupation of defensive position X + 20 -Sector stakes emplaced; -Fire team Fire Plan Sketches (FPS) submitted to squad leaders; -MG FPL identified by Platoon Commander; -Identified patrol personnel report to Plt CP for brief; -Terrain model constructed vic Plt CP X + 40 -Squad FPS submitted to Platoon Commander; -MG range cards submitted to Platoon Commander; -Fields of fire cleared; -1st Patrol departs friendly lines; -Revised FPF submitted to 60mm mortars X + 60 -Sector bags emplaced; -Skirmishers trenches completed; -Revised List of Targets submitted to Company FO; -Supplementary positions identified by Plt Comm
B2B2377
-(8) Claymore mines emplaced: (2) per Sqd BP; -Sector stakes/fields of fire/skirmishers trenches completed in supplementary positions; -Least Engaged Unit (LEU) identified -TA-3/12 field telephones emplaced within Plt BP X + 120/2h -Tactical, supplementary, & protective wire emplaced; -1st Patrol returns/conducts debrief with Plt Comm and Plt Guide; -LEU Sqd ldr backbriefs the Plt Comm and Guide on the supplementary position occupation plan X + 2:15h -2nd patrol identified/reports to Plt CP for brief X + 2:30h -ME 2-man fighting positions completed; -(6) Claymore mines emplaced vic supp positions; -2nd patrol departs friendly lines to relieve LP/OP X + 3:45h -SE1 and SE2 2-man fighting positions completed; stand-to (sunset) -TA-3/12 field telephone emplaced in LP/OP 2. Priority of Rehearsals a. Crows foot occupation b. Sector stakes/sector bags c. Fire plan sketches d. Claymore mine emplacement 3. Lost Marine Plan a. Hill 390 ORP. If a Marine becomes separated from the platoon between Hill 390 and the ORP, the lost Marine will remain stationary for (30) minutes. After (30) minutes have passed, the Marine will orient himself to the terrain and proceed due west (through the draw between Hills 390 and 280). After moving west for approximately 700m, the Marine will encounter West Creek. Once at West Creek, the Marine will turn left and follow the water flow downstream passing the intersection of West Creek merging with East Creek, until the Marine has eyes-on Route Eisenhower. The Marine will remain in the treeline north of the hardball road and turn left, heading East to the Co AA. When challenged, the lost Marine will execute the near/far recognition signal as per company SOP. Once inside the Co AA, the Marine will report to the Co CP and check in with the Co 1st Sgt. b. ORP Plt BP. If a Marine becomes separated from the platoon between the ORP and the Plt BP, the lost Marine will return to the ORP and remain there for (1) hour. After (1) hour, the Marine will orient himself to the terrain using the location of Hill 280 to his west as a primary guiding feature and head south until he meets East Creek. The lost Marine will cross East Creek and move south in trace of the creek until he encounters the improved surface road (Route Eisenhower). X + 90
59
B2B2377
Once at the improved surface road, the Marine will turn left and, remaining in the treeline on the north side of Route Eisenhower, proceed to the Co AA. When challenged, the lost Marine will execute the near/far recognition signal as per company SOP. Once inside the Co AA, the Marine will report to the Co CP and check in with the Co 1st Sgt. c. Security Patrol. The designated patrol leader is responsible for establishing and briefing a lost Marine plan to the patrol prior to the patrol departing friendly lines. 4. No Comm Plan. If communication capability is lost at any time, we will continue the operation while still attempting to regain communication with the Co CP. Upon occupation of the Plt BP, if communications have not been restored, I will send a messenger via FT-sized patrol to the Co AA to establish communication and further troubleshoot the problem. 5. Weapons Test Fire. Test fires are unauthorized for this operation. 6. Conduct of the patrol. The Plt Sgt will designate one Marine as the Patrol Leader. The PL will report to the Platoon CP for a patrol brief at which time either myself or the Plt Guide will assign specific CCIRs or reconnaissance tasks for the specific patrol. The PL will issue a hasty patrol order to the assembled patrol at the established terrain model vic Plt CP. The Plt Guide will escort the patrol out through the designated passage lane and the PL will lead the patrol through the briefed route. The patrol will maintain constant radio communication with the Plt CP and always carry (1) fresh PRC-119 battery. All Marines on patrol will ensure that they have (1) set of operational NVDs during the conduct of patrol. Upon completion of the patrol, the PL will coordinate with the Plt Guide and move to the Contact Point and conduct link-up. The Guide will lead the patrol into the platoon BP through the passage lane and the PL will ensure accountability before reporting to the Platoon Commander. Immediately following each patrol, the entire patrol will report to the terrain model for a debrief with the Platoon Commander or designate. 7. Tactical Control Measures a. Objective Rally Point (ORP) 225 519 b. Squad Release Point (SRP) 229 519 c. Platoon Battle Position 2295 5222 d. Passage Point 1 (PP1) 2274 5220 e. Contact Point (designated upon occupation) f. Check Point 8 (CP8) 220 525 g. Check Point 3 (CP3) 223 530 h. Check Point 12 (CP12) 2308 5281 i. Check Point 5 (CP5) 237 532 j. Check Point 19 (CP19) 239 521 k. Target Reference Point (TRP) (designated upon occupation) l. Casualty Collection Point (CCP) 50m S of the Platoon CP m. Engagement Area 230 527
60
B2B2377
n. Trigger Line Blue o. Trigger Line Green p. Co AA IV Administration and Logistics A. Administration 1. EPWs. EPWs. All EPWs will be treated lAW the 5 Ss and a T; (Search, Silence, Secure, Segregate, Speed to the rear and Tagged). Each EPW will be searched, face down, palms up, two Marines per EPW. The searching Marine will be covered by at least one Marine. We will silence with gauze and black-out goggles and secure with flex cuffs. We will segregate by rank if possible. Each EPW will be tagged with standard NATO tags and items discovered during the search will be bagged and stapled to the back of their clothing. The Platoon Guide will be the POC for coordinating extraction of all EPWs to the BN S-4 located at the COC(rear). Immediately upon initial EPW detention, contact the Platoon Guide over the PIt Tac Net. Upon consolidation at Co Obj C, all EPWs should be brought to the Platoon Guide located at the 3 oclock position (12 oclock is E). The Platoon Guide will coordinate EPW extraction via the Co GySgt and the Bn S-4. Primary means of EPW extraction will be via ground by Weapons Company on Route Grant. 2. WIA/KIA. If any urgent or priority casualties are sustained, all unit leaders will immediately notify the platoon commander over the PIt Tac Net. The Platoon Sergeant will coordinate all extraction of casualties from the platoon AO via the Co GySgt at the Co AA. If urgent or priority casualties are sustained between Hill 390 and the ORP, I will make the decision to detach an Aid and Litter Team to extract the casualty from the platoon and conduct link-up with the Weapons Company vehicular patrols along Route Grant or with requested air medevac from an identified LZ within the platoon AO. The floating Casualty Collection Point (CCP) during movement will be the center of the platoon security perimeter. Any urgent casualties sustained between the ORP and the Plt BP will be collected at the identified Casualty Collection Point (CCP) located 50m S of the Platoon CP. The point of contact for all casualties will be the Platoon Corpsman. The Platoon Corpsman will be located with the ME at all times. The Platoon Corpsman will triage the WIA and treat as required prior to evacuation. Urgent and priority casualties will be coordinated through the company and will be conducted by air from the most tenable LZ or via ground medevac along Route Grant. If we have no communications capability and sustain urgent casualties, O/O the designated Aid and Litter team will transport the casualty via the most direct route to Route Eisenhower. Upon reaching the road, the A&L team will alert passing Weapons Company patrols to our location and our request for medevac via violet smoke. Upon visual confirmation of a passing Weapons Company patrol, we will conduct near/far recognition
526-northing 528-northing 231 502
B2B2377
and evacuate the casualty to the Bn BAS located vic Camp Rommel. In case no Weapons Company patrol is in the area, the A&L team will continue movement E along the N side of Route Eisenhower until they reach the Co AA. At the Co AA, they shall immediately bring the casualty to the Company Corpsman for follow-on treatment and check in with the Co 1st Sgt. B. Logistics. 1. Ammunition. Squad leaders will redistribute ammunition as required. Each Marine in the ME squad should have (6) magazines 5.56mm and (2) drums 5.56mm link per SAW. All ME M203 grenade launchers will have (3) HEDP rounds. Squad leaders: coordinate with the platoon sergeant and ensure that upon resupply, you replenish your Marines. 2. Chow. All Marines should have (2) DOS chow. Squad leaders: get with the Plt Sgt if your Marines are lacking. 3. Water. I know that we are down on water right now. Nonetheless, all Marines will step off from Hill 390 with at least (1) full camelback. Upon occupation, the Plt Sgt will coordinate an immediate water resupply. 4. Communications. We have (3) PRC-119s: (1) for the Plt CP, (1) for the patrol, and (1) initially for the LP/OP. We also have (6) TA-3/12 field telephones: (1) for the LP/OP, (1) for each squad leaders hole, and (1) for the Plt CP. Each patrol will step off with at least two fresh batteries: one for the LP/OP and one for their own use. 5. Pole-less litters. Each fire team should have (1) pole-less litter. 6. Resupply. The PIt Sgt will submit a daily Logistics Summary (LogSum) to the Co GySgt (Callsign: Godfather 7). The format for the report is included in Paragraph V. Through this report, the Plt Sgt and Co GySgt will track our resupply requirements and coordinate resupply as needed. 7. Accountability. The Plt Sgt will also be responsible for reporting accountability of all personnel and equipment to the Company Executive Officer (Callsign: Godfather 5) twice daily (0700 and 1800). The format for the Daily Status Report (DSR) is included in Paragraph V. V Command and Signal A. Signal 1. Signal Plan Event Transition of Formation Platoon arrival at ORP Leaders Recon departs ORP Leaders Recon returns ORP Commence occupation Final Protective Fires Cease fires
62
Primary H/A H/A Radio Radio Radio RSC WSC
Alternate Radio Radio H/A Near/Far H/A TA-312 Voice
Tertiary Messenger Messenger Messenger None Messenger Voice TA-312
B2B2377
Commit Least Engaged Unit Displace to Alternate Pos Counterattack GSC YSMK Voice TA-312 TA-312 Whistle Voice Voice None
2. Frequencies and Callsigns Unit Callsign Frequency Company Tac Godfather 112 Company Mortars Godfather Mortars 112 1 Platoon Tac Cannibal 310 Battalion Tac 1 Spartan 244 Wpns Co Tac CAAT Red 150 BN Mortars Saipan Mortars 200 Bravo, 1/10 Brimstone 176 3. Challenge and Password Primary: Moonbeam/Ireland Alternate: Numbers adding up to 11 Running: Vegas 4. Near/Far recognition signals. During daylight hours, the moving unit shall initiate the far recognition signal with one Marine removing their cover and rotating it in a full circle twice. The stationary unit shall respond by standing and raising both arms perpendicular to their body, displaying the iron cross. The moving unit shall confirm by replacing their cover on their head. During times of limited visibility, the moving unit shall initiate by sending three IR flashes, to which the stationary unit will respond with one IR flash. The moving unit will confirm with two IR flashes. (The alternate to the IR flashes is a red-lens flashlight.) In both daylight and limited visibility situations, the near recognition signal will be proper issuance of the challenge and an appropriate response. 5. Location of the CEOI. All CEOIs shall be retained in the right shoulder pocket by the Platoon Commander, Platoon Sergeant, all squad leaders, the Plt Guide, and the Plt RTO. 6. Reports. The Plt RTO, Plt Sgt, Plt Guide, and all squad leaders are required to have copies of all required reporting formats at all times. a. SALUTE Report Line 1 Size Line 2 Activity Line 3 Location Line 4 Unit Line 5 Time Line 6 Equipment Line 7 Notes
63
B2B2377
b. 9-Line Medevac Request Line 1 Location of pick-up site Line 2 Radio frequency, callsign Line 3 Number of patients by precedence __(a) Urgent __(c) Priority __(d) Routine Line 4 Special Equipment __(a) None __(b) Hoist __(c) Extract equip. __(d) Ventilator Line 5 No. of Patients (by type) __(l) litter __(a) ambulatory Line 6 Security of pickup site (n) no EN (p) possible EN (e) EN in area (x) EN/escort req. Line 7 Method of marking (a) panels (b) pyro (c) smoke (d) none (e) other Line 8 Patient nationality/status (a) US mil (b) US civ (c) Non-US mil (d) Non-US civ (e) EPW Line 9 NBCR (n) nuclear (b) biological (c) chemical (r) radioactive c. Personnel, Equipment, Weapons Accountability (PEWAC) Line 1 Callsign Line 2 Time Line 3 Grid location Line 4 Number of students in the field Line 5 Number of students in the rear Line 6 M16 Line 7 M203 Line 8 M249 Line 9 M240G Line 10 NVGs Line 11 Binoculars Line 12 PRC 119 d. Daily Logistics Summary (LogSum) Line 1 Callsign Line 2 Time Line 3 Grid location Line 4 Water (1 qt canteens per Marine) Line 5 5.56mm blank (loose) Line 6 5.56mm blank (link) Line 7 7.62mm blank (link) Line 8 Smoke/Pyro (all colors)
64
B2B2377
B. Command 1. Location of Key Leaders. I will travel with 1st Squad (ME) from Hill 390 to the ORP. The Platoon Sergeant and Platoon Guide will travel with 2nd Squad (SE 1). Upon arrival at the ORP, the Plt Guide, 1st Squad leader, and myself will depart with the other LR personnel. The Plt Sgt and Plt Corpsman will be in a hasty Plt CP in the center of the position. Upon occupation of the BP, I will be in the Plt CP center line, along with the Plt Corpsman and RTO. The Plt Guide and Plt Sgt will be located there as well. The Company CO will be located with Company E() vic the Co AA. The Co GySgt is located at the Co AA. 2. Succession of Command. Platoon Sergeant, Platoon Guide, 1st Squad Leader, 2nd Squad Leader, 3rd Squad Leader The time is now 1100. Are there any questions?
65
B2B2377
Plt (Rein) Def Order Map
66
Appendix E: Combat Orders Flow Chart
Highers Order
Orientation Situation A. Enemy B. Friendly 1. Higher a. Mission b. Intent 2. Adjacent 3. Supporting C. Attach / Detach Mission Execution A. CI B. Con Ops C. Tasks D. Coord Ins Ad / Log Comm / Sig
METT-TC
Mission Enemy Troops & Fire Support Available Terrain Weather Time Civilian Considerations
Your Order
EMLCOA COG/CV/EXP SOM FSP Tasks

Notes
TACTICAL PLANNING B2B2477 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2B2477
Tactical Planning Process
Tactical Planning
Introduction and Importance Success in combat is reflective of a leaders ability to make tactically sound decisions in a time constrained and everchanging environment. Success in this time compressed environment is based on the ability for our leaders to conduct detailed analysis (analytical decision making) of the complex information prior to entering that environment. Only with the application of that analysis as a foundation, will the leader be able to apply the continuous analysis (recognition primed decision making) necessary to make tactically sound decisions in the time compressed environment. As a leader, you must be familiar with the Troop-Leading Steps and the associated analysis that occurs to facilitate orders creation. The analysis is critical to overall mission accomplishment. It shapes the development of a tactically sound plan, communicated in the Combat Orders format, and shapes your decisionmaking process during mission execution. The process taught at The Basic School is lock-step only in sequence; the depth and detail by which the analysis is conducted is based on time and available information. Leaders must understand the application of the analysis to the Marine Corps planning in order to successfully modify the process without adversely affecting mission success. MCDP 1 Warfighting, introduced you to the nature of war which is inherently violent and chaotic, which we mitigate through clear communication of intent and simple plans. It discussed maneuver warfare, the theory of which is to strike the enemys critical vulnerability (the decisive time and place) with massed fires to bend the enemy to our will. In Tactical Fundamentals, you learned in depth the Nine Principles of War and the Six Tactical Tenets; evaluative concepts that operate congruently to your tactical planning. In Decision Making, you learned the importance of decisiveness in a time compressed environment, and how that relates to maneuver warfare. This was illustrated by the Boyd Cycle (OODA Loop) in which maneuver in time is achieved through an increased tempo of action. You also learned that as a leader and a Warfighter, you must be comfortable with making reasonable assumptions, supported by fact, to drive your operations. The ability to do this was defined by the 70% Solution. You learned the difference between analytical decision making and recognitional decision making. In this lesson we focus on analytical decision making.
Prerequisites
B2B2477
Tactical Planning (Continued)

In This Lesson We will discuss the six Troop-Leading Steps (BAMCIS), the Tactical Planning Process, and its relation to your mission planning. For Tac Planning I Class: Read part one of this handout. Tac Planning II Class: Read part two of this handout. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Part One Six Troop-Leading Steps (BAMCIS) Tactical Thought Process Part Two Review of Part One Begin Planning: METT-TC Begin Planning: EMLCOA Begin Planning: COG/CV/EXP Begin Planning: SOM, FSP, Tasks Arrange for Reconnaissance, Make Reconn. Complete the Plan Issue the Order Supervise Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Appndx A: Tact Thought Process & Order Terminal Learning Objective Page 4 7 11 12 19 20 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 26
Student Requirements
Learning Objectives
MCCS-LDR-2101. Given a mission and commanders intent, apply the troop leading steps to accomplish the mission. Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS-LDR-2101a. Without the aid of references, describe the troop leading steps without omission. MCCS-OFF-2102l. Given a mission and commanders intent, develop a mental estimate of the situation using METT-TC to accomplish the mission.
B2B2477
TACTICAL PLANNING - PART ONE Six Troop Leading Steps (BAMCIS)

In laymans terms, planning is easy to conceptualize. In the civilian world when given a task to do by your boss, provided the time was available, you would in general terms:
1. Determine what needs to get done to complete the task and what information you need to complete the task. During this time you may develop questions, pertaining to completing the task, for which you do not have the answer. To continue planning how to complete your task, some of those questions will be deliberately answered by assumptions you make. For others that do not impede your planning, you will seek to answer later when you gain more information. You will emerge with an initial plan to complete the task. 2. To validate your initial plan, you would identify where to find additional information that will aid in you completing your task. You may identify the internet, library, or subject matter experts as sources of information that will either answer the questions you still have after your initial plan, and/or prove your assumptions made during your planning. You would then build a research plan to execute. 3. To execute your research, you would focus on the source of information that would provide you the most effective answers to your questions. Once you have answered the questions raised during your initial plan, you would compile the information and look to finalize your plan. 4. In finalizing your plan, you would revisit your initial plan, armed now with the answers to the questions you identified earlier. This would allow you to build an operable plan to execute the task. 5. To start acting on your plan, you brief those who work for you on what needs to get done, how the job will get done, and who will do what to complete that job. 6. Finally, you would watch your workers in the execution of their part of the task to ensure that the job is done correctly.
The process is the same when we discuss planning at the tactical level in the Marine Corps, we have simply standardized that process with the Six Troop Leading Steps. (Begin Planning, Arrange for Reconnaissance, Make Reconnaissance, Complete the Plan, Issue the Order, and Supervise [BAMCIS]) BAMCIS is a sequence of events which tactical unit leaders use to plan most tactical operations. The troop-leading steps are a tool meant to aid leaders in making tactically sound decisions, formulate plans, coherently communicate those plans, and turn those decisions into action. BAMCIS would be employed when you receive a job (aka. mission) from your boss (aka. higher command).
B2B2477
Six Troop Leading Steps (BAMCIS) (Continued)

Begin Planning The receipt of a mission triggers the BAMCIS cycle. To make effective use of available time, the leader issues a Warning Order (An abbreviated set of instructions to inform of an impending action.) to his subordinates; this allows his subordinates to execute the Warning Order while the leader conducts a detailed analysis, which we call the Tactical Thought Process (described below). Here, unit leaders will develop questions and therefore will have to make assumptions about the enemy to continue planning. The level of risk the leader will have to assume is directly related to the depth of analysis they perform during the Tactical Thought Process. At the end of this step, you will emerge with an initial plan that you expect to execute, pending the answers to your questions, and the validation of the assumptions you made about the enemy. To begin answering these questions you will move to Arrange for Reconnaissance. Based on the detailed analysis (Tactical Thought Process) performed during Begin the Planning, the leader must ask, What information am I lacking in order to achieve success? To get this information to further mitigate risk assumed during the Tactical Thought Process, the leader must arrange for a reconnaissance of the enemy and terrain. First, the commander must determine the most effective means of available reconnaissance. Frequently, this is a physical reconnaissance in which the commander visits the ground on which he will fight. Second, the commander must determine his priority of reconnaissance, or what order he will try to fulfill the information gaps. The first priority must be the gaps regarding the enemy; focusing on confirming or denying any assumptions made about his location, orientation, or current tactical activity. The second priority is to identify elements of the friendly SOM such as the route, assault position, or defensive positions. Finally, the leader must determine which subordinate leaders will accompany them during the collection of information. The personnel will vary according to the tactical situation, but the leader should take only as many subordinate leaders as necessary, while others remain behind to supervise mission preparation.
Arrange for Reconnaissance
B2B2477
Six Troop Leading Steps (BAMCIS) (Continued)

Make Reconnaissance The commander now acts to answer his questions and validate any assumptions based on his priorities of reconnaissance and the time available. Every effort must be made to conduct a physical reconnaissance of the enemy. This means eyes on the enemy must be the focus. In addition to a physical recon, the commander should also look to use other assets (imagery, air reconnaissance, etc) available to help fill information gaps. The reconnaissance is only successful if it answers those questions needed to successfully accomplish the mission. The unit leader must now take the information gained during the reconnaissance and validate his initial plan made during Begin the Planning. This is done by re-conducting the Tactical Thought Process, now armed with the answers to our questions. This analysis must be conducted again to ensure necessary changes are ultimately reflected in our plan to our subordinates. A common problem occurs when leaders receive updated information that conflicts with their previous analysis or established plan, but fail to update their METT-TC or amend their scheme of maneuver. Do not fall in love with your plan. At the conclusion of your second conduct of the Tactical Thought Process, you will write an order (Five Paragraph Order) to communicate to your subordinates. Here, leaders verbally communicate their analysis and scheme of maneuver using proper order-issuing techniques. Without coherent communication, the leaders decisions will never successfully be turned into action. The leader ensures compliance with the details of his plan until the mission is accomplished. This includes the timeline the commander set forth (non-negotiable), the mission rehearsals defined (as combat realistic as possible), the inspections (PCCs and PCIs) of personnel prior to execution, and the complete execution of the mission. Delegation to subordinate unit leaders is utilized, however check, do not assume, that your plan is being executed by subordinates to your standards.
Complete the Plan
Issue the order
Supervise
B2B2477
Tactical Thought Process

The Tactical Thought Process, through its sequence, applies analysis to the development of a tactically sound plan that ultimately counters the enemys course of action. The process begins with a detailed analysis of the situation, or Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC). Using the details of that estimate, the leader determines the Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA). Related to the EMLCOA, the commander identifies: the key strength of the enemy or Enemys Center-Of-Gravity (COG); the enemys key weakness or Critical Vulnerability (CV) of the identified COG; and the best way to strike this weakness known as the Exploitation Plan (EXP). The Exploitation Plan determines the development of the Scheme Of Maneuver (SOM), a Fire Support Plan (FSP) that supports the SOM, and Tasks given to subordinates to execute the SOM. The below flow chart that reflects the Tactical Planning Process. Its relation to the orders process is graphically displayed in Appendix A of this handout. METT-TC Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC) EMLCOA COG/CV/EXP SOM FSP Tasks
Mission Analysis Enemy Analysis Troops and Fire Support Available Terrain Analysis Time Analysis Civilian Considerations
The key is for the leader to conduct a detailed analysis to mitigate risk, and drive decisions that allow him to develop the most tactically sound plan. First, the leader must understand the specified and implied tasks of the mission issued to him by higher (Mission Analysis). A specified task is a task explicitly given to the commander from higher. An implied task is a task not explicitly given, but is a task that must be done to complete the mission. (For example, your mission is: At 2100 brush your teeth in order to prevent cavities. The specified task is to brush your teeth at 2100. A related implied task would be put toothpaste on your toothbrush.) Second, he must look at the enemys combat power and the conditions under which he can employ those assets to achieve a desired endstate (Enemy Analysis). Third, he looks at the effects of Observation, Cover and Concealment, Obstacles, Key terrain, Avenues of approach, and Weather (OCOKA-W) on possible friendly and enemy SOMs (Terrain and Weather Analysis). Fourth, he must understand the combat power he brings to the fight within his own unit, and how adjacent and supporting units will support or impede mission success (Troops and Fire Support Available). Fifth, the leader must identify the time available for each phase of the mission, time constraints and restraints from higher, time/space considerations for enemy and friendly movement, logistics required, as well as gaps (Time/Space/Logistics Analysis). [C stands for Civilian considerations. For simplicity at this time, we will skip or grey out this step until later in your officer development.
B2B2477
Tactical Thought Process (Continued)

EMLCOA (Continued) Based on your understanding of the situation through the detailed analysis (METT-TC), turn the map around and ask yourself, What would I do if I were the enemy? What is his mission? What are the effects of your analysis (terrain, weather, time, etc) on the enemy? The sum of this analysis is your prediction of the Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA) or enemy SOM. The detail required for an EMLCOA is based on the tactical situation. However, there two things that must be considered when developing the EMLCOA. First, is the enemys current tactical activity which includes patrolling, location and orientation of crewserved weapons, composition and orientation of his engagement area, LP/Ops, etc. Second, are the enemys actions on contact; how will he react when we impose our combat power on him.
B2B2477

COG/CV/EXP As learned in MCDP-1 Warfighting, the COG is an enemy strength or surface. The enemy typically has many strengths, so we must focus our planning on one. The enemys Center-of-Gravity is the KEY STRENGTH that will allow him to conduct his EMLCOA; at the platoon level, focus on ONE COG. (CV) This is an enemy weakness or gap. Again, the enemy likely has many identifiable weaknesses, so we must focus our intent on the ONE WEAKNESS that renders the COG ineffective. The COG/CV analysis is critical to the development of a plan that directly counters the EMLCOA. If the CV is not targetable at the leaders level, or the COG is not directly tied to the EMLCOA, his plan will not successfully counter the enemy. The COG/CV will be communicated in your operations order as the method of your commanders intent. The commander must now decide what method he plans to use to directly targeting the enemys Critical Vulnerability. The Exploitation Plan (EXP) may be a Form of Maneuver or a method of tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) employment. For instance, if the Enemys CV is his fixed unprotected flank, then a likely exploitation plan may be to conduct a flanking attack. If his CV is his inability to integrate fires within his engagement area, then a likely exploitation plan may be the employment of combined arms. Whatever the method of targeting, it will drive the rest of the commanders planning process, as every element of his SOM will be combined and coordinated in order to achieve the exploitation plan.
B2B2477

SOM Development Keeping in mind the nine Principles of War and the six Tactical Tenets, the commander now develops a plan for their combat power to achieving the Exploitation Plan. This is known as the Scheme Of Maneuver (SOM). In this way, the Exploitation Plan is used to achieve unity of effort when developing the SOM. For instance, a commander may decide the Exploitation Plan is to conduct a flanking attack while maintaining surprise with the direction of assault. The detailed execution might be to offsets the support-by-fire position 90 degrees from the direction of assault, making the enemy think they are being attacked from a completely different direction. The commanders SOM must focus on integrating all subordinate (organic and attached) elements within their respective capabilities to achieve the Exploitation Plan. Based on the leaders analysis of his supporting assets in the METT-TC, he must now identify how to integrate those assets into his plan. The Fire Support Plan (FSP) must be developed following SOM development because the fire support assets must be integrated to directly support the SOM. The leader must succinctly and effectively communicate the task that his subordinate elements MUST accomplish to allow the mission to be a success. They are developed to execute the SOM. The commander must utilize standard language to ensure that the correct action is taken. This standardized language is known as a Tactical Task.
FSP Development
Task Development
This concludes Part One of Tactical Planning. The intent is that the student has an introduction to how tactical commanders in the Marine Corps think when developing their plan. You now have a basic knowledge of BAMCIS and the Tactical Thought Process that will allow you to better understand your upcoming instruction on Combat Orders. Before continuing on to Part Two of this handout, read your Combat Orders student handout.
10
B2B2477
TACTICAL PLANNING - PART TWO Introduction

To summarize what was covered in Tactical Planning Part One, planning at the tactical level is diagramed below:
We also defined the Tactical Thought Process as: METT-TC > EMLCOA > COG/CV/EXP > SOM > FSP > Tasks. In Tactical Planning Part Two, we will look at the process in detail, now that you have an understanding of the Combat Order.
11
B2B2477
Begin Planning: Tactical Thought Process: METT-TC

METT-TC is a tool helpful to a decision-maker, as its elements are a reminder of the factors that need to be considered in order for the tactical planning process to be successful, and ultimately counter the enemys actions. While much of the information can be derived from highers order, the process is an analysis of that information, not simply regurgitation. An estimate of the situation is conducted in as much detail as time allows prior to the mission, but the process is executed as often as the situation changes throughout execution. Detailed analysis in the initial tactical thought process will increase the speed and accuracy of decisions as the situation changes at the point of friction.
Mission Analysis
The first step in the estimate is mission analysis. It is the means for the unit leader to gain an understanding of the mission. The information used in this analysis is taken directly from: highers tasking statement to you, highers mission and intent, highers scheme of maneuver, and highers Coordinating Instructions. During your analysis, it is important to think two-levels higher, meaning if you are a platoon commander, your analysis must take into consideration how your mission integrates with the company, and how the companys mission integrates with the battalion. Task Analysis: Each mission statement contains specified tasks. The unit leader must understand not only those explicitly stated tasks, but the implications of those tasks required for the success of the mission. The commander must analyze his units specified tasks, the purpose of the mission, and highers coordinating instructions to identify all the implied tasks Purpose Analysis: An understanding of why a commander is conducting the mission will have a direct impact on the development of implied tasks. These implied tasks may drive or restrict friendly action. For instance, they may drive a fire support control measures, elements of a timeline, signal plan, or other coordinating instructions. Understanding the purpose will ultimately allow the commander to make adjustments to his plan as the situation changes while still accomplishing the mission.
12
B2B2477
Begin Planning: Tactical Thought Process: METT-TC (Continued)

Enemy Forces The objective of an analysis of the enemy situation is to understand how the enemy will use each element of his combat power. Its development comes from many sources including enemy doctrine, current enemy activities indicated in highers order, adjacent units who have previously operated in the area, or the intelligence section. The commander must know what information is valid from each of these sources regarding their specific enemy and the relationship they have with a higher or adjacent enemy. The information used to analyze the enemy situation includes the following:
Composition, Disposition, Strengths:

Typically this is identified in the most general terms by Size, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, and Equipment (SALUTE). In the raw terms, these are generally facts that we know about the enemy. They are usually identified by higher. In conducting this part of the enemy analysis, we need to make sure we focus primarily on the enemy we are tasked with encountering. We must not however ignore how our piece of the enemy relates to the greater enemy threat twolevels higher. Finally, make sure you are analyzing the facts. For example, simply stating the enemy has AK-47s and RPGs lacks analysis. However stating the enemy has AK47s capable of accurate fires at 400 meters, and RPG-7s capable of accurate fires at 300 meters is far more meaningful during your analysis. Capabilities and Limitations. Answers the question, Under what conditions can the enemy? The information and initial analysis conducted during Composition, Disposition, and Strength is further examined to determine the enemys ability to conduct operations against our unit. The enemys force is analyzed concerning its ability to or inability to conduct various operations against your unit. Commonly we determine under what specific conditions does the enemy have the ability or inability to Defend, Reinforce, Attack, Withdraw, or Delay (DRAWD)? Here is where we begin to make our first assumptions about the enemy based on the facts at hand.
13
B2B2477

Enemy Forces (Continued) The acronym DRAW-D serves only as a reminder of the minimum factors to be considered. For example, maybe the enemy is only capable of attacking at night, or if the unit he is attacking is of like size or smaller. Examples of some questions asked during this the capabilities and limitations analysis are: How does the composition and disposition of say, the enemy defense, affect his ability to defend? Under what conditions will he call for or be reinforced? How long will it take? How large will the reinforcing element be? What conditions will limit the reinforcement? Can it be done during the day or only at night? Is it a vehicular transported reinforcement force or will it be traveling on foot? Where and how will the enemy withdraw? Remember, the initial assumptions you are making about the enemy now will be supported by the rest of the METT-TC components and will be the basis of your prediction of the enemys action, or EMLCOA. The analysis of terrain and weather must always be conducted from the friendly and enemy perspectives. The enemy perspective is arguably the more important of the two because you will use this info in conjunction with your enemy analysis to support your estimate of the EMLCOA. This is not simply a regurgitation of existing terrain and current weather conditions but rather an analysis of the effects of the five military aspects of terrain and weather. Certain situations may elevate one element of OCOKA-W (Observation, Cover and Concealment, Obstacles, Key terrain, Avenues of approach, and Weather) to a level of importance above that of one or more of the remaining elements. The information to be analyzed may come from among the following: highers orientation, the commanders map reconnaissance, physical reconnaissance, or intelligence section. While this analysis will affect almost every aspect of the commanders mission, the resulting product will be briefed in the orientation paragraph of the operations order.
Terrain and Weather Analysis (OCOKA-W)
14
B2B2477

Terrain and Weather Analysis (Continued) Observation and fields of fire. Observation is the influence of terrain on visual recon and target acquisition. What can be seen or not seen from where? Fields of fire are the influence of terrain on the effects of weapons systems. Both are important in determining how the enemy can identify and engage you and vice versa. Cover and concealment. Cover is protection from the effects of fires. Concealment is protection from observation or target acquisition. The analysis of cover and concealment is often related to the consideration of observation and fields of fire. Again, both enemy and friendly aspects must be considered. Obstacles. Obstacles are any natural or manmade obstructions that canalize, delay, restrict, or divert the maneuver or movement of a force. It is important not just to identify the obstacles, but to understand what effect they will have on the friendly and enemy SOM. Key terrain. Key terrain is any area whose seizure, retention, or control affords a marked tactical advantage to either combatant. Key terrain does not need to be occupied to be controlled, but it must have the potential to affect mission success for either combatant. Avenues of approach are movement routes to an objective. A viable avenue of approach usually offers mobility corridors. These are areas within the avenue of approach that permit movement and maneuver. They permit friendly and enemy forces to advance or withdraw and to capitalize on the principles of mass, momentum, shock, and speed. When friendly forces are attacking, friendly avenues of approach to the objective must be identified. Enemy avenues of approach that could affect friendly movement i.e., counterattack avenues must be identified.
15
B2B2477

Terrain and Weather Analysis (Continued) Weather. Weather is analyzed using the five military aspects of weather: temperature/humidity, precipitation, wind, clouds, and visibility (day and night). How will these elements influence the operations of each combatant? To determine its cumulative effect on the operation, weather must be considered in conjunction with the associated terrain. Weather affects equipment (including electronic and optical), terrain (traffic-ability), and visibility. Inclement weather affects visibility, rates of movement, routes of movement, unit efficiency and morale, and makes command and control more difficult. Poor weather conditions can be as much of an advantage as a disadvantage to a unit, depending upon the units capabilities, equipment, and training.
16
B2B2477

Troops and Fire Support Available In the same way we analyze what the enemy brings to the fight and how he has the capability to use it, a unit leader must also understand the Marines and assets and their capabilities that are brought to the fight. The unit leader must also consider the mental and physical condition of the Marines, their level of training, the status of their equipment, and fire support assets. Some of this information can be found in highers friendly situation and tasking statements. Organic. Identify the capabilities and limitations of the assets your organic unit will bring to bear on the enemy during the conduct of the mission. Organic to your unit means it is part of your de facto task organization. Attachments and Detachments. Identify what units/assets have been attached to your unit, and what assets you will detach from your unit. How will they affect your ability to achieve mission success? Fire Support Available. Identify locations, azimuths of fire, contact information, employment, and any priority of fires of indirect fire support agencies. What are the effects of the supporting units location on your ability to employ its assets? What are the effects of their priority of fires on the same? Identify any available air assets. What weapons will they bring to the fight? What are the capabilities of their fires? When and how long are they on station? Higher and Adjacent Units. Identify higher and adjacent units SOM and what influence they will have on your SOM. Consider effects on geometries of fire, reinforcement, and contingency plans.
17
B2B2477

Time/Space/Logistics The ability to appreciate the aspects and effects of time and space is one of the most important qualities in a leader. A leader must also be able to identify resource short-falls and have a plan to rectify them. Time. A solid understanding of time required versus time available is vital to all operations; it drives planning and execution. The unit leader must first identify constraints and restraints which are often given by higher. Reverse planning is the method by which leaders should identify realistic timelines to complete each task that is required for mission success. Together with the time constraints, an accurate timeline can be developed and supervised that will uphold and drive the assigned mission. Critical times can include planning time, LD time, movement time, realistic times to fill logistic shortfalls, defend-no-later-than time, time available to prepare and rehearse the attack or defense, and time available for reconnaissance. Whenever possible, unit leaders should use the One-Thirds, Two-Thirds Rule when building the time-line. This is the idea that the leader devotes 1/3 of the available time to those tasks he must directly supervise, leaving 2/3 of the time to his subordinate leaders to accomplish tasks of which he does not need to have direct supervision. Space. A leader must know and understand his Area of Operation (AO). Identify Tactical Control Measures (TCM), Fire Support Coordination Measures (FSCM), and Airspace Control Measures (ACM) within your AO as applicable. Develop a plan to deconflict converging forces and geometry of fires. Logistics. Logistics sustains operations. Without appropriate logistical planning, units will reach their culminating point before ever reaching a decisive point. A leader must be able to identify the required resources in order to accomplish the mission from crossing the LD through consolidation; then identify shortfalls. A realistic plan to fulfill those shortfalls must be formulated, prioritized, and built into the timeline before departure.
18
B2B2477
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: EMLCOA

Now that we have completed our Estimate of the Situation (METT-TC), we analyze all aspects of our estimate to develop our comprehensive assumption of the enemy, the Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA). As stated above, taking all we know and estimate about the situation, in the EMLCOA we predict what the enemys scheme of maneuver will be. There are two components to the EMLCOA: what the enemy is doing now, and what the enemy will do on contact. What the enemy is doing now is best summarized within our tactical tasks (they are listed in your Platoon Commander Notebook). For example, if the enemy is in a defensive position, what is the enemy attempting to accomplish? Block? Delay? Disrupt? While the focus needs to be on the enemy at your level, in determining the enemys mission, ensure you are thinking about your enemys relation to the enemy two-levels up. For example if you are a platoon commander, how does the enemy you are facing integrate with the enemy the company and the battalion are facing. Meaningful detail in this regard is key as the EMLCOA is the key factor that will determine your scheme of maneuver. Meaningful detail assumes that the detail added is of impact to the mission at hand. Do not add useless or faulty assumptions as they will have negative effects on your scheme of maneuver development. Once we engage the enemy, the enemys action will change, hence we must define what the enemy will do on contact. This will influence our scheme of maneuver in two ways. First, when we analyze the enemys critical vulnerability, determine our exploitation plan, and build a scheme of maneuver, we will seek to build a scheme of maneuver that counters both what the enemy is doing now and what they will do on contact. For example, we assume the enemy is in a defensive blocking position. We also determine that the enemys western and northern flanks are exposed. Finally we assume that on contact, the enemy will withdraw north. Therefore we may opt to flank the enemy from the northwest to not only defeat what the enemy is doing now, but to also defeat what the enemy will do on contact. Remember, all aspects of METT-TC influence the EMLCOA. The enemys composition, disposition, strengths, capabilities, and limitations, the terrain and weather, and their knowledge of your troops and fire support available will influence what they are doing now. Add your mission, your troops and fire support, the time, space, and logistics, and the terrain and weather to your analysis and you will determine what the enemy will do on contact.
19
B2B2477
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: COG/CV/EXP

Having determined what we believe the EMLCOA (aka. Enemy SOM), we can now analyze the enemys Center Of Gravity (COG), Critical Vulnerability (CV), and our Exploitation Plan (EXP) of the enemys CV. As per MCDP-1, Warfighting, we identify the COG as the key strength of the enemy that, if defeated, will bend the enemy to our will. A COG is also known as a surface. As Marines, we fight maneuver warfare, and therefore we avoid striking surfaces and conducting attrition-type warfare. When we look at the enemys COG, we must do it within the confines of the EMLCOA. For example, we estimate the EMLCOA is a defense to block south where they can mass effective fires in an area where they expect us to approach from. The COG in this case may be the enemys ability to mass fires to the south along a particular avenue of approach. In this regard we are nesting our COG with the EMLCOA. A poor example would be a COG of the enemys ability to rapidly withdraw north and reinforce an adjacent force. Note how this COG has no linkage to our original EMLCOA. If the enemy is in a defense to block, then rapid withdraw and reinforcement would be a last resort action and has no bearing on the enemys ability to block. Remember, the COG is the key strength that allows the enemy to accomplish your prediction of their SOM (EMLCOA). The enemys COG will have a corresponding critical vulnerability (CV). The CV is the key weakness that when struck renders the enemys COG ineffective, without having to strike the COG directly. The enemys COG and CV must be nested or linked with the EMLCOA we have determined. Continuing the above example, the enemys COG might be his ability to mass fires south; the enemys CV might be his poorly defended left flank open to attack. Note the CVs nesting with the COG and the EMLCOA. A poor example would be the enemys lack of indirect fire. In this case, the CV directly contradicts the COG of ability to mass fires south. Another poor example might be the enemys lack of rest. While the enemy may very well be lacking sleep, unless you can infiltrate up to his position undetected, this CV is difficult to exploit and would not necessarily render the COG ineffective. With both the COG and CV, you must define the not only the strength, but also what it allows the enemy to do. For example, a COG of well dug-in positions is incomplete and lacks analysis. A COG of well dug-in positions allowing the enemy to mass fires from cover and concealment is far more pertinent. Similarly a CV of small size is also incomplete. A CV of as a result of the enemys small size, they lack the manpower to protect their left flank is far more informative. Finally, your exploitation plan is your succinct and overarching plan to exploit the critical vulnerability of the enemy. For example, if the enemys COG is their dug in positions allowing them to mass fires to the south along the high speed avenue of approach, and the CV is as a result of their small size, the enemy lacks the manpower to protect their left flank, then a reasonable and nested exploitation plan might be a flanking attack on the enemys left flank with supporting direct and indirect fires fixing the enemys position.
20
B2B2477
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: COG/CV/EXP (Continued)

Once you have completed your COG/CV/EXP analysis, go backwards through the Tactical Thought Process. So: METT-TC > EMLCOA > COG/CV/EXP made sense as you did the analysis, but if you went EXP > CV > COG > EMLCOA > METT-TC does your analysis still make sense? If so, you can be assured that so far, your analysis is logical and most likely realistic.
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: Scheme of Maneuver

In Combat Orders you learn what the essential elements of the Scheme Of Maneuver (SOM) are, and in general terms its relationship with the rest of the order. We will not revisit these learning points. With regards to tactical planning, it is imperative that your SOM is linked to the rest of the Tactical Thought Process. Your SOM is the detailed plan you have developed to conduct your exploitation plan. Remember, we are still in the B in BAMCIS, so this is your initial SOM. Once you have arranged for and made reconnaissance, you will seek to validate your assumptions about the enemy, and therefore your SOM.
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: Fire Support Plan (FSP)
To support your initial SOM, you build an initial Fire Support Plan (FSP) which outlines the supporting fires that will aid in your execution of the SOM. It is, like the rest of the Tactical Thought Process, dependent on the analysis conducted earlier.
Begin the Planning: Tactical Thought Process: Tasks

At the conclusion of the Tactical Thought Process, we develop our tasks to our subordinates that provide them the mission they must accomplish to allow our SOM to be successful. In Combat Orders you learn to components of the Tasking Statements, so we will not revisit them in this handout. A key point however is the appropriate tactical task and purpose. The purpose is the most important part of the statement as it allows for decentralized execution within your intent. At the conclusion of Begin the Planning, first check the logic in your analysis by going backwards through your Tactical Thought Process. Does your analysis make sense: Tasks > FSP > SOM > EXP/CV/COG > EMLCOA > METT-TC. Second, compile the questions you have, and the assumptions you have made, which you will answer or validate through reconnaissance.
B2B2477
Arrange for Reconnaissance

At this stage in BAMCIS, you must: 1. Identify what questions you need answered and in what priority. Validating enemy position, orientation, and activity is always the top priority. 2. Identify assets available to conduct reconnaissance. 3. In the case of physical reconnaissance patrol, the single most effective reconnaissance, identify the leadership you will bring with you and build and brief a plan for the reconnaissance. Remember, the key in this stage is to focus your reconnaissance planning on answering your assumptions made and questions remaining concerning the enemy and ground.
Make Reconnaissance
Details concerning the conduct of arranging and conducting a reconnaissance patrol will instructed during your patrolling package, so we will not cover them here. The point to be made here is, in order for reconnaissance to be effective, YOU MUST GET EYES ON THE ENEMY; ANSWER REMAINING QUESTIONS; VALIDATE YOUR ASSUMPTIONS.
Complete the Plan

After completing your reconnaissance, you should now have validated the assumptions you made about the enemy and answered any questions you had at the end of your initial plan. You can now revisit the Tactical Thought Process utilizing the new information you have gained. Do not fall in love with your plan. If your SOM must be changed because your EMLCOA and resulting COG/CV/EXP were incorrect, then change the plan. At the conclusion you will build your five paragraph order. If done properly, the preponderance of your order has been written through your execution of the Tactical Thought Process. Orientation relates directly to your terrain analysis and friendly analysis (METT-TC). Enemy situation contains your enemy Composition, Disposition, and Strength analysis, enemy Capabilities and Limitations analysis (METTTC), and EMLCOA analysis. Friendly situation contains much of your Troops and Fire Support available analysis, and highers mission and intent analysis (METT-TC). Your mission contains the specified tasks identified during your mission analysis (METT-TC). Your commanders intent is composed of your COG/CV/EXP analysis, and the resulting SOM, FSP, and Tasks have been identified. In writing your order, ensure you are providing the meaningful detail needed for both execution of and confidence in your plan. To check your detail, ask yourself or your senior subordinate: If I were to brief only from orientation to my exploitation plan, would my Marines be able to predict my SOM? If the answer is yes, you probably have the meaningful detail necessary. Finally, do not forget the Nine Principles of War which are a useful tool to evaluate your plan, lends rigor and focus to the purely creative aspects of tactics, and provides a crucial link between pure theory and actual application of the Tactical Tenets.
22
B2B2477
Issue the Order

Order issuance is covered during the Combat Orders and Utilizing Terrain Models class, so we will not revisit the concept here. The primary focus is confident, succinct, clear communication of your plan over a terrain model that will help you paint the picture to your subordinates. The terrain model should have not only terrain, but all the information appropriate to show the enemy and friendly SOMs. In evaluating your terrain model, ask yourself: If someone with a basic military knowledge approached this terrain model, would they understand what the enemy is doing and what we are doing. In other words, can they predict the meat of your order after looking only at the terrain model?
Supervise
As stated previously, supervision is not limited to just the preparation for your mission. It is supervision throughout the conduct of the operation, and the consolidation at the end of the operation. DO NOT assume that your subordinates are executing in a fashion that meets your standards. Failure to supervise frequently results in mission failure.
23
B2B2477
Summary
During this lesson, we discussed the importance of leaders being able to make sound and timely decisions based upon an accurate assessment of conditions present on an ever-changing battlefield. We focused upon the Six Troop-Leading Steps and the role they play in creating a streamlined process from receipt of the order to execution of the mission. We looked at the Tactical thought Process as an analytical process that identifies and analyzes all the elements of the situation and lends understanding to how the situation effects the commanders development of the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action, a Center-of-Gravity and Critical Vulnerability directly tied to the EMLCOA, and the creation of a scheme of maneuver that directly targets the enemys course of action, using the exploitation plan to achieve unity of effort focused on the enemys critical vulnerability.
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 1 MCDP 2 MCRP 3-11.1A MCWP 3-11.1 MCRP 3-11.1B MCWP 3-11.2 MCRP 3-11.2A Reference Title Warfighting Intelligence Commanders Tactical Handbook Marine Rifle Company/Platoon Small Unit Leaders Guide to Weather and Terrain Marine Rifle Squad Marine Troop Leaders Guide

Term or Acronym ACM ASCOPE BAMCIS Definition or Identification Airspace Coordination Measures Areas, Structures, Capabilities, Organizations, People, and Events Begin planning, Arrange for reconnaissance, Make reconnaissance, Complete the plan, Issue the order, and Supervise Course of Action Center-of-Gravity Critical Vulnerability Defend, Reinforce, Attack, Withdraw, and Delay Enemys most likely course of action Fire Support Plan Mission, Enemy, Terrain and weather, Troops and support available, Time/space/logistics, Civil considerations Observation, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, avenues of approach, weather
COA COG CV DRAW-D EMLCOA FSP METT-TC OCOKA-W
24
B2B2477
PCC/PCI SALUTE SOM TCM
Pre-Combat Checks/Pre-Combat Inspections Size, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, Equipment Scheme of Maneuver Tactical Control Measures
Notes
25
Appendix A: Tactical Thought Process and the Combat Order
Highers Order
Tactical Thought Process

METT-TC
Mission Enemy Troops & Fire Support Available Terrain Weather Time Civilian Considerations
Your Order
EMLCOA COG/CV/EXP SOM FSP Tasks

USING TERRAIN MODELS B2B257 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2B2577
Using Terrain Models

Introduction Terrain models are used to paint a visual picture for those Marines receiving an order. Terrain models must be constructed properly in order to assist in clarification of the order to all subordinates. Only an order that is understood by all translates a tactical decision into action. In Combat Orders Foundations, we discussed the importance of creating and issuing a clear and concise order that directly translated into a solid understanding by your subordinates. A terrain model is a very helpful method of accomplishing that end. Here at The Basic School (TBS), you (and your squad, platoon, etc.) will be evaluated in the construction of terrain models. This class serves to introduce some basic concepts of terrain model construction We shall discuss the proper procedure for constructing an effective terrain model. Although no Marine Corps publication identifies a specific method, the material presented here represents a best-practice guide. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Terrain Model Kit Terrain Model Construction Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 3 3 5 5 6 6
Importance
In This Lesson
Learning Objectives
Enabling Learning Objectives 0302-OFF-1002b. Given a terrain model, map overlay or graphic, use terrain model, graphic, and/or overlay to reinforce understanding of the order.
B2B2577
Terrain Model Kit

At TBS, each fire team will be directed by the company staff to create Terrain Model Kits. The standardized list of all items that should be included is listed below, so that all billet holders can quickly access the tools necessary to construct and incorporate a terrain model into the order issue process. Each fire team should bring their terrain model kit to the field; student leadership is responsible for ensuring compliance. Student leadership should ensure that all terrain model kits meet the minimum requirements and that the kits are reconstituted as needed after each field evolution. All terrain model kits will contain the following items: Yarn o o o o o
3m white yarn for grid lines 3m black yarn for roads and trails 3m blue yarn for rivers, streams, and bodies of water 3m yellow yarn for phase lines and boundaries 3m of green yarn for utility purposes
Laminated 3" x 5" unit symbols and operational graphics o friendly and enemy fire team, squad, and platoon symbols o Tactical control measures (TCMs), to include the assembly area (AA), attack position (AtkPos), assault position (AsltPos), line of departure (LD). o light and heavy mortars, machine guns, and assault weapons o support by fire position symbol o fire team and squad defensive position symbols o check point and listening post (LP)/observation post (OP) symbols o 10 blank cards (grid lines, indirect fire targets, etc)
(Note: Spray paint is not recommended due to the flammability issues and the size of the canister.)
Terrain Model Construction

Terrain models, built properly, enhance a leaders ability to communicate the details and intricacies of a plan to subordinates. By creating this "picture" of the terrain to be covered during any given mission, a unit commander can create for subordinates a mental image of the proposed scheme of maneuver. The proper procedure for constructing a terrain model follows. Use a map to identify the area required; include entire area that is mentioned in the order. Identify any defining features within the area, such as northings/eastings, mountains, hills, water, etc. Ensure that any relevant areas of interest and adjacent units are included (especially if they could potentially impact your proposed scheme of maneuver).
B2B2577
Terrain Model Construction (Continued)

Orient the terrain model with reference to the direction of movement. Ensure that north on the terrain model is always really north. The size of the terrain model should be appropriate for the unit and the mission. If the entire platoon will attend the order issue, ensure that the terrain model is large enough for all to gather around. It is recommended that subordinate leaders are placed at the base of the terrain model, oriented in the direction of movement. The terrain model should accurately represent the terrain to be found within the area covered. Your Marines must be able to determine at a glance the type of terrain they will be negotiating during the operation. Ensure that the terrain is proportional; use some sort of scale to establish common proportion for elevation and slope. Accentuate the terrain to facilitate comparison to the map. Try to make your terrain model boot-top high. All markings should coordinate with the colors used on a map. For instance, blue yarn should be used for water features while black yarn should be used for roads or trails. (However, white yarn is typically used for grid lines.) Include the following on your terrain model: o Grid Lines. o Water features. o Vegetation. o Relief features. o Boundaries. o Known trails. o Landing Zones. o North-seeking arrow. o TCMs. o Targets. o Main Supply Routes (MSRs). o Objectives. o Trigger Lines. o Alternate positions. o Supplementary positions. o Obstacles. o LPs/OPs. o Check Points. o Built-up areas.
B2B2577
Terrain Model Construction (Continued)

To avoid wasting time reading grid coordinates several times during the order and to eliminate any possible error during transcription, write the grid coordinates on laminated white cards and include them on the terrain model. Ensure the labels can be seen from as far away as possible; you want to provide your Marines as much information as possible. Include grid coordinates for the following: o TCMs. o Objectives. o Check Points. o Targets. Ensure that all units, TCMs, and features are properly identified with the appropriate operational terms and graphics. Lack of attention to detail will result in your Marines lacking confidence in your abilities. At times, it may be feasible to use a smaller terrain model specifically for the objective if it will provide further clarity in briefing the order. Specifically in the defense, ensure that you identify final protective lines (FPLs) and principal direction of fires (PDFs) for the crew-served weapons systems.
Summary
The most important factor for terrain model construction is detail. Ensure that the terrain model with which you will present your scheme of maneuver is as detailed as possible. This will directly translate into a more solid understanding among your subordinates and a greater chance of mission accomplishment and success.
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 1 MCDP 5 MCRP 3-11.1A MCWP 3-11.1 MCWP 3-11.2 MCWP 3-1 Reference Title Warfighting Planning Commanders Tactical Handbook Marine Rifle Company/Platoon Marine Rifle Squad Ground Combat Operations
B2B2577

Term or Acronym AA Atk Pos Aslt Pos FPL LD LP MSR OP PDF TBS TCM Definition or Identification Assembly area Attack position Assault position Final protective line Line of departure Listening post Main Supply Route Observation post Principal direction of fire The Basic School Tactical Control Measure
Notes
PRINCIPLES OF FIRE SUPPORT B2C2437 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2C2437
Principles of Fire Support

Introduction The purpose of this instruction is to provide you with a basic understanding of the different fire support assets (air, artillery, mortars, and naval surface fire support) available to support the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), as well as the capabilities and limitations of these weapons systems. Fire support as defined in Joint Publication 1-02 is the application of fires that directly support land, maritime, amphibious, and special operations forces to engage the enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives. We will discuss the capabilities and limitations of the fire support assets available to you in the Marine Corps. They include: 60mm Mortars, 81mm Mortars, 155mm Artillery, Naval Surface Fire Support, and Aviation assets. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic M224 60mm Mortar M252 81mm Mortar Mortar Ammunition Mortar Capabilities and Limitations Marine Corps Artillery Artillery Weapons Systems Artillery Ammunition Artillery Organization Naval Surface Fire Support Marine Aviation Ordnance Aircraft Capabilities Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 4 6 8 10 11 12 14 17 21 25 34 40 40 41 42
Importance
In This Lesson
B2C2437
Principles of Fire Support (Continued)

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives Given a scheme of maneuver, fire support available, and commander's intent, develop a fire support plan to support the ground scheme of maneuver in accordance with the commander's intent. (0302-FSPT-1300) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, available supporting arms, equipment, a scheme of maneuver, and a commander's intent, employ supporting arms to achieve desired effect(s) on target that support(s) the ground scheme of maneuver. (0302-FSPT-1302) Enabling Learning Objectives Without the aid of reference, identify fire support asset capabilities without error. (0302-FSPT-1300a) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, available supporting arms, a target, a scheme of maneuver, and a commander's intent, determine fire support available to achieve desired effect(s) on target. (0302-FSPT-1302a)
B2C2437
M224 60mm Mortars

The M224 60mm mortar is a smooth bore, muzzle loaded, high angle of fire weapon (see diagram below). Three M224 mortars make up a mortar section, which is organic only to an infantry rifle company. It can be fired from either a drop fire mode (conventional method) or trigger fire mode (conventional or handheld method). A lightweight auxiliary base plate is used when firing the mortar in the hand-held mode. It can be fired in a direct lay mode or through the use of a fire direction center (FDC).
B2C2437
M224 60mm Mortars (Continued)

60mm Mortar Section Organization One section o Section leader Sergeant 0341 Three squads each with o One M224 o Three Marines Squad leader/Gunner Corporal 0341 Assistant gunner Lance Corporal 0341 Ammunition man Private First Class/Private 0341 Weight
Item Cannon M225 Bipod M170 Sight M64 Base plate M7 **Base plate M8 Conventional mode **Handheld mode
Weight in Pounds 14.4 15.2 2.5 14.4 3.6 46.5 18.0
B2C2437
M252 81mm Mortars

The M252 81mm medium extended range mortar (see diagram below) is a crew-served, smooth bore, muzzle loaded, high angle of fire weapon system. It is designed to be fired in the indirect fire mode, cannot be fired handheld, and normally utilizes a FDC. The M252 is highly accurate up to ranges of 4500m to 5700m depending on the munition. A blast attenuation device (BAD) is attached to the muzzle of the cannon assembly to reduce the blast effects on the mortar crew. The M252 is ideally suited to support light infantry forces.
B2C2437
M252 81 mm Mortars (Continued)

81mm Platoon Organization Organization Platoon HQ o Platoon commander First Lieutenant 0302 o Platoon Sergeant Gunnery sergeant 0848 o Ammo technician Lance Corporal 2311 o Ammo man/driver Private First Class 0341 Two sections (four squads per section) o Section leader Staff Sergeant 0369 o Two ammo men Lance Corporals 0341 o Plotter Sergeant 0341 o Plotter/recorder Corporal 0341 o Recorder/driver Lance Corporal 0341 o Two forward observers Corporals 0341 Eight squads each with o One M252 o Six Marines Squad Leader Sergeant 0341 Gunner Corporal 0341 Assistant gunner Lance Corporal 0341 Three ammo men Privates 0341 Item Cannon M253 Mount M177 Base plate M3A1 Sight M64A1 Total weight Weight Weight in Pounds 35 27 25.5 2.25 89
B2C2437
Mortar Ammunition
Shell. The following table describes the four mortar shells. Type Data Range Burst radius Weight Color Range Burst radius Weight Color Range Burst radius Weight Color Range 3200 meters 60mm 3500 meters 27.5 meters 3.90 pounds 81mm 5700 meters 35 meters 8.96 pounds Effects HE (High explosive) Designed to destroy or inflict casualties on o Personnel o Emplacement o Vehicles By fragmentation of the o Metal body o Blast o Fire
HE
Olive drab Olive drab 3500 meters 10 x 10 meters 3.75 pounds Light green 4800 meters 20 x 20 meters 9.05 pounds Light green 5000 meters 20 x 20 meters 10.6 pounds Light green 5100 meters 60 seconds 9.10 pounds White
WP
RP
N/A
WP (White Phosphorous) Smoke (WP, RP) Designed for o Screening o Obscuring o Casualty producing o Incendiary o Signaling Red phosphorous has an airburst/impact fuze and releases red phosphorous pellets that produce gray/white smoke, which provides faster billowing and more widespread smoke screen
Illumination 40 seconds Illumination time Weight Color 5.17 pounds White
On activation, canister is suspended from a parachute, providing battlefield illumination
B2C2437
Mortar Ammunition (Continued)

The following table describes the four types of mortar fuses.
Fuse Point detonating
Description Functions on impact Can be used with HE and WP projectiles Is commonly referred to as quick and PD Functions .05 seconds after impact Can be used with HE projectiles HE delay is effective against: o Unarmored vehicles o Earth and log fortifications o Some masonry and concrete targets o Personnel in light frame structures o Lightly covered emplacements o Dense woods Not effective against heavy: o Armor o Masonry o Concrete Is radio activated Functions when it receives the reflection of a selftransmitted radio signal Has height of burst 0-3 ft (NSB) or 3-13 ft (Prox) HE Prox/NSB is useful in situations where an airburst is desired without the need to adjust the height of burst Light foliage has little effect, but heavy foliage will cause detonation Is particularly effective against: o Personnel in any disposition without overhead cover o Lightly skinned vehicles Used for: o Illumination o WP
Delay
Proximity/ Near Surface Burst (NSB)
Time
B2C2437
Mortar Capabilities and Limitations

Mortar Capabilities Capability Description The maximum (30 rds/min) and sustained (20 rds/min for 60mm; 15 rds/min for 81mm) rates of fire allow both mortar systems to provide a considerable amount of ammunition in support of maneuver forces. The location of the mortar systems closer to the supporting units equates to faster response time. Both mortar systems are light enough to be hand carried, if necessary, and can be employed in a variety of positions on the ground. Mortars can be positioned on the ground to take advantage of protection by terrain; for example, behind a hill mass or in a dry riverbed. Conversely, mortars inherent high angle fire capability allows them to engage targets located in defilade positions. The 60mm and 81mm mortar are organic assets within the Marine rifle battalion thus increasing their knowledge of the maneuver units experience and capabilities due to habitual working relationships.
High volume of fire
Highly responsive asset Light, mobile, and flexible
Fires from and into defilade
COs hip pocket artillery
Mortar Limitations Limitation Long time of flight
Ammunition consumption
Multiple displacements
Description The high angle nature of fire for the mortar contributes to their longer time of flight for the round to reach the target area. This also makes the mortar system more susceptible to direction-finding radar. Due to the maximum and sustained rates of fire, mortars expend more ammunition. A smaller effective casualty radius requires both systems to use a greater number of rounds to accomplish the same mission as compared to other fire support systems. The shorter range of both mortar systems require the tubes to move closer to the engagement areas whenever maneuver units reach beyond the range of their mortars. During their movement, mortars have a limited capability to employ their systems to supporting units.
10
B2C2437
Mortar Capabilities and Limitations (Continued)

Conclusion. The mortars are a crew-served weapon system, which can be found in Marine infantry companies and battalions. It is a muzzle-loaded, smooth-bored, all weather capable weapon system that Marines can carry and disassemble. In the weapons platoon of an infantry rifle company are three 60mm mortar systems. In the weapons company of the infantry battalion are eight 81mm mortar systems. A Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) Battalion also possesses eight 81mm Mortar systems. Mortars are capable of firing a wide variety of ammunition. Due to their increased responsiveness and the fact that they belong to the maneuver commander, mortars are often referred to as the COs hip pocket artillery.
Marine Corps Artillery

Generating combat power in support of maneuver at the decisive time and place achieves victory on the battlefield. Mission. The mission of Marine artillery is to: Destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy by cannon, rocket, and missile fire and to integrate all fire support assets into combined arms operation.
Artillery conducts three key tasks to accomplish their mission. The primary task: to provide close and continuous fire support to the maneuver units. Fire support is provided day or night and in all weather conditions. Artillery gives depth to the battlefield. Weapons with ranges of 20+ kilometers have the ability to: o Attack reserves and assembly areas. o Interdict supply lines. o Disrupt the enemys command and control facilities. Deliver counter fire within the range of our weapon systems to ensure freedom of movement for ground forces.
11
B2C2437
Artillery Weapons Systems

M198 155mm Towed Howitzer Characteristic Weight of weapon Data 15,800 pounds 18,100 meters Range 30,100 meters with rocket-assisted projectile (RAP) Maximum rate of fire Sustained rate of fire 4 rounds per minute for first 3 minutes Maximum rate followed by 2 rounds per minute thereafter HE Dual purpose Improved conventional munitions (DPICM) WP Remote anti-armor mine system (RAAMS) IL Area denial artillery munitions (ADAM) HERA Cannon launched guided projectile (CLGP) M825
Ammunition available
12
B2C2437
Artillery Weapons Systems (Continued)

XM777 155mm Towed Howitzer. In the process of fielding the XM777 Marine Corps wide at this time. Characteristic Data Weight of weapon Roughly 10,000 pounds 18,100 meters Range 30,100 meters with RAP Maximum rate of fire 5 Sustained rate of fire 2 Ammunition available Standard 155mm ammunition
13
B2C2437
Artillery Ammunition
Shell. The following describes the eight artillery shells.
Shell HE
High explosive, RAP
WP
M825 felt wedge WP
Description Bursting-type projectile filled with TNT or Composition B Produces fragmentation and blast over a wide area on impact Is effective against: o Standing personnel o Personnel prone on the ground o Unarmored vehicles o Light material Effectiveness is reduced: o On personnel dug in o On uneven ground o Against building or earthworks Some detonation will occur when fired in trees High fragmentation steel cases filled with TNT or Composition B An integral rocket motor increases the range of the projectile Accuracy is reduced at longer ranges due to the uneven burn of the rocket motor Will produce more fragmentation over a large area than the standard HE projectile Burster-type projectile filled with WP On detonation WP is expelled over a limited area WP is used for: o Marking o Screening o Obscuring o Incendiary effects Useful against: o Vehicles o POL storage areas Provides 5 to 15 minutes of smoke Uses 116 felt wedges impregnated with WP to facilitate rapid dissemination Mechanical time fuze activates a charge causing base ejection and ignition of the WP felt-pad wedge in a large area Is extremely effective for: o Screening o Obscuring Not used for Marking
14
B2C2437
Artillery Ammunition (Continued)

Shell Illumination shell Description On activation of the fuze, the canister/parachute assembly is expelled from the base of the projectile Illumination suspends from a parachute providing up to 1,000,000 (155mm) candlepower of battlefield illumination One illumination round can illuminate one grid square for 2 minutes Is a precision guided round that is capable of homing in on its target after being fired Is employed in indirect fire to destroy or neutralize moving and stationary hard, point targets such as: o Armor o Mechanized vehicles o Field fortifications Targets must be illuminated during the latter phase of the terminal portion of the trajectory by either a ground or airborne laser Is a base ejecting type projectile that contains 88 dual purpose armor defeating and antipersonnel grenades Upon activation of the fuze, these grenades are ejected over the target area When the projectile is detonated, these high explosive shaped charge grenades suspended from ribbon streamers are expelled. On impact, a shape-charge jet is expelled downward through the body of each grenade while the rest of the grenade bursts outward producing fragmentation Jet is capable of penetrating approximately 2.75 inches of rolled homogenous armor Is effective against vehicles such as: o Armored personnel carriers o Trucks Little effect against hard material targets (bunkers) Effects pattern is generally uniform and circular in shape CAUTION: Exercise caution when firing in trees; the ribbon streamers may become hung in the trees creating obstacles to friendly troops moving in the area. Refers to expelling charge projectiles used to deliver antitank or antipersonnel mines Includes: o ADAM o RAAMS
Cannon launched guided projectile (CLGP or copperhead)
Improved conventional munitions (ICM)
Family of scatterable mines (FASCAM)
15
B2C2437
Artillery Ammunition (Continued)

The following table describes the four types of artillery fuzes.
Fuze Point detonating
Description Functions on impact Can be used with HE and WP projectiles Is commonly referred to as quick and PD Functions .05 seconds after impact Can be used with HE projectiles HE delay is effective against: o Unarmored vehicles o Earth and log fortifications o Some masonry and concrete targets o Personnel in light frame structures o Lightly covered emplacements o Dense woods Not effective against heavy: o Armor o Masonry o Concrete Is radio activated Functions when it receives the reflection of a selftransmitted radio signal Has a nonadjustable 7-meter height of burst HE VT is useful in situations where an airburst is desired without the need to adjust the height of burst Light foliage has little effect, but heavy foliage will cause detonation Is particularly effective against: o Personnel in any disposition without overhead cover o Lightly skinned vehicles Used for: o Dual purpose (DP) ICM o M825 o Illumination o FASCAM
Delay
Variable time (VT)
Time
16
B2C2437
Artillery Organization
The three active duty artillery regiments and one artillery regiment in the reserve structure are the: 10th Marines within the 2nd Marine Division. 11th Marines within the 1st Marine Division. 12th Marines within the 3rd Marine Division. 14th Marines (the reserve artillery regiment), an element of the 4th Marine Division (the Reserve Division). th The 10 and 11th Marines each have four battalions and a headquarters battery. The 12th Marines has one artillery battalion and a headquarters battery. Artillery Battalion. The battalion, the basic tactical unit for the artillery, contains: One headquarters battery and three firing batteries (six howitzers in each battery; 18 howitzers in the battalion). Headquarters Battery. The headquarters battery provides the equipment and personnel to assist the battalion commander in controlling and supporting the battalion. Firing Battery. Three firing batteries in each artillery battalion each Is commanded by a Captain (0802). Has six howitzer sections (with one howitzer in each section). Has one FDC that o Exercises technical and tactical fire control for the battery. o Communicates with higher headquarters and the supported unit. Has a battery headquarters element which contains these sections o Communication. o Motor transport. o Medical. o Liaison. The liaison officer (LNO) is an 0802 Lieutenant. The section provides artillery liaison personnel to operate (with equipment) with the Fire Support Coordination Center (FSCC) of the supported unit. o Forward observer (FO) teams. Company fire support teams of the supported maneuver battalion. Each FO team consists of: An FO (0802 lieutenant) A scout observer (0861) One or two radio operators (0621)
17
B2C2437
Artillery Organization (Continued)

Firing Team. Regardless of the organization and equipment, the mission of any indirect fire unit remains the same: to put steel on target as quickly as possible. Accomplishing this goal requires a three-part team (whether the team is artillery, mortars, naval surface fire support, or any other indirect firing organization): o The observer eyes o The FDC brain o The howitzer section muscle The Observer Eyes. The FO teams and the liaison section provide the link between the maneuver unit and the supporting artillery. The FO will locate and identify targets for the battery or battalion to engage. The liaison officer will assist the infantry battalion FSC in coordination and planning of artillery support. The FOs and LNO see the battlefield and feed information to the FDC. The FDC Brain. The FDC is the brain of the battery. The information gained by the eyes is fed here. The fire direction officer (FDO) is responsible for the FDC. Upon hearing the call for fire, the FDO issues a fire order to the FDC. The FDC takes the rough information obtained from the eyes and calculates firing data for the howitzer. Data is then sent to the gun line. The Howitzer section Muscle. The gun line is the muscle. The howitzer section applies the data to the gun and delivers steel to the target. The section chief (0811 Staff Sergeant), responsible for the howitzer section, ensures that the correct fuze, fuze setting, round, charge, deflection, and quadrant are fired.
18
B2C2437

Artillery Capabilities and Limitation. The tables below describe the capabilities and limitations of artillery. Capability Description Maneuvering fires Can shift fire from one target to another without displacing (physically moving) This responsiveness allows close integration with maneuvers Massing fires Despite extensive dispersion between batteries and battalions, different units can simultaneously engage one target or a group of targets (two or more targets fired simultaneously) Whenever possible, artillery battalion will mass its batteries to have greater effect o 18 rounds landing at the same time causes greater damage and more casualties than 18 rounds landing six at a time, 20 seconds apart Surprise fires Fires delivered without adjustment, thereby allowing for greater effect To be effective, an accurate target location must be given or known All weather Artillery is not limited by visibility or weather conditions capability Is an all weather, 24-hour supporting arm Fires from and into Artillery can be positioned on the ground to take defilade advantage of protection provided by terrain, for example o Behind a hill mass o In riverbed Conversely, by using high angle fire, artillery is able to engage targets located in a defilade position Rapid displacement Artillery is able to move rapidly from one position to another Limitation Reduced effectiveness Description A battery cannot shoot while displacing unless it conducts a hip shoot (the hasty, unplanned occupation of a firing position) Battery is most vulnerable when on the move Broken or rough terrain Limits mobility Slows the displacement of batteries May limit dispersion between howitzers Batterys support is degraded when defending its own position
Poor terrain
Close combat
19
B2C2437

Limitation (Continued) Air attack Description (Continued)
Artillery is extremely vulnerable to air attack while displacing Movement or dust clouds are easily detected from the air Ammunition/logistics Artillery units must have uninterrupted supply of burden ammunition to provide continuous fire support One MTVR, 7-ton truck (with M105 trailer) can carry 120 complete 155mm rounds (projectile, powder, and fuze) A battalion can fire the equivalent of one truckload of ammunition every minute Inability to support Artillery will be on ship or en route to the beach the initial phase of an during the initial phase of the amphibious assault amphibious Naval gunfire and air must provide initial support operation Communication To provide support, effective communication must be maintained Communication is often the Achilles heel of any operation due to the o Dispersion between units o Terrain o Weather o Enemy interference Counter battery If the enemy possesses counter battery radar, they can radar Track the projectiles Determine their origin Return fire Conclusion. Marine artillery provides all-weather fire support to maneuver commanders and is capable of firing in the direct and indirect fire modes. Supporting units can depend on the M198 155mm towed howitzer to provide the added weight to any operation. The organization of Marine artillery provides the MAGTF commanders with flexibility. Three firing batteries plus one headquarters battery in the artillery offer constant support, firing a multitude of ammunition ranging from HE to the Copperhead laser guided projectile. The FO (eyes), FDC (brains), and gun line (muscle) all furnish maneuver units lethality up to 30,100 meters.
20
B2C2437
Naval Surface Fire Support

Three Missions of Naval Surface Fire Support (NSFS). NSFS ships exist to support the assault of an objective by destroying or neutralizing: Shore installations that oppose the approach of ships and aircraft (Normally an advance force will split from the main amphibious task force (ATF) body to accomplish tasks in advance of the main force arrival. This advance force normally will include NSFS ships.) Defenses that oppose the: o Actual landing of the landing force o And to provide support for the advance of the landing force ashore
Ships Capable of Providing NSFS. A number of types and classes of ships can fire in support of land operations. Each of these classes of ship will have its own peculiarities and characteristics based on its: Configuration Primary mission Weapons systems The types of ships that provide NSFS are Destroyers (DD) Guided missile destroyers (DDG) Guided missile cruisers (CG) Although there are many classes of ships, there are only a few types of gun mounts and computer systems, each of which implies certain capabilities. Guided Missile Cruisers. The Ticonderoga class guided missile cruisers perform primarily in a battle force role. These ships are Multi-mission surface combatants. Capable of supporting carrier battle groups, amphibious forces, or operating independently. Armed with two 5/54 gun mounts to support the landing force.
Destroyers. These NSFS platforms are capable of supporting Carrier battle groups. Surface action groups. Amphibious groups. Replenishment groups.
The Arleigh Burke class destroyer has one 5/54 gun mount; the Spruance class has two 5/54 gun mounts.
21
B2C2437
Naval Surface Fire Support (Continued)

MK-45 5/54. The MK-45 is a 54-caliber, lightweight gun that provides surface combatants accurate naval gunfire against Fast, highly maneuverable surface targets Air threats Shore targets during amphibious operations
The MK-45 is controlled by the MK 86 gun fire control system that allows the ship to engage targets while moving. The capabilities of the MK-45 are listed in the table below. Capability Minimum range Maximum range Maximum rate of fire Sustained rate of fire Measurement 910 meters 23,000 meters 40 rounds/minute 20 rounds/minute
NSFS Capabilities. To ensure that NSFS ships can provide effective support to a landing force, a planner must have a good foundation in the characteristics of NSFS. The capabilities and limitations should be considered both when planning and adjusting NSFS. These capabilities and limitations are actually a set of related characteristics that can be liabilities in one situation and enhancements in another. Mobility. Ships can maneuver in the water to position themselves to best support the landing force. Many limitations that will be discussed later can be overcome by planning to take advantage of the ships mobility. Ships are also able to maneuver to defend themselves against attack. Accuracy. The gunfire control systems (GFCS) available can place accurate fires on a target from a ship underway, allowing the simultaneous engagement of two targets. Variety of Ammunition. The types of projectiles and fuzes available are very similar to those found in the firing battery. The projectiles include o HE. o WP. o Illumination. High Initial Velocity. NSFS is particularly suited for destroying hardened and fortified targets where penetration is necessary before damage can occur. If the target presents a vertical surface to the gun-target line (GTL), this characteristic is enhanced. The muzzle velocity of Naval guns firing full charge is 2650 feet per second (f/s). An M16A2 assault rifle is3250 f/s. An artillery piece firing an intermediate charge is about 1200 f/s. The ballistic characteristics of NSFS more closely resemble those of an assault rifle than a howitzer.
22
B2C2437

NSFS Capabilities. (Continued) Narrow, Accurate Deflection Pattern. The high muzzle velocity causes a very accurate deviation dispersion pattern along the GTL, which allows very close placement of fires to maneuver units when the GTL parallels their positions. High Rate of Fire. The rapid rates of fire for each gun mount are made possible by power hoisting and loading equipment. When engaging personnel-type targets, where reaction time degrades ammunition effectiveness (because personnel seek protection), this high rate of fire is significant for maximizing effects on target.
NSFS Limitations. Many of the NSFS limitations are simply the same characteristics that are capabilities, but studied from a different perspective. Careful, detailed planning can reduce or eliminate the impact of these limitations on combat operations. Effects of Hydrography. Shoals, minefields, and reefs limit the maneuverability of the ship. Shallow waters may force the ship to stand farther from the beach than would be optimal. The ability to position ships for most effective support is reduced if the areas in which the ships can maneuver are restricted. Fixing Ships Position. To provide accurate initial salvos, the ship must determine its location. Both radar and visual means are used to triangulate the ships position at various times and establish a track. If the beach is relatively featureless, the ship will have difficulty locating itself precisely enough to provide good fire support. Then AN/UPN-32 and AN/PPN-19 radar beacons can be used to give the ship a fixed reference point. Effects of Weather and Visibility. NSFS must be observed for maximum effectiveness. If weather conditions are such that spotters are unable to observe the impact of rounds or the targets, most of the rounds fired may have no damaging effect on their intended targets. Additionally, if the ship is relying on visual navigational aids and the weather interferes with visibility, the ship will encounter difficulty fixing its position. A radar beacon can be used to provide a reference point to minimize this problem. Ships cannot provide effective support in excessively stormy weather. Rolls in excess of 15 degrees stress the gun mount stabilizers beyond their design parameters. Changing GTL. When the ship is maneuvering, the GTL will slowly change. This change may become an important consideration when friendly forces begin to fall along the GTL. A long-range dispersion pattern on the GTL could become a hazard to troops.
23
B2C2437

NSFS Limitations. Changing GTL (Continued) During the Okinawa campaign in World War II, the Marines were quite successful in overcoming this problem with careful planning. NSFS plans were made such that a series of fire support areas (FSAs) were assigned and placed in an on-call status. As the troops ashore maneuvered to a position where the GTL endangered the forces, the ships were ordered to the next assigned FSA, maintaining a parallel GTL-friendly front line relationship. Long Range Pattern. Naval guns produce most of their error as a range dispersion pattern oriented along the GTL. When firing with full charge on flat ground, NSFS will be rather difficult to adjust onto point targets because of the large range dispersion. Firing reduced charge can minimize the range dispersion, at the cost of some accuracy in deflection. Adjusting with several salvos per adjustment can assist in the adjustment phase to place a mean point of impact onto the target. Flat Trajectory. While the high velocity is desirable for giving NSFS its penetrating qualities, the high velocity also creates the flat trajectory that can make the engagement of some targets in defilade impossible. Unlike artillery, naval guns cannot cut the charge. Only two powder increments are available: full and reduced charge. When using the reduced charge, the angle of fall is increased, allowing fires to reach some defilade positions, but the range of the weapon is greatly decreased. Magazine Capacity is Limited. When the ships are shot dry, a re-supply must be arranged. Careful planning can minimize the impact of ships non-availability for tactical missions.
For example, a general support (GS) ship could be assigned to an interim DS role while the DS ship is off station. Ships should undergo replenishment before a major attack. Planners should be aware that a certain percentage of ammunition would be reserved for defense of the ship. When compared to artillery, the limitation of ammunition availability is minor. A typical NSFS ship will carry about 600 5rounds per mount. If proper planning has been accomplished, re-supply ships will be available. A support ship can steam out, link up with the re-supply vessel, re-supply, and be back on station within 4 to 6 hours.
24
B2C2437

Communications. Communications is the major limitation of NSFS. Radio is the only means of communication, and the nets are subject to interference both man-generated and atmospheric. Without communications, the only NSFS will be of the preplanned, scheduled variety. Using alternate frequencies or relaying calls for fire via alternate nets can minimize communication problems.
Conclusion. Naval surface fire support provides maneuver commanders a responsive asset during amphibious landings and continuing operations ashore. The 5-54 gun system offers flexibility to commanders by providing fires at ranges up to 23,000 meters using an assortment of ammunition. Successful integration of naval surface fires with maneuver units involves planning early and continuously. Maneuver commanders who employ naval surface fire support provide a unique added dimension to their operations.
Marine Aviation Ordnance

Aircraft carry four general categories of ordnance: Bombs Missiles Rockets Guns
Aircraft can employ a vast array of weapons (ordnance designed to kill or destroy). We are only going to cover those most likely to be employed by Marine Corps aircraft in a Close Air Support (CAS) type of environment. As such, weapons used to shoot down other aircraft, penetrate through tens of feet of hardened concrete or mountain side, or those that split or merge atoms are not going to be covered here. The type weapon or system used will depend on the Mission Method of delivery Desired results
25
B2C2437
Marine Aviation Ordnance (Continued)

To exploit the full capabilities of any weapon or system, we must understand some basic nomenclature and what options are available. In general, weapons kill and destroy in the following three ways: Heat (Flame and/or temperature) Blast (Concussion) Fragmentation (Projectile)
General Purpose, High Explosive Bombs. MK-80 Series Bombs. The MK-80 series of bombs is the most widely used weapon in the inventory and is in the dumb bomb category. Dumb bombs are not precision guided munitions and are only influenced by gravity and wind once the ordinance is released. About 45 to 50 percent of bomb weight is explosive. General-purpose (GP) bombs use all three weapon-kill mechanisms. The blast and heat effects are greater than any other conventional ordnance weapons. Consideration must be given to the size of the fragmentation envelope for enemy and friendly ground and air assets.
Mk-80 Series Bomb The series consists of the Mk-82 = 500lb bomb Mk-83 = 1000lb bomb Mk-84 = 2000lb bomb
26
B2C2437

Fuzing. Fuzing has a significant impact on the weapons effect. Fuzes control the Arming delay (time from release to armed) Functioning delay (time of detonation with respect to impact).
The types of fuzes for MK-80 series bombs are Mechanical, which are very reliable Electrical, which offer a wide variety of features and pilot selectable options
Generally, all other weapons types have only one fuse available. The three functioning modes are: Delay. Increases the penetration effects. The longer the delay, the greater the penetration. Use on targets that require penetration. The delay on electrical fuzes is pilot selectable in flight. Electrical fuzes can use a hardened steel nose plug to allow greater hard target penetration. Instantaneous. Amplify heat and fragmentation. Use on targets that have no major protection. Electrical fuzes offer a much quicker response time in this mode. This produces a distinct tactical advantage when maximum fragmentation and minimum cratering are required. Proximity. VT amplifies fragmentation. VT fuzes produce an air burst. VT elements are only available on electrical fuzes.
Laser-Guided Bombs (LGBs). LGBs combine GP and penetration warheads with guidance packages and control fin assemblies to provide a free-fall weapon capable of limited maneuverability after release from the delivering platform. The guidance package consists of a laser spot seeker that identifies laser energy and uses it to guide to the point of impact. Small canards located immediately behind the seeker head are moved in response to guidance inputs to keep the laser energy centered in the seeker field of view. It is important to understand that laser-guided bombs are designed to minimize minor deviations in the planned delivery. Delivering platforms are still required to meet precise release parameters to ensure that the weapons seeker is able to initially acquire the laser energy reflected from the target.
27
B2C2437

Guided Bomb Units (GBUs). GBUs are guidance kits attached to the bomb body of MK-82, 83, or 84 bombs, which allow the bomb body to be guided to the target. This guidance can come in several different forms: Mk-82 + LASER GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-12 Mk-83 + LASER GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-16 Mk-84 + LASER GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-10
LGB Employment Considerations. The most important planning factor for LGB employment is the need to reflect laser energy off the intended target. A laser spot can be provided By the delivering platform (self-lazing) From an accompanying aircraft (buddy lazing) By a ground-based laser system
Careful consideration must be given to the effects of weather, terrain, and laser line-ofsight to ensure that obstacles do not come between the laser source and the target. An LGB has no ability to differentiate between the laser source and the reflected energy from the target, so it is critical to consider the location of a ground-based laser team in relation to the weapon delivery axis. LGB Advantages and Disadvantages The primary advantage of LGBs is the accuracy with which they can be employed. With LGBs, fewer weapons and aircraft are required to achieve the desired level of damage. Disadvantages include the need for laser designation of the target and degradation by weather or other obscurants.
Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). JDAM is really more of a guidance package than an individual weapon. By placing the JDAM inertial navigation system (INS)/Global Positioning System (GPS) guidance assembly on a conventional Mk-82/83/84 bomb, the resulting weapon can provide precision guidance like an LGB but does not require a laser designator. Since each JDAM can be programmed with separate target coordinates, multiple targets can be hit on a single pass. By strapping a GPS kit onto a GP bomb body, the number of bombs needed to destroy or neutralize a target is reduced. This group of weapons includes the Mk-82 + GPS GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-38 Mk-83 + GPS GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-32 Mk-84 + GPS GUIDANCE PACKAGE = GBU-31
28
B2C2437

JDAM (Continued) The figure below shows the strakes and JDAM tail kit that make up a JDAM weapon.
Mk-80 series bomb body
JDAM Advantages and Disadvantages. The reliability of the weapon is the best among PGMs. With hundreds of test drops, only one case of a weapon that didnt guide has been recorded. The problem is getting the correct coordinates into the weapon. Weather is not a factor to the weapon. It doesnt need daylight, a good infrared (IR) signature, or clear skies to guide to the target. The need for the target to be slow moving (no faster than a man can walk) or stationary is a requirement for JDAM use. Fire Bombs MK-77 NAPALM. The MK-77 NAPALM is the primary firebomb. It is filled with 75 gallons of fuel/gel mixture and weighs 520 lbs. Ground patterns vary greatly depending on A/C dive angle, airspeed and altitude, but the typical pattern is elliptical in shape about 215 ft long and 75 ft wide. Fuel Air Explosive (FAE). The CBU-72 FAE is a free-fall unguided weapon. It contains three FAE bombs. It is effective Against personnel, light material targets, mines, and booby traps For clearing landing zones
The explosive force comes from the detonation of the fuel, which forms an aerosol cloud on impact. When detonated, the resulting over pressure produces target destruction. The total weight of the weapon is only 520 lbs., but the explosive overpressure of each of the three FAE bombs is equal to a MK-82. The F/A-18 or the AV-8 can deliver FAE.
29
B2C2437

Cluster Bomb Unit (CBUs). CBUs consist of a bomb casing filled with many smaller munitions. These munitions include antipersonnel, anti-material, and antitank weapons. The CBU systems provide high kill or damage probability against area, moving, and point targets. MK-20 Rockeye. The MK-20 is optimized for use against area, armored targets. It is effective against Tanks Trucks Radar vans Missile sites Fuel storage tanks Surface ships The MK-20 consists of a dispenser, a mechanical time fuse that opens the dispenser at a selected time, and 247 MK-118 bomblets. The MK-118 has a small, shaped-charge warhead that can penetrate six inches of armor plate. Each bomblet has two fuzes: One that will set off the shaped charge if it hits a very hard object One that will produce fragmentation effects if the bomblet hits soft material The Rockeye can be employed from all United States (US) attack jets.
Combined Effects Munitions (CEM) (CBU-87). The CBU-87 (CEM) has improved effects in incendiary, fragmentation, and armor piercing capabilities. It consists of 202 bomblets in each container. WARNING. Cluster munitions have an associated high dud rate. If the scheme of maneuver will require friendly forces to transit areas previously saturated, personnel should be warned of the hazard and move by vehicle through cleared areas if possible.
30
B2C2437

Air To Surface Guided Missiles. AGM-65 Maverick Missile. Used against armor and high value point targets. The Maverick is a LASER guided missile. Ranges for this missile can exceed 12NM. It has a 125-pound shaped-charge warhead designed to kill armor or other point targets. The Maverick is used by the F/A-18 and AV-8.
AGM-65 Maverick Missile AGM-114 Hellfire Missile Hellfire is a solid propellant, laser-guided, anti-armor missile that utilizes multiple warheads. A shaped-charge warhead is most common and can penetrate any known, fielded tank in the world. The Hellfire can also be fitted with a blastfragmentation warhead, utilized against softer targets or buildings and a thermobaric warhead that utilizes overpressure to destroy targets in confined spaces such as caves, buildings, and ships. The AGM-114 provides pinpoint accuracy from a safe standoff distance. The AH-1W can carry the Hellfire. Hellfire has also been employed recently from the Predator Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The Hellfire provides the AH-1W with the ability to engage multiple targets, offers increased standoff and lethality, and minimizes risk to aircrew by reducing or eliminating exposure time. The engagement range for the AGM-114 is 500-8000m.
AGM-114 Hellfire Missile

B2C2437

BGM-71 TOW Missile. TOW stands for tube-launched, optically-tracked, wireguided missile. The TOW is a guided anti-armor missile that utilizes a shapedcharge warhead. The only aircraft that can fire the TOW missile is the AH-1W. The TOW offers point-of-aim, point-of-impact capability via a joystick and crosshair sights in the cockpit. Due to the requirement for the pilot to track the missile until impact, excessive exposure time can result at extended ranges. The engagement range for the BGM-71 is 500-3750m.
BGM-71 TOW Rockets 2.75 Inch Mighty Mouse Rockets. The US Navy originally developed the 2.75-inch folding-fin aerial rocket (FFAR) for use as a free-flight aerial rocket in the late 1940s. Used during both the Korean and Vietnam wars, their role has expanded to include air-to-ground, ground-to-air, and ground-to-ground. The 2.75 inch rocket system has a rich history of providing close air support to ground forces. The 2.75-inch rocket can be fitted with multiple warheads for use in support of ground forces. HE, WP, and illumination are commonly used. The 2.75-inch rockets can also be fitted with a flechette warhead. The flechette warhead expels 2200 60-grain nails that cover an 80m x 80m area. The 2.75inch HE rockets have an effective casualty radius (ECR) of 35m, similar to that of an 81mm mortar. 5-Inch Zuni Rockets. The Zuni rocket is simply a larger version of the Mighty Mouse. As a fire support weapon, 5-inch rockets are primarily fitted with a HE warhead. Zuni rockets have an ECR of 50m, similar to that of a 155mm artillery round.
32
B2C2437

Guns GAU-12 25mm. The GAU-12 25mm six-barrel gun pod is mounted on the centerline of the AV-8B Harrier. It has a 300 round capacity with a lead computing optical sight system (LCOSS) gunsight. The Harrier uses a 25mm depleted uranium [DU] round in the GAU-12 Gatling gun. M61A1 Vulcan Cannon. The M61A1 utilized by F/A-18 aircraft is a 6-barreled weapon, with selectable rates of fire of either 4000 or 6000 rounds per minute. The F/A-18 has a capacity of 578 rounds of 20mm linkless ammunition. The gun's rate of fire, essentially 100 rounds per second, gives the pilot a shot density that will enable a "kill" when fired in one-second bursts. This high rate of fire maximizes its air-to-air kill capability, but this system is also highly effective against soft targets in the air-to-ground mode. M197 20mm Turret System. The M197 utilized by the AH-1W aircraft is a lightweight, three-barrel Gatling type gun. The M-197 is mated to an ammunition storage and handling system that has a capacity of 750 rounds of linked ammunition. The M197 automatic gun has a firing rate of 650 rpm. Utilizing the PGU-28 semi-armor piercing, high-explosive incendiary (SAPHEI) round, the gun is highly effective against both lightly armored and soft targets. GAU-16 50 CAL. This gun can be loaded in the door of assault support helicopters such as the UH-1N. It provides medium-range suppressive fire at a cyclic rate of 750-850 rpm. The gun can use either open iron sights or a laser pointer sight for use with Night Vision Goggles (NVG). GAU-17 Minigun. The GAU-17/A utilized on the UH-1N is a crew served, 6 barreled weapon, with a rate of fire of either 2000 or 4000 rounds per minute. In the UH-1N DAS configuration, the gun can be fixed forward and remotely fired by the pilot. The ammunition storage system has a capacity of 4000 rounds of linked 7.62mm percussion primed ammunition. M240E. The M240E is simply an M240G medium machinegun modified to be fired from the door of the UH-1N. It fires 200 rpm at the rapid rate and a normal load out of 1000 rounds of 7.62mm.
33
B2C2437
Aircraft Capabilities
AH-1W Supercobra A maximum speed of 130 to 150 knots fully loaded Time on station from take-off to landing generally 1 + 45 Night Operations. All weapons on the AH-1W can be operated at night. The introduction of the night targeting system (NTS) aircraft enhances this capability. The NTS brings autonomous laser operations, forward looking infrared (FLIR), and laser range-finding to the battlefield. In addition, an extremely accurate GPS/INS system ties into the NTS to allow for 10-digit grid accuracy for targets. Ordnance Knowledge Can carry 750 rounds of 20mm ammunition Fires 650 rounds a minute Has 2.75 rockets in 7-shot and 19-shot pods Has 5.0 rockets in 4-shot pods Can carry up to four Hellfire or TOW on either outside station Table below describes the ordnance for the AH-1W. Munition (Common Name)
HE frag
Type/Range

Fuzes

Suitable For
2.75 rocket/2500m 5 rocket/3000m
Impact Proximity VT Time Motor burnout
Flechette (2200 small darts) Illumination
2.75 rocket/1200 to 1500m
Area targets Personnel in the open Light-skinned vehicles Suppression Personnel Thin-skinned vehicles Illumination o 1,000,000 candlepower for 100 seconds (per rocket) Marking Marking POL/fuel ignition Concrete bunkers Surface vessels Light armored targets Buildings Personnel
2.75 rocket/3500m
Time
Smoke (white phosphorous/red phosphorous) HE GP
2.25 rocket/2500m 5rocket/3000m
Impact
5 rocket/3000m
Impact
34
B2C2437
Aircraft Capabilities (Continued)

Table below describes the precision-guided munitions for the AH-1W. Munition
AGM-114 Hellfire Guided on reflected laser energy Shaped-Charge Warhead BGM-71 TOW
Min/Max Range
500m/8000m Wire guided 500/3750
Suitable For
Armor/all types High value targets Bunkers Armor Bunkers Point targets Vehicles
Table below describes the munitions for the AH-1W 20mm cannon Munition
PGU-28/B SAPHEI
Range
2000m
Suitable For
Aircraft Light armor Personnel
AV-8B Harrier Maximum speed is 585 knots at sea level Normal ordnance delivery speed is 420 to 480 knots Time on station after 30-minute transit is 20 to 40 minutes Night Operations. All weapons on the AV-8B can be operated at night. The introduction of the LITENING II Pod enhances this capability. The LITENING pod brings autonomous laser operations, FLIR, laser range-finding, and IR pointer to the battlefield. In addition, an extremely accurate GPS/INS system ties into the LITENING pod to allow for 10-digit grid accuracy for targets. Ordnance Loads and Profiles. If aircraft requires vertical takeoff (LHA/LHD), ordnance loads are reduced. The following table lists ordnance considerations for the AV-8B.
35
B2C2437

AV-8B Harrier Air-toGround Weapons
25mm cannon gun pod o 300 rounds Cluster bombs o Rockeye (antipersonnel, antitank) o APAM (antipersonnel, anti-material) MK-82, 83 o General purpose bombs o 500, 1000 pounds GBU-12, 16 o Laser guided variants of MK-80 series bombs GBU-38, 32 (JDAM) o GPS-guided variants of Mk-80 series bombs 2.75 and 5 rockets AGM-65 Maverick (laser guided antitank missile) Mk-77 Napalm APG-65 radar o Same radar as F/A-18 o Increases weapons delivery accuracy GPS o Extremely accurate LITENING II Pod used for o Nighttime navigation o Night attack o When combined with GPS, can provide 10-digit grid to target Laser spot tracker (LST) o Detects laser energy directed on target from external source
Special Purpose Equipment

F/A-18 Hornet Maximum speed is 550 knots at sea level Normal ordnance delivery speed is 480 to 540 knots Time on station after 30-minute transit is 30 to 55 minutes Night Operations. All weapons on the F/A-18 can be operated at night. The introduction of the LITENING II Pod enhances this capability. The LITENING pod brings autonomous laser operations, FLIR, laser range-finding, and IR pointer to the battlefield. In addition, an extremely accurate GPS/INS system ties into the LITENING pod to allow for 10-digit grid accuracy for targets. Ordnance Loads and Profiles. Four to eight 1000-pound bombs will be normal air-to-ground ordnance with either one or two external fuel tanks.
36
B2C2437

The table below lists ordnance for the F/A-18. Air-to 20mm cannon 578 rounds Ground Cluster bombs Weapons o Rockeye (antipersonnel, antitank) MK-82, 83, 84 (500, 1000, 2000 pound) o General purpose bombs GBU-12, 16, 10 (500, 1000, 2000 pound) o Laser guided variants of MK-80 series bombs 2.75 rockets primarily used for forward air controller-airborne (FAC(A)) missions with WP rounds 5 rockets AGM-65 Maverick (laser guided antitank missile), MK-77 Napalm GBU-38, 31, 32 (JDAM) (500, 1000, 2000 pound) o GPS-guided variants of Mk-80 series bombs Special LITENING II Pod used for Purpose o Nighttime navigation Pods o Night attack o When combined with GPS, can provide 10-digit grid to target FLIR slewable to track and laser designate targets Laser spot tracker/strike camera (LST/SCAM) o Front half of pod detects laser energy from external source (FAC) o Rear of pod has 35mm camera that photographs target before, during, and after weapons impact) Aircraft Capabilities Charts. Table lists capabilities for types of Aircraft. F/A-18 A/C and F/A-18D Crew 1 and 2, respectively Performance Maximum level speed at sea level: 550 KIAS Typical delivery speed: 500 KIAS Time on station after 30-minute transit: 40 to 45 minutes Payload 13,700 lbs Air-to-ground: MK-80 Series/LGBs/JDAM, 2.75"/5" rockets, MK-20, CBU-78, MK-77, Maverick Sensors/SelfLITENING II Pod Protection NVG LST Laser (Self) Designator Comm/Navigation Two UHF (AM/FM) Two VHF (AM/FM) Radar
37
B2C2437

AV-8B Crew Performance 1 Maximum level speed at sea level: 500 KIAS Typical delivery speed: 500 KIAS Time on station after 30-min transit: 20 to 40 minutes 8,000 lbs Air-to-ground: MK-80 Series/LGBs/JDAM, 2.75"/5" rockets, MK-20, CBU-/78, MK-77, Maverick Radar LITENING II Pod NVG Laser Spot Tracker Two UHF (AM/FM) Two VHF (AM/FM) AH-1 Maximum speed: 190 KIAS Cruise speed: 130 KIAS Time on station after 30-min transit: 45 to 55 minutes Hellfire TOW 2.7"/5" Rockets 20mm turret gun FLIR via NTS ALE-39 Infrared radiation counter-measure Laser designator
Payload
Comm/Navigation Sensors/SelfProtection Crew Performance 2
Payload
Sensors/SelfProtection
Comm/Navigation
Two UHF (AM/FM) Two VHF (AM/FM) UH-1 Crew 2 pilots, 2 crewchief/gunners Performance Maximum speed: 130 KIAS Cruise speed: 100 KIAS Time on station after 30-min transit: 30 to 50 minutes Payload 1,400 to 1,800 pounds 6 to 13 pax, 6 litters 7.62mm (GAU-17, M240E) .50 caliber guns (GAU-16) 2.75" rockets Sensors/Self-Protection BRITESTAR FLIR w/ laser designator Comm/Navigation UHF/VHF/HF
38
B2C2437

Capabilities Battlefield Utility. Ground force commanders request CAS to augment organic supporting fires. CAS is used to attack the enemy in a majority of weather conditions, day or night. When CAS is properly employed, commanders can focus its firepower at the decisive time and place to achieve tactical objectives. Advances in tactics, techniques and procedures (TTP) and equipment have improved the ability of aircraft to provide close support. By using CAS, commanders can take full advantage of battlefield opportunities. The threedimensional mobility of aircraft provides commanders with the means to strike the enemy swiftly and unexpectedly. CAS Integration. CAS is integrated with other available supporting fires to support maneuver forces allowing the commander to mass fires. Whether conducting offensive or defensive operations, commanders plan for CAS at key points throughout the depth of the battlefield. The MAGTF commander establishes the priority for the assignment of CAS, so it supports his intent and concept of operations. Commensurate with other mission requirements, the Aviation Combat Element (ACE) commander postures aviation assets to optimize support to requesting units. Range. CAS aircraft have the ability to deliver ordnance over the horizon, well beyond the range of surface-based fires. Refueling assets either on the ground or airborne can further increase aircraft range and weapons payload. Maneuverability/Flexibility. CAS aircraft allow the attack of targets that other supporting arms may not be able to effectively engage because of limiting factors, such as type of target, the terrain, or the friendly ground scheme of maneuver. Aircraft can quickly adjust onto new targets of opportunity in a quickly changing battle space. Speed/Shock/Surprise. Aircraft can get to the fight quickly, surprise the enemy from any direction, and drop large amounts of high explosive munitions on a target. Shipboard Employment. CAS aircraft can be employed from carrier-based or amphibious shipping to provide support for movement ashore and inland when other surface-based fire support assets are unavailable. Responsiveness. CAS aircraft on station can quickly acquire and engage targets on the battlefield in a more timely manner than surface-based fire support assets.
39
B2C2437

Limitations Weather. Bad weather can severely limit or preclude CAS operations. If fixedor rotary-wing CAS aircraft cannot visually acquire the target area due to severe weather or poor visibility, they will be unable to safely deliver their ordnance. The FAC must also be able to visually acquire the aircraft in order to give clearance for ordnance delivery. Time on Station. CAS support will be limited to how long an aircraft can remain on station. If aircraft must fly from far-away bases without en-route refueling assets, their time on station as well as the amount of ordnance they can carry to the fight will be reduced. Vulnerability to Air/Ground Attack. CAS aircraft are vulnerable to enemy surface/air attack. These threats must be suppressed or eliminated for the proper delivery of ordnance as well as the protection of vital warfighting assets.
Conclusion. Maneuver commanders should be familiar with the employment of aircraft in support of the ground combat element (GCE) scheme of maneuver. The shock, surprise, and combat power that can be brought to bear when integrating surface fires with air underscore our tactical nature as a maneuver force. Our ability to act as a selfcontained, self-supported combat force enables us to seize and maintain the initiative in the attack. The speed and responsiveness of CAS aircraft on the battlefield grants the maneuver commander momentum and flexibility. The use of air power allows the supported unit to shape the battle space in the close fight as well as deep into the enemy-held territory.
Summary
The fundamental principles of our combined arms philosophy centers on the massing of fires, both surface and air, to destroy the enemys will and ability to fight.
References
Reference Number or Author Joint Publication 1-02 FMFM 6-9 MCWP 3-42.1 MCWP 3-16 Reference Title Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms Marine Artillery Support Fire Support in MAGTF Operations Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Element
40
B2C2437

Term or Acronym ACE ADAM APAM ATF BAD CAS CBU CEM CG CLGP (or copperhead) DD DDG DP DU ECR FAC(A) FAE FASCAM FDC FDO FFAR FLIR FO FSA FSC FSCC GBU GCE GFCS GP GPS GTL GS HE ICM INS IR JDAM LAR LCOSS LGB LNO LST MAGTF NSFS Definition or Identification Aviation combat element Area denial artillery munitions Antipersonnel, anti-material Amphibious task force Blast attenuation device Close air support Cluster bomb unit Combined effects munitions Guided missile cruiser Cannon launched guided projectile Destroyer Guided missile destroyer Dual purpose Depleted uranium Effective casualty radius Forward air controller (airborne) Fuel air explosive Family of scatterable mines Fire direction center Fire direction officer Folding-fin aerial rocket Forward looking infrared Forward observer Fire support area Fire support coordinator Fire support coordination center Guided bomb unit Ground combat element Gunfire control systems General purpose Global positioning system Gun-target line General support High explosive Improved conventional munitions Inertial navigation system Infrared Joint direct attack munitions Light Armored Reconnaissance Lead computing optical sight system Laser guided bomb Liaison Officer Laser spot tracker Marine Air Ground Task Force Naval Surface Fire Support
B2C2437

Term or Acronym NTS NVG RAAMS RAP SAPHEI TOW TTP UAV US VT WP Definition or Identification Night targeting system Night vision goggles Remote anti-armor mine system Rocket-assisted projectile Semi-armor piercing high-explosive incendiary Tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided Tactics, techniques and procedures Unmanned aerial vehicle United States Variable time White phosphorous
Notes
42
CALL FOR INDIRECT FIRE B2C2497
B2C2497
Call for Indirect Fire
Call For Indirect Fire

Introduction The reconnaissance team had discovered the base camp of a mixed Viet Cong/North Vietnamese battalion...HATEFUL, THIS IS PRIMNESS, FIRE MISSION. CONCENTRATION PAPA INDIA FIVE ZERO NINER. VOICES IN STREAM BED. ONE ROUND, WILLY PETER. WILL ADJUST...The artillery round hurtled in over the Marine's head. It sounded like someone ripping cloth. The explosion was sharp and close. A cloud of white smoke drifted up...HAVE THEM COME LEFT ONE HUNDRED AND FIRE FOR EFFECT whispered Bisko...A few minutes later the rounds came tearing in. The grove shook with successive explosions. Fifteen North Vietnamese came out from the trees and walked rapidly to the stream crossing, and waded across...Twelve more rounds smashed into the trees, the sound of explosions mingling into one continuous roar. About forty enemy ran from the grove. They scampered to the stream and splashed across as fast as they could...KEEP THE FIRE COMING. CALL FOR AREA FIRE AND HIT THE OTHER BANK. I CAN SEE MORE THAN TWO HUNDRED. POUR IT ON...The artillery pounded them relentlessly. The enemy seemed to lose all sense of purpose and direction...Another volley. Three shells exploded in the stream. The enemy disappeared from the Marine's view in a shower of spray, mud, and stones...When the debris had settled, some were floating face down in the stream, others were lying in twisted shapes along the bank, a few were hanging from vines several yards in the air. The bamboo bridge sagged to water level under the weight of several collapsed enemy. Bodies clogged the stream and turned its color to rust.
In this Lesson
We will be learning how to generate and utilize the call for indirect fire format. We will also discuss the types of reports that must be sent to include: firing reports, end of mission reports, and adjusting rounds.
005
B2C2497
This lesson discusses the following topics:

Topic Topic 1: The Fire Support System Topic 2: The Forward Observer and Target Location Topic 3: The Call For Fire Topic 4: Message to Observer Topic 5: Reports Upon Firing Topic 6: Adjustment of Fires Topic 7: Ending a Fire Mission Topic 8: Call for Suppressive Fires Topic 9: Additional Information Call For Fire Worksheets Call For Fire Worksheet Answers Call For Fire Problems Call For Fire Problem Answers References Notes Page 5 5 11 15 16 16 23 24 25 27 31 33 42 46 47
005
B2C2497
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning Objectives TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Given a map, compass, protractor, target, and radio with frequency, call for indirect fire using the grid method to achieve effective fire on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2002) Given a map, compass, protractor, target, and radio with frequency, call for indirect fire using the polar method to achieve effective fire on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2003)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Given a map, compass, protractor, binoculars with reticle pattern, and a target, determine grid call for fire elements to achieve effects on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2002a) Given a target, call for fire elements, a radio with frequency, and fire support available, transmit grid call for fire to achieve effects on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2002b) Given a transmitted call for fire, a compass, binoculars with reticle pattern, a target, a radio with frequency, observed indirect fire, adjust fire to achieve effects on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT2002c) Given a transmitted call for fire, a compass, binoculars with reticle pattern, a target, a radio with frequency, adjusted indirect fire, fire for effect to achieve effects on target. (0300-FSPT-2002d) Given a transmitted call for fire, a target, a radio with frequency, complete a fire mission, to report refinements, to record as target, to end the mission, and to report surveillance. (0300-FSPT-2002e) Without the aid of the references, describe message to observer without error. (0300-FSPT-2002f) Given a map, compass, protractor, binoculars with reticle pattern, and a target, determine polar call for fire elements to achieve effects on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2003a) Given a target, call for fire elements, a radio with frequency, and fire support available, transmit polar call for fire to achieve effects on target within three adjustments. (0300-FSPT-2003b) Given a military topographic map, protractor, and a specific point on a map, determine the six-digit grid coordinate to within 100 meters. (0300PAT-1002e)
005
B2C2497
The Fire Support System

The Fire Support System enables artillery and mortars to rapidly get rounds on target. Lets begin by looking at the three parts of the system. Element Forward observer (FO) Role Eyes Duties Detects and locates suitable targets Calls for fire Adjusts fire Relays the results of his fire missions Receives the CFF from the FO Computes firing data Then transmits that data in the form of weapon settings and fire commands to the firing unit Applies the weapon settings and fire commands transmitted by the FDC in order to deliver rounds when and where the observer has requested.
Fire direction center (FDC)
Brain
Firing unit
Muscle
The Forward Observer and Target Location

The FOs capability to provide effective fire support depends upon his ability to locate targets quickly and accurately. Understanding and applying the skills of map reading are essential to an FOs success. The FOs map is second in importance only to his radio. The FO continually scans the map and terrain in order to associate features he sees on the ground with those on his map. The FO uses the map to: Determine the location of Targets Friendly positions His own position Keep oriented during movement
By using his map and other tools, the FO determines the two critical elements of target location: Direction Distance
005
B2C2497
Key Concepts of Direction Direction. Direction is the most important element of target location and an integral part of terrain/map association and adjustment of fire. Direction can be measured in degrees or mils. While you are familiar with degrees (angular measurement 1/360 of a circle), you probably have not been introduced to mils. Mils. A mil is a unit of angular measurement that is equal to 1/6400 of a circle (see diagram below). Artillery and mortars use the mil because of its accuracy and the mil relation formulas ability to easily convert angular deviation into lateral distance. Mils may be measured: o From a map (mils grid) o By using a compass (mils magnetic)
The standard unit of measure for direction in CFF is mils grid; this is what you will be expected to use at The Basic School. Conversion of Degrees to Mils. Degrees may be converted to mils by multiplying the number of degrees by 17.8. Example. 90 degrees x 17.8 = 1602 mils Expressed to 1600 mils
005
B2C2497
Mil Relation Formula. The mil relation formula states that an angle of one mil equates to one meter of lateral distance for every 1000 meters of range. Thus if R equals range in meters, W equals lateral distance in meters, and M equals angular deviation in mils, then the following is true: W = (R/1000) (M) Example. Look at the diagram below.
1 mil 1m FO 1000 m 2000 m 3000 m 2m 3m
From the FOs perspective, an angle of 1 mil (M = 1) separates points A and B. Thus, at a range of 2000 meters (R = 2000), the lateral distance is 2 meters: W = (R/1000) (M) W = (2000/1000) (1) W = 2 meters Similarly, if from the FOs perspective, an angle of 300 mils (M = 300) separates point A and B, then at a range of 2000 meters (R = 2000), the lateral distance is 600 meters: W = (R/1000) (M) W = (2000/1000) (300) W = 600 meters Observer Target Line (OTL). The OTL is an imaginary straight line from the FO through the target. Observer-Target (OT) Direction. OT direction is the azimuth from the FO to the target. OT direction is always expressed to the nearest 10 mils grid and transmitted with four digits. OT direction can be determined using one of these methods: o Scaling from a map: Use a protractor to determine the azimuth in mils grid from the FO to the target.
7 005
B2C2497
o Lensatic compass: The lensatic compass has an accuracy of +/- 50 mils. The FO reads mils magnetic from the compass and then converts to mils grid by applying the GM angle. We will use this method most often at The Basic School.
Measuring from a reference point: Determine OT direction by using the known azimuth to an identifiable reference point and the M22 binoculars (see diagram below). Follow the steps in the table below to determine OT direction measuring from a reference point.
M 22 B IN O C U LA R S
G R AD U AT ED E VE R Y 5 M ILS LAB ELED E VE R Y 10 M ILS V ISU ALLY IN T ER P O LAT E T O 1 M IL H O R IZO NT AL SC A LE U SE D IN LAT E R AL AD JU ST M EN T S AN G U LAR D EV IAT IO N IS 100 T O T AL M ILS
5 4 3 2 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Step 1 2
Action Measure the angular deviation in mils separating the reference point and the target. If the target is to the Right, add the mils to the known azimuth Left, subtract the mils to the known azimuth
Example
005
B2C2497
RD INTSCN DIR __?__
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
HOUSE DIR 0460
2 1
AZIMUTH TO HOUSE (Reference Point) ANGULAR DEVIATION TO RD INTERSECTION (Target) AZIMUTH TO ROAD INTERSECTION (OT Direction)
0460 MILS 90 MILS TO THE LEFT 0370 MILS
RALS (RIGHT ADD, LEFT SUBTRACT)

Key Concepts of Distance Distance. Distance is the second element of target location. Once direction has been determined, the FO must determine the distance to the target. Distance is normally the most difficult variable to determine in target location. The meter is the standard unit of measure. Observer-Target (OT) Distance. OT distance is the distance from the FO to the target. OT distance is always expressed to the nearest 100 meters. Determine OT distance using one of these three methods: o Estimation: Use a known unit of measurement. For example, think in terms of how many football fields (roughly 100 meters) you are from your target. Distance 1000 m Visibility: Use this method of estimating when visibility is good. Use the table below as an aid for this method. Tree Description Trunk and main branches are visible Foliage appears in cluster-like shapes Daylight may be seen through foliage Trunk is visible; main branches are distinguishable Foliage appears as smooth surface Outline of foliage of separate trees distinguishable
9 005
2000 m
B2C2497
3000 m
4000 m
5000 m and beyond
Lower half of trunk is visible Branches blend with foliage Foliage blends with adjoining trees Trunk and branches blend with foliage Foliage appears as a continuous cluster Cannot detect motion caused by wind Whole area covered by trees appears smooth and dark
o Map study: Scale distance from a map. Methods of Target Location Terrain/map analysis is essential in target location. The results of that analysis (direction and distance) provide the basic data for determining a targets location. The two methods of communicating target location to the FDC are: o Polar plot o Grid coordinates Polar Plot. In the polar plot method, the FO describes the target location in relation to his position. The primary advantage of the polar plot method is that it is fast and can be done without a map. The primary disadvantage is that the FOs position must be first transmitted to the firing unit. Steps for Determining Data. Follow the steps in the table below to determine the data for the polar plot method. Step Action 1 FO determines his location and transmits it to the FDC prior to the CFF in the form of a POSREP. For example, R2S, this is PS1, POSREP Grid 213-415, over. 2 Determine the OT direction to the nearest 10 mils grid. 3 Determine the distance to the target to the nearest 100 meters. Grid Coordinates. The FO can locate a target by using the grid system of the military map. If the FO has conducted a thorough terrain/map study, the grid method of target location is recommended. The firing unit does not have to know the FOs position. The FO locates the target to an accuracy of 100 meters (six digit grid).
10
005
B2C2497
The Call For Fire

Once you have determined the data required to communicate target location to the FDC, you can start putting together a call for fire. The call for fire is a concise message containing the data necessary to put artillery or mortar rounds on a target. The FO prepares the call for fire and transmits it as a request, not an order. The CFF is sent quickly, but clearly enough to be understood, recorded, and read back without error by the FDC. The call for fire consists of six elements sent in three transmissions with a break and a read back after each part. The three transmissions break down into the six elements as shown in the table below. Transmission First Second Third Elements (1) Observer identification (2) Warning order (3) Target location (4) Target description (5) Method of engagement (6) Method of fire and control
Now lets look at each transmission in detail. First Transmission [(1) Observer Identification and (2) Warning Order] Observer Identification. The first element lets the FDC know who is calling for fire and clears the net for the fire mission. Once given, call signs are omitted from subsequent transmissions unless other FOs are conducting missions simultaneously. Warning Order. The second element consists of the o Type of mission o Method of target location The table below describes the two types of missions. Type of Mission Adjust Fire Description Fire for Effect Announced when the FO decides that an adjustment is needed because of questionable target location One gun fires one round at a time until the round is close enough for the entire firing unit to engage the target. Avoids wasted ammunition, but may allow the enemy time to leave the target area or seek cover Announced when the FO has an accurate target location and is certain that the first volley will have an effect on the target All guns of the firing unit fire simultaneously FO should strive for first round fire for effect
11 005
B2C2497
Method of target location. If the FO is using either the polar plot method of target location, he announces polar after the type of mission. Note: The FO does not need to announce grid because this is the default method of target location.
First Transmission Examples. The table below provides examples of first transmissions. Situation Situation 1: Adjust Fire Grid Method Situation 2: Adjust Fire Polar Plot Method First Transmission FO: R2S, this is P31, adjust fire, over. FDC: P31, this is R2S, adjust fire, out. FO: R2S, this is P31, adjust fire, polar, over. FDC: P31, this is R2S, adjust fire, polar, out.
Second Transmission [(3) Target Location]. The third element is target location. The FO provides the FDC with the target location data that he determined using either the grid, or polar plot method. The observer transmits the target location data as described in the table below. Location Data Method Grid Transmission
The FO announces the word, Grid, followed by the six-digit coordinate of the target. Polar Plot The FO announces the word, Direction, followed by the fourdigit OT direction in mils grid (e.g., 1680), and then the word, Distance, followed by the OT distance to the nearest 100 meters (meters is understood). Second Transmission Examples. Situation Situation 1 Continued: Adjust Fire Grid Method Situation 2 Continued: Adjust Fire Polar Plot Method Second Transmission FO: Grid 347 689, over. FDC: Grid 347 689, out. FO: Direction 1680, distance 3500, over. FDC: Direction 1680, distance 3500, out.
Third Transmission [(4) Target Description, (5) Method of Engagement, (6) Method of Fire and Control] Target Description. The target description should provide enough detail to enable the FDC to determine the amount and type of ammunition to be used. The FOs description should be brief, but accurate, and contain the: o Type of target (troops, supply dump, trucks) o Target activity (digging in, assembly area) o Number of elements in the target (squad, three trucks)
12
005
B2C2497
o Degree of protection (in the open, in fighting holes, in bunkers with overhead cover) Method of Engagement. Method of engagement is the element that the FO uses to describe the attack of the target. The options used at The Basic School are Danger close and Ammunition. Danger close. Danger Close is included when the predicted impact of o A 60mm mortar is within 200 meters of friendly troops o An 81mm mortar is within 400 meters of friendly troops o An artillery round is within 600 meters of friendly troops When alerted that the target is danger close, the FDC will take added precautions in the delivery of fires. Ranges beyond 600m have a 99 percent assurance that a casualty producing hit on friendly troops will not occur. Ammunition. An FO has several types of ammunition available. At The Basic School, you are expected to request the shell fuze combination that is best suited to the type of target you are attacking (see the table below). o The standard type of ammunition is HE/Q. The FO must specifically request nonstandard projectiles or fuzes. For example, ICM (projectile) or VT in effect (fuze). The term, in effect, o Indicates that the projectile/fuze specified is desired during the fire for effect phase o Is only included in an Adjust Fire mission o Illumination, ICM, and M825 (Felt Wedge)/Smoke can only be fired with fuze time. Therefore, when firing these projectiles, fuze time is understood and need not be specified.
Shell/Fuze Combination
Shell HE (High explosive)
Fuze
PD (Point detonating) or Q (Quick)
Suitable For
Adjust fire Personnel in open Unarmored vehicles Targets in heavy trees Bunkers Earth/log emplacements Adjusting FPF Danger close Personnel in open Personnel in trenches Light armored vehicles Incendiary Marking Screening/obscuring POL/ammo
005
Delay
VT (Variable time) Time (Mechanical time) PD Time
WP (White phosphorous)
13
B2C2497
Illum (Illumination) ICM (Improved conventional munitions) Smoke (M825 improved smoke) Method of Fire and Control.
Time understood Time understood Time understood
On the deck (Marking) Illumination Area personnel targets Armored vehicles Screening Obscuring
Method of fire. Not used at The Basic School, method of fire is an advanced technique that allows the FO to control the specific weapon and sequence of firing during adjustment and fire for effect. Method of control. In the absence of a specified method of control, fire missions are executed When Ready. Two other options you may use at The Basic School are At My Command (AMC) and Time on Target (TOT). o At my command. If the FO wants to control the time of delivery of fire, he announces, At my command in the method of control. When the pieces (weapons) are ready to fire, the FDC announces, Section/platoon/battery/battalion is ready, over. (Call signs are used.) The FO may also request the time of flight of the rounds in order to improve the timing of impact. The FO announces, Fire, when he is ready for the pieces to fire (this only applies to adjusting rounds and the first volley of the fire for effect). At my command remains in effect during the mission until the FO announces, Cancel At My Command, over. o Time on target (TOT). TOT is a method of firing on a target in which the unit times its fire so that the initial round strikes the target at the time specified by the FO. For example, TOT 45 (rounds impact at 45 minutes past the hour).
Third Transmission Examples. Situation Situation 1 Continued: Adjust Fire Grid Method (FO wants to adjust with HE/Q then fire for effect with WP.) Situation 2 Continued: Adjust Fire Polar Plot Method (The target is danger close. FO wants HE/Q.) Third Transmission FO: Five trucks refueling in the open, WP in effect, over. FDC: Five trucks refueling in the open, WP in effect, out. FO: Infantry platoon in the open, danger close, over. FDC: Infantry platoon in the open, danger close, out.
14
005
B2C2497
Correction of Errors Errors are sometimes made by the FO in transmitting data FDC personnel in reading back the data. If the FO realizes that an error has been made, he announces, Correction, and then transmits the entire corrected transmission.
Example. The FO transmits, Direction 2100, distance 2000, over. The transmission should have been Direction 2100, distance 3000, over. To correct the error, the FO transmits, Correction, direction 2100, distance 3000, over.
The Message to Observer

After receiving the CFF, the FDC determines how the target will be attacked. Remember, a CFF is a request, not an order. The FDCs decisions are announced to the FO in the form of an MTO, which the FO reads back. The MTO should be sent to the FO before the first correction is made. At a minimum the MTO will contain the: o Unit(s) to fire o Changes to the call for fire o Number of rounds o Target number Unit(s) to Fire. This portion of the MTO refers to the section, platoon, battery, or battalion that will fire the mission. If the battalion is firing for effect with one battery adjusting, the FDC designates the fire for effect unit (battalion) and then the adjusting unit (battery) by using the last letter of the call sign. Example. Battery (call sign, R6G) will adjust and the battalion (call sign, A8T) will fire for effect. The MTO will begin, Message to observer, T, G Changes to Call for Fire. Any changes to the FOs request in the CFF are announced. Example. The FO requested ICM in effect, and the FDC decides to fire VT in effect. The MTO will begin, Message to observer, T, G, VT in effect Number of Rounds. This is the number of rounds per tube in the fire for effect. Target Number. A target number is assigned at the FDC to each mission in order to facilitate the processing of subsequent corrections. Example. FDC: Message to observer, T, G, VT in effect, four rounds, target number AA 7732, over.
15 005
B2C2497
FO: Message to observer, T, G, VT in effect, four rounds, target number AA 7732, out. The FO reads the MTO back to the FDC verbatim. In this MTO, the artillery battery (call sign R6G) will fire the adjusting rounds, and the artillery battalion (call sign A8T) will fire for effect, four rounds per tube (6 tubes per battery, 3 batteries per battalionso 18 tubes in artillery battalion). Thus, (18) x (4) = 72, a total of 72 rounds of HE/VT will land during the fire for effect.
Reports Upon Firing

There are three reports that will be sent by the FDC during a fire mission. They include: Shot. The firing unit will transmit Shot after each round fired in adjustment and the initial round in the fire for effect phase The FO acknowledges each. Example. FDC: Shot, over. FO: Shot, out. Splash. When requested, the transmission of Splash by the FDC informs the FO when his round is five seconds from detonation. When reported, Splash should be transmitted for each round in adjustment and the initial round in each volley of the fire for effect. o Allows the FO to remain under cover and concealment while awaiting the fires, thus enhancing his survivability o Helps the FO to identify his rounds if other fire missions are being conducted in the area.
Adjustments of Fire
After the initial round bursts, a spotting is made, and a correction is transmitted to adjust the fires onto the target. On satisfactory adjustment, the FO enters the fire for effect phase. Spottings. A spotting is the FOs mental determination of the location of the burst relative to the target. Spottings are recorded, but not announced. Spottings must be made the instant that the burst occurs, except where deliberately delayed to take advantage of drifting smoke or dust.
16
005
B2C2497
The FO should position his binoculars for spotting before the burst appears by holding the binoculars just below eye level, looking over the top of them with the naked eye until the burst is sighted. Then raise the binoculars to eye level and makes the spotting Spottings are made for: o Range, to determine how far a burst is beyond or short of the target o Deviation, to determine how far a burst is to the right or left of the OTL The FO should spot first for range and then for deviation. Range Spotting. Definite range spottings are required to make a proper range adjustment. A graphic portrayal of range spotting is shown below. Normally a burst on or near the OTL provides a definite spotting. The FO can make a definite range spotting when the burst is not on or near the OTL by using his knowledge of the terrain, drifting smoke, and shadows. The four possible range spottings are: o o o o Over: Round detonates beyond the target Short: Round detonates between the FO and the target Range correct: Round detonates at the same range as the target Range doubtful: Round detonates so far to the right or left of the OTL that a definite range spotting cannot be made
17
005
B2C2497
Deviation Spotting. Deviation spottings (see diagram below) determine the angular amount of deviation (measured in mils) from the burst to the target. During a fire mission, the FO measures deviation to the nearest five mils. The three possible deviation spottings are: o On line: Round detonates along the OTL o (# of mils) left: Round detonates to the left of the OTL o (# of mils) right: Round detonates to the right of the OTL
18
005
B2C2497
Corrections. After recording a spotting, the FO determines a correction to move the next round onto the target. Corrections are sent in: o Meters o Reverse order of the spotting: deviation followed by range Corrections can also include appropriate changes to the elements included in the initial CFF. Sequence of Subsequent Corrections. The table below shows the proper order for subsequent corrections so that you are able to organize your transmissions in a logical flow. Sequential Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Correction Direction Danger close Shell Fuze Deviation Range Target description Change in type of mission/control Splash Repeat
Direction. Direction remains a key element for adjustment of rounds. Direction precedes all other subsequent corrections when announced. If direction was not included in the call for fire (i.e., grid mission), it can be sent:
19 005
B2C2497
o Immediately after the CFF o While reading back the MTO o With the first correction Refinement or changes to direction are made when the original direction changes by 100 mils or more. Deviation corrections. The table below lists the steps to determine deviation corrections. Step Action 1 Determine the observer-target (OT) factor. The OT factor is based on the mil relation formula and is defined as the OT distance divided by 1000. When the OT distance is
Greater than 1000 meters, the OT factor is expressed to the nearest whole number Less than 1000 meters, the OT factor is expressed to the nearest tenth
Example
OT distance = 2400 meters = 2400/1000 = 2.4, express to 2; OT factor = 2 OT distance = 800 meters = 800/1000 = 0.8, OT factor = 0.8
Multiply the deviation spotting by the OT factor. Express to the nearest 10 meters with the minimum correction being 30. The direction of the deviation correction is opposite that of the spotting. The computed deviation correction is announced as left or right followed by the number of meters.
OT OT Spotting Deviation Distance Factor Correction (m) 4000 4 45 right Left 180 2500 2 100 left Right 200 3400 3 55 left Right 160 1500 2 20 right Left 40 700 0.7 45 left Right 30
Range corrections. The FO must be aggressive in his adjustmentstriving to enter fire for effect as soon as possible. To accomplish this, the FO makes range corrections along the OTL. Range corrections consist of the following commands: o Add (number of meters) to move burst away from the FO o Drop (number of meters)to move burst closer to the FO Range corrections are transmitted in multiples of 100 meters with the smallest correction being 100 meters. However, a 50-meter correction is used when entering fire for effect. The four methods of conducting range corrections are: o Hasty bracketing o On-round adjustment o Creeping fire o Successive bracketing The only method used and evaluated at The Basic School is successive bracketing discussed below.
20 005
B2C2497
Successive bracketing. After a definite range spotting of over or short has been determined, the FO selects a range correction that is sufficiently large to ensure that the next rounds impact is on the opposite side of the target. The objective here is a bracketdefined as one round over the target and one round short of the target. To determine the initial range correction, the FO uses the range bracketing guide provided below. Once a bracket has been established, subsequent range corrections are split in half, always moving the next burst toward the target. The FO continues this process until a 100-meter bracket is established around the target. He then adds or drops 50 (with a deviation correction as required) and enters the fire for effect phase. Range Bracketing Guide OT Distance (in meters) Range Correction 0 1000 Add/drop 100 1000 2000 Add/drop 200 Greater than 2000 Add/drop 400 The diagram below shows an example of successive bracketing (OT distance equals 2600 meters).
Round 1 2 3 4
Spotting Over, on line. Short, on line. Over, on line. Short, on line.
Correction Drop 400, over. Add 200, over. Drop 100, over. Add 50, fire for effect, over.
21
005
B2C2497
Fire for Effect Phase. Entering Fire for Effect. The fire for effect phase is entered: o When the deviation and range are correct o If effective fire will result when the range bracket is split The FO specifically enters the fire for effect phase when o An adjusting round has an effect on the target o Splitting a 100-meter bracket To enter the fire for effect phase, the FO announces, Fire for effect, preceded by any corrections. Example. Fire for effect, over. Right 30, add 50, fire for effect, over. Following Fire for Effect. The FO analyzes the results of the fire for effect. The situation may require additional rounds to be fired on the same location or on a different location: Repeat If additional fire is needed, the FO announces, Repeat. The term, Repeat, indicates the FOs desire to use the same volume of fire. Adjust the Point of If the location of the fire for effect needs to be moved to achieve satisfactory results, the FO Impact
Announces the appropriate corrections (refinement) and Repeat May reenter adjust fire
Example. Right 100, repeat, over. Add 400, adjust fire, over.
22
005
B2C2497
Ending a Fire Mission

On achieving the effects desired on the target, the FO should transmit an end of mission statement to the firing unit. Four items are included in the end of mission or RREMS statement: o o o o Refinement Record as target End of mission Surveillance
Refinement. If fires have been inaccurate but have produced sufficient results, the FO transmits a refinement to the FDC. Refinements are sent in increments of 10 meters and may be less than 30 meters. Record as Target. If the FO wants the target to be plotted for future use, he announces, Record as target. The FDC: o Applies the refinement o Conducts a replot, when necessary o Announces the adjusted grid to the target The target number will be the same target number that was provided in the MTO. End of Mission. End of mission followed by surveillance is the last transmission in the course of the fire mission. Once it has been announced, the mission is considered to be terminated. Surveillance. Surveillance should be brief but should provide casualty and/or damage information as accurately as possible. This requires the correct usage of the terms, destroyed, neutralized, and suppressed. Example: End of mission. BMP neutralized, estimate six casualties over. Right 20, add 20, record as target, end of mission, three trucks destroyed, estimate 15 casualties, over.
23
005
B2C2497
Call For Suppressive Fires

In addition to adjust fire and fire for effect missions, an FO can also call for suppressive fires. Suppressive fires are delivered as o An immediate suppression mission: used to fire on a planned target or target of opportunity that has taken friendly units under fire o A suppression mission: used to fire on a planned target that is not currently active Firing on a planned target is more responsive than firing on a target of opportunity. Both immediate suppression and suppression missions yield suppressive results only during the time when fire is being delivered. Thus, the maneuver unit must do something while the suppressive fires are impacting. For example, maneuver against the target, position the FO to adjust fire on the target, or bypass the target. At The Basic School you will be evaluated on your understanding of the immediate suppression mission. Information on the suppression mission is not testable. Immediate Suppression. An immediate suppression mission normally requires a minimum volume of fire. Unit SOP establishes the: o Type of ammunition o Units to fire o Volume For example, mortar platoon, one round of HE/PD, one round of HE/VT. This call for fire is sent in one transmission. The call for fire consists of the: o Observer identification o Warning order immediate suppression o Target location There is no MTO and no RREMS statement. Example. FO: This is W2P, immediate suppression, grid 221 432, over. FDC: W2P, this is R2S, immediate suppression, grid 220 432, out. Suppression. The suppression mission consists of the: o o o o Observer identification Warning order suppress Target number of the planned target Duration and rate of fire
24 005
B2C2497
This call for fire is sent in one transmission. Example. FO: R2S, this is W2P, suppress AB3104, four minutes, four shells per minute, over. FDC: W2P, this is R2S, suppress AB3104, four minutes, four shells per minute, over.
Additional Information
At The Basic School, you are expected to apply the rules of successive bracketing during adjustment of indirect fire. Successive bracketing is the only technique that mathematically guarantees you will have effects on target. However, successive bracketing has its disadvantages. Three alternate techniques for adjusting indirect fire onto a target are discussed below. These techniques are introduced for your information and are not testable. Hasty Bracketing. Experience has shown that effectiveness on the target decreases as the number of rounds used in adjustment increases, due to the loss of surprise. An alternative to successive bracketing is hasty bracketing. In this technique, the FO uses an initial bracket as a yardstick to determine a correction necessary to move the next round(s) onto the target in fire for effect. Hasty bracketing can achieve effective results depending on the: o o o o Nature of the target Terrain Firing units proficiency FOs experience
One Round Adjustment. One round adjustment does not require the establishment of a bracket. The FO: o Spots the location of the first round o Calculates and transmits a correction that is necessary to move the next burst on to the target o Fires for return One round adjustment requires an experienced FO who is familiar with the terrain. This technique can be used when: o Insufficient time exists for adjustment o The FO is equipped with a laser range finder o The continued support adjustment of fire may endanger the FO Creeping Fire. The creeping fire method of adjustment is used when the FO desires to make range corrections by creeping the rounds closer to the target instead of bracketing
25 005
B2C2497
or making large corrections. Creeping fire method of adjustment is always used in danger close missions. In danger close situations, the FO must keep in mind the position of the friendly troops to ensure that a correction will not cause rounds to endanger them. This may be applicable in situations where lost rounds are likely. For example, adjust onto a target location on the topographic crest of a hill. The FO makes corrections for creeping fire in 100-meter increments or less while moving rounds toward friendly forces. All mortars that will fire for effect are used in adjustment.
26
005
B2C2497
Call For Fire Worksheet This worksheet is designed to prepare you for the B2C2497 Call for Fire, classroom instruction, B2C2617 Call for Fire Practical Application, and B2C3097 Call for Fire Field Firing Exercise/Close Air Support Demonstration. You should make use of the B2C2497 Call For Fire student handout to locate the answers to the questions contained in this worksheet. Upon completion of the worksheet, you will be better prepared for subsequent instruction and more familiar with the indispensable warfighting skill of calling and adjusting indirect fire. 1. What are the three elements of the Fire Support System? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 2. A mil is a unit of angular measurement equal to 1/_________________________________________ of a circle. 3. Why do artillery and mortars use mils instead of degrees? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 4. To convert degrees to mils, we multiply the number of degrees by _____________________________________. 5. What is northwest in mils? ____________________________________________________________________ 6. What are the three methods used to determine observer-target (OT) direction? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 7. When the FO determines the azimuth to the target (OT direction) with a compass, the result is in mils ________. Before direction can be sent in a CFF, the FO must apply the _____________________ in order to convert to mils____________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 8. Direction should be determined to an accuracy of __________________________________________________. 9. Binoculars are one of the FOs best tools to measure angular deviation. True False 10. What are two methods used to determine observer-target (OT) distance? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 11. Distance is expressed to the nearest ______________________________________________________ meters.
27
005
B2C2497
12. What are the two methods of communicating target location? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 13. The primary disadvantage of the polar plot method of target location is that the FDC must know the FOs ____________. The FO transmits this to the FDC in the form of a _______________________________________. 14. With the grid method of target location, the FO locates the target to an accuracy of _______________________ by sending___________________________ digit grid. 15. In which method(s) of target location is the FO's position not needed by the FDC? a. Grid b. Polar c. A and B 16. When using the grid method of target location, the FO must transmit __________________________________ to the FDC prior to the first correction. 17. The CFF has ____________________ elements and is sent in ____________________________ transmissions. 18. List the elements of the CFF in order. a.____________________________________________________________________ b.____________________________________________________________________ c.____________________________________________________________________ d.____________________________________________________________________ e.____________________________________________________________________ f._____________________________________________________________________ 19. The first transmission of the CFF consists of _____________________ and ____________________________. 20. The second transmission of the CFF consists of ___________________________________________________. 21. The third transmission of the CFF consists of _______________________, __________________________,and________________________________________ 22. What are the three types of missions that can be requested at The Basic School? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 23. What method of target location is not announced in the first transmission? Why? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 24. Explain the difference between an adjust fire mission and a fire for effect mission. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________
28 005
B2C2497
25. In what transmission are "danger close" or a requested shell/fuze combination announced? ______________________________________________________________________ 26. What is danger close for mortars and artillery? ______________________________________________________________________ 27. What would the FO announce if he wanted to control when the firing unit fires? ______________________________________________________________________ 28. What would the FO announce if he wanted the rounds to impact at a specific time? ______________________________________________________________________ 29. What type of artillery round contains 88 small grenade-like shaped charges and is effective against area personnel targets and armored vehicles? ______________________________________________________________________ 30. What fuze should be requested for effects against troops in fighting holes or trenches? ______________________________________________________________________ 31. What fuze should be requested for troops in heavy vegetation or with overhead cover? ______________________________________________________________________ 32. What shell should be requested in order to have an incendiary effect on combustible targets? ______________________________________________________________________ 33. What shell is most effective for obscuration and screening? ______________________________________________________________________ 34. What are the four elements of the message to observer (MTO)? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 35. What should the FO do upon receipt of the MTO? ______________________________________________________________________ 36. Unscramble the following information contained in a MTO: (Target #AB2067, B, 2 rounds, ICM, over, MTO). ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 37. When an adjusting round or the first round in the fire for effect is fired by the firing unit, the FDC announces ______________________________________________________________________ 38. What is splash? ______________________________________________________________________
29
005
B2C2497
39. After the initial round bursts, a ____________________ is recorded and then a __________________________ is transmitted to the FDC in order to adjust the rounds onto the target. 40. What are the four possible range spottings? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 41. What are the three possible deviation spottings? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 42. Deviation spottings are made to the nearest __________________________________________________ mils. 43. What is the OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ 44. The method we use for range corrections at The Basic School is _____________________________________. 45. Define a bracket. ______________________________________________________________________ 46. What is the minimum deviation correction sent to the FDC during the adjustment phase? ______________________________________________________________________ 47. Given the OT distances below, compute the OT factors: a. Range 1300, OT Factor = _________________________________________________________________ b. Range 6400, OT Factor = _________________________________________________________________ c. Range 900, OT Factor = __________________________________________________________________ d. Range 2200, OT Factor = _________________________________________________________________ 48. What are the two possible range corrections? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 49. What is the minimum range correction sent to the FDC during the adjustment phase? ______________________________________________________________________
50. Once a bracket has been established, what will the FO do to each subsequent range correction? ______________________________________________________________________ _______________________
30 005
B2C2497
51. What are the two conditions that allow us to enter the fire for effect phase? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 52. What are the four elements of the RREMS statement? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 53. Unscramble the following elements of a RREMS statement (end of mission, infantry platoon neutralized, over, add 40, left 10, record as target, estimate 11 casualties). ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ Call For Fire Worksheet Answers 1. Forward Observer (FO), Fire Direction Center (FDC), Firing Unit 2. 6400 3. Accuracy and the mil relation formulas ability to easily convert angular deviation into lateral distance. 4. 17.8 5. 5600 6. (1) Scaling from a map (2) Lensatic compass (3) Measuring from a reference point 7. magnetic, GM angle, grid 8. 10 mils 9. True 10. Estimation, Visibility, Map Study 11. 100 meters 12. (1) Polar Plot (2) Grid Coordinates 13. position / location, POSREP 14. 100 meters, six 15. a. A 16. direction 17. six, three 18. (a) Observer Identification (b) Warning Order (c) Target Location (d) Target Description (e) Method of Engagement (f) Method of Fire and Control 19. Observer Identification, Warning Order 20. Target Location 21. Target Description, Method of Engagement, Method of Fire and Control 22. Adjust Fire, Fire for Effect 23. Grid, because it is the standard method of target location 24. Adjust Fire announced when the FO decides an adjustment is needed because of questionable target location. One gun fires one round at a time until the round is close enough for the entire firing unit to engage the target. Fire for Effect announced when
31 005
B2C2497
the FO has an accurate target location and is certain that the first volley will have effect. All guns of the firing unit fire simultaneously. 25. Third transmission 26. 600 for artillery, 400 for 81mm, 200 for 60mm 27. At my command 28. Time on Target / TOT 29. Improved Conventional Munitions (ICM) 30. Variable Time (VT) or Mechanical Time (Time) 31. High Explosive / Delay 32. White Phosphorous (WP) 33. Smoke M825 34. Unit(s) to Fire, Changes to the Call for Fire, Number of Rounds, Target Number 35. Read it back verbatim 36. MTO, B, ICM in effect, 2 rounds, Target # AB 2067, over. 37. Shot, over 38. Transmission that informs the FO when his round is five seconds from detonation. 39. spotting, correction 40. Over, Short, Range Correct, Range Doubtful 41. Left, Right, On-Line 42. 5 mils 43. Observer-Target Factor is defined as the OT Distance divided by 1000. When OT Distance is greater than 1000 meters, the OT Factor is expressed to the nearest whole number. When OT Distance is less than 1000 meters, the OT Factor is expressed to the nearest tenth. The OT Factor is used to convert deviation spottings into deviation corrections. 44. Successive Bracketing 45. One round over the target, one round short of the target. 46. 30 meters 47. (a) 1 (b) 6 (c) 0.9 (d) 2 48. Add, Drop 49. 100 meters except when entering the fire for effect phase 50. Split the range correction in half 51. (1) When an adjusting round has effect on the target (2) When splitting a 100-meter bracket 52. Refinement, Record as Target, End of Mission, Surveillance 53. Left 10, Add 40, Record as Target, End of Mission, Infantry platoon neutralized, Estimate 11 casualties, over.
32
005
B2C2497
Call For Fire Problems
Section A
Directions: For the problems in this section, using the graphic, fill in your call for fire using the polar method of target location. 1. Target Description: Infantry squad in the open. a. ___________________________, over. b. Dir ________ Dis ________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
Dis 1000 120 mils
Dir 0200 Dis 1500 FDC = T2C FO = C23 AB1050
2. Target Description: Tank in the open. a. ___________________________, over. b. Dir ________ Dis ________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
Dis 2300 AB1001 Dir 0030 Dis 1800 200 mils FDC = R3E FO = E22
33
005
B2C2497
3. Target Description: Helicopters refueling. a. ___________________________, over. b. Dir ________ Dis ________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
170 mils Dis 3500
AB1050 Dir 2800 Dis 1200 FDC = T2C FO = C23
4. Target Description: Infantry squad under triple-canopy jungle. a. ___________________________, over. b. Dir ________ Dis ________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
G N
FDC = L3B FO = B33

0 1 2 3 4 5 (100 m ea.)
34
005
B2C2497
Section B
Directions: For the problems in this section, using the graphic, fill in your call for fire. 1. Target Description: Machine gun bunker. a. ___________________________, over. b. ___________________________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
G N
FDC = M2E FO = D11

0 1 2 3 4 5 (100 m ea.)
2. Target Description: Platoon of T-64s in the open. a. ___________________________, over. b. ___________________________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
G N
FDC = K2P FO = V34

0 2 4 6 8 10 (200 m ea.)
35
005
B2C2497
3. Target Description: Truck with dismounted infantry. a. ___________________________, over. b. ___________________________, over. c. ___________________________, over.
FDC = T2F FO = F44 99
98
97
96
85
86
87
88
89
Section C
1. Your initial call for fire has been sent. Each subsequent graphic is what you observe after you have made your correction. OT distance is 2500 meters. Write your spotting and correction for each round. a. ______________________________________
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
b. ______________________________________
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
36
005
B2C2497
c. ______________________________________
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
d. ______________________________________
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
e. ______________________________________
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2. Listed below are the OT distance and spotting for the initial round of four separate missions. Write the correction you would make based on the spotting.
OT Distance (in meters)

a. b. c. d. 900 2300 3500 1200
Spotting
Over, 30 Left Short, 20 Right Doubtful, 15 right Over 20 Left
Correction
37
005
B2C2497
Section D
Directions: Using the map on page 41, complete problems 1 through 6 below. 1. You are located at OP 1. Using the polar method, develop a CFF on target #2, a communications installation. Then, using the grid method, develop another CFF on the same target. Polar Method Grid Method
What is your OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ You spot your first round as Over, 40 Left. What is your correction? ______________________________________________________________________ 2. You are located at OP 2. Using the polar method, develop a CFF on target #1, a T72 tank platoon in the open. Then, using the grid method, develop another CFF on the same target. Polar Method Grid Method
What is your OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ You spot your first round as Range doubtful, 210 Left. What is your correction? ______________________________________________________________________ 3. You are located at OP 1. Using the polar method, develop a CFF to target #7, a D30 battery. Then, using the grid method, develop another CFF on the same target. Polar Method Grid Method
What is your OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ You receive the following transmission, Message to observer, B, T, 2 rounds, Target # AL2303, over. What does this transmission mean? ______________________________________________________________________
38
005
B2C2497
4. You are located at OP 2. Determine an immediate suppression mission to target #5, an infantry squad in the open. Immediate suppression ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 5. You are located at OP 1. Using the polar method, develop a CFF to target #3, an infantry platoon entrenched without overhead cover. Then, using the grid method, develop another CFF on the same target. Polar Method Grid Method
What is your OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ You spot your first round as Short, 30 Right. What is your correction? ______________________________________________________________________ 6. You are located at OP 2. Using the polar method, develop a CFF to target #6, a machine gun position. Then, using the grid method, develop another CFF on the same target. Polar Method Grid Method
What is your OT factor? ______________________________________________________________________ You spot your first round as Over, 40 Left. What is your correction? ______________________________________________________________________
39
005
B2C2497
7 4 7 3
OP 1 R2D
Battery = S9T Battalion = A1B

3
7 2
4 1
7 1 7 0
5
OP 2 K3G
6 9 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0
40
3 1
3 2
3 3
October 2005
B2C2497
Section E
Directions. Using the graphic (and your protractor, when appropriate), fill in your call for fire. 1. Target Description: Platoon T-72s. a. _________________________________________, over. b. Dir ______________ Dis ____________________, over. c. _________________________________________, over.
GN
FDC = K2P FO = V34

0 1 2 3 4 5 (100 m ea.)
2. Target Description: Helicopters refueling. a. _________________________________________, over. b. Dir ______________ Dis ____________________, over. c. _________________________________________, over.
GN
FDC = F3Q FO = G56

0 2 4 6 8 10 (200 m ea.)
42
B2C2497
3. Target Description: Truck with dismounted infantry. a. _________________________________________, over. b. _________________________________________, over. c. _________________________________________, over.
FDC = T2F FO = F44 99
98
97
96
85
86
87
88
89
4. Develop an immediate suppression mission. Target Description: Machine gun position. a. _________________________________________, over. b. _________________________________________, over. c. _________________________________________, over.
FDC = R2G FO = F33 99
98
97
96
85
86
87
88
89
Call For Fire Problems Answers
Section A
1. a. b. c. 2. a. b. c. T2C de C23, AF, polar, k. Dir 0080, Dis 1000, k. Inf sqd i/o, k. (VT i/e or Time i/e also correct) R3E de E22, AF, polar, k. Dir 6230, Dis 2300, k. Tank i/o, ICM i/e, k. 43
B2C2497
3. a. b. c. 4. a. b. c.
T2C de C23, AF, polar, k. Dir 2630, Dis 3500, k. Helos refueling, HE/WP i/e, k. L3B de B33, AF, polar, k Dir 5440, Dis 700, k. Inf sqd in triple-canopy jungle, Delay i/e, k.
Section B
1. a. M2E de D11, AF, polar, k b. Dir 2640, Dis 600, k. c. MG bunker, Danger Close, Delay i/a, Delay i/e, k. 2. a. K2P de V34, AF, polar, k. b. Dir 4280, Dis 1400, k. c. Plt of T-64s i/o, ICM, i/e. 3. a. T2F de F44, AF, k. b. Grid 883 962, k. c. Truck w/dism inf, ICM i/e, k
Section C
1. Spotting a. b. c. d. e. 2.
Correction
S, 60 L O, 40 R S, 10 L O, 10 R RC, 0 L
Correction R 120, +400, k. L 80, -200, k. +100, k. -50, FFE, k. EOM, Tank destroyed, Est 3 cas, k.
a. b. c. d.
R 30, -100, k. L 40, +400, k. L 60, k. -200, k
Section D
1. Polar Method S9T de R2D, AF, polar, k. Dir 3940, Dis 2000, k. 44 Grid Method S9T de R2D, AF, k. Grid 292 722, k.
B2C2497
Comm Instl, VT i/e, k. OT Factor: 2 Correction: R 80, -400, k. 2. Polar Method S9T de K3G, AF, polar, k. Dir 1160, Dis 3300, k. T-72 platoon i/o, ICM i/e, k. OT Factor: 3 Correction: R 630, k. 3. Polar Method S9T de R2D, AF, polar, k. Dir 4680, Dis 3800, k. D-30 Btry i/o, ICM i/e, k.
Comm Instl, VT i/e, k.
Grid Method S9T de K3G, AF, k. Grid 318 712, k. T-72 platoon i/o, ICM i/e, k.
Grid Method S9T de R2D, AF, k. Grid 267 732, k. D-30 Btry i/o, ICM i/e, k.
OT Factor: 4 MTO: The battery will fire in adjustment. The battalion will fire for effect, 2 rounds per tubetotal of 36 rounds on the deck. 4. de K3G, Immediate Suppression, Grid 268 691, k. 5. Polar Method S9T de R2D, AF, polar, k. Dir 2040, Dis 3100, k. Inf plt entrenched, VT i/e, k. OT Factor: 3 Correction: L 90, +400, k. 6. Polar Method S9T de K3G, AF, polar, k. Dir 1780, Dis 3900, k. MG posn, VT i/e, k. OT Factor: 4 Correction: R 160, +400 k. Grid Method S9T de K3G, AF, k. Grid 327 692, k. MG posn, VT i/e, k. Grid Method S9T de R2D, AF, k. Grid 333 724, k. Inf plt entrenched, VT i/e, k.
45
B2C2497
Section E
1. a. K2P de V34, AF, polar, k. b. Dir 4160, Dis 700, k. c. T-72 Platoon i/o, ICM i/e, k. 2. a. F3Q de G56, AF, polar, k. b. Dir 0980, Dis 1500, k. c. Helos refueling, HE/WP i/e, k. 3. a. T2F de F44, AF, k. b. Grid 846 963, k. c. Truck w/dismount inf, ICM i/e, k. 4. de F33, Immediate Suppression, Grid 864 992, k.
References
MCWP 3-16- Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Element MCWP 3-16.6- Supporting Arms, Observer, Spotter, and Controller
Notes
_____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________

46
SIX FUNCTIONS OF MARINE AVIATION B2C2767 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2C2767
Six Functions of Marine Aviation
Six Functions Of Marine Aviation

Introduction The purpose of this instruction is to provide you with a basic understanding of the six functions of Marine aviation (Offensive Air Support, Anti-Air Warfare, Assault Support, Air Reconnaissance, Electronic Warfare, Control of Aircraft and Missiles) available to support the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF). It is important all Officers understand aviation capabilities provided to the MAGTF commander, and from the fact that roughly half of all Marine Officers serve in the Wing. In this lesson we will discus the six functions of Marine aviation. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Offensive Air Support Anti-Air Warfare Assault Support Air Reconnaissance Electronic Warfare Control of Aircraft and Missiles Summary Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objective Without the aid of reference, describe the Six functions of Marine Aviation. (MCCS-MAGT-1003f) Page 3 5 7 9 11 12 15
Importance
In This Lesson
B2C2767
Offensive Air Support

Introduction Offensive Air Support is defined as, "those air operations conducted against enemy installations, facilities, and personnel to directly assist the attainment of MAGTF objectives by the destruction of enemy resources or the isolation of his military force." This presentation will serve to familiarize you with OAS and the MAGTF's potential application of its capabilities. OAS Functions Combined Arms. The MAGTF's combat power is enhanced by the concept of combined arms. Combined arms is the full integration of arms in such a way, that in order to counteract one, the enemy must make himself more vulnerable to another. To accomplish this, a task organized MAGTF will integrate its aviation assets with its organic fire support assets, to effectively support the MAGTF scheme of maneuver. OAS operations apply firepower against our opponents' war making and sustaining capabilities. This firepower may be applied for one of two functions: the neutralization or destruction of the assigned target. Destruction. Destruction missions destroy enemy forces, equipment, supplies, and installations. Destruction of the target may be difficult to achieve contingent upon the threat, target composition, MAGTF aviation assets and available weapons. Neutralization. Neutralization missions render areas, weapons, or enemy forces ineffective for a specified time. Neutralization may be applied when we cannot afford to dedicate the assets to destroy our opponent, or when we decide that the most efficient application of force would be to "shut him down" for a set period of time, rendering the requirement for destruction unnecessary. OAS Categories. USMC OAS operations are divided into two major categories: CAS (Close Air Support) and DAS (Deep Air Support). 1. Deep Air Support. Deep air support can be conducted in the form of armed reconnaissance, air interdiction or strike coordination and reconnaissance (SCAR). The MAGTF commander utilizes DAS to shape the battlefield. DAS is defined as "air action against enemy targets at such a distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each mission with fire and movement of friendly forces is not required." DAS can be conducted on both sides of the FSCL. When DAS is required short of the FSCL, coordination with the friendly forces is required. a. Air Interdiction. Air interdiction is defined as, "air operations conducted to destroy, neutralize, or delay the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required."
B2C2767
b. Armed Reconnaissance. Armed reconnaissance is defined as "locating and attacking targets of opportunity, i.e., enemy material, personnel, and facilities, in assigned general areas or along assigned ground communication routes, and not for the purpose of attacking specific/located briefed targets." Armed reconnaissance offers the MAGTF commander a capability to address mobile enemy force structure targets enroute to the battlefield. c. Strike Coordination and Reconnaissance. SCAR is defined as a mission flown for the purpose of acquiring and reporting deep air support targets and coordinating armed reconnaissance or air interdiction missions upon those targets. The breadth of the SCAR mission may range from passing a target location up to providing a mark for the attacking aircraft. The SCAR mission should not be confused with FAC(A) mission. The SCAR mission, as with other DAS missions, does not require the detailed integration with surface forces for the delivery of munitions. Because of this, there is no special qualification required for an aircraft to be tasked with the mission. 2. Close Air Support. Close air support is defined as, "air action against hostile targets which are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces." CAS allows the MAGTF Commander to concentrate firepower at the decisive place and time to achieve local combat superiority. It can be employed in both offensive and defensive operations. There are two types of missions: a. Preplanned. Preplanned air support is in accordance with a program and planned in advance of operations. Preplanned missions are either scheduled or on-call. 1. Scheduled. Prepared scheduled missions are executed at a specific time against a specific target at a known location. Scheduled missions provide the most economical use of aircraft and ordnance. 2. On-call. Preplanned on-call missions involve aircraft that are preloaded for a particular target or array of targets and target area and placed in an appropriate ground/air alert status. b. Immediate Missions. Immediate missions meet requests that arise during battle, strike unanticipated targets, and are generally urgent in nature. Aviation assets are diverted from other missions via the MACCS to execute immediate requests.
B2C2767
Anti-Air Warfare
Introduction From WWI to the present, anti-air warfare (AAW) has been an integral part of Marine Aviation and an essential ingredient to success. Historically this function has been required with varying degrees of intensity depending upon the extent and nature of the enemy air threat. Marine forces have not had to actively counter a meaningful enemy air threat since WWII. Today, however, the sophistication and magnitude of antiair weapons systems available to even third world countries pose a serious threat to any mission we may be assigned. With this in mind we must understand the function of AAW so that we can apply it against all potential threats. Anti-air warfare (AAW) is the action that is required to destroy or reduce to an acceptable level the enemy air and missile threat. 1. There are two general types of AAW: Offensive AAW (OAAW) and air defense. OAAW constitutes operations conducted against enemy air or air defense systems before they can launch or assume an attacking role. OAAW operations in or near the objective area consist mainly of air attacks to destroy or neutralize hostile aircraft, airfields, radars, air defense systems, and supporting areas. Air defense consists of defensive measures designed to destroy attacking enemy aircraft or missiles or to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of such an attack (Joint Pub 1-02). Air defense can be further broken down into two categories: a. Active air defense is direct defensive action taken to destroy attacking enemy aircraft or missiles or to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of such an attack. It includes such measures as the use of aircraft, interceptor missiles, air defense artillery, non-air defense weapons in an air defense role, and electronic countermeasures. b. Passive air defense constitutes all measures, other than active air defense, taken to minimize the effects of hostile air action. These measures include the use of cover, concealment, camouflage, deception, dispersion, and protective construction. OAAW objectives include weakening the enemy's offensive air capability to a manageable level, thereby gaining access to a zone of airspace for a specified timeframe to allow friendly air operations and local air superiority in conjunction with friendly operations. These objectives can be incorporated into three specific Areas: preemptive measures, suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD), and local air superiority measures. 2. OAAW is defined by three specific tasks, each with its corresponding objective. a. Preemptive Measures. The objective is to weaken the enemy air threat before the enemy can make effective use of his air defense systems (air-to-air elements, ground-to-air elements, and support C3 structure) and prevent attainment of MAGTF objectives. Preemptive measures are required in the early phase of an amphibious operation and in sustained operations ashore.
B2C2767
Preemptive measures allow subsequent air and ground operations to proceed without prohibitive interference. Preemptive measures can include: - Air strikes on enemy airfields to destroy or damage aircraft, facilities, and logistic support. - Attacks on command and control facilities and surveillance systems. - Air strikes on the enemy's aircraft supply and support, such as railroads and convoys. - Offensive air-to-air sweeps to search out and destroy enemy aircraft. b. Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD). The objective of SEAD is to gain access to a defined zone of airspace that will allow MAGTF operations to proceed. SEAD may become periodic in nature, applied at a critical time that will allow air and ground forces to proceed without prohibitive interference from the enemy's air defense systems. SEAD is an important part of any campaign and the MAGTF must plan a coordinated effort against the enemy air defense threat. Sustainability of a coordinated GCE/ACE SEAD plan is a function of asset availability. In conventional warfare, SEAD will include the following strategy mix: 1. Direct confrontation of the enemy's air defense with ground forces. 2. Direct confrontation of the enemy's air defense with air forces. 3. Direct confrontation of the enemy's air defense with naval forces. 4. Command and Control Warfare (C2W). c. Local Air Superiority Measures. Even with successful application of preemptive measures and SEAD, a residual air threat may still exist. This threat may be of such a nature and magnitude that friendly air operations are still possible and survivable with proper application of local air superiority measures. The objective of local air superiority measures is to prevent the enemys residual air threat from affecting the execution of friendly operations to the point of prohibitive interference in a specific zone of action. Local air superiority measures may be used separately or in conjunction with preemptive measures and SEAD. Local air superiority measures can include: 1. The use of offensive combat air patrols. 2. Escort and self-escort tactics. 3. The use of aircraft onboard countermeasures and maneuvers. The primary purpose of AAW is to gain and maintain AIR SUPERIORITY. Air superiority is "that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force."
B2C2767
Assault Support
Introduction Assault support provides the MAGTF commander the ability to concentrate his strength against selected enemy weaknesses using speed and surprise. It provides operational and tactical mobility as well as logistics support to the MAGTF. The MAGTF commander bases his decision about the extent and use of assault support on the following METT-TC considerations: - MAGTF's mission and concept of operations. - The enemy's capability to interrupt movement of assault support assets. - The effect of terrain and weather on assault support missions. - Aircraft availability and lift capability. - Time available for planning, rehearsal and briefing. The MAGTF commander uses assault support to focus combat power at the decisive place and time to achieve local combat superiority. Using assault support, the commander can rapidly concentrate forces or redeploy those forces as necessary. It allows him to apply and sustain combat power and strike the enemy where he is unprepared. This function comprises those actions required for the airlift of personnel, supplies and equipment into or within the battle area by helicopters or fixed wing aircraft. These are the general categories of assault support: 1. Combat assault transport 2. Air Delivery 3. Aerial Refueling 4. Air Evacuation 5. Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP) 6. Air Logistical Support 7. Battlefield Illumination 1. Combat Assault Transport - provides mobility for the MAGTF. It is used to rapidly deploy forces, bypass obstacles or redeploy forces to meet the enemy threat. All of these actions provide the MAGTF commander with more diverse options for operational planning. Combat assault transport allows the commander to effect a rapid force build up at a specific time and place of his choosing. Performed by the following platforms: Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron (HMM: 12 CH-46E) Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron (HMH: 16 CH-53E or 8 CH-53D) Marine Light/Attack Helicopter Squadron (HMLA: 9 UH-1N) Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130) Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM: 12 MV-22)
2. Air Delivery - Provides air delivery of troops, supplies and equipment, performed by the following platforms: Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130)
B2C2767
Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM: 12 MV-22)
3. Aerial Refueling Provides the aerial refueling to F/A-18, EA-6B, AV-8, CH-53, MV-22. Provided by: Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130)
4. Air Evacuation - This is the transportation of personnel and equipment from a forward operating base or remote areas. This includes flights from areas of operations to secure areas, CASEVAC, and extraction of forces. Conducted by the following platforms: Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron (HMM: 12 CH-46E) Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron (HMH: 16 CH-53E or 8 CH-53D) Marine Light/Attack Helicopter Squadron (HMLA: 9 UH-1N) Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130) Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM: 12 MV-22)
5. Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel (TRAP) Involves the recovery of personnel and equipment while avoiding additional loss. Provided by: Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron (HMM: 12 CH-46E) Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron (HMH: 16 CH-53E or 8 CH-53D) Marine Light/Attack Helicopter Squadron (HMLA: 9 UH-1N) Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM: 12 MV-22)
6. Air Logistical Support - is performed by fixed wing aircraft and delivers troops, equipment and supplies to areas beyond helicopter range and lift capability or when surface transportation is slow or unavailable. Provided by: Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130) Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron (VMM: 12 MV-22)
7. Battlefield Illumination Illumination of the battlefield conducted by: Marine Aerial Refueler/Transport Squadron (VMGR: 12 KC-130) Marine Fighter Attack Squadron (VMFA: 12 F/A-18) Marine Attack Squadron (VMA: 12 AV-8) Marine Light/Attack Helicopter Squadron (HMLA: 18 AH-1W/9 UH-1N)
B2C2767
Air Reconnaissance
A. Purpose of Air Reconnaissance. Simply stated, when a commander commits his troops to battle, he does so with certain risks. The ultimate purpose of any type of reconnaissance is to reduce the commander's unknown risks. Since we're dealing with air reconnaissance, we'll break reconnaissance down into two categories. 1. Strategic Reconnaissance. The gathering of information, which is used to affect policy on the national or international level. This information is used by strategic planners and is conducted mostly by National or Theater assets. Some USMC aircraft are utilized in this role to a limited extent, but not as their primary mission. 2. Tactical Reconnaissance. Tactical air reconnaissance is the use of air vehicles to obtain information concerning terrain, weather, and the disposition, composition, movement, installations, lines of communications, electronic and communication emissions of enemy forces. Also included are artillery and naval gunfire adjustment, and systematic and random observation of ground battle areas, targets, and/or sectors of airspace. B. Current Platforms 1. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS). UAS offers the unique advantage of removing harms way from the equation. Employing these systems in the execution of dull, dirty, and dangerous missions frees up more capable manned aircraft for massing fires and delivering overwhelming combat power in the battlespace. The UAS is typically employed to detect, locate, and identify targets in support of the MAGTF; conduct realtime imagery reconnaissance; assist in the control of indirect fire and terminal guidance operations reporting effects of fires; provide support for rear area security; and assist in search and rescue (SAR) missions. a. RQ-7 Shadow 200. As a MAGTF asset, it is dedicated primarily to air reconnaissance. This system has replaced the RQ-2 Pioneer and is now maintained and operated by the Marine UAV squadron (VMU). The mission of the VMU squadron is to conduct day and night unmanned air reconnaissance operations in support of the MAGTF. The Shadow 200 sensor package consists of electro-optical and forward looking infrared (FLIR) cameras with incorporated IR pointer. The air vehicle is capable of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA) at altitudes of up to 15,000 feet MSL for an advertised endurance of over 6 hours.
2. Aircraft. 1. EA-6B. The mission of the EA-6B squadron is to conduct aerial electronic reconnaissance and aerial electronic warfare. The four Marine Corps Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadrons (VMAQ-1, -2, -3, -4) are the only active duty Marine Corps units fully capable of performing airborne electronic reconnaissance. The VMAQ aircraft
B2C2767
process and disseminate information from digital tape recordings obtained during electronic warfare (EW) missions to update and maintain enemy electronic order of battle (EOB) and for use in subsequent air operations. 2. AH-1W Night Targeting System (NTS). The NTS on the AH-1W provides significant tactical reconnaissance capabilities to the MAGTF. Day optics allow for TV recording with up to a 34x magnification, while the FLIR gives night time capability with up to 25x magnification. The NTS enhances the AH-1W's warfighting capability by adding FLIR sensor, CCD TV sensor, Laser Designator / Rangefinder, Automatic Target , video recording. 3. AV-8B / Litening II. Targeting pods organic to tactical aircraft provide a significant tactical reconnaissance capability to the MAGTF for both day and night operations. The Litening II contains a high-resolution, forward-looking infrared sensor (FLIR) that displays an infrared image of the target to the pilot. It has a wide field of view search capability and a narrow field of view acquisition / targeting capability of tactical targets. The pod contains a charged coupled device (CCD-TV) camera used to obtain target imagery in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. 4. FA-18D (Reconnaissance Capable). The F/A-18D (RC) is equipped with the Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System (ATARS) and the Radar Upgrade (RUG) Phase II with synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The F/A-18D (RC) is a land based all weather multi-spectral imagery collector. Currently four FA-18D (RC) aircraft per F/A-18D squadron are configured for tactical reconnaissance. Although reconnaissance is not the primary mission of these aircraft, the F/A-18D (RC) is capable of both Dedicated and Integrated reconnaissance roles due to the multi-mission capabilities of the F/A18. Once imagery is collected, datalink configured ATARS aircraft can transmit near real time imagery to specially equipped ground stations. 5. UH-1N. Employ the Brightstar day TV, FLIR laser range finder and designator.
10
B2C2767
Electronic Warfare
Electronic Warfare (EW) Application. Consist of the following subsets: a. Electronic Attack (EA). Involves the use of electromagnetic energy to determine, reduce, exploit or prevent hostile use of the electromagnetic spectrum and action which retains friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Among them are: 1. Reactive Suppression of Enemy Air Defense (RSEAD). RSEAD is conducted with radar jamming and with Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) attacks on threat acquisition and targeting systems. 2. Air Interdiction/OAAW. This includes radar jamming, bulk chaff and antiradiation missiles against threat, detection, acquisition, and targeting systems; deception with jamming and bulk chaff; and communications/datalink jamming in deep battle. 3. Other EA Functions Include. The degrading of threat fire support radars and communications with jamming and bulk chaff. The degrading of threat Command and Control nodes with communications jamming, data-link jamming, radar jamming, bulk chaff, and anti-radiation missiles to support GCE, Assault Support, And TACAIR. b. Electronic Warfare Support (ES). That division of EW involving actions taken under direct control of an operational commander to search for, intercept, identify, and locate sources of radiated electromagnetic energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition. 1. Reactive Suppression of Enemy Air Defense (RSEAD). RSEAD includes threat warning and intelligence collection through timely, precise detection and localization of threats that may present prohibitive interference to close air support or armed reconnaissance. 2. Air Interdiction/OAAW. This includes timely and precise collection and localization of radar, communications, and data-link signals in support of air operations and intelligence collection in deep battle. 3. Other ES Functions Include. Electronic battle damage assessment by monitoring signals from targets. The timely and precise threat warning. The localization of threat fire support radars, communications, and command and control nodes to support GCE, assault support, TACAIR, and intelligence. c. EP (Electronic Protection) That division of EW involving actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy employment of EW that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability.
11
B2C2767
Control of Aircraft and Missiles

Introduction A. Control of aircraft and missiles encompasses the coordinated employment of facilities, equipment, communications, procedures, and personnel in order to enable the ACE commander to plan, direct, and control the efforts of the ACE to support the MAGTF. B. The agencies of the MACCS are essential to the conduct of the control of aircraft and missiles. Additionally, although the TACP and other airborne controllers are not part of the administrative chain of the Marine Air Control Group, they are considered to be integral elements of the MACCS. A. Fundamentals of Control of Aircraft and Missiles 1. Integrating Function a. The Aviation Combat Element (ACE) Commanders ability to command and control is facilitated through the Marine Air Command and Control System (MACCS). The MACCS provides the ACE Commander with the means to move and process information to effect the decision and execution cycle. The principle objectives of the MACCS are to: (1) Enhance unity of effort. (2) Integrate the elements of the command and control system. (3) Disseminate common situational awareness. b. The MACCS fulfills these primary objectives through execution of the control of aircraft and missiles function of Marine aviation. The control of aircraft and missiles function integrates and focuses the other five functions of Marine aviation into a coordinated effort. 2. Methods of Aviation Control a. Air Direction. Air direction is the authority to regulate the employment of air resources, including both aircraft and surface-to-air weapons, to maintain a balance between their availability and the priorities assigned for their use. The purpose of air direction is to achieve a balance between the MAGTFs finite aviation resources and the accomplishment of the ACE mission. Air direction includes: (1) Developing air tasking orders. (2) Fulfilling the requirements of air tasking orders (e.g., tasking aircraft to perform specific missions). (3) Changing or altering prescheduled missions. (4) Processing air support requests. (5) Collecting information concerning mission status. (6) Moving ground-based air defense assets to new firing positions.
12
B2C2767
(7) Adjusting aircraft and surface-to-air weapon unit mission assignments within previously set parameters due to changes in the air or ground situation. b. Air Control. Air control is the authority to direct the physical maneuver of aircraft in flight or to direct an aircraft or surface-to-air weapon unit to engage a specific target. Air control includes airspace management and airspace control. (1) Airspace Management. Airspace management is the coordination, integration and regulation of the use of airspace of defined dimensions. Airspace management is used to optimize the use of available airspace to allow maximum freedom, consistent with the degree of operational risk acceptable to the commander. The MACCS provides the ACE Commander with the ability to conduct airspace management. (2) Airspace Control. Airspace control is the authority to direct the maneuver of aircraft so that the best use is made of assigned airspace. Airspace control provides for the coordination, integration, and regulation of the use of a defined airspace. It also provides for the identification of all airspace users. The authority to exercise airspace control is inherent to the commander whose unit is responsible for particular blocks of airspace, types of missions, or types of aircraft. Airspace control does not include measures to approve, disapprove, deny, or delay air operations. MACCS agencies accomplish airspace control through the use of positive control, procedural control, or a combination of the two. (a) Positive Control. Positive control is a method of airspace control that relies on positive identification, tracking, and direction of aircraft within an airspace. The characteristics of positive control include the required use of radars, other sensors, identification friend or foe (IFF), digital data links for a shared air picture, and reliable and continuous communications with all aviation assets. (b) Procedural Control. Procedural control is a method of airspace control that relies on a combination of previously agreed upon and promulgated orders and procedures. The characteristics of procedural control include comprehensive air defense identification procedures and rules of engagement; aircraft identification maneuvers; fire support coordination measures; transit routes; and coordinating altitudes. B. MACCS Elements. 1. Marine Tactical Air Command Squadron (MTACS) Tactical Air Command Center (TACC). The role of the TACC is to function as the senior MAGTF Aviation command and control agency and to serve as the operational command post of the ACE commander or his designated representative. Responsible for receiving requests for assault support and offensive air support, and generating the air tasking order (ATO).
13
B2C2767
2. Marine Wing Communication Squadron (MWCS). The MWCS is the primary communication organization within the Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW). 3. Marine Air Support Squadron (MASS). Direct Air Support Center (DASC). They are responsible for direction of assault support and offensive air support through procedural control, ideally located with senior FSCC.
4. Unmanned Aerial System (UAS). Fixed Wing Marine Unmanned Squadron (VMU). Provides Air Reconnaissance and OAS in the form of the RQ-7 Shadow 200.
5. Low Altitude Air Defense (LAAD). The mission of the LAAD Bn is to provide close-in, low altitude surface-to-air weapons fires in defense of the MAGTF. LAAD Bns defend forward combat areas, maneuver forces, vital areas, installations, and/or units engaged in special or independent operations utilizing the stinger missile system.
6. Marine Air Control Squadron (MACS). Tactical Air Operations Center (TAOC). Primary agency for Anti Air Warfare. Along with positive control through air traffic control (ATC) agencies.
14
B2C2767
Summary OAS. The MAGTF commander utilizes OAS as an integral part of his combined arms team. OAS constitutes a large percentage of the MAGTF's combat power making up for a structural deficiency in artillery assets. Historically, the US Marines have been on the cutting edge of attack aviation innovation. A sound understanding of the tasks, functions, and requirements associated with OAS ensure that we will continue the tradition. AAW is everyone's job, if we are to achieve the required degree of air superiority. In combat, one of the major factors affecting our success is the enemy threat. Our ability to cope with this ever-changing threat can only be improved through training. If our AAW doctrine is to be sound, we must spend more time planning and integrating our tactics. Assault Support. We have presented the assets, which perform the assault support function of Marine Aviation. In closing, George C. Marshall said, "When the smoke cleared away, it was the man with the rifle who settled the final issue of the field." Marine Corps assault support is the means to get that rifleman to the fight! Air Reconnaissance. We must never lose track of the fact that intelligence will drive operations during wartime. As Winston Churchill so wisely put it, "However absorbed a commander may be in the elaboration of his own thoughts, it is sometimes necessary to take the enemy into account." Electronic Warfare. Though the EA-6B is a low-density, high demand asset in support of joint and coalition task forces, it is also a MAGTF asset. From Operation Desert Storm to Operation Iraqi Freedom and to today, Prowlers support MAGTF missions in addition to joint and coalition tasking. Fifty- percent of EA-6B sorties in Desert Storm supported I MEF objectives directly. Approximately 40-45% of EA-6B missions from 2004-2006 in OIF II were in direct support of the MNF-W commander I MEF or II MEF with other attached forces. Commanders at all levels throughout the MAGTF must be familiar with the support available from the EA-6B to accomplish MAGTF objectives. Control of Aircraft and Missiles. The MAGTF is task organized with the MACCS agencies necessary to perform the six functions of Marine aviation. They are organized and equipped to support amphibious operations and subsequent operations ashore. The employment of Fleet Marine Forces requires the close integration of air and ground operations to succeed on the modern battlefield.
15
Notes
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT B2C2777 STUDENT HANDOUT
Close Air Support
Close Air Support

Introduction Close air support (CAS) is a Marine Corps innovation. Since the first dive-bombing attempts in World War I and subsequent operations, Marines have realized the value of closely integrating aviation with ground combat efforts. World War II and the Korean War galvanized the importance of CAS. During those conflicts, the fundamental tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) for conducting CAS today were forged in places such as Guadalcanal and the Pusan Perimeter. Today, CAS continues to be Marine aviations unique contribution to the combat power available to a Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) commander. The MAGTF commander uses CAS to concentrate firepower on the enemy. CAS provides fire support with the speed and violence that is essential in maneuver warfare. The speed, range, and maneuverability of aircraft allow them to attack targets that other supporting arms may not be able to effectively engage. The ground commander at the lowest level is responsible for employment of CAS assets unless specifically retained by a higher-level commander in the ground force chain of command. We will discuss close air support fundamentals, the key personnel, how to develop a 9 line brief, and how to control aircraft from the check in brief until the Battle Damage Assessment is reported back to the supporting aircraft. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic CAS Fundamentals Types of Terminal Control Conditions for Effective CAS CAS Key Personnel Control and Coordination Measures Terminal Control Study Questions Study Questions Answers Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Appendix A: CAS Scenarios Practical Application Scenario 1 Practical Application Scenario 2 Page 4 5 7 9 12 21 24 25 26 26 26 27 28 37 40
Importance
In This Lesson
Close Air Support
Close Air Support (Continued)

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objective 0302-FSPT-1303 Given a scenario involving a Close Air Support (CAS) strike with a Forward Air Controller (FAC), a topographic map, compass, protractor, a target, an attack aircraft with ordnance, and an information sheet containing: an aircraft call sign, mission number, type ordnance load, enemy situation, friendly situation, attack restrictions, and a radio frequency, Prepare a 9-Line brief for CAS (A) to transmit all pertinent information Enabling Learning Objectives 0302-FSPT-1303a Without the aid of reference, identify fixed wing close air support 9-line elements, without omission. 0302-FSPT-1303b Without the aid of reference, identify rotary wing close air support 9-line elements, without omission. 0302-FSPT-1303c Without the aid of reference, describe types of close air support, without error. 0302-FSPT-1303d Without the aid of reference, describe conditions required to clear an aircraft hot without error.
Close Air Support
CAS Fundamentals
CAS is an Air action by fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft against hostile targets which are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces. -- Joint Publication (Joint Pub) 102, DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms CAS is an offensive air support (OAS) mission that is planned and coordinated to deliver firepower against selected enemy capabilities at a designated place and time. By using the speed and mobility of aircraft, CAS provides the commander with the means to strike the enemy swiftly and unexpectedly. Applying the fundamentals of combined arms, the commander integrates CAS with other forms of fire support and the fire and movement of ground forces. CAS is a mission conducted at the tactical level that may affect operational-level objectives. CAS is conducted when and where friendly combat forces are in close proximity to enemy forces. The word, close, does not imply a specific distance; rather, it is situational. The requirement for detailed integration based on proximity, fires, or movement is the determining factor. CAS provides firepower to neutralize or destroy enemy forces in offensive and defensive operations. Although the concept is simple, CAS requires detailed planning, coordination, and training for effective and safe execution.
Close Air Support
Types of Terminal Control

The three types of terminal control each follow a set of procedures with associated risk. The commander considers the situation and issues guidance to the FAC based on recommendations from his staff and associated risks identified in the tactical risk assessment. The intent is to offer the lowest level supported commander, within the constraints established during risk assessment, the latitude to determine which type of terminal attack control best accomplishes the mission. The three types of control are not ordnance specific. o Type 1. Terminal controllers use Type 1 control when the risk assessment requires them to visually acquire the attacking aircraft and the target under attack. It may have been determined, during the tactical risk assessment process, that analysis of attacking aircraft nose position and geometry is the best method of ensuring first pass success and fratricide mitigation under the existing conditions. Examples where visual means of terminal attack control is the method of choice are: Language barriers when controlling coalition aircraft. Lack of confidence in a particular platform. Ability to operate in adverse weather. Aircrew capability. Troops in contact situations. The terminal controller will provide a cleared hot when: He has visually acquired the target. He has ensured the attack will not affect friendlies by visual acquisition and analysis of attack geometry/nose position to determine weapon impact point. The attack aircraft has visually acquired the target or mark. Type 1 is the most restrictive form CAS of terminal control. o Type 2. Type 2 control will be used when the terminal controller desires control of individual attacks but assesses that either one or a combination of any two or three of the following conditions exist: Visual acquisition of the attacking aircraft by the terminal controller at weapons release/launch is not possible Visual acquisition of the target by the terminal controller at weapons release/launch is not possible When attacking aircraft are not in a position to acquire the mark or target prior to weapons release/launch. o Examples are of when a controller would employ a Type 2 control include: Night missions. Adverse weather operations. High threat tactics. High altitude tactics. Standoff weapons employment.
Close Air Support
Types of Terminal Control (Continued)

o Type 2 (Continued). Successful CAS attacks under these conditions depend on timely and accurate targeting data. When delivering GPS/INS or unguided weapons on GPS coordinates, attack aircraft will confirm targeting location with the terminal controller or FAC(A). When employing unguided munitions using Type 2 control, consideration must be given to host aircraft navigation/weapons system accuracy. Inaccurate navigation/weapon systems can result in extensive miss distances. Weapon time of flight will be a factor relative to movement of enemy targets and friendly forces when employing standoff weapons incapable of receiving targeting updates throughout the duration of flight. Detailed planning and preparation by both the terminal controller and the aircrew are required to identify the situations and locations conducive to standoff weapons attacks and to address flight profile and deconfliction (aircraft/weaponry/terrain) considerations. Digital or data link systems capable of displaying aircraft track, sensor point of interest, etc., significantly enhance situational awareness that better enable the terminal controller to authorize weapons release when the terminal controller is unable to visually acquire the attacking aircraft. The terminal controller will provide a cleared hot when he or an observer sees the target either visually or through electronic means and ensures the attacking aircraft will not affect friendlies by analysis of attack geometry/nose position through other means. The attack aircraft will verify target coordinates correlate with expected target area and the terminal controller is confident that the attack aircraft has visually or electronically acquired the correct target. Attack aircraft do not have to visually acquire the target area or mark. o Type 3. Type 3 control is used when the terminal controller requires the ability to provide clearance for multiple attacks within a single engagement subject to specific attack restrictions. Type 3 control does not require the terminal controller to visually acquire the aircraft or the target. When commanders authorize Type 3 control, terminal controllers grant a blanket weapons release clearance to an aircraft or multiple aircraft attacking a target or targets that meet the prescribed restrictions set by the terminal controller. Attack aircraft flight leaders may then initiate attacks within the parameters imposed by the terminal controller. Observers may be equipped and in a position to provide terminal guidance to attack aircraft. The terminal controller will monitor radio transmissions and other available digital information to maintain control of the attacks. The terminal controller maintains abort authority throughout the attack. The terminal controller will provide a cleared to engage once a tactical risk assessment has determined that there is a low risk of fratricide. Type 3 is the least restrictive form of CAS terminal control.
Close Air Support
Conditions for Effective CAS

For CAS to be delivered effectively, some basic conditions that optimize CAS employment must be considered. These conditions include: Effective training and proficiency. Planning and integration. Command, control, and communications (C3). Air superiority. Target marking and acquisition. Streamlined and flexible procedures. Appropriate ordnance. Favorable weather. Effective Training and Proficiency. This training should integrate all of the maneuver and fire support elements involved in executing CAS. Maintaining proficiency allows aircrew and Joint Terminal Attack Controllers (JTACs) to adapt to rapidly changing operational environment conditions. Planning and Integration. Effective CAS relies on thorough, coherent planning and detailed integration of air support into ground operations. The ability to mass joint fire support at a decisive point and to provide the supporting fires needed to achieve the commanders objectives is made possible through detailed integration with ground forces. From a planners perspective, the preferred use of a CAS asset is to have it pre-planned and pre-briefed. Rehearsals provide participants an opportunity to walk through the operation; to achieve familiarity with terrain, airspace restrictions, and procedures; and to identify shortfalls. Command, Control, and Communications (C3). CAS requires an integrated, flexible C3 structure to identify requirements, request support, prioritize competing requirements, task units, move CAS forces to the target area, provide threat warning updates, etc. Accordingly, C3 requires dependable and interoperable communications between aircrews, air control agencies, JTACs, ground forces, requesting commanders, and fire support agencies. Any airspace control measures and fire support coordinating measures should allow for timely employment of CAS without adversely effecting other fire support assets. Air Superiority. Air superiority permits CAS to function without prohibitive interference by enemy aircraft or surface to air weapons. Air superiority may range from local or temporary air superiority to control of the air over the entire operational area. Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) is an integral part of achieving air superiority and may be required during CAS attacks.
Close Air Support
Conditions for Effective CAS (Continued)

Target Marking and Acquisition . The commander employing CAS can improve its effectiveness by providing timely and accurate target marks. Target marking builds situational awareness, identifies specific targets in an array, reduces the possibility of fratricide, and facilitates terminal attack control. When the commander employing CAS foresees a shortfall in ability to mark for CAS, the commander should request that capability during the planning phase. Streamlined and Flexible Procedures. Responsive fire support allows a commander to exploit fleeting battlefield opportunities. Because the modern battlefield can be extremely dynamic, the CAS system must also be flexible enough to rapidly change targets, tactics, or weapons. The requestor is usually in the best position to determine fire support requirements, and like all fire support, CAS must be responsive to be effective. Techniques for improving responsiveness include: Using forward operating bases (FOBs) or forward operating locations near the area of operations. Placing aircrews in a designated ground or airborne alert status. Delegating launch and divert authority to subordinate units. Placing JTACs and other air personnel to facilitate continuous coordination with ground units, communication with aircraft, and observation of enemy locations.
Appropriate Ordnance. To achieve the commanders intent for CAS, planners, JTACs, and aircrews must tailor the weapons and fuse settings for the target being attacked. For example, precision guided munitions (PGM) guided by the Global Positioning System (GPS), such as the GBU-38 500 lb JDAM, are highly effective against fixed targets such as a building, but can be ineffective against mobile targets such as tanks on the move as their guidance coordinates cannot be updated after weapons release. In all cases, the supported commander needs to know the type of ordnance expended and its possible impact on the units current or subsequent mission.
Favorable Weather. Favorable weather improves aircrew effectiveness regardless of aircraft or weapon capability. Inclement weather can affect target acquisition, aircraft sensor performance, laser attenuation, and terminal control. Before CAS missions are executed weather conditions must be considered. If the visibility or cloud ceiling are too low, aircraft support may not be feasible depending on the mission. Additionally, targets located solely by radar or geographic coordinates may not offer the aircrew or JTAC precise enough information to ensure positive target identification and assure avoidance of fratricide.
Close Air Support
CAS Key Personnel

CAS Players. Numerous agencies, and units are involved in the planning, execution, and assessment of each CAS mission. The depth and breadth of this lesson does not allow us to explore every nuance of the CAS process and all participants. However, you should be familiar with three general categories of personnel when it comes to a baseline knowledge of CAS.
Aircraft. During B2C2437, Principles of Fire Support, you learned about the different Marine Corps aircraft that conduct CAS and the ordnance that they are capable of bringing to the fight. Although fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft can both provide CAS, employment considerations differ. Some planning and employment methods for CAS with fixed-wing aircraft are not the same as for rotary-wing aircraft. Although attack helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft capabilities are complementary, neither capability can fully replace the air support provided by the other. The range, speed, and ordnance load of fixed-wing aircraft and the helicopters excellent responsiveness, long on-station times, and ability to operate in diverse conditions represent distinct advantages that are peculiar to each. Fixed-wing aircraft are typically tasked and employed to conduct CAS in terms of aircraft sorties. A sortie is an operational flight by one aircraft. (Joint Pub 1-02) Fixed-wing CAS sorties are normally flown in sections (two aircraft) or divisions (four aircraft). Rotary-wing aircraft providing CAS are typically tasked and employed in sections, divisions, or flights (two or more divisions). Both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft are normally assigned as part of the air combat element (ACE) of a MAGTF. When referring to aircraft flights, the lead aircraft is referred to as lead or dash-one. The second and subsequent aircraft are referred to as dash-two, dash-three, etc.
o Marine Air Command and Control System (MACCS). The Tactical Air Command Center (TACC) is the senior MAGTF air command and control agency, and the only one to exercise command. The TACC is the operational command center of the ACE Commander. The TACC plans, supervises, coordinates, and executes all current and future MAGTF air operations. The TACC is the only agency with authority to launch aircraft.The Direct Air Support Center (DASC) integrates aviation operations with the ground commanders scheme of maneuver, and is usually collocated with the senior FSCC. The DASC requests, directs, and routes aircraft to where they are needed on the battle field. The DASC executes procedural control, and has divert authority of airborne aircraft.
Close Air Support
CAS Key Personnel (Continued)

Ground Personnel. Tactical air control parties (TACPs) exist at the MAGTF through battalion level and are primarily used to integrate and coordinate air support in the fire support process. At the battalion level, the TACP is also used to provide terminal control for CAS aircraft. The battalion TACP consists of 3 Forward Air Controllers (FAC) and 12 radio operators. The senior FAC is the air officer (AO), who acts in a dual capacity as special staff officer to the battalion commander for all aviation matters and as the officer in charge of the TACP. Each of the other two FACs are the leaders of a forward air control parties. All AOs and FACs at the battalion level are naval aviators who have attended the Tactical Air Control Party Course and have the secondary MOS of 7502. Each forward air control party has four communicators. Regimental, division, and MAGTF TACPs do not have FACs, only AOs. The TACP participates in fire support coordination. The AO advises the ground unit commander on CAS employment and works in the Fire Support Coordination Center (FSCC) as the battalions air representative. The forward air control parties prepare the majority of the requests for CAS and provide the battalion with its CAS terminal control capability. The FAC provides terminal control for CAS aircraft and maintains radio communications with assigned CAS aircrews from a forward ground position. The FAC aids in target identification and greatly reduces the potential for fratricide. The duties of the FAC include: o o o o o o o Knowing the enemy situation, selected targets, and location of friendly units. Knowing the supported units plans, position, and needs. Locating targets of opportunity. Advising the supported company commander on proper air employment. Requesting CAS. Controlling CAS. Performing battle damage assessment (BDA).
10
Close Air Support
CAS Key Personnel (Continued)

Throughout this handout and during your study of CAS, you may see the following terms:
Term FAC (Forward Air Controller)
JTAC (Joint Terminal Attack Controller)
Terminal Controller
FAC(A) Forward Air Controller (Airborne)
Definition An officer (aviator/pilot) member of the tactical air control party who, from a forward ground or airborne position, controls aircraft in close air support of ground troops (JP 1-02). A Marine aviator with the additional MOS of 7502. FAC is a Marine Corps specific moniker and qualification. A qualified (certified) service member who, from a forward position, directs the action of combat aircraft engaged in close air support and other offensive air operations. A qualified and current joint terminal attack controller will be recognized across the Department of Defense as capable and authorized to perform terminal attack control. In the Marine Corps, qualified FACs and ground combat arms officers and staff noncommissioned officers who have completed the Tactical Air Control Party Course and have received the additional MOS 8002 are JTACs. All FACs are also JTACs, but only winged aviators can be FACs. The JTAC moniker is recognized throughout the Department of Defense and NATO countries. Personnel with the authority to control the maneuver of and grant weapons release clearance to attacking aircraft. A terminal controller is not necessarily a FAC or JTAC but simply whoever is controlling the aircraft and has been granted weapons release authority by the ground commander. A specifically trained and qualified aviation officer who exercises terminal control of aircraft engaged in close air support of ground troops from an air platform in flight. The forward air controller (airborne) is an airborne extension of the tactical air control party and executes the ground commanders intent. (JP 1-02) In other words, the FAC(A) augments and supports the ground terminal controller and ground commanders scheme of maneuver/fire support plan.
11
Close Air Support
Control and Coordination Measures

Commanders can employ a variety of measures to control and coordinate airspace and airspace users. The senior air control agency is responsible for deconflicting air operations by establishing control procedures to ensure the efficient and safe use of airspace. In joint operations, the airspace control authority deconflicts the airspace by publishing the airspace control plan and the subsequent airspace control orders. The air and ground commanders coordinate the use of control procedures to strike a balance between the ground force use of airspace and protection of aircraft using that airspace. One method to accomplish this is the use of airspace control measures. Airspace Control Measures. Airspace control measures increase operational effectiveness. They also increase CAS effectiveness by ensuring the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace. Airspace control measures speed the handling of air traffic within the objective area. Air C2 systems use airspace control measures to help control the movement of CAS aircraft over the battlefield. Airspace control measures are not mandatory or necessary for all missions. Airspace control measures include: Control Points. Contact point (CP). Initial point (IP). Holding area (HA). Battle position (BP). Control Points.
Control points route aircrews to their targets and provide a ready means of conducting fire support coordination. Control points should be easily identified from the air and should support the MAGTFs scheme of maneuver. The senior FSCC and the ACE select control points based on MAGTF requirements. Control Point Selection. Use terrain features. Advanced navigational equipment available on many CAS-capable aircraft, such as the GPS, can make the navigation process less difficult. Regardless, CAS planners should still select control points at or near significant terrain features, if possible, allowing the pilot to easily identify the control features location visually. Contact Point . A CP is the position at which a mission leader makes radio contact with an air control agency (Joint Pub 1-02). Normally, a CP is outside the range of enemy surface to air weapon systems and is 15-30 nautical miles (NM) from the target area. During ingress, the aircrew contacts the terminal controller at the CP. A CP allows coordination of final plans before entering heavily defended airspace. By convention, CPs are named after states, i.e., TEXAS.
12
Close Air Support
Control and Coordination Measures (Continued)

Initial Point. The IP is used as the starting point for the bomb run to the target. (Joint Pub 1-02) An IP is: o Easily identified (visually or electronically). o Located 5-15 NM from the target area (optimally 8-12 NM, as at this distance the pilot has roughly a minute to acquire the target between passing through the IP and executing weapons release). o A reference point for the pilot to gain target acquisition. o Terminal controllers and aircrews use IPs to help position aircraft delivering ordnance. By convention, IPs are named after car makes, i.e., CHEVY. Rotary-Wing Control Points. In addition to multi-use control points, there are rotary-wing-specific control points: o Holding area. The HA is occupied while awaiting targets or missions. While in the HA, aircrews receive the CAS briefing and perform final coordination. Aircrews can receive updated target or mission information in a face-to-face brief or over the radio. After receiving the brief, aircrews move along attack routes (ARs) to BPs. HAs, by convention, are named after female names, i.e., Sally. HAs can be located near regimental or battalion headquarters to take advantage of their communications connectivity. Terminal controllers can also locate HAs at their position. The HA should be well forward yet provide cover and concealment from enemy observation and fires. The HA should be large enough for adequate dispersion and meet all landing zone selection criteria. Often, HAs will be 2x2 Grid squares in dimension. (a box containing four grid squares). o Battle position. The BP is an airspace coordination area that contains firing points (FP) for attack helicopters. A BP should: Allow good cover and concealment. Provide necessary maneuvering space. Allow for appropriate weapons engagement zones (WEZs). Be reasonably easy to identify. Be a reference point for the pilot to gain target acquisition.
BP selection begins during pre-mission planning. A coordinated effort between air and ground units in the selection of BPs is optimal. Once the terminal controller authorizes aircraft into a BP, flight outside of the BP is not authorized unless authorized by the terminal controller. Uncoordinated egress from the BP may interrupt other supporting fires and endanger CAS aircrews. BPs, by convention, are named after snake names, i.e., BP ASP. To avoid enemy counter fire, the CAS aircraft may need to displace and resume the attack from a different BP. Therefore, alternate BPs should be established. Like Has, BPs are often 2X2 grid squares in dimension (a box containing four grid squares), but they are not required to conform to these dimensions. Often rotary-wing aircraft use BPs in the same manner that IP fixedwing CAS runs use IPs. BP selection is based on the criteria described in the following table.
13
Close Air Support

BP Selection Criteria (Continued). Selection Criteria Considerations METT-T/ The BP must: Supporting arms Support the mission requirements. deconfliction Be integrated into the scheme of maneuver. Provide deconfliction with gun-target lines and fixed-wing attack profiles. Also ensure that potential BPs are examined for communications limitations. Adequate The BP: maneuver area Must be large enough to contain the CAS aircraft. Must provide safe and flexible maneuver between various FPs. Must provide flexible delivery profiles to ensure accurate weaponeering by the CAS flight. Is often depicted as a 2x2 grid square but can also be a distance around a known point or conform to the contour of the terrain. Prevailing wind To maintain the element of surprise and to minimize acoustic signature detection, locate the BP downwind from the target. Visibility and Target area visibility and its associated effect on sensor sensor performance will influence the BP range to target. Fog, smoke, performance smog, low-lying clouds, and haze can degrade laser/IR sensors and weapons systems such that BP-to-target ranges may have to be significantly decreased for effective employment. Target altitude BP should be at an elevation equal to or higher than the target area to allow for unobstructed weapon-to-target lines. Terrain relief Hilly and mountainous terrain enables the CAS aircrew to mask/unmask easily and aids in navigation. Range BPs should be: Located so that the target area is within the effective range of the aircrafts weapons systems (1-5 Km). Outside the threats weapons engagement zone, unless terrain masking is available. Field of fire BPs should permit unobstructed sighting of targets throughout the target area. Sun/moon If possible, the sun or moon should be behind or to the side (night time) of the attacking aircraft to: Allow the CAS aircrew to view the kill zone. Prevent the enemy from seeing and targeting the aircraft. Rotor wash The BP location should reduce the effects of rotor wash on surrounding terrain (debris, leaves, snow, sand, and dirt). Back blast The BP location should reduce the effects of weapons back blast on surrounding terrain.
14
Close Air Support

CAS Briefing Form. The CAS brief (see following diagram), also known as the nine-line brief, is the standard brief used for all aircraft conducting CAS. The brief is used for all threat conditions and does not dictate the CAS aircrews tactics. The mission brief follows the numbered sequence (1-9) of the CAS briefing form. Use of a standardized briefing sequence improves mission direction and control by allowing terminal controllers to pass information rapidly and succinctly. The CAS briefing helps aircrews determine the information required to perform the mission. Due to the emergence of long range precision munitions and mishaps involving terminal controllers, the Joint CAS Community has determined that lines 4, 6, and restrictions will be read back by the CAS aircrew after the 9 line has been transmitted.
15
Close Air Support

CAS Briefing Form (9-Line) Note: Omit data not required; do not transmit line numbers. Units of measure are standard unless otherwise specified. Denotes minimum essential information required in a limited-communication environment. Bold denotes read back items when requested. Terminal controller: ___________________ , this is ______________________ (Aircraft call sign) (Terminal controller) *1. IP/BP: _________________________ *2. Heading: _____________ Offset: L or R (FW ONLY) *3. Distance: _____________________ *4. Target Elevation: ___________________ (in feet MSL) *5. Target Description: ____________________________________________ *6. Target Location: _______________________________________________ (latitude/longitude, grid coordinates, offsets or visual) *7. Type mark: ______________________ Code: ________________ (WP/laser/IR/beacon) (actual code) Laser-to-target line: ______________________ degrees *8. Location of friendlies: ____________________________ Position marked by: ________________________ 9. Egress __________________________________________ Remarks (as appropriate):________________________________________________ (Final attack heading/cone, threats, hazards, weather, restrictions, requested ordnance, danger close) Time on Target: TOT _________________ - or Time to Target: standby ___________ plus ________ Hack
16
Close Air Support

The table below details the line-by-line elements of the CAS brief. Line # Heading Description 1 IP/BP IP is the starting point for the run-in to the target 5-15nm from the target area (8-12nm optimal). For rotary-wing aircraft, the BP is where attacks on the target are commenced, normally 1-5km from target area.. This is the first reference point of the nine-line brief. 2 Heading Given in degrees magnetic from the IP to the target or from the center of the BP to the target Terminal controllers give an offset (offset left/right) if a restriction exists (Fixed-wing only); the offset is the side of the IP-to-target line on which aircrews can maneuver for the attack 3 Distance Given from the IP/BP to the target For fixed-wing aircraft, The distance is given in NM and should be accurate to a tenth of an NM For attack helicopters, the distance is given in meters from the center of the BP and is accurate to the nearest 5m 4 Target Given in feet above mean sea level (MSL). Found by utilizing elevation the contour interval on your map 1m = 3.3ft 5 Target Should be specific enough for the aircrew to recognize description the target. Target should be described using the acronym STD: o S = Size (how many? i.e. , 4) o T = Type (what is it? i.e., Tank, Troops, APC) o D = Description (where is it? what is it doing? i.e., In the open, on a road) Describe a single target and adjust to other targets after the desired effects are met. A good description of the target assists the aircrew with correct weaponeering. 6 Target The terminal controller can give the target location in: location Grid coordinates. (Most commonly accepted method) If using grid coordinates, terminal controllers must include the 100,000-square meter grid identification (Example: TH 804677). Latitude and longitude. Visual description from a conspicuous reference point. Because of the multiple coordinate systems available for use, the datum that will be used must always be specified (i.e., WGS-84).
17
Close Air Support

The table below details the line-by-line elements of the CAS brief (Continued). Line # Heading Description 7 Mark The type of mark the terminal controller will use (White phosphorous (WP), Illumination (Illum) on deck, laser, Infrared (IR) pointer, etc.) . The mark must be distinguishable in the operational environment. Assists in CAS accuracy. Enhances situational awareness. Reduces the possibility of fratricide. An effective mark is within 300 meters of the target. WP and other indirect marks should be on the deck 30 seconds prior to TOT. Illumination on deck should land 45 seconds prior to TOT. A backup mark should be used whenever possible, preferably a different type from the primary (i.e.,, primary mark WP, backup mark Illum on deck). The terminal controller may talk the aircrew onto the target by verbally describing the target to be attacked. 8 Friendlies The direction and distance of friendlies from the target. A cardinal/semi-cardinal direction from the target (North, North East, North West, South, South East, South West, East, or West). Distance given in meters. If the friendly position is marked, identify the type of mark. Do not pass friendly grid locations during the 9-line. 9 Egress The instructions the aircrews use to exit the target area. Can be given: As a cardinal/semi-cardinal direction By using control points The word, Egress, is used before delivering the egress instructions
18
Close Air Support

The table below details the line-by-line elements of the CAS brief (Continued). Line # Heading Description Remarks Included if applicable: Final attack heading (final attack cone headings)
Timing
Note: Final attack headings are a restricted run-in and the aircraft must fly within it during the bomb run. It should be expressed as a cone, i.e., "FAH 060 - 090 degrees" and should allow the greatest latitude possible to the pilot while facilitating the FACs requirement to ensure the safe execution of the support. Some examples of when a final attack cone might be required are: To aid in the visual acquisition of the aircraft by the terminal controller. To deconflict the aircraft with the Gun Target Line (GTL). To ensure the aircraft will not fly over or toward friendly troops during the bomb run. When using a laser to mark the target. (The aircraft must fly a particular heading to detect the laser energy.) To provide further safeguarding to the aircraft from surface threats. Threat and location. Hazards to aviation. Laser-to-target line (in degrees magnetic). Ordnance delivery. Airspace control areas (ACAs). Weather. Restrictions. Additional target information. Laser, illumination, and night vision capability. Danger close. TOT/TTT: The terminal controller gives aircrew a TOT or TTT. TOT is the synchronized clock time when ordnance is expected to hit the target: o Is the timing standard for CAS missions. o When using TOT, there is no time Hack statement. TTT (Rarely used with the advent of GPS). Is the time in minutes and seconds, after the time Hack statement is delivered, when ordnance is expected to hit the target The time Hack statement indicates the moment when all participants start the timing countdown.
19
Close Air Support

Danger Close . Due to the inherent differences in the size, type, and killing effects of different types of aviation ordnance, CAS has no one danger close distance as artillery and mortars do. Danger close distances for aviation ordnance are listed by type in Joint Publication 3-09.3 with Change 1 (2005), Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Close Air Support, Appendix D. The supported commander must accept responsibility for the risk to friendly forces when targets are inside danger close distance. Risk acceptance is confirmed when the supported commander passes his initials to the attacking CAS aircraft, signifying that he accepts the risk inherent in ordnance delivery inside the danger close distance.
CheckIn. Check-in procedures are essential for establishing the required flow of information between CAS aircrews and terminal controllers. Use the CAS check-in briefing format (see diagram below) on check-in with terminal controllers. (Aircraft transmits to Controller) Aircraft: ______________________, this is ________________________ (Controller call sign) (Aircraft call sign) 1. Identification/Mission Number: _________________________________ NOTE: Authentication and an appropriate response are suggested here. The brief may be abbreviated for brevity or security (as fragged or with exception) 2. Number and Type of Aircraft: __________________________________ 3. Position and Altitude: ________________________________________ 4. Ordnance: _________________________________________________ 5. Time on Station: ____________________________________________ 6. Abort Code: ________________________________________________ (if applicable) Close Air Support Check-In Brief After CAS aircrew checks in, the JTAC will provide a current situation update. This update should include: Unit mission. Enemy disposition. Threat activity in target area. Weather (if required). Friendly positions. Current Fire Support Coordination Measures (FSCMs).
20
Close Air Support
Terminal Control
After the aircraft depart the CP or HA, the terminal controller provides target and threat updates to the aircrews. The terminal controller may direct the aircrews to report departing the IP or arrival in the BP. This information may be used to coordinate the CAS attack with SEAD, marking, or the maneuver of the supported unit. The terminal controller attempts to acquire the CAS aircraft visually and give final corrections to assist the aircrew in target acquisition. The terminal controller can expect the following standard calls from the aircrew during execution of the CAS run (calls in bold are required): IP inbound In
This will facilitate positive control and aid the terminal controller in successfully conducting the CAS mission. Aircrew call In (commencing an attack run) using the format below: (Call sign), in from (cardinal heading). (i.e., Knight 31, in from the West)
Following the In call, all other CAS aircrews should maintain radio silence, except to make threat calls, and allow the terminal controller to transmit the appropriate control and clearance communications listed in the table below. Terminology
Call Continue Visual Contact Tally Abort (Abort code) Cleared Hot Cleared to Engage Continue Dry
Meaning Continue as briefed. You are not yet cleared to release any ordnance. Visual acquisition of FRIENDLIES Visual acquisition of something on the GROUND Visual acquisition of the TARGET Abort the pass. Do not release any ordnance.
You are cleared to release ordnance on this pass. (Types 1 and 2 controls.) You are cleared for multiple engagements within the parameters I have established. (Type 3 controls only.) You are cleared to proceed with the attack run, but you may not release any ordnance. (Normally used during training when live ordnance is not available.)
21
Close Air Support
Terminal Control (Continued)

Clearance to Drop/Fire. The authority and responsibility for expenditure of any ordnance on the battlefield rests with the supported ground commander. The supported ground commander will delegate weapons release clearance authority to his terminal controllers to facilitate CAS attacks. Battlefield conditions, aircrew training, ordnance capabilities, and terminal controller experience are factors in the decision to authorize weapons release. Weapons release authority grants terminal controllers the authority to provide the following to attacking aircraft: Cleared Hot Term used by a terminal controller granting weapons release clearance to an aircraft attacking a specific target. Clearance should be given as soon as possible in the delivery sequence after the terminal controller is convinced the attacking aircraft will engage the correct target and will not release on friendly positions. This allows the aircrew to concentrate on the weapons solution and improves delivery accuracy, further reducing the possibility of fratricide. Used during Types 1 and 2 controls only. Cleared to Engage Term used by a terminal controller granting a blanket weapons release clearance to an aircraft or multiple aircraft attacking a target or multiple targets which meet the prescribed restrictions set by the terminal controller. Used during Type 3 controls only. o A positive clearance by the terminal controller (Cleared Hot or Cleared to Engage) is mandatory before any release of ordnance by the aircrew. The Cleared Hot call can be made only after the terminal controller analyzes the attacking aircrafts geometry to ensure ordnance effects will not affect friendly forces. WARNING: The word Cleared will be used only when ordnance is actually to be delivered. This will minimize the chances of dropping ordnance on dry passes and further reduce the risk of fratricide. Abort Procedures. The terminal controller must direct CAS aircrews to abort if: Any portion of the CAS brief is not understood. Any unsafe situation develops. Clearance criteria not met. The tactical situation changes, requiring a reset of the attack run in order to facilitate effective engagement of the target.
Abort Code. If no abort code was briefed, then the CAS attack is aborted by simply transmitting, Abort. Abort. Abort.
22
Close Air Support
Terminal Control (Continued)

Corrections. Corrections are given in two parts with respect to an identified reference: Cardinal Direction from a visible reference point. Distance (in meters). From the Mark. To pass corrections from a visual mark use the eight cardinal points of the compass and a common distance reference. Specify the type of mark if multiple types are used. Viper 44, this is Brillo, from the mark, northeasttwo hundred. From Ordnance Impact. Corrections can be made from the last ordnance to impact the target: Combat 51, this is Chakka, from leads hit, southeast one hundred Visual marks (smoke, illum on the deck) must land within three hundred meters of the target to be considered effective. If a mark lands more than 300 meters from the target, the controller should tell the aircraft to disregard the mark and then conduct a brief visual talk-on. Shank 21, this is Useless, disregard the mark, from the road intersection, north three hundred. Re-attacks. The aircrew and terminal controllers goal is to complete a successful attack on the first pass. Once acquired by the enemy in the target area, an aircraft that remains for re-attacks may be more vulnerable. In low- and medium threat environments, immediate re-attacks may be a practical option, although single-pass attacks require less time in enemy air defense envelopes. A re-attack can help assure the desired effect on the target, aid visual orientation for the aircrew, and increase responsiveness to the supported commander. Terminal controllers authorize re-attacks. If a re-attack is necessary and possible, the terminal controller may give the aircrew a pull-off direction and may assign different attack headings. The terminal controller may provide additional target marks for the re-attack. The terminal controller can describe re-attack target locations by using the last mark, last hit, terrain features, or friendly positions. The re-attack may engage other targets within a specific target area. Re-attacks allow CAS aircraft to expeditiously maneuver, at the aircrews discretion while in compliance with any restrictions in force to an attack position subsequent to a CAS attack. Each re-attack is a separate evolution from any previous attack, and positive clearance to release is required each time. Clearance for a re-attack does not alleviate the requirement for subsequent Cleared hot calls. Clearance for re-attack is not an indefinite clearance to drop/fire. To emphasize this point, the phrase continue for a reattack should be used rather than cleared for a re-attack. This technique should help reduce confusion. Have a plan for re-attacks.
23
Close Air Support
BDA. Whenever possible, the terminal controller provides attack flights with the BDA of their attack as they egress. The terminal controller gives BDA for the flight, not for individual aircraft in the flight. At times, it may not be possible to pass all BDA information. At a minimum, the terminal controller should pass an assessment of mission accomplishment and enemy assets remaining. Mission successful. Two tanks destroyed, one tank mobility kill, one tank remains. Estimate 10 casualties. Note: Refer to Appendix A for an example of a complete 9-line scenario and brief.
Study Questions
1. In line 2 of the 9-line brief, with what unit of measurement is heading given to the aircraft?
2. In line 3 of the 9-line brief, with what unit of measurement is distance given for a fixed wing aircraft? For a rotary wing aircraft?
3. What differences occur in the 9-line brief when handling fixed wing aircraft versus rotary wing aircraft?
4. What are the three conditions that must be met for the Cleared Hot call during a Type 1 Control?
24
Close Air Support
Study Questions Answers

1. In line 2 of the 9-line brief, what unit of measurement is heading given to the aircraft? Degrees magnetic
2. In line 3 of the 9-line brief, what unit of measurement is distance given for a fixed wing aircraft? For a rotary wing aircraft? For fixed wing, nautical miles; for rotary wing, meters.
3. What differences occur in the 9-line brief when handling fixed wing aircraft versus rotary wing aircraft? Line 1, fixed wing uses an IP and rotary wing uses a BP. Line 2, no Offset for rotary wing. Line 3, fixed wing is in nautical miles to the nearest 0.1nm and rotary wing is meters to the nearest five meters.
4. What are the three conditions that must be met for the Cleared Hot call during a Type 1 Control? Attacking aircraft is tally the target or the mark. Terminal controller is tally the target. Terminal controller is visual the attacking aircraft.
25
Close Air Support
Summary
The fire support provided by fixed and rotary wing aircraft can mean the difference between maintaining the offensive advantage and languishing in a stalled attack. Knowing how to quickly and effectively call in fires from CAS aircraft is an essential skill for the small unit leader.
References
Reference Number MCWP 3-16.6 MCWP 3-23.1 JP 3-09.3 MCRP 3-16.6A Reference Title Supporting Arms Observer, Spotter, and Controller Close Air Support and Close-in Fire Support Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Close Air Support (CAS) JFIRE: Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Joint Application of Firepower

Term or Acronym ACA ACE AO AR BDA BP C3 CAS CP DASC FAC FAC(A) FOB FP FSCC FSCM GPS GTL HA Illum IP IR JTAC MACCS MAGTF Definition or Identification Airspace control area Air combat element Air officer Attack routes Battle damage assessment Battle position Command, control, and communications Close air support Contact point Direct air support center Forward air controller Forward air controller (Airborne) Forward operating base Firing point Fire support coordination center Fire support coordination measures Global positioning system Gun target line Holding area Illumination Initial point Infrared Joint terminal attack controller Marine Air Command and Control System Marine air-ground task force
26
Close Air Support

Term or Acronym MBT METT-TC Definition or Identification Main battle tank Mission; enemy; terrain and weather; troops and fire support available; time, space, and logistics; cultural considerations Nautical miles Offensive air support Precision guided munitions Suppression of enemy air defenses Tactical air command center Tactical air direction center Tactical air control parties Time on target Tactics, techniques, and procedures Unmanned aerial vehicles Weapon engagement zone White phosphorous
NM OAS PGM SEAD TACC TACD TACPs TOT TTP UAV WEZ WP
Notes
27
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Scenarios

CAS Scenario Example Purpose. The purpose of this CAS scenario exercise is to demonstrate the proper employment of close air support from preparation of the CAS mission brief (9-Line) through terminal control of the aircraft. Emphasis will be placed on the following items: CAS mission brief considerations. Procedures for passing the brief to aircraft. Communications procedures throughout the mission. Correcting the aircraft from the mark to the target. Determination of Cleared Hot or Abort criteria.
Refer to your Quantico 1:50,000 map for this scenario Background Information. I MEF is currently conducting full-scale operations in the country of Prince William, in order to restore democratic rule. The government was overthrown three months ago by a military coup. Under the command of a fanatical, paranoid general, the army has embarked on a systematic campaign to eliminate all dissidents. Currently it has established a siege on the capital city of Manassas and has taken control of the primary supply route, MCB 5. 8th Marines has been tasked with eliminating the enemy presence along MCB 5 in order to free up much needed supply shipments into the city. General Situation. You are the FAC with Lima Company 3/8 located at TH 780 720. The battalions mission is to secure the Tokyo Road/MCB 5 junction located at TH 783 739. Lima Company is the lead element in the battalions movement. The company security element spots an enemy T-72 tank platoon in the vicinity of the objective. The company commander is concerned about exposing the company to the enemys directfire weapons as he moves North from his current location. He intends to use CAS or indirect fire to destroy the enemy armor. He assembles the fire support team (FST) consisting of you, the FAC, the artillery FO, 81 mm mortar FO, and the weapons platoon commander in order to determine his best course of action for engaging the targets. You contact the battalion air officer and learn that F/A-18 Hornets are available to support the company. After weighing his options and realizing the limitations of artillery to engage mobile targets, the company commander decides to use CAS. You are given control of the mission and any indirect fire assets available. To get better observation of the targets, the fire support team moves to establish an OP at TH 785 724. From the OP, you enjoy an unobstructed view of the target area. You spot a dust cloud North of the road junction, and a closer look reveals a ZSU 23-4 North of the road junction. You coordinate with the artillery FO to provide suppression on the ZSU and a mark for the target. Mission. Plan and control a CAS mission in order to destroy the enemy mechanized forces in the vicinity of the road junction.
28
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Scenarios (Continued)

CAS Scenario Example (Continued) The following additional information is provided: 1. Call signs: CO FAC F/A-18
BIZ Boo Blade 61, 62
2. MAGTF fixed-wing CPs are designated state names and IPs are designated car makes. 3. A 1/10 is in GS. They are located at TH 875 638. They can provide suppression and marking for the A/C. Considerations. To complete an appropriate 9-line brief for the "Blade" flight, the following items must be considered: IP selection. The appropriate IP will be selected from an existing list approved for use by the MAGTF commander. For our scenario, the IPs available are listed on the next page. You are responsible for choosing from the list the IP that is best suited to the mission. You must consider the following items: Distance. IP should be located between 5 and 15 NM from the target (8-12NM is ideal). Threat. IP should not be located near known enemy air defense systems. Gun target line. IP should be selected that will keep aircraft clear of the artillery gun target line (GTL), if applicable Enemy air defenses. The presence of enemy air defenses within the target area will greatly affect the ability of CAS aircraft to successfully complete the mission. Should enemy air defenses be located near the target, these systems will have to be suppressed during the mission Offset. Determine the requirement for an offset direction (left or right) to be given to the aircraft. This gives the pilot the freedom to maneuver the aircraft on that side of the centerline from the IP to the TGT.
29
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Example (Continued) Special Instructions Contact Points: Kentucky Off the map to the southeast of Mathias Point
Initial Points: Chevy Buick Chrysler Lexus Jaguar UH 034 704 Cockpit Point UH 016 617 Sandy Point Light TH 916 681 Breckenridge Reservoir Dam TH 889 723 Belfair Crossroads TH 781 645 Lake Arrowhead
Fire Support Agencies: A 1/10 TH 875 638
Call Signs: FAC Aircraft Boo as assigned
30
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Solution Because of the ZSU-23-4 threat, a low-altitude air defense platform which uses a radar tracked anti-artillery (AAA) system located near the target, suppression of that threat will be required to ensure the CAS aircraft are not engaged. Artillery will provide this suppression. The resulting GTL will be approximately 326 degrees. The "Blade" flight will have to be deconflicted from the GTL through selection of an appropriate IP. Given the above considerations, the following elements of the 9-line brief would be appropriate for the "Blade" flight: 1. IP: Chrysler
Chevy and Buick are not acceptable because of the distance away from the target area. Jaguar and Lexus could be used, but are not as good as Chrysler (Chrysler is 7.9nm from the target, putting the aircraft one minute from IP to target) 2. Heading: 303 degrees/offset: R
Derived from your map by measuring from the IP and the target. Remember to convert from grid to magnetic azimuth based on the G-M angle in the area you are working (Refer to the declination diagram). On ingress the pilot is referencing his magnetic compass. Right offset will ensure the aircraft does not maneuver to the left of the IP to Target line during the ingress and inadvertently cross the GTL. It will also keep the aircraft from flying over the friendly position south of the target. 3. Distance: 7.9 nautical miles
The mission computer in the aircraft displays nautical miles for fixed-wing aircraft to the nearest 0.1 NM. 4. Target Elevation: 365 feet MSL
Converted to feet mean sea level. The aircraft is referencing altitude with the altimeter in feet above sea level. The conversion is 3.3 feet per 1 meter. 5. Target Description: 4 T-72 Tanks on an N/S road
Used for weaponeering (selecting the appropriate weapon system for the desired effect). STD: Size (number), Type (type of target), Description (degree of protection).
31
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Solution (Continued) 6. Target Location: TH 783 739
The target location of the specific target you intend to engage, not the center of the objective area, etc. Remember to use the 100,000 map sheet identifier. It is located in the legend information. 7. Mark Type: White phosphorus (WP), by convention Willy Pete.
The mark has to be distinguishable on the battlefield and within 300 meters to be effective. 8. Friendlies: South 1400
Expressed in meters from the target. The closest friendlies to the target, expressed as cardinal direction first, then distance from the target to the friendly location. 9. Egress: Egress South to Jaguar
REMARKS: Suppression on ZSU-23-4 located 800m NE of your target Arty GTL 326 FAH 270-290 Your target is the 2nd tank (Command variant) in the column on the North-South road (MCB-5). TOT/TTT: TOT is the preferred method but requires that both the FAC and the pilot to be on the exact same time. TTT is rarely used since the advent of universal GPS time hacks.
32
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Solution (Continued) Once you have completed the 9-line brief and coordinated with the artillery FO for the suppression and mark, you will wait for the aircraft to check in with you. The communication from aircraft check-in to the end of mission would sound as follows: AIRCRAFT: (A/C) Boo, this is Blade 61, holding Kentucky (a predetermined contact point to which the aircraft would be directed by the DASC), angels 12 (12,000 feet), two F/A18s, each with (4) MK-83s (1,000lb dumb or freefall bombs), 0+20 time on station (20 minutes until they need to leave because of gas), up for your control Blade 61 this is Boo, advise when ready to copy 9-LINE Blade 61, ready to copy Chrysler 303 Right 7.9 (Unkey the handset to break the transmission) 365 4 T-72s on a North-South road TH 783 739 Spoken Tango Hotel. 783. 739 (Unkey the handset to break the transmission) WP Spoken Willy Pete South 1400 Egress South to Jaguar, Advise when ready to copy remarks Note: Only the content of the 9-line brief is read to the pilot. All line numbers/titles, mileage, altitudes, and degrees are understood and are not read. Line 9 is an exception. The word Egress is always stated. Blade 61 ready for remarks REMARKS: Artillery will provide suppression on a ZSU-23-4 800m Northeast of your target. GTL is 326. FAH 270-290. Your target is the 2nd tank (Command variant) in the column on the North South road (MCB-5). TOT 15 (15 minutes after the hour. The hour is understood and not expressed.) Roger 15 (The pilot copies all the information and can meet the TOT.) Always use appropriate call signs throughout, especially in a multi-section environment.
FAC: A/C: FAC:
A/C: FAC:
A/C:
33
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Solution (Continued) Once the mission is briefed, both the pilot and the FAC have tasks to accomplish: Pilot Enter the pertinent data from the 9-line brief into the aircraft mission computer. Determine at what time he needs to leave the CP (push) to meet the TOT (based on CP-IP-TGT routing and distance, groundspeed, time required for the ingress maneuver, and the time of fall of the bomb). Do a map study of the target location. Terminal controller Make final coordination with the arty FO to ensure that the suppression and mark for the target will take place on time. (For the mark to be effective, it should be on the deck 30 seconds prior to TOT.) Determine where in the sky the aircraft will first be visible. (The - FAC must observe the aircraft during the bomb run in order to give the pilot clearance to drop.) The pilot then maintains an orbit at the CP until he reaches his predetermined 'push' time. A/C: FAC: A/C: FAC: FAC: FAC: A/C 1: FAC: Blade 61 pushing (leaving the CP for the IP) Continue (Acknowledgment to ensure communication is still up. Roger would also be an appropriate call.) IP inbound (passing over the IP, inbound to the target) Continue Marks on the deck (The pre-coordinated mark is on the deck and should be visible to the pilot.) Visual (The FAC sees the aircraft.) Contact the mark (The pilot sees the mark, is waiting for a correction to the target.) From the mark, east 100 (The mark landed to the west of the target by 100m. The corrections are always given as the cardinal direction first, then the distance in meters from the mark to the target.) Tally Target, In from the West (The aircraft is on the final dive path to the target and the pilot is waiting for clearance from the FAC to release his ordnance.
A/C 1:
34
Close Air Support

CAS Scenario Solution (Continued) FAC: Blade 61, Cleared hot (The FAC has determined that the aircrafts geometries are correct and that it will engage the correct target. The FAC is also confident that the aircraft has a clear picture of the tactical situation on the ground): Note: If the aircraft was not pointing at the target or was possibly endangering friendlies, the FAC would give the pilot an Abort call. Lead's off, 4 away (The lead aircraft has come off target after dropping 4 bombs.) Visual. From lead's hits, north 50 (Lead's bombs serve as a mark for the second aircraft which is generally 30 seconds behind lead. Corrections are given as previously discussed.) Tally Blade 62 Cleared hot Dash 2's off, 4 away Blade 61, 4 tanks destroyed, estimate 12 KIA, no enemy remaining (The surveillance of target destruction -- BDA. Report secondary explosions and enemy remaining. The aircraft will pass this back to the DASC for intelligence purposes.)
A/C 1: FAC:
A/C 2: FAC: A/C 2: FAC:
From this point, the FAC passes the aircraft back to the DASC and the mission is complete.
35
Close Air Support
270
Final Attack Heading Blade 61 Ingress Route
290
IP to Target Reference Line
IP
Blade 61 Egress Route
GTL 326
IP Jaguar
36
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Practical Application Scenario 1

General Situation. You are the platoon commander of A Co 2d LAR located at TH 792 709. Your companys mission is to secure MCB-6 to the junction of MCB-1 (TH 827 746). Forward elements identify an enemy tank platoon just North of the MCB 6E gate. The company commander desires to engage the tanks with air. You move to an OP at TH 798 720 for a closer view of the target. You see 4 T-72 tanks at TH 807 727. You send a request to the air officer. He informs you to expect a section 2 of F/A-18s in 10 minutes. Mission. Plan and control a close air support mission to destroy the enemy tanks located TH 807 727 in order to clear MCB 6 for follow on missions. The following additional information is provided: 1. The F-18s are holding at CP Kentucky 27nm SE of your position. Their call sign is Smoke 11. They are loaded with 8 Mk 83 GP bombs per aircraft. 2. A 1/10 is in GS located at TH 875 638. They can provide you with a suitable target mark. 3. IP Chevy TH 788 627; IP Dodge TH 828 747 Aircraft call sign: _______________ Advise when ready to copy 9 Line 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IP: Heading: Distance: Elevation: Description: Location: Mark: Friendlies: Egress: Your call sign: ____________
Additional Remarks:
37
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Practical Application Scenario 1 (Continued)

Line 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Use IPs for FW; use BPs for RW. Heading in degrees magnetic from IP/BP to target. (Aircraft flies a heading to the target) R/L Offset for FW. Distance in NM for FW, meters for RW. Feet MSL STD: Size (number), Target (type of target), Description (degree of protection) Six-digit grid coordinate with two letter 100,000-grid identifier. Mark type: WP, illumination on deck (has to stand out on the battlefield). Nearest friendlies Include Egress in your instructions. (This signifies the end of the nine line) Example: Egress North, then South to Chrysler. Requires a cardinal direction and destination (CP/IP/HA/BP)
Additional Remarks: Additional air defense threats in area. Final attack cones/headings (FAC/FAH) TOT: Ensure aircrew is hacked in on your (universal) clock upon check in. Example: TOT 45.
38
Close Air Support
39
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Practical Application Scenario 2

General Situation. You are the weapons platoon commander with Hotel Company 2/8. The battalion mission is to seize the Route 611 Bridge over Cedar Run (TH 777 772) in order to deny the enemy the ability to move their mechanized forces across Cedar Run. Delta Company, the lead element, begins moving toward the road; dust is observed along MCB 8 to the Northeast. You immediately occupy an observation position (TH 797 764) in the tree line to the East of the battalions position in the vicinity of TH 78 76. You can clearly make out at least 4 BTR-60 reconnaissance vehicles and 3 T-72 main battle tanks (MBTs). The battalion air officer informs you that he has requested air and to expect a section of AH-1 Cobras in 10 minutes. Mission. Prepare and control a CAS mission in order to destroy the enemy threat located at TH 803 767. The following information is provided: The surface to air threat is small arms. The cobras are holding at HA Sally (TH 77 73, center grid for a 2x2 grid square); call sign is Viper 32. Each aircraft is loaded with (4) TOW anti-armor missiles, (4) 5.0 HE rockets, and 20mm HEI. Maximum range for the TOW is 3750 meters. 81mm mortars are able to provide a mark for the targets with RP or illumination located at TH 779 758. BP Asp TH 81 75; BP Boa TH 81 78 (center grid for 2x2 grid square) Aircraft Call Sign: ___________ Your Call Sign: ___________ Advise when ready to copy 9 Line
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
BP: Heading: Distance: Elevation: Description: Location: Mark: Friendlies: Egress:
40
Close Air Support

Additional Remarks: Mortars PDF is _________ Your target is the lead tank in the formation of BTR 60s and T-72s. The formation is moving from Northeast to Southwest on MCB 8 at the intersection of MCB 1. TOT ____________ Line 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Use IPs for FW; use BPs for RW. Heading in degrees magnetic from IP/BP to target. (Aircraft flies a heading to the target) R/L Offset for FW. Distance in NM for FW, meters for RW. Feet MSL STD: Size (number), Target (type of target), Description (degree of protection) Six-digit grid coordinate with two letter 100,000-grid identifier. Mark type: WP, illumination on deck (has to stand out on the battlefield). Nearest friendlies Include Egress in your instructions. (This signifies the end of the nine line) Example: Egress East, then South to Sally. Requires a cardinal direction and destination (CP/IP/HA/BP)
Additional Remarks: Additional air defense threats in area. TOT: Ensure aircrew is hacked in on your (universal) clock upon check in. Example: TOT 45.
41
Close Air Support
42
Close Air Support
Appendix A: CAS Practical Application Scenarios Possible Solutions

Possible solution to Practical Application Scenario Number 1: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IP: Heading: Distance: Elevation: Description: Location: Mark: Friendlies: Egress: Chevy 017 L 5.6 410 4 T-72 in open TH 807 727 WP South West 1200 East then South to Chevy
Possible solution to Practical Application Scenario Number 2:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
BP: Heading: Distance: Elevation: Description: Location: Mark: Friendlies: Egress:
Asp 351 1900 180 3 T-72 & 4 BTR-60 in open TH 803 767 WP South West 800 Southwest to Sally
43
Notes
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning
FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING B2C2797 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2C2797

Introduction The United States Marine Corps is one of the premier fighting organizations in the world. One of the key reasons is its ability to successfully integrate its supporting arms into the total combined arms effort. This handout examines the essential elements of fire support planning and processing. We will be discussing the 13 principles of fire support planning, how to complete a target list worksheet, fire support coordination measures, and fire support planning in the offense and defense. This lesson covers the following topics:
Importance
In This Lesson
Topic Fire Support Planning Principles Fire Support Planning Agencies Fire Planning Tools and Techniques Target List Worksheet Fire Support Coordination Measures The Fire Support Plan Tactical Missions and Command Relationships Fire Support Planning in the Offense Fire Support Planning in the Defense Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objective
Page 4 6 9 11 13 18 18 19 20 21 21 21 22
Given a scheme of maneuver, fire support available, and commander's intent, develop a fire support plan to support the ground scheme of maneuver in accordance with the commander's intent. (0302-FSPT-1300) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, available supporting arms, equipment, a scheme of maneuver, and a commander's intent, employ supporting arms to achieve desired effect(s) on target that support(s) the ground scheme of maneuver. (0302-FSPT-1302)
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning (Continued)

Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objectives Without the aid of reference, identify fire support control measures without omission. (0302-FSPT-1300b) Given known, suspected, and likely enemy positions/avenues of approach/avenues of withdrawal, a scheme of maneuver, fire support available, and commander's intent, plan targets to support the ground scheme of maneuver in accordance with the commander's intent. (0302-FSPT-1300c) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, available supporting arms, a target, a scheme of maneuver, and a commander's intent, determine fire support available to achieve desired effect(s) on target. (0302-FSPT-1302a) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, a target, a scheme of maneuver, planned supporting arms, and a commander's intent, position observer(s) to observe the target in support of the scheme of maneuver. (0302-FSPT-1302b) Given a radio, call signs, frequencies, available supporting arms, equipment, a scheme of maneuver, and a commander's intent, integrate supporting arms to achieve a combined arms effect. (0302-FSPT-1302c) Without the aid references, describe command relationships without omission. (0302-FSPT-1302d)
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning Principles

Fire support planning is the continuous and concurrent process of analyzing, allocating and scheduling fire support to integrate it with the maneuver forces and maximize combat power. Plan the minimum targets necessary to support the scheme of maneuver. The targeting process, a critical component of the fire planning process, is based on the friendly scheme of maneuver and includes an: Assessment of the terrain and enemy. Identification of those enemy formations, equipment, facilities, and terrain that must be attacked to ensure success.
The 13 principles to fire support planning that should be considered when developing the plan are: Plan early and continuously. Exploit all available targeting assets. Consider the use of all available fires. Use the lowest echelon capable of furnishing effective fire support. Use the most effective fire support means. Furnish the type of fire support requested. Avoid unnecessary duplication. Coordinate airspace. Provide adequate fire support. Provide rapid coordination. Provide safeguards and survivability. Establish fire support coordination measures. Establish communications support. The purpose of fire support planning is twofold: To achieve effectiveness and efficiency from fire support assets in meeting fire support requirements of the force. To determine the proper allocation of fire support.
Purpose
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning Principles (Continued)

Methods The Marine Corps uses a fire support planning process involving the interaction of top-down and bottom-up methods: Top-down refers to a higher headquarters formally conducting target acquisition, prioritizing targets and allocating the appropriate supporting arms to engage the target. The higher headquarters is better able to conduct fire planning due to greater access to more sophisticated intelligence assets. The higher headquarters staff usually has more qualified personnel with which to analyze information and process a fire support plan. Bottom-up fire support planning is often used after the battle has been joined when time is critical. The maneuver units assume a greater role in target acquisition (often on leader's reconnaissance), planning fires, and recommending changes to the target list.
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning Agencies

Company Fire Support Coordination. In an infantry battalion, the rifle company commander is ultimately responsible for fire support coordination at the company level. Like the battalion Fire Support Coordinator (FSC), many experts assist the company commander (see diagram below).
Company Commander
Weapons Platoon Commander
Artillery Foward Observer
Foward Air Controller
81mm Mortar Foward Observer
Naval Gunfire Spotter
Weapons Platoon Commander. The weapons platoon commander is the primary advisor on the employment of the company's 60mm mortars, and routinely serves as the Fire Support Team (FiST) leader. Artillery Forward Observer (FO). The artillery FO, normally a lieutenant from an artillery battery supporting the maneuver battalion, is responsible for employment of the FO team. The artillery FO: o Calls for and adjusts artillery fire. o Aids with fire support planning. o Advises the company commander on matters pertaining to integrating all fire support assets.
Forward Air Controller (FAC). The FAC, a pilot or naval fight officer (NFO) captain, is responsible for terminal control of Close Air Support (CAS) and advises the company commander on matters pertaining to air support. The presence of a FAC in the company command group is contingent upon one of the battalion's two FAC parties being attached to the company.
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning Agencies (Continued)

81 mm Forward Observer (FO). The 81mm FO advises the company commander on matters pertaining to 81mm mortars and is responsible for calling for and adjusting mortar fire. The 81mm FO is normally an NCO from the 81mm mortar platoon. Naval Gunfire (NGF) Spot Team. The NGF spot team advises the company commander on matters pertaining to naval surface fire support (NSFS). Normally an artillery second lieutenant from the artillery battalion in support of the maneuver regiment, the NGF spot team is responsible for NSFS missions. The presence of an NGF spotter in the company command group is contingent upon the attachment of an NGF spot team. The NGF spot team can be split into two teams to support two separate companies for short periods of time.
Fire Support Coordination Center (FSCC). Organization and Information Required. This section discusses only the battalion FSCC. FSCCs in the Ground Combat Element (GCE). All echelons of the GCE, from division to battalion, will establish an FSCC as an advisory and coordination agency. The FSCC is: The agency where supported units plan and coordinate fire support. Located with the combat operations center (COC). Supporting arms units provide representatives and equipment necessary for conducting coordination, targeting, and communication functions for their respective arms. Detailed listings of personnel by grade, military occupational specialty (MOS), and billet description are found on unit Table of Organizations (T/Os). Infantry Battalion FSCC. Most fire support coordination in operations is performed in battalion FSCCs. All fire support requests originating in the battalion are monitored/received in the FSCC. These requests are checked to ensure that: The supporting arms are integrated with the scheme of maneuver. Friendly forces are not needlessly endangered.
The battalion FSCC usually coordinates clearances for observers to attack targets outside the battalion's zone of action. Fire support planning efforts by battalion FSCC are relatively limited in comparison to the detailed and extensive planning of higher headquarters. The organization of the battalion FSCC consists of the: Fire support coordinator (FSC). The weapons company commander of the infantry battalion is usually the FSC.
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning Agencies (Continued)

Infantry Battalion FSCC (Continued). Liaison section. The liaison section organic to a firing battery of the supporting artillery battalion has four officers, one observer liaison chief, four scout observers, and nine field radio operators. The senior officer is the artillery liaison officer in the battalion FSCC. The remaining three officers are FOs and each heads an FO team to support a company. The FO team consists of the FO, one scout observer, and two field radio operators. When required, an FO team may be divided into two elements, each capable of independent operations for a limited period. The FO teams call for and adjust artillery fires. Tactical air control party (TACP). The organic battalion TACP consists of three air officers (AirOs) and twelve field radio operators. The senior AirO acts in a dual capacity as a special staff officer to the battalion commander with regard to all aviation matters and as officer in charge (OIC) of the battalion TACP. In the latter capacity, he works within the FSCC as the air officer. Each of the other two aviators is the leader of a FAC party with four communicators each. The FAC parties do a majority of the preplanned and immediate requests for CAS. Shore fire control party (SFCP). The battalion SFCP from the HQ battery of the supporting artillery battalion includes a battalion NGF liaison team and an NGF spot team. The liaison team performs coordination functions in the FSCC. The liaison team consists of one Naval Gunfire Liaison Officer (NGLO), one NGF chief, and five field radio operators. The spot team is usually employed with a company of the battalion. However, the spot team may be divided into two elements, each capable of independent operations for a limited period of time. Spot teams call for and adjust NSFS. The spot team consists of one NGF spotter (USMC Lt, 0802), two SFCP (0861) men, and two field radio operators. Mortar section. The 81mm mortar platoon organic to the weapons company provides a mortar liaison party to work in the FSCC and four FO teams to support the companies or man observation posts. The mortar liaison party consists of a mortar representative, two field radio operators, and one wireman.
B2C2797
Fire Planning Tools and Techniques

Targeting Target The process of selecting targets and matching the appropriate response to them taking into account operational requirements and capabilities. An integral part of the planning process based on a detailed estimate of the situation (METT-T). Designed to support the scheme of maneuver.
A target is a geographical area, complex, or installation planned for capture or destruction by military forces. Targets can be planned in advance or, due to the dynamic nature of the battlefield, can be engaged as they appear. What we target in order of precedence are: Known enemy positions - enemy units that we have located with a great degree of certainty. Suspected enemy positions - enemy units that have been located without a great degree of certainty or that have been accurately located but are very mobile and may move. Likely enemy positions. Where would you put your units if you were the enemy?
List of Targets
Subordinate units submit a list of targets to higher with targeting information. The list contains all targets the subordinate commander feels are necessary to be engaged with indirect fires in order to support his scheme of maneuver. A formal document created at the highest level of command. The consolidation of all the list of targets submitted with all redundancies removed. Then disseminated to all subordinate commands on a Target List Worksheet. Targets on the target list will always have a target number assigned.
Target List
Target Numbering System
The target number consists of six characters: two letters and four numbers. The two-letter group may be used to indicate the originator of the target number and/or the level holding the target data.
B2C2797
Fire Planning Tools and Techniques (Continued)

Target Symbols The basic symbol used in fire planning is the target. Targets relate to personnel, material, or pieces of terrain that are designated and numbered for reference and/or firing. If you plan a target, that doesn't mean you have to shoot it. The target can be used to shift from the target as a known point, which is most expeditious for an FO in a highly mobile environment. The fundamental symbol used for a point target is a cross (tick mark). The point target symbol (see diagram below) is: o Used for targets that are less than or equal to 200 meters in length and width. o Drawn and labeled in black. o Identified by a six-digit alpha-numeric number in the upper right quadrant. The location of this target is normally given by a six-digit grid coordinate.
AB 3215
Point Target Symbol A linear target symbol is: o Used for targets greater than 200m, but less than 600m, in length. o Labeled above the target symbol. o Drawn and labeled in black. Identifying the center grid, attitude, and length identifies the location of this target.
AB 3335
Linear Target Symbol Measure the angle of the long axis of the target from grid north (GN) to determine the attitude of rectangular and linear targets (see diagram below). The figure is then expressed to the nearest 100 mils. An attitude will always be between 0 and-3200 mils. 1 = 17.777778 mils
10
B2C2797
Target List Worksheet

The target list worksheet (see diagram on next page) is a: Document that facilitates fire planning by the FSC. Preliminary listing of all targets and their descriptions from which the FSC can select and plan.
Planned Targets. Planned targets are prearranged targets against which fires (surface or air delivered) can be delivered quickly. By planning ahead and determining what you wish to target, you can give the supporting arms agencies time to work up firing data or plan missions for air. Planned targets can be subdivided into the following four categories: 1. On-call targets are targets: On which certain supporting arms will deliver a predetermined type and amount of munitions when requested. That provide responsiveness and flexibility on time of delivery, such as in the defense when we do not know when the enemy will attack.
2. Scheduled targets are: Simply on-call targets with a timeline associated with them. Fired at a specific time, for example at H-hour or L-hour in support of a landing.
3. Priority targets are primarily used in the offense when rapid response is needed. When requested, priority targets take priority over all other requests. When not engaged in a fire mission, supporting units assigned a priority target set the priority target data on their guns and lay on that target. A priority target has a planned type and amount of munitions to be expended. Priority targets are designated at the discretion of the maneuver commander and may be shifted or changed as the supported unit moves forward. A firing unit can have a priority target or an final protective fire (FPF) but not both. 4. FPFs offer an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas (JCS Pub 1-02). FPFs are used only in the defense. When not engaged in fire missions, artillery and mortar units set FPF data on their guns and lay on their assigned FPF targets. A firing unit (battery or 81mm mortar platoon/section) will have only one FPF.
11
B2C2797
Target List Worksheet (Continued)
T A R G E T L IS T W ORKSHEET
S IZ E
L E N G T H W ID T H
SHEET____O F___
L IN E T A R G E T NO NO
D E S C R IP T IO N
L O C A T IO N
A L T IT U D E
A T T IT U D E
SOURCE ACCURACY
REMARKS
C A 1 A 2H C C EV
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e th 10 11 12 13 14 15
AC2000 AC2001 AC2002 AC2003 AC2004 AC2005
E N P L T IN BN ASSEMBLY P O L S IT E BN CP Z S U 2 3 -4 D30
6 5 7 5 92 7 2 3 4 64 7 3 8 5 75 7 2 5 4 58 7 2 8 4 61 7 6 9 5 41
440 480 430 490 500 420
2400
300 1000
1100
400
200
H E /W P
S iz e . P o in t T a rg e t: n o d im e n s io n s L in e a r T a rg e t: le n g th o n ly R e c ta n g u la r ta rg e t: le n g th a n d w id th C irc u la r T a rg e t: w id th (ra d iu s ) o n ly R e m a rk s . A d d itio n a l ta rg e t d e s c rip tio n o r s p e c ific a m m u n itio n .
T a rg e t N u m b e r. A s s ig n e d to e a c h t fro m th e b lo c k o f t u m b e rs g iv e n to n p la n n in g s o u rc e .
L o c a tio n a n d A ltitu d e . D e te rm in e g rid (a t le a s t 6 d ig its ) a n d a ltitu d e (a lw a ys in m e te rs ) a s a c c u ra te ly a s p o s s ib le . G rid z o n e m a y b e re q u ire d if o p e ra tin g o ff m u ltip le m a p s h e e ts . A ttitu d e . A ttitu d e is th e o rie n ta tio n o f a lin e a r o r re c ta n g u la r ta rg e t o n th e g ro u n d . It is a lw a ys a d ire c tio n in m ils . A ttitu d e is a lw a ys b e tw e e n 0 -3 1 9 9 m ils . D e te rm in a tio n to th e n e a re s t 1 0 0 m ils is s u ffic ie n t. 0 m ils = N o r 0 d e g re e s , 1 6 0 0 m ils = E o r 9 0 d e g re e s , 3 2 0 0 m ils = S o r 1 8 0 d e g re e s 4 8 0 0 m ils = W o r 2 7 0 d e g re e s
D e s c rip tio n . U s e th e b e s t a v a ila b le ta rg e t d e s c rip tio n . T h is is k e y fo r d e te rm in in g th e rig h t a m m u n itio n re q u ire m e n ts a n d firin g a g e n c ie s .
T h e s e c o lu m n s a re u s e d to h e lp in p la n n in g fire s in a s c h e d u le . W h e n c re a tin g th e ta rg e t lis t, p la c e a "/" in th e b lo c k o p p o s ite th e ta rg e t if it is to b e fire d in a s c h e d u le . O n c e it h a s b e e n s c h e d u le d (s c h e d u lin g w o rk s h e e t), p la c e a "\" in th e s a m e b o x to fo rm a n " X ".
L in e N o . A n a d m in is tra tiv e c o n tro l m e a s u re fo r in te rn a l u s e fo r tra n s m ittin g d a ta b y ra d io /w ire . E a c h ta rg e t is a s s ig n e d a lin e n u m b e r. L in e n u m b e rs a re a s s ig n e d c o n s e c u tiv e ly fro m p a g e to p a g e .
12
B2C2797
Fire Support Coordination Measures

Fire Support Coordination Measures (FSCMs) are designed to provide safeguards for friendly forces and at the same time facilitate rapid engagement of targets. FSCMs fall into two broad categories: Permissive. With the establishment of a permissive measure, no further coordination is required for the engagement of targets affected by the measure. The primary purpose of permissive measures is to facilitate the attack of targets.
Restrictive. The establishment of a restrictive measure imposes certain requirements for specific coordination prior to the engagement of those targets affected by the measure. The primary purpose of restrictive measures is to provide safeguards for friendly forces.
The FSC is responsible for recommending the establishment of all FSCMs, with the exception of boundaries. Recommendations are based on the: Maneuver commander's guidance. Location of friendly forces. Scheme of maneuver. Anticipated enemy actions.
Once established, FSCMs are displayed on maps, firing charts, and overlays. Graphical portrayal will include at a minimum (all in black) the: Abbreviation of the FSCM. Establishing headquarters. Effective date-time-group (DTG).
13
B2C2797
Fire Support Coordination Measures (Continued)

The maneuver commander uses boundaries in both the offense and defense to designate the geographical area for which a particular unit is responsible. Boundaries: o Describe the zone of action or sector of a maneuver unit. o Are usually assigned along terrain features easily recognizable on the ground. o Are so situated that key terrain features and avenues of approach are completely included in the area assigned to a unit. o Also serve as the basic FSCM. As such, they are both permissive and restrictive in nature. Boundaries are: Restrictive in that no fire support should be delivered across a boundary unless the fires are coordinated with the force having responsibility within the boundary. Fires delivered within close proximity to boundaries also should be coordinated with the adjacent unit. Permissive in that within his own boundaries, the maneuver commander enjoys complete freedom of fire and maneuver.
Boundary st between 1 Marines and 2d Marines Boundary st between 1 Marines and 3d Marines
14
B2C2797

Restrictive FSCMs. Restrictive Fire Line (RFL). An RFL is a line established between converging friendly forces (one or both may be moving) that prohibits fires, or effects of fires, across the line without coordination with the affected force. The purpose of the RFL is to regulate all fires occurring between converging forces. The common commander of the converging forces: o Establishes the RFL. o May delegate establishing authority to the senior commander of the two converging forces or to the commander of the maneuvering force in a linkup operation between a moving and stationary force. o The RFL should be located on identifiable terrain. In linkup operations, the RFL is moved as close as possible to the stationary force to allow maximum freedom of action for the maneuver and fire support of the linkup force. o Upon arrival, the FSCC disseminates the RFL to the subordinate, adjacent, and higher headquarters, as required. The RFL is further disseminated at each level of command, to include the establishing command, and to all concerned fire control agencies and other services as may be applied. o The location of the RFL is graphically portrayed on maps, charts, and overlays by a solid black line with the letters "RFL" followed by the establishing headquarters in parentheses above the line and the effective DTG below the line (see diagram below).
1 5
R FL (5 T H M A R ) 081800T-100700T
RFL
15
B2C2797

Restrictive FSCMs (Continued). Restrictive Fire Area (RFA). An RFA is an area in which specific firing or coordination restrictions are imposed and into which fires in excess that exceeds those restrictions will not be delivered without coordination with the establishing headquarters. The purpose of the RFA is to regulate fires into an area according to the stated restrictions. This means that fires or certain types of ordnance (e.g., limitations on improved conventional munitions (ICM) or family of scatterable mines (FASCAM)) can be controlled in an area where friendly forces are or will be located. o Any ground unit commander may establish an RFA within his zone; however, an RFA is not normally established below the battalion level. When RFAs are used to protect a unit from friendly fires (e.g., light armored reconnaissance (LAR) unit), the size of the RFA should be sufficient to allow the maneuver of the unit but not so large as to needlessly restrict fire support in other areas. To facilitate rapidly changing maneuver areas, on-call RFAs may be used. The dimensions, location, and restrictions of the on-call RFA are prearranged. The RFA is activated and deactivated when requested by the maneuvering unit or scheduled by time or event. o An RFA may be on recognizable terrain expressed either by: Grid coordinates. Radius from a point. o The establishing commander disseminates an RFA to the FSCCs of subordinate, adjacent, and higher headquarters, as required. An RFA is further disseminated to each level of command, including the establishing command, and to all concerned fire support agencies. o The RFA is graphically portrayed on a map, chart, or overlay by an area bounded by a black line with the letters "RFA", the designation of the unit establishing the area, and the effective DTGs inside the line (see diagram below).
RFA 221800R-250700R BLT 2/2 NO INDIRECT FIRE
RFA 160700Z-181600Z II MEF NO ICM
16
B2C2797

Restrictive FSCMs (Continued). No Fire Area (NFA). An NFA is an area into which no fires or effects of fire are allowed. The two exceptions to an NFA are: o The establishing headquarters may approve fires temporarily within the NFA on a mission-by-mission basis. o If any enemy force within the NFA engages a friendly force and the engaged unit leader determines there is no time for coordination, he may "respond in kind" with fires into the NFA.
The purpose of the NFA is to prohibit fires or their effects in the area, normally to protect civilians. Typically, the host nation establishes an NFA. On arrival of military forces, the force commander coordinates the location of an NFA with local authorities. Normally, an NFA is on recognizable terrain, but its location may also be expressed either by: o Grid coordinates. o Radius from a center point.
The force commander disseminates the NFA to all units of the force. An NFA is graphically portrayed (see diagram below) in black with diagonal lines drawn through the enclosed area. The letters "NFA" are written inside the enclosed area, along with the effective DTG and the headquarters of the establishing unit.
NFA 031400R-041200R I MEF
NFA 031400R-041200R I MEF
NFA
17
B2C2797
The Fire Support Plan

Fire Support Plan. A tactical plan containing information necessary for the employment of fire support in the operation. Located in Paragraph 3. Must have tactical task assigned: o Destroy. o Neutralize. o Suppress. Must have a purpose assigned (IOT).
Example: The purpose of my fire support plan is to neutralize the enemys indirect fire assets IOT allow our forces to close within direct fire range. Point target vic grid NU 835 643, known EN 82mm mortar position, requesting VT over Co TAC Net fired by the 60mm Mortar Section. This will be our 1st Priority Target and will be established by the 1st Platoon Cmdr once we cross the LD.
Tactical Missions and Command Relationships

General Support. That support which is given to the supported force as a whole and not to any particular subdivision thereof. Requires a unit to support the force as a whole and be prepared to support any subordinate element. This provides the ability to influence widely separated actions. Direct Support. Tactical mission requires a force to support another specific force and authorizing it to answer directly to the supported forces request for assistance. This requires the unit to furnish close and continuous fires to a single supported unit. Commander will position his firing units to deliver fires in the zone of action of the supported unit. Supported unit has priority of fires. Attached. The placement of units or personnel in an organization where such placement is relatively temporary. Use of fires GS DS ATTACH CO CMDR SUPPORTED UNIT SUPPORTED UNIT Tactical Control WPNS PLT CO SECTION LEADER SUPPORTED UNIT Admin and Log Control WPNS PLT CO WPNS PLT CO SUPPORTED UNIT
18
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning in the Offense

Provide support in the offense by using all available fire support means to accomplish the essential fire support tasks (EFSTs) that the maneuver commander designated. Plan to provide fire support:
Preparation phase. o Attacking targets as part of a deception effort. o Using smoke to screen the movement of friendly forces preparing for the attack. o Softening enemy defenses before the attack by engaging enemy indirect fire weapons, observation posts (OPs), reserves (or second echelon forces), command and control centers, logistic and assembly areas, or front line defenses.
Conduct phase. o Supporting the movement/maneuver and potential meeting engagements by: Providing responsive fires to leading elements. Implementing an aggressive counter fire plan to prevent enemy indirect fires from unnecessarily delaying the advance.
Consolidation phase. o Protecting friendly units during reorganization. o Breaking up enemy counterattack. o Preventing enemy reinforcement, disengagement, or resupply.
Exploitation phase. o Providing mobile, flexible fire support for maneuvering units. o Placing fires on bypassed enemy pockets of resistance to fix them for attack by a more suitable means of fire and/or by follow-up forces. o Providing fires to slow enemy retreat.
19
B2C2797
Fire Support Planning in the Defense

Provide support during the defense by using all available fire support means to accomplish the EFSTs that the maneuver commander designated. The defense is organized into the: Long range fires. Close defensive fires. Final Protective Fires (FPF). Long Range Fires. o Engage the enemy with deep fire to create confusion and cause him to deploy forces early. o Provides fire for security units such as patrols. o Use all available fire support to support the security force fight. Close Defensive Fires. When planning fire support in the MBA, plan to: Mass fires to canalize and slow enemy forces. Fire on obstacles to disrupt breaching effort and to inflict maximum casualties. Use fire support to isolate enemy forward echelons. Use smoke and other fires to assist supported units in disengaging and moving. o Fire to separate infantry from armor. o o o o
Final Protective Fires. An immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas o Priority target in the defense o Placed on most likely dismounted avenue of approach o Lengths of FPFs Artillery Battery - 300m 81MM Platoon - 280m 60MM Section - 90m o Danger Close distances 155mm 600m 81mm 400m 60mm 200m
20
B2C2797
Summary
The effective use of supporting arms can mean the difference between victory and defeat. The tools presented in this lesson, along with the practical application training you will execute are the first steps in understanding how to best use this force multiplier.
References
Reference Number or Author MCWP 3-11.1 MCWP 3-42.1 MCWP 3-16 MCWP 3-23.1 FMFM 6-9 FM 6-20-20 Reference Title Tactical Employment of Mortars Fire Support in MAGTF Operations Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Element Close Air Support Marine Artillery Support Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support

Term or Acronym AirO CAS COC DTG EFST FAC FASCAM FiST FO FPF FSC FSCC FSCM GCE ICM LAR MBA METT-T MOS NFA NFO NGF NGLO Definition or Identification Air officer Close air support Combat operations center Date-time-group Essential fire support task Forward air controller Family of scatterable mines Fire support team Forward observer Final protective fire Fire support coordinator Fire support coordination center Fire support coordination measure Ground combat element Improved conventional munitions Light armored reconnaissance Main battle area Mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and fire support available, and time Military occupational specialty No fire area Naval fight officer Naval gunfire Naval gunfire liaison officer
21
B2C2797

NSFS OIC OP RFA RFL SFCP TACP T/O Naval surface fire support Officer in charge Observation post Restrictive fire area Restricted Fire Line Shore fire control party Tactical air control party Table of organization
Notes
22
HELICOPTER CAPABILITIES / OPERATIONS B2C3197
Helicopter Capabilities/Operations
B2C3197
HELICOPTER CAPABILITIES / OPERATIONS

Introduction The Marine Corps is an expeditionary force with the ability to utilize assault support and maneuver warfare to exploit the enemy in multiple MAGTF missions. This period of instruction concentrates on the conduct of a heliborne operation and the capabilities of Marine Corps assault support aviation. The Marine Corps utilizes helicopters in a combat multiplier role that can avoid enemy surfaces, exploit gaps, and maintain flexibility and mobility during a MAGTF mission. In order to lead Marines during such a mission, one must understand how to properly utilize Marine Corps helicopter assets. This lesson will cover key personnel and the planning and execution phases of a heliborne operation and capabilities of Marine Corps helicopters. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Topic 1: Helicopter Operations Topic 2: Five Stages of Planning Topic 3: Helo Ops Key Personnel Overview Topic 4: Execution of the Heliborne Assault Topic 5: Landing Zone Brief Topic 6: ZIPPO Brief Topic 7: Helicopter Capabilities References Notes Learning Objective Enabling Learning Objectives Without the aid of reference, identify helicopter capabilities without error. (MCCS-OFF-2103a) Given a mission, scheme of maneuver, commander's intent, while leading a rifle squad or platoon, employ helicopters to support the ground scheme of maneuver. (MCCS-OFF2103b) Page 3 4 13 16 19 24 26 31 31
Importance
In This Lesson
B2C3197
Helicopter Operations
Helicopterborne Operations The foundation of vertical assault or helicopterborne operations lies in combat assault transportone mission category of assault support. Helicopterborne operations are: -Tactical movements of Marines, weapons, and material by helicopters to support the ground tactical planthe tactical application of combat assault transport. -Deliberate, precisely planned and vigorously executed combat operations designed to allow friendly forces to strike over extended distances and terrain barriers to attack when and where the enemy is most vulnerable -Conducted with maximum speed, flexibility, and timeliness. Considerations When planning helicopterborne operations, you must consider the capabilities, limitations, and vulnerabilities of heliborne operations. Capabilities Helicopterborne operations allow Marines to: Attack enemy positions from any direction Overfly or bypass barriers and obstacles and strike objectives in otherwise inaccessible areas Conduct deep attacks and raids beyond the forward line of our own troops Rapidly concentrate, disperse, or redeploy to extend the area of influence Provide responsive reserves allowing commanders to commit a larger portion of their forces to action Conduct fast paced operations over extended distances Rapidly reinforce committed units Conduct night terrain flight with the use of night vision devices, which allows them to locate a landing zone and land without illumination
Limitations These factors may negatively affect helicopterborne operations: Severe weather, extreme heat and cold, and other environmental conditions such as blowing snow and sand that limit flight operations, helicopter lift capability, or flight visibility Reliance on airborne communication Reduced ground mobility once inserted Limited accessibility to supporting arms, especially indirect fires
B2C3197
Helicopter Operations (Continued)

Increased logistical considerations (fuel, maintenance, spare parts, facilities, and aircraft availability)
Vulnerabilities Helicopterborne forces use helicopters to close with the enemy. Initial assault elements must be light and mobile. They are often separated from weapon systems, supporting arms, equipment, and material that provide protection and survivability on the battlefield. Thus, the helicopterborne force is particularly vulnerable to Attack by enemy air defense weapons systems during the movement phase Attack by NBC systems, because of limited NBC protection and decontamination Attacks (ground, air, artillery) during the loading and unloading phases Electronic warfare (jamming), due to the heavy reliance on radio communications for command and control
Five Stages of Planning

Ground Tactical Plan The foundation for a successful helicopterborne operation is the ground commander's ground tactical plan. The ground tactical plan Is developed first Is the basis from which other plans are derived Specifies actions in the objective area, which accomplish the mission Is constructed and conducted with all the elements of a typical infantry attack except that it capitalizes on the speed and mobility of the heliborne assault
The HUC must plan for and task-organize all assets available. The plan should include contingency plans and go/no-go criteria. Landing Plan The landing plan in helicopterborne operations consists of the ground commander's guidance concerning the desired time, place, and sequence of arrival of units. Again, the landing plan must support the ground tactical plan taking a number of principles into consideration: 4
B2C3197
Five Stages of Planning (Continued)

As a general rule, the smallest tactical unit to land in one wave in a landing zone should be a platoon. This provides a degree of combat power to secure the LZ for follow-on forces. Of course, in some cases, such as the insertion of combat patrols, the size will be smaller than a platoon and will not have to secure the zone for follow on forces. The helicopterborne force must land prepared to fight in any direction. The commander of the helicopterborne force must be concerned about security immediately upon landing. The number of helicopters in each wave depends on the o Size of the helicopter force to be lifted including their equipment and supplies o Number of helicopters the ACE has available to support the insertion o Number of helicopters the LZ can accommodate o Ground commanders force requirements to accomplish initial objectives without delay o Amount of deck space/time available Troops are easily disoriented if the briefed landing direction changes and they are not kept informed. To prevent this, the stick leader needs to talk to the pilot on the intercommunications system (ICS) to keep abreast of any changes to the landing plan. The ICS cranial has a built-in headset and microphone to allow you to talk with the pilot and crew chief. The stick leader will be navigating from the jump seat located in the cockpit between the two pilots. The stick leader will need to do a thorough map study prior to flying to ensure navigation to the correct LZ. Aircraft should not be landed within direct fire range of enemy weapons because of their relative vulnerability and high value to the MAGTF. All members need to understand their mission immediately upon exiting the aircraft: o In what direction do I move? o For which portion of the LZ are we responsible? Brief all members on where the guide should be located to help direct them into position. The guides will come from the first unit in the zone. Landing plan preparation. The plan sequences elements into the area of operations so that units arrive at locations and times prepared to execute the ground tactical plan. The landing plan should plan for:
B2C3197

Prep fires, but they may not be used depending on the threat and the ground tactical plan. Prep fires should be short but intense in duration and should occur only minutes prior to L-Hour. Deception fires should be initiated in dummy LZs, followed by dummy landings. Preplanned "on call" targets for each phase of the operationprimarily for the LZ, movement to and in the objective, and movement to and in the pickup zone (PZ). All fire support assets available (ask for and plan for them): o o o o o Naval gunfire Artillery Fixed and rotary wing CAS Mortars Fast attack vehicles
LZ selection. The HUC selects LZs based on the advice of the Assault Flight Leader (AFL). LZs are selected using the following criteria: o The ground commander's concept of operations. o Location. As close to the objective area as possible considering the need for surprise and security. o Capacity. The size determines how much combat power can be landed at one time. This also determines the need for additional LZs or separation between waves. o Size. The table below gives rules of thumb for determining LZ size if obstacles are on the perimeter of the LZ. If obstacles around the perimeter of the LZ are. 5 to 40 feet 40 to 80 feet 80+ feet Then the recommended LZ diameters (in feet) per single aircraft are. 100 150 200 175 250 350 175 250 350 175 250 350 o Alternates. An alternate LZ should be planned for each primary LZ selected to ensure flexibility. o Enemy disposition and capability. Enemy troop concentrations, air defenses, and their capability to react to a helicopterborne force landing nearby are considered when selecting LZs.
Type of Aircraft UH-1 CH-46 CH-53 MV-22
B2C3197

o Cover and concealment. LZs are selected which deny enemy observation and acquisition of friendly ground and air elements. o Obstacles (natural and manmade). If possible, the helicopter force should land on the enemy side of obstacles when attacking and use obstacles to protect LZs from the enemy at other times. LZs must be free of obstacles. o Identification from the air. LZs should be readily identifiable from the air. o Requirements for logistics support (e.g., Forward Arming and Refueling Points). o Surface material and soil trafficability. Free of loose material and firm ground conditions preferred. Brush over three feet tall is usually considered restrictive to landing helicopters. Landing formations. Aircraft formations in the LZ should facilitate off-loading and deployment for the operation. The number and type of aircraft and the configuration and size of the LZ may dictate the formation. Because contact should be anticipated in the LZ, elements are landed ready to employ fire and maneuver. Air Movement Plan The air movement plan Is based on the ground tactical plan and the landing plan Specifies when and how troops, equipment, and supplies will be transported from PZs to LZs Provides coordinating instructions pertaining to o Ingress and egress routes o Air control points o Aircraft speeds, altitudes, and formations, which are decided by the Air Mission Commander (AMC)
Loading Plan The loading plan is designed to Establish, organize, and control activities in the PZ or aboard ship Plan for the movement of troops and equipment to the PZ or flight deck Establish priority of loading units
Correct helicopter loading is essential in maintaining mobility. Helicopters must be loaded in a manner and sequence that allows immediate assumption of the
B2C3197

mission upon landing. The loading plans will either be administrative or tactical in nature depending on the situation. Formulating the plan. In planning a helicopter operation, the platoon commander or company commander must complete several tasks: Review the total number (by type) of assault support aircraft available Review the number of aircraft by type allocated to each wave
NOTE: Helicopter capacity. For planning purposes, the o CH-46E can lift 12 combat loaded troops o CH-53D/E can lift 24 combat loaded troops o MV-22 can lift 24 combat loaded troops These numbers will change based on METT-TC (hot weather decreases aircraft performance; longer range requires more fuel; etc.). Determine heli-team organizationa heli-team is the tactical unit, equipment, and supplies lifted in one helicopter. Each heli-team is identified by an assigned serial number, which also identifies its helicopter flight or wave. When forming heli-teams consider the following: o Unit integrity. Fire teams and squads are maintained and loaded on the same aircraft; likewise, platoons are in the same wave. o Tactical spread loading. An essential consideration, as loads should be planned so that all leaders or all similar weapon systems are not loaded on the same aircraft. Thus, if an aircraft is lost, the mission is not seriously hampered. For example, loading the platoon commander, platoon sergeants, and all squad leaders on the same helicopter or loading more than one machine gun team on the same aircraft violates tactical spread loading principles. o Employ the heli-team leader. The senior member of the heli-team has several responsibilities that exist in both the administrative and tactical environments. These responsibilities don't change and include:

Mustering and organizing the heli-team in the assigned assembly area Inspecting each individual for proper uniform, equipment, and proper adjustment of equipment while in the assembly area Ensuring the equipment assigned to the heli-team is properly staged before the team is called to the holding area or pickup zone
B2C3197
Preparing the manifest for the heli-team. A passenger manifest needs to be made for each heli-team containing the name, rank, service number, and blood type of each individual. Don't carry your own manifest of your "stick;" leave it with the marshalling area control officer (MACO). Leading the heli-team from the assembly area to the holding area, pickup zone, and loading point for administrative lifts. For tactical lifts, you will lead the heli-team from your tactical position out to the aircraft. Supervising enplaning of the heli-team to include such things as counting heads, being the last one in, and coordination with the crew chief. Supervising deplaning of heli-team personnel and equipment at the landing site and turning control back over to tactical unit leaders. This includes directing members of the heli-team to an assigned sector/portion of the LZ, ensuring all gear and supplies are taken from the helicopter, etc. Establish a bump plan so that essential personnel and equipment are not unnecessarily delayed in case of aircraft complications. If all personnel within the load cannot be lifted, individuals must know who is to off load and in what sequence or priority to ensure that key personnel are not bumped arbitrarily. Also, the bump plan defines when each aircraft "stick" will subsequently be loaded in the event an aircraft cannot fly. The unit leader establishes the bump plan in advance; it should be rehearsed prior to execution.
Loading Procedures Again, these will be administrative or tactical in nature depending on the situation. Regardless of the tactical situation, completing accurate manifests is a priority for accountability. Manifests do not accompany the heli-team on the helicopter. They are maintained by the MACO and are used in case of an aircraft accident. Administrative loading. Marines are gathered into an assembly area(s) where they are broken down into heli-teams and prepare for the lift. When directed, the heli-teams are moved to the holding area and are positioned for loading. The assembly area may also serve as the holding area. Just prior to the helicopters arrival for an administrative lift, a number of heli-teams equal to the number of pickup zone points is summoned from the assembly area and reports to the holding area. Heli-team manifest can be collected here. The pickup zone is the zone from which you will be extracted (see diagram on next page).
B2C3197
Security Team
Security Team
CH-46
Load AA Load AA PZ Control Load AA
Load AA Load AA Load AA
Release Point
Unit AA
Unit AA Unit AA
Pickup Zone Operation - Administrative From the holding area, heli-teams are moved to a pickup point within the pickup zone. The pickup zone points are alert points from which heli-teams are called for loading. In small unit lifts and when control means are adequate, pickup zone points may be dispensed with. Tactical Loading A helicopterborne operation can be conducted any number of ways. Unit SOPs will and should be developed over time to refine these procedures. Some general concerns for any tactical pickup include Securing the zone. Once again, the inherent vulnerability of helicopters on the ground requires providing necessary amount of security to preserve the force. For larger zones, securing the zone with a portion of the force (while the remainder stages in an assembly/holding area) may work. If the zone is small, securing the entire perimeter with the force may suffice. Designating a pickup zone coordinator. One individual should be in charge of coordinating the movement of the unit, collecting manifests, etc. Normally this would be the company gunnery sergeant (company), platoon sergeant (platoon), or assistant patrol leader (APL) (small unit patrol). Units are to remain covered and concealed as long as possible. The only Marines that should be exposed in the LZ will be the LZ control team.
10
B2C3197

Conducting a rehearsal. Like any other tactical operation, practice makes perfect. By rehearsing, units identify routes to their designated pickup points, understand the signal to commence the extract, and plan for scenarios involving enemy contact at anytime throughout the operation. For tactical loading, the heli-teams will head for the release point when directed. Here they will quickly turn in their passenger manifest and head directly onto their designated aircraft. If the manifest cards are collected prior to the helicopters arrival, units may bypass the release points and, on signal, head directly for their assigned aircraft. The units must allow for shrinking security as the subordinate elements are pulled out. The last units to be extracted will be the security units (see diagram below).
Unit AA Load AA RP Load AA
CH-53
Security Team
CH-46
CH-46
Load AA
Load AA
Load AA
Security Team PZ Control
Unit AA
Release Point
Unit AA
Pickup Zone Operation - Tactical Loading Sequence Loading is conducted with the maximum speed commensurate with safety. Specific procedures for loading, by type of aircraft and according to the situation, will be prescribed in unit SOPs. To assist in loading, the following procedures may be used as guides: Heli-team leader initiates movement once the aircraft has landed.
11
B2C3197

Heli-team moves to the aircraft in file with the heli-team leader leading the file and the assistant heli-team leader bringing up the rear. Heli-team leader should o Ensure all personnel know which aircraft and which position to load. o Ensure that all personnel unsling their weapons and the equipment is held properly before dispatching troops to their loading points in administrative lifts. Unit SOPs will dictate which way to carry gear onto the aircraft. As a general rule, point muzzles on all weapons down when enplaning helicopters. Usually packs will be carried on slung over one shoulder. o Notify the crew chief when all heli-team members are on board and ready for takeoff. A technique to signal you are ready is to give a thumbs up to your heli-team leader and hold it until everyone is ready. o Report to the pilot and answer any questions the pilot may have, utilizing the aircraft ICS. The heli-team leader needs to pass all pertinent information for landing, including the name of the landing zone and its grid coordinate along with the desired direction of landing and the landing point. One technique is to have all the information prepared on a card and ready to give to the pilot prior to enplaning. o Ensure, upon landing, that all personnel exit the aircraft and quickly move to designated positions in the LZ and continue the ground tactical plan. Staging Plan The staging plan is based on the loading plan and prescribes the arrival time of ground units (troops, equipment, and supplies) at the PZ in the proper order for movement. Loads must be ready before aircraft arrive at the PZ; usually, ground units are expected to be in the PZ 15 minutes before aircraft arrival. Tactical Extractions Tactical extractions use the same principles as tactical insertions except in reverse. The PZ must first be secured, occupying key terrain, avenues of approach, etc. Units then occupy the PZ tying in with each other. The PZCO initiates action to prepare the unit for extract, including preparing manifest and prepping internal and external loads. As the initial wave departs the PZ, remaining units begin to shrink the zone. As each wave departs, the zone becomes smaller. The security element will be the last to be extracted. 12
B2C3197

Upon departure, supporting fires should be planned and executed to cover the egress. For hot tactical LZ/PZ contingencies, Conduct immediate action and initiate your fire support plan Gain a foothold in the zone, consolidate, and reorganize Execute a contingency plan: o If the mission is still tenable, move to the objective via an alternate route. o Move to an alternate LZ/PZ (if only part of your unit was able to get into the zone and the remainder is landing in an alternate; initiate a link-up). Likewise, if the PZ becomes hot, movement to an alternate may have to be executed. o Conduct an emergency extract from a hot PZ. If this is the option, ensure that fire support assets are available to give adequate suppression and extract the wounded first.
Helicopterborne Operations Key Personnel

Mission Commander The mission commanders presence and role ensures a unity of command throughout the operation. He must determine where he can maintain communications with his subordinate commanders. Elements of the ground combat element (GCE), ACE, and combat service support element (CSSE) that form the helicopterborne task force will be placed under the mission commanders direct command. The MAGTF commander may be the mission commander depending on the scope of the helicopterborne operation. Air Mission Commander (AMC) The AMC is the senior Marine aviator designated commander of the aviation unit tasked to support a helicopterborne operation. Depending on the size and scope of the MAGTF, he may also be the ACE commander. The AMC is responsible for Planning and executing all aviation functions relative to the assigned helicopterborne mission
13
B2C3197
Helicopterborne Operations Key Personnel (Continued)

Establishing liaison with the helicopterborne unit commander (HUC) (the commander responsible for the ground tactical plan) to conduct concurrent and parallel planning
The AMC shall assume the duties of the Assault Support Coordinator (Airborne) for missions when no ASC(A) is assigned. The AMC is subordinate to the mission commander and is co-equal to the HUC in planning. During execution, specific authority will be delegated from the mission commander to the AMC. Helicopterborne Unit Commander (HUC) The HUC is the ground officer who has been designated commander of the helicopterborne force and is charged with execution and accomplishment of the ground tactical plan. His unit comprises the helicopter landing force. Depending on the size and scope of the MAGTF, the HUC may also be the GCE commander. Normally, only one GCE is in a helicopterborne ground unit although there may be multiple lifts and landings. The ground unit commander is responsible for execution of the ground tactical plan. As in any operation, the HUC must move where he can see the battlefield and where he can control the operation. In situations where the enemy allows, he would be airborne during the movement and insertion phases. At other times, he fights the battle from a tactical command post (CP) deployed well forward. The HUC is subordinate to the mission commander and is equal to the AMC in planning. During execution specific authority will be delegated from the mission commander to the HUC. Assault Support Flight Leader (AFL) The AFL is an experienced aviator in command of the assault support flight. The AFL reports to the AMC and assists in the planning of flight routes, LZs, and all other facets of the helicopterborne mission that directly involve assault support aircraft. The AFL is subordinate to the AMC and is equal to the escort flight leader (EFL) in planning. During execution specific authority will be delegated from the AMC to the AFL. Escort Flight Leader (EFL) The EFL is an experienced aviator in command of the escort (attack) flight and reports to the AMC. He assists in the planning of LZ preparation, threat mitigation, and all other facets of the Helicopterborne mission that directly involve attack aircraft. The EFL is subordinate to the AMC and is co-equal to the AFL in planning. During execution specific authority will be delegated from the AMC to the EFL. 14
B2C3197
Helicopterborne Operations Key Personnel (Continued)

In summary, the HUC is the ground officer who has been designated to be the commander of the helicopterborne force and who is charged with the accomplishment of the ground mission. The AMC is responsible for the air mission and is appointed by the ACE or the aviation unit commander. The AMC is responsible for determining aviation assets necessary and their application to effectively and safely complete the air aspect of the mission. In a Helicopterborne operation, the AMC is responsible for making initial liaison with the HUC. The AFL is an experienced aviator in command of the transport helicopters taking part in a helicopterborne mission. Command Relationships Coordination between the ground commander (HUC) and the AMC should begin at the earliest opportunity in the planning phase of the operation. During the initial planning stages, the AMC will give the HUC and his staff planning data relative to the numbers and types of helicopters available for the lift. Although the HUC and the AMC must plan together, the HUC's concept of operations on the ground must drive all planning for the helicopterborne operation. A central consideration for the HUC and AMC in planning a helicopterborne operation is the enemy air defense situation. Sortie rates and aircraft types, availability, and capabilities are also central factors in planning. To achieve the necessary rapid build up of combat power, a helicopterborne operation requires a massing of helicopters. As a planning figure, a minimum of one-third of the ground unit should be landed in the zone in the first wave. The basis for planning the timing of the operation is L-Hour. L-Hour is the time when the first helicopter in the first lift is to touch down in the LZ. The commanders accomplish this by directing subordinate units to form the helicopterborne force (see diagram on next page).
15
B2C3197
Mission Commander
Air Mission Commander Assault Flight Leader (AFL)
Helicopterborne Unit Commander
Escort Flight Leader (EFL)
Division Leader
Division Leader
Section Leader
Section Leader
Assault Support Coordinator (Airborne)

Command Relationship of a Helicopterborne Force
Execution of the Helicopterborne Assault

Conduct of the Landing The landing is executed with maximum speed. Following the ceasing of prep fires, the initial wave lands and establishes security for follow-on waves. To ensure security, the initial wave will seize key terrain and cover likely avenues of approach. As subsequent waves arrive in zone, the LZ is enlarged. With guides provided by the initial wave, units arriving in the LZ are joined with their respective squads/platoons, immediately occupying their respective sectors. While waiting for subsequent waves to arrive, units will Tie-in physically or by fire Conduct hasty reorganization/consolidation Prepare to move
Follow-on waves will continue to enlarge the zone; once the last wave has arrived and tied-in, movement out of the LZ should be quick and deliberate. Initial Ground Actions
16
B2C3197
Execution of the Helicopterborne Assault (Continued)

1. Initial Assault. The initial assault involves seizing and establishing landing sites. The initial wave is composed mainly of assault rifle units, reinforced as necessary to provide the combat power required for clearing the landing sites and the landing zone of enemy elements. Although the scheme of maneuver depends upon many other factors, the initial assault forces are normally assigned responsibility for clearing sectors of the landing zone (see diagrams below).
Intel reported enemy position
LU 15
LU 8
CH-46 CH-53 LZ Raven
Initial Wave into LZ (Should be at Least 1/3 Combat Power)
17
B2C3197
LU 15
CH-46 CH-53
LZ Raven
2nd Wave into LZ. Squads Link up with Respective Platoons
Plt AA
Plt AA
Plt AA
LZ Raven
Platoons Move into Assembly Areas and Coordinate Final Planning at Company CP
18
B2C3197

2. Assault Rifle Platoon. The assault rifle platoon effort initially consists of separate squad actions in assigned portions of the platoon sector to establish control and clear the sector of enemy resistance. The platoon sector is divided into squad sectors; each squad is responsible for clearing its sector. Initially, control of the platoon is decentralized to the squad leaders. Consequently, aggressiveness, initiative, and rehearsal at the small unit level are heavily emphasized. The seizure of objectives on or beyond the landing site perimeter permits the platoon to dominate avenues of approach into the site from that direction. Control of these objectives also prevents enemy small arms interdiction of the landing. 3. Assault Rifle Company. The assault rifle company Lands in its assigned landing site in one or more waves Clears the landing site of enemy resistance Seizes terrain objectives which control the site
Based upon the formation for landing, the company commander usually lands in a wave, which allows him to gain control of at least two rifle platoons in their ground actions. The PZ coordinator is usually left in charge of loading and lands with one of the last heliteams in the company. The primary concern of the company commander is to rapidly gain control of the situation without causing loss of momentum in the attack.
Landing Zone Brief

Landing Zone (LZ) Brief The information contained in the LZ brief is the basis for the information that should be passed to the transport helicopter prior to landing in the zone. The table below describes the content for each paragraph of the LZ brief.
Paragraph Number and Title 1. Mission number
Description of Contents
Typically, a two-part, hyphenated number that the air tasking order (ATO) or an air agency assigns Example: 28-3, where 28 is the day of the month and 3 is the third mission assigned
19
B2C3197
2. Location
3. Unit call sign
4. Frequency
5. LZ marking
6. Wind direction and velocity
7. Elevation/size
Also typically supplied to the aircrew o Prior to launch o En route, in case of a divert mission May only be general information; aircrew expects a location update upon contact with the supported unit o Use of LZ code names from the OPORDER simplifies the task of passing locations over an open net o If the LZ is not named, the grid covered should be passed o Grid locations of LZ are passed as Six digits Center mass for a small LZ or the side you intend to use for a large LZ Must be provided to the aircrew prior to them attempting to contact the supported unit Normally the ATO or an air agency passes An air agency provides to the aircrew If supported unit has alternate frequencies or a different working frequency, pass it on contact Describes the method(s) used to mark the LZ For smoke, do not pass smoke color; it can be used as an informal authentication method. If someone is monitoring the net, it prevents them from luring the helicopter into an ambush Smoke is preferred method of marking LZ in daylight because it also provides wind direction At night, mark LZ with chemical lights, preferably infrared type Wind direction and strength o Determined by the direction the wind is blowing from (not to) o Is more important than velocity Velocity o During day conditions, aircrew can judge wind velocity by observing vegetation o Pass your best guess on wind velocity; it may be quite different at your location than the pilot expects due to wind gusts. If You have to lean into it and debris is blowing around, wind is in excess of 20-25 knots There is a distinct breeze, wind is around 8-10 knots There is just a puff of air, wind is 5 knots or less Wind is so light that it is tough to tell direction, call it either calm or light and variable Pass elevation to the nearest 50 feet (no need to be incredibly precise, so do not waste a lot of time) o If you have a metric map, convert to feet using the conversion scale on the map (aircraft altimeters read in feet; doing this is a courtesy to a busy aircrew and prevents possible misunderstandings) Pass size in meters, with length and width of the usable part of the zone required information o For irregular shaped LZs, eyeball what looks to be the usable part of the zone (absolute precision is not required; simply your best guess)
20
B2C3197
8. Obstacles
Flight leader uses this information to decide o How many aircraft to bring into the zone at one time o If aircraft can use a normal approach pattern or will require some sort of precision approach Hazards to aircraft on ingress or egress; things in the LZ that will hamper a normal landing Trees around the zone are not generally considered obstacles; they define the limits of the LZ more than obstruct the approach Things such as o Wires, which are difficult to see (almost impossible to see at night) Communication wire Barbed wire Concertina o Things in the zone itself Fence posts Stumps Flooded areas Tell the pilot what to be looking for so there are no surprises on short final Example o There is a line of concertina 50 meters in and parallel to the eastern tree line o There are numerous engineer stakes in the zone Passed to help the pilot land near the troops to be picked up If troops are all around the zone, tell pilot where the loading points are Example: Halfway down the zone on the eastern side An intelligence update for the aircrew, so they can plan their ingress and egress away from the threat Directions are passed in semi-cardinal headings Distance is given in meters Type is much more critical than time o Avoiding the threat of indirect fire weapons is difficult Time is less significant but will give the aircrew some idea where the enemy might be o If you took fire from rifles 10 minutes ago, the aircrew will probably conclude they are still in the area An intelligence update Direction is a semi-cardinal heading Distance is more significant than direction; it is a guide to possible effectiveness of the fire Rifle fire was received from the hilltop 1000m away will be less significant than the fire received from 400m away Allows the helicopter the widest latitude possible to fire, consistent with troop safety Generally passed as o Cleared to fire to the east side of the zone beyond 50m into the tree
9. Friendly positions: direction and distance 10. Enemy positions: direction and distance 11. Last fire received: time and type
12. Direction of fire / distance
13. Clearance to fire: direction and distance
21
B2C3197
line o Cleared to fire except for the southern side of the zone If friendly troop location is in doubt, be restrictive, but do not necessarily limit a good resource 14. Approach / Give your best guess which way the helicopters should ingress and egress, retirement: realizing that helicopters prefer to (recommended) o Land and take off into the wind o Avoid overflying the enemy Flight leader makes the ultimate decision; do not be upset if his priorities are different from yours If there is a specific reason to avoid an ingress or egress direction, pass it to the aircrew 15. Personnel / Pass personnel as number of sticks (heliteams) because it is easier for equipment pilots to determine the number of lifts required (vice stating I have 255 pax) o Example: I have 17 sticks of 15. Mention equipment, which the individual Marine does not carry, such as pallets of cargo, water bulls, etc. Each Marine is figured to weigh 240 pounds for planning purposes, which includes his personal gear NOTE: For MEDEVAC briefs, pass the number and precedence (routine, priority, and urgent) of the casualties to be evacuated, along with the type and number of wounds. Aircrew will call the direct air support center (DASC) or helicopter direction center (HDC) to alert the medical agencies to expect that number and type of casualties to expedite their triage priorities 16. Other Anything that does not fit conveniently in another line Examples o Other helicopters using the zone o Condition of the zone (mud knee deep, zone has 6 feet of loose powdery snow, two loads of pax and then we have 7 loads of ammo rigged as externals The LZ brief is passed in plain language covering only the pertinent items using the line titles. An LZ brief is passed as follows: Step 1 2 Action The helicopters will establish initial radio contact on the way into the LZ. Give the helicopters a courtesy call to give the aircrew the opportunity to get their pencils out. The zone brief follows. Example "A1Z this is Nighthawk 22, flight of two 46s, 5 minutes out" "Nighthawk 22 this is A1Z, are you ready to copy zone brief?" "Nighthawk 22, A1Z, pickup LZ is sparrow. LZ is marked with a NATO "Y", winds are light and variable. LZ is 150 meters by 250 meters, oriented north to south. There are several engineer stakes in the NE corner."
22
B2C3197
LZ Brief Format. Here is a sample LZ brief format you can use.
LZ BRIEF
1. MISSION NUMBER __________________________________________ 2. LOCATION_________________________________________________ 3. UNIT CALL SIGN____________________________________________ 4. FREQUENCY FM _______________________ UHF___________
5. LZ MARKING ______________________________________________ 6. WIND DIR./VELOCITY ______________________ / ______________ 7. ELEVATION/SIZE __________________________ / ______________ 8. OBSTACLES ______________________________________________ 9. FRIENDLY POSITIONS DIR _______________ DIST ______________ 10. ENEMY POSITIONS DIR __________________ DIST _____________ 11. LAST FIRE TIME _________________________ TYPE ____________ 12. LAST FIRE DIR ___________________________ DIST ____________ 13. CLEARANCE TO FIRE DIR ________________ DIST ______________ Sample LZ Brief 14. APPROACH/RETIREMENT ___________________ / ______________ 15. PERSONNEL/EQUIPMENT ___________________ / ______________ 16. OTHER ____________________________________________________
23
B2C3197
Zone Inspection, Planning, Preparing and Operation (ZIPPO) Brief

ZIPPO Brief The ZIPPO brief is a face-to-face conference with the helicopterborne unit commander, the assault flight leader, and key staff members who jointly plan a Helicopterborne operation in which their units are participating. The ZIPPO brief will also discuss all items found in the sample below, including aircraft performance in relation to anticipated tactics, threats, and load factors. ZIPPO Brief Format Here is a sample ZIPPO brief format you can use.
ZIPPO BRIEF
1. Mission Number 2. Unit/Callsign 3. AirO Callsign 4. HC(A) Callsign 5. TAC(A)/FAC(A) Callsign 6. Asslt Flt Cdr Callsign 7. Escort Flt Lead Callsign 8. F/W Coord. Callsign 9. Number/Type Helos 10. Pickup Coord LZ Description 11. Drop Coordinates DZ Description 12. Approach/Retire Rtes 13. Total Troops/Heliteam Size
24
B2C3197
14. Int Cargo Load: Type/Wt 15. Ext Cargo Load: Type/Wt 16. Freqs: Asslt FM Asslt UHF LZ Ctrl FW Ctrl Pri ______ Sec ______ Pri ______ Sec ______ Pri ______ Sec _______ Pri ______ Sec _______
WX Mins/Alt Plan Pick-up Time/Latest Acceptable L-Hour/Latest Acceptable Arty Prep Time/End of Mission F/W Flt/TOS/Ord F/W CAP/TOS/Ord ROE/Clnc to Fire Intel Fuel Plan Medevac (Priority/Precedence) Resupply: Internal Sorties External Sorties RTF Procedures Penetration Checklist MEZ Procedures MRRs/Alts/Freqs/IFF _____________ Wt ______________ Wt _____________ Lifts ______________ Lifts
25
B2C3197
Helicopter Capabilities
This ready reference of MAGTF aircraft may be referenced for initial operational planning only. Aircraft performance is affected by many variables such as temperature, density altitude, humidity, wind, aircraft configuration, and mission requirements. Specific performance parameters are calculated for every mission. Detailed mission planning requires close liaison with the ACE and use of appropriate operations and tactical manuals.
26
B2C3197
CH-46E Dimensions Height 16 feet 8 inches Weight Empty 16,500 pounds Maximum gross wt 24,300 pounds Rotor diameter 51 feet Length 84 feet 4 inches Airspeed Max endurance 70 KIAS Maximum range 110 to 130 KIAS Maximum airspeed 145 KIAS Fuel Capacity Pounds / Gallons 4488 / 660 Endurance Payloads 4300 pounds - 18 pax Endurance 2 + 55 hours Weapons Systems Guns 2 X 50 caliber XM 218 Other Systems GPS navigation Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) System Communications Equipment HF 1 X AN/ARC-94 VHF/UHF 1 X AN/ARC-182 w/KY-58 encryption device UHF 1 X AN/ARC-51A w/KY-58 encryption device VHF/UHF 1 X AN/ARC-210 w/KY-58 encryption device (CNCS configured A/C only) Aircraft Survivability Equipment RWR AN/APR-39(V)1 radar warning receiver IRCW AN/ALQ-157 infrared jammer Expendables AN/ALE-39 countermeasures dispenser Missile warning AN/AAR-47 missile warning system
27
B2C3197
CH-53D Dimensions Height Weight Empty Maximum gross Rotor diameter Length Airspeed Maximum endurance Maximum airspeed Fuel Capacity Pounds/Gallons Endurance Payloads Typical Best case Weapons Systems Guns
24 feet 11 inches 27,000 pounds 42,000 pounds 72 feet 3 inches 88 feet 6 inches 70 KIAS 130 KIAS 13,178/1938 37 pax/8000 pounds internal cargo 3 + 00 hours 5 + 30 hours 2 x XM-218 .50 caliber, 1 x M-3M .50 caliber ramp gun (optional)
Other Systems GPS Navigation Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) System Communications Equipment HF 1 X AN/ARC-94 or AN/ARC-174 UHF/VHF 2 X an/ARC-182 w/KY-58 encryption device or 2 X AN/ARC-210 w/KY-58 encryption device Aircraft Survivability Equipment RWR AN/APR-39(V)1 radar warning receiver IRCM AN/ALQ-157 Missile warning AN/AAR-47 missile warning system Expendables AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser
28
B2C3197
CH-53E Dimensions Height Weight Empty Maximum gross weight Rotor diameter Length Airspeed Maximum endurance Maximum airspeed Fuel Capacity Pounds/Gallons Endurance Payloads Typical Best case Weapons Systems Guns
28 feet 4 inches 36,000 pounds 73,500 pounds 79 feet 99 feet inch 75 KIAS 150 KIAS 15,000/2277 37 to 55 pax 20,000 pounds internal 4 + 00 hours Indefinite with Aerial Refueling 2 x XM-218 .50 caliber, 1 x M-3M .50 caliber ramp gun (optional)
Other Systems FLIR AN/AAQ-16B GPS Navigation Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) System Communications Equipment Same as CH-53D Aircraft Survivability Equipment RWR AN/APR-39(v)1 radar warning receiver IRCWM None Missile warning AN/ALE-47(v)2 missile warning system Expendables AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser
29
B2C3197
MV-22 Dimensions Height Width Empty Length Weight Max gross weight Empty Airspeed Maximum endurance Maximum airspeed Fuel Capacity Pounds/Gallons Endurance Payloads
22 feet 7 inches 84 feet 10 inches 60 feet 9 inches 60,500 pounds 33,500 pounds 150 KCAS 280 KCAS 11,300/1724 24 pax 15,000 pounds internal/10,000 pounds external 3 + 00 hours Indefinite with Aerial Refueling
Typical Best case Weapons Systems Guns M240 ramp gun (optional) Other Systems GPS Navigation Miniature Airborne GPS Receiver (MAGR) System Communications Equipment VHF/UHF/FM/SATCOM/SINCGARS/HAVEQUICK Aircraft Survivability Equipment RWR AN/APR-39(v)1 radar warning receiver Missile warning AAR-47 missile warning system Expendables AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser Other AVR-2 Laser Detecting Set
30
B2C3197
References
Reference Number or Author FMFM 5-25 MCRP 3-11.1A MCWP 3-11.4 Reference Title Assault Support Helicopter Tactical Manual Commanders Tactical Handbook Helicopterborne Operations
Notes
31
Notes
MUNITIONS B2D2517
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Munitions
Introduction The purpose of this class is to introduce the student officer to the munitions used in the Marine Corps. This class will prepare the student officer for employment of munitions during Squad Weapons and Munitions FFEX and ultimately in a field environment. This lesson covers the following topics. Topic AT-4 Grenades Pyrotechnic Signals Summary References Notes Page 3 19 27 29 29 30
Importance
In This Lesson
Learning Objectives
Terminal Learning Objectives Given an M67 fragmentation grenade and target, while wearing a fighting load, engage a target with an M67 fragmentation grenade. (0300-DEMO-1002) Given an AT-4 light anti-armor weapon engage targets with a light anti-armor weapon. (0300-WPNS-1002) Given munitions, while wearing a fighting load, employ pyrotechnics by supporting the scheme of maneuver and commander's intent. (0311-DEMO-1001 ) Enabling Learning Objectives Identify employment considerations for the M67 fragmentation grenade. (0300-DEMO-1002b) Identify employment considerations for the AT-4 light antiarmor weapon. (0300-WPNS-1002a) Without the aid of reference, identify pyrotechnics without error. (0311-DEMO-1001a)
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
AT-4 Light Anti-Tank Weapon (LAW)

History. The ordnance division of Forenade Fabriksverken (FFV), a Swedish stateowned company, developed the AT-4. Development started in 1976; manned firing started in the spring of 1981, which lead to mass production in 1984. The AT-4 is an organic weapon located in the infantry battalion. The weapon is non-MOS specific and can be fired by any Marine with basic infantry skills. Description. The AT-4 (see diagram below) is a light, recoil-less, antitank weapon for close-range combat, designed to let part of the propellant gases escape to the rear. Additionally, it is a discardable, self-contained rocket launcher.
Specifications
Weight Length Range Maximum Maximum effective Minimum (training) Minimum (combat) Arming Muzzle velocity Armor penetration
AT-4 14.8 pounds 40.0 inches 2100 meters 300 meters 50 meters 10 meters 10 meters 290 mps In excess of 17.7 in (homogeneous steel)
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Nomenclature
The AT-4 has the following components(see diagram below) Transport safety pin that provides safety for transportation and attaches to AT-4 by a lanyard. Cocking lever that cocks the firing mechanism. Fire-through muzzle cover that keeps out moisture and prevents foreign objects from entering the muzzle. Color code band that indicates the type of cartridge. Sights o Rear sight that consist of a sight blade, range setting knob, range indicator, 2 mm peephole, and a 7 mm peephole. o Front sight that consists of a sight blade, a center post, and right and left lead posts. Venturi that performs two functions: o Protects the weapon from damage if it is dropped. o Directs the flow of the backblast. Red safety catch that must be fully depressed and held before pressing the trigger button or the AT-4 will not fire. This feature is also provided as a final safety measure. Red trigger button that fires the weapon. Shoulder stop that helps stabilize the AT-4 on the shoulder. Carrying sling that provides a means to carry the AT-4.
M136 AT-4
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Safety Devices
You cannot fire the weapon unless the three safety devices (described in the table below) have been disengaged.
Safety Device Transport safety pin
Function Blocks the movement of the firing pin Prevents firing pin from striking the cartridge percussion cap To disengage the transport safety pin, pull the pin out and release it. Attached to the firing rod When the lever is in the safe position, the firing rod and the trigger have no contact To cock the AT-4, push the lever forward and down with the thumb of the right hand When the weapon is cocked, the firing rod is engaged with the trigger through the hooks on the front part of the firing rod and the red trigger button. Located on the front end of the firing mechanism Is connected to a steel rod that prevents the firing rod from striking the firing pin Must be fully depressed and held down before the AT-4 can be fired
Cocking lever
Red safety catch
Color-Coding
M136 AT-4 launchers are marked with color-coded bands (see diagram below): A black with yellow band indicates an HE anti-armor round (early models had a solid black band). A gold or yellow band indicates a field-handling trainer. No band indicates an M287 9mm tracer bullet trainer.
Location of Color-Coded Band Employment Considerations Backblast. The backblast danger area extends at a 90degree angle arc from the rear of the launcher 5 meters. No large vertical objects may be 5 meters to the rear of
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
the launcher. Another 95 meters behind the danger area is the caution area. Personnel or equipment in this area could be injured or damaged by backblast or flying debris. Therefore, you must keep clear a total area of 100 meters behind the launcher when firing (see diagram below).
M136 AT-4 Backblast As long as the structure has a volume of 50 cubic meters, you may fire the AT-4 inside a building. However, o All personnel must have ear protection and be forward of the rear of the launcher. o The structure must have good ventilation with glass removed from windows. o No objects can be within five meters of the rear of the launcher because the backblast is a dangerous mixture of Noise Dust Pressure Light
A direct line of sight to target is required. Heavy brush, vegetation, or other obstruction may deflect the rocket.
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Inspecting / Functions Check
The table below lists the steps for inspecting and conducting a functions check.
Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Action The transport safety pin should be inserted in weapon. Cocking lever should be in the SAFE position. Be sure that the muzzle cover is intact. Ensure that your have the correct color band for the type of ordnance that you wish to fire. Ensure that the sights are adjustable/serviceable. Ensure that the rear seal, a brown acrylic plastic plate inside the venturi, is in place and undamaged. Inspect the outside of the weapon completely; it must be serviceable (no cracks, dents, bulges, missing components etc).
Functioning
The M136 AT-4 is a round of ammunition with an integral, rockettype cartridge. The cartridge (see diagram below) consists of a Fin assembly with tracer element Point-initiating, base-detonating, piezoelectric fuze Warhead body with liner Precision-shaped explosive charge
84 MM HEAT Cartridge Description The M136 AT-4's warhead has excellent penetration ability and lethal after-armor effects. The extremely destructive, 440-gram shaped-charge explosive penetrates more than 17 inches of armor. Warhead effects are (see diagram below) Impact. The nosecone crushes; the impact sensor
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
activates the fuze. Ignition. The piezoelectric fuze element activates the electric detonator. The booster detonates, initiating the main charge. Penetration. The main charge fires and forces the warhead body liner into a directional gas jet that penetrates armor plate. After-armor effects (spalling). The projectile fragments and incendiary effects produce blinding light and destroy the interior of the target.
Effects of AT-4 Warhead
Operation
Firing. The table below lists the steps for preparing and firing the AT-4.
Step Action 1 Prepare the AT-4 for firing by completing the steps in the table below. 1. Inspect the launch tube for Cracks Dents Bulges 2. Ensure the environment seals are secure. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cradle the rocket and open the sights and shoulder stop. Shoulder the weapon. Remove the transport safety pin. Unfold and push cocking lever forward and down to the FIRE position. Adjust the rear sight. (If range is less than 250 meters no adjustments arc necessary.) Visually inspect the back blast area to ensure that it is clear, and then yell, Back blast area all secure. Aim in on the designated target. Depress the safety plunger, sound off ROCKET, and then press the trigger to fire the rocket.
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Immediate actions procedures. If the AT-4 fails to fire, perform immediate action steps listed in the table below.
Step Action 1 Shout, Misfire! continue to hold plunger and trigger, and keep rocket pointed at target. 2 Re-cock the weapon and secure the back blast area. 3 Attempt to fire. If AT-4 Fails to fire, complete steps 1 through 3 once more. If on the second attempt AT-4 fails to fire, continue with step 4. Fires, immediate action is complete. 4 Release the trigger and put the cocking lever back into the SAFE position. 5 Keep the rocket pointed toward the target and replace the transport safety pin. 6 Place the weapon on the deck. 7 Walk away from the AT-4 100 meters to the flank and 100 meters to the rear to avoid the back blast area. CAUTION: Failure to clear the back blast area this way may injure or kill you if the rocket fires. 8 Notify EOD or proper authorities of the location of the malfunctioning ordnance. Sights The AT-4's front and rear sights resemble those of the M16-series rifle (see diagram below).
Sight Location and Resemblance to M16 Series Rifle Sights
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Front Sight. The front sight has a sight blade with a center post and left and right lead posts. A semicircular white line helps you obtain the proper sight picture. To open the front sight cover, o Press down on it o Slide it backward until the sight pops up
Rear Sight. The rear sight has o o o o A sight blade Range adjustment knob Range scale Two peepholes 2mm for normal daylight visibility conditions 7mm for limited visibility conditions
To open the rear sight cover, o Press down on it o Slide it forward until the sight pops up
The leaf blade that covers the 7-mm peephole has its own tiny 2-mm peephole. To uncover the 7-mm peephole, pull the bottom of the leaf blade out slightly and rotate it right and up. To cover the 7-mm peephole, rotate it back down and ensure the leaf blade is seated. The range indicator scale is indexed from 100 to 500 meters in 50-meter increments. To increase the range setting beyond 200 meters, turn the range adjustment knob clockwise, or vice versa (see diagram on next page). NOTE: Remember to reset the range to 200 meters when you close the rear sight. Otherwise, closing the sight cover will break off the rear sight.
10
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Adjusting the Rear Sight Range Setting Aiming Aiming procedures include Placing the eye correctly Obtaining a sight picture Aligning the sight
Combining these procedures is critical procedures is critical to correctly aiming light anti-armor weapons. Eye placement. Before sighting the weapon, estimate the range. Place your firing eye 2 1/2 to 3 inches from the rear sight. o CAUTION: Do not place your eye any nearer than 2 1/2 inches from the rear sight to prevent possible injury from the weapon's recoil and to correctly align the sight on the AT-4. Sight alignment. Position the rear sight so that the white semicircle of the front sight is a hazy line around the bottom half of the rear sight opening. Position the front sight posts on the target (see diagram on next page). Align the sight by moving your head forward or backward.
11
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Sight Alignment Sight picture. Position the front sight on the target as described below. o Stationary target, including those moving directly toward for away from the firer Adjust the rear sight for the correct range Place the center sight post in the center of the target (see diagram below)
Sight Picture: Stationary Targets o Slow-moving vehicles. Estimated speed of 10 mph or less. Moving in an oblique direction. Place the center sight post on the front or leading edge of the vehicle (see diagram on next page)
12
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Sight Picture: Slow-Moving Targets o Fast-moving vehicles, moving faster than 10 mph Place either the left or right lead post on the center of the target. For example, the target is moving from left to right, place the left lead post on the target's center of mass, and vice versa (see diagram below)
Sight Picture: Fast-Moving Targets Method of Target Engagement The four engagement methods are Single Sequence Pair Volley firing
The leader evaluates the situation on the ground to determine which method to use. Regardless of whether they are used singly or in combination, communications are vital. The methods of engagement are rehearsed IAW unit SOP. Single Firing. Although single firing is not the preferred method of engagement, a single Marine with one light anti-armor weapon may engage an armored vehicle. Several light anti-armor weapons are required to kill an armored vehicle. A single firer firing one round must hit a vital part of the target to damage it at all (see picture on next page).
13
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Single Firing When a single firer o Does not know the actual range, the firer should engage only targets within 200 meters. The probability that he will hit a target beyond 200 meters with a single round is small. o Knows the actual range, a single firer can engage targets out to 300 meters with the AT-4 but should only does this when it is a flank or rear shot or when there is no other engagement option. Sequence firing. In sequence firing, a single firer, equipped with two or more light anti-armor weapons prepared for firing, engages the target. After engaging with the first round and observing the impact, the firer adjusts the point of aim, engages with another round, and so on until the target is destroyed or the firer runs out of rounds (see picture below).
Sequence Firing
14
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Pair Firing. In pair firing, two or more firers, equipped with two or more light anti-armor weapons prepared for firing, engage a single target. Before firing, the first firer informs the others of the estimated speed and distance to the target. If the impact of that round proves the estimate to be o Correct, the other firers engage the target until it is destroyed o Incorrect, the second firer informs the others of a new estimate and then engages the target
This process continues until the target is destroyed or all rounds are expended (see picture below).
Pair Firing Volley Firing. The best method of engagement with a light anti-armor weapons is volley firing; when the range to a single target is known, two or more firers engage it at one time on a prearranged signal such as a command, whistle, booby trap, mine, or TRP. Volley firing is the best method of engagement with a light anti-armor weapon because it places the most possible rounds on one target at one time, increasing the possibility of a kill (see picture on next page).
15
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Volley Firing Communications Leaders control all unit fire and communicate this information to the entire unit according to the unit SOP. Light anti-armor weapons firers must know the: Designated firers Target priority Method of engagement Range and lead to target (if known) Command or signal to: o Fire o Cease fire Firing Positions The diagrams on the following page show the four firing positions: Kneeling Standing Sitting Prone
16
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Kneeling
Standing
17
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Sitting
Top View
Side View
Prone
18
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Grenades
There are several types of hand grenades. Each has different characteristics and each provides the Marine with a variety of capabilities. Hand grenades give the Marine the ability to kill the enemy, destroy enemy equipment, give signals, and control riots. It is the Marines personal indirect fire weapon system. Common Characteristics Short range. The range of a hand grenade depends entirely on the individual and the type of grenade being utilized. The average individual can throw the grenade from 30 to 40 meters. Small effective casualty radius. Effective casualty radius is defined as the radius around the point of detonation where a minimum of 50% of the personnel exposed in that area becomes casualties. The casualty radius of a hand grenade depends upon the type of grenade. High explosive grenades such as the M67 fragmentation grenade have a 15 meter effective casualty radius. Delay element in the fuze. All grenades have a delay element in their fuze permitting the user to find cover while employing the grenade. The time varies with the type of grenade being used. Body. The body of the grenade functions as a container and may be made of metal, fiber, or plastic. The body also provides fragmentation in some grenades. Filler. The filler is the chemical or explosive substance contained in the body. The filler gives the grenade its explosive characteristic and determines its function. Fuze Assembly. The heart of the grenade is the fuze assembly. It causes the grenade to function by means of a chain reaction through pyrotechnic, mechanical, or electrical means. All fuzes in US hand grenades may be categorized as either detonating or igniting. o Detonating. Detonating fuzes explode within the grenade body to initiate the main explosion of the filler substance. o Igniting. Igniting fuzes are designed for use with chemical hand grenades. They burn at high temperatures and ignite the chemical filler. Grenade Safeties Safety Clip. The safety clip is the first of 3 positive safeties found on all casualty producing grenades. The safety clip is the first safety to be removed. (Thumb clip) Safety Pin. The safety pin is the second safety on
Parts of a Grenade
19
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
casualty producing grenades. It is the first safety on non-casualty producing grenades. Once the pin is pulled the grenade is ready to be thrown. Safety Lever. The safety lever is the last safety device found on all grenades. Once the safety clip and the safety pin is pulled the safety lever must be held in place by the thrower. When the grenade is thrown the striker located on top of the fuze assembly moves up pushing the safety lever away from the grenade body and the striker then detonates or ignites the primer.
Types of Grenades
There are four types of hand grenades. M67 Fragmentation. The fragmentation grenade is the primary casualty-producing grenade in the U. S. military. The most common of is the M67 fragmentation grenade. The shape of the fragmentation grenade resembles a baseball. It is olive drab in color with a single yellow band at the top. Nomenclature and/or lot number markings are in yellow around the middle of the grenade body. The killing radius is 5 meters and the casualty-producing radius is 15 meters. It contains 6.5 ounces of composition B explosive and uses a M213 detonation fuse. It has a 4-5 second time delay fuse and weighs 14 ounces. The average Marine can throw the M67 fragmentation grenade 40 meters.
M67 Fragmentation Grenade AN-M14 TH3 Incendiary. The AN-M14 TH3 is used to destroy equipment such as engine blocks, artillery
20
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
pieces, mortar tubes, munitions, and any flammable material. The AN-M14 TH3 is cylindrical shaped and is light red with black markings. The body is made of sheet steel. It contains 26.5 ounces of thermite mixture. A portion of the thermite converts to molten iron which burns at 4000 degrees F. and will fuse together the metallic parts of any object it comes in contact with. The grenade will burn for 40 seconds and will burn through a half inch of homogeneous steel. It produces its own oxygen and will burn under water. The fuse has a 1.2-2 second delay, and the average Marine can throw the grenade 25 meters. It weighs 32 ounces and uses a M201A1 igniting fuse.
AN-M8 HC Smoke. The AN-M8 HC is used for screening small units and as a ground signal. It produces a dense cloud of white smoke, which clings to the ground. The AN-M8 is cylindrical shaped and has a light green body with black markings. The top of the grenade is white to indicate the color of the smoke. The body is made of sheet steel with 19 ounces of type C, HC (high concentration) smoke mixture as a filler. The grenade burns for 105-150 seconds producing a dense cloud of white smoke. It has a 1.2 2 second time delay fuse. The average Marine can throw the grenade 30 meters. It weighs 24 ounces and uses a M201A1 igniting fuse.
M18 Colored Smoke. The M18 is used as a ground to

21 Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
ground or ground to air signaling device, a target or landing zone marking device or to screen the movement of small bodies of troops. It is available in four colors: red, green, yellow and violet. The M18 is cylindrical shaped and is olive drab with the top indicating smoke color. The body is made of sheet steel. It contains 11.5 ounces of colored smoke mixture. The grenade will produce smoke for a period of 50-90 seconds. It has a 1.2 - 2 second time delay fuse. The average Marine can throw the grenade 35 meters. It weighs 19 ounces and uses a M201A1 igniting fuse.
ABC-M7A3 CS Riot Control. The ABC-M7A3 is the primary riot control grenade. It is cylindrical in shape and is gray in color with a red band and red markings. The body is made of sheet steel containing 7.5 ounces of burning mixture and 4.5 ounces of pelletized CS agent. The grenade produces a cloud of irritant agent for 15-35 seconds. The fuse has a 1.2-2 second delay. The average Marine can throw the grenade 40 meters. It weighs 15 ounces and uses a M201A1 igniting fuse.
22
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
M-69 Practice Grenade. The M-69 practice grenade is used for training. It can be reused by rearming it with another practice fuse. The M-69 grenade is shaped the same as the M67 and is blue in color. The M-69 when armed with the practice fuse produces a loud pop with a small cloud of white smoke. It has a 4-5 second time delay fuse. The average Marine can throw the grenade 40 meters. it weighs 14 ounces and uses a M228 fuse that is screwed into the grenade body. The grenade body can be reused and it has a safety clip.
Grenade Carriage
Grenades are attached to the FLC pouch in the following manner: Attach MOLLE grenade pouch to FLC Open the grenade pouch and slide the grenade into the pouch with the safety lever against the FLC. Be sure the pull ring is in the downward position. Wrap the carrying strap around the neck of the fuse and snap the carrying strap to the carrying sleeve.
Hand Grenade Gripping
The importance of properly gripping the hand grenade cannot be overemphasized. Safety and throwing efficiency are obtained when the grenade is held in the throwing hand with the safety lever placed between the first and second joints of the thumb. For right-handed personnel, the grenade is held upright with the pull ring away from the palm of the throwing hand so that it can be easily removed by the
23
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
index finger or middle finger of the free hand. For left-handed personnel, the grenade is inverted with the fingers and thumb of the throwing hand positioned in the same manner as by the right-handed person. The M-24 series of riot control hand grenades have an arming sleeve, which serves as the safety lever on other grenades. When throwing these grenades, the arming sleeve is held in place by applying constant pressure with the thumb of the throwing hand. The safety pin is pulled by the free hand.
Throwing Positions
In training, throwing positions are used for uniformity and control and to familiarize Marines with the proper manner of throwing grenades in combat if the situation gives you a choice. Standing position. This position is the most desirable and natural one from which to throw grenades, the standing position is normally used when occupying a fighting position or during operations in fortified positions or urban terrain. o Estimate the range between you and the target. o Take grenade with a FIRM grip, the throwing hand forming the letter "C" with thumb over safety lever and forefingers around the grenade body. o Stand half facing the target. o Balance weight evenly on both feet by placing the feet shoulder width apart. o Hold grenade chest high. o Remove safety clip with the thumb of the nonthrowing hand by raking the clip away from the grenade. o Hook the index finger of the non-throwing hand into the ring of the safety pin. o Remove the safety pin by using a twist pull motion away from the grenade body. o Assume a good throwing position with the non-
24
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
throwing arm pointed down range. o The throwing arm is cocked behind the helmet with the grenade held 4 - 5 inches from the helmet. o Throw grenade, and follow through by stepping forward as you throw. o If cover is available, take a knee after you ensure the grenade has left your position. o If no cover is available, drop to the prone position after the grenade has cleared your position with your helmet in the direction of the grenade. Kneeling. Used when you have a low wall, shallow ditch, or similar cover for protection. o Estimate the range between you and the target. o Take grenade from the grenade pocket of the magazine pouch with the throwing hand, forming the letter "C" with the thumb over the safety lever and the forefingers around the grenade body. o Hold the grenade shoulder high. o Kneel on the non-throwing knee, half facing the target. Remove the safety clip. o Hook the forefinger of the non-throwing hand through the safety ring attached to the safety pin. o Remove the safety pin and throw the grenade. o If cover is available, take a knee after you ensure the grenade has left your position. o If no cover is available, drop to the prone position after the grenade has cleared your position with your helmet in the direction of the grenade. Prone position. Used when no cover is available and the grenade must be thrown a greater distance than is possible in the prone position. o Estimate the distance to the target. o Lie on your back with your body perpendicular to the grenades intended line of flight. o Using the proper grip with the grenade chest high. The grip must keep the safety lever completely against the body until the grenade has been thrown. o Remove the safety clip with the thumb of the nonthrowing hand by raking the clip away from the grenade. Hook the index finger or middle finger of the non-throwing hand into the pull ring on the safety pin. Remove the safety pin by using a twistpull motion away from the grenade body. o Assume a throwing position with the non-throwing arm pointed down range, flat on the ground. The
25
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
throwing arm is cocked behind the helmet with the grenade held 4 - 5 inches from the helmet. Cock your right leg (left leg for a left-handed thrower) with your foot firmly braced against the ground. o With your non-throwing hand, grasp any object that is capable of giving you added leverage to increase your throwing distance. In throwing the grenade, push off with your rearward foot to give added power to your throw. o After throwing the grenade, roll over onto your stomach and press yourself flat against the ground.
26
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Pyrotechnic Signals
Ground pyrotechnic signals are classified as either hand-held or ground smoke signals. They are used for signaling or illuminating missions.
Characteristics
Ground pyrotechnic signals rise to a height of 180 to 250 meters before functioning Hand-held signals. These signals are issued in their own mechanism and are designed to reach a minimum height of 200 meters. This group of signals includes single-star parachutes, five-star clusters, and smoke parachutes.
Capabilities and Uses
These signals are used for communications or illuminating a small area. Signaling (Communication). Effective control of units on the battlefield depends largely on communication. Pyrotechnics are utilized to supplement or take the place of normal communication means. Illuminating. Illuminating capabilities of pyrotechnics are limited because of their size. However, they can be used to illuminate a small area for a short period of time.
Hand-held Signals
Star clusters, star parachutes, and smoke parachutes are three hand-held signals used by the Marine Corps. Star Clusters. Star clusters are used for signaling and illuminating. They are issued in an expendable launcher, which consists of a launching tube and firing cap. These signals produce a cluster of five free-falling pyrotechnics. o Types. Three current types of star clusters include the M125 and M125A1, green star cluster; the M158 red star cluster; and the M159, white star cluster. o Operation. Operation of hand-held signals should be as follows: Hold the signal in the left hand, red-knurled band down, with the little finger in alignment with the red band. Withdraw the firing cap from the upper end of the signal. Point the ejection end of the signal away from the body and push the firing cap onto the signal until the open end of the cap is aligned with the red band. Grasp the center of the signal firmly with the left
27
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
hand, holding the elbow tight against the body with the signal at the desired trajectory angle and away from the signal to avoid injury to the face and eyes. Strike the bottom of the cap with a sharp blow with the palm of the right hand, keeping the left arm rigid. o Function. When the firing cap is struck, the firing pin is forced into the base of the launcher tube at the primer. When the primer is struck, the flash from the primer ignites an initiating charge of black powder at the base of the signal. Gases from the burning initiating charge expel the signal from the launcher tube (rocket barrel) with a slight recoil. As the signal is expelled, four flexible steel fins unfold to stabilize the signal during flight. After the signal rises approximately 6 meters, the rocket motor, which has ignited by the propelling gases, begins to burn fully, forcing the signal to a height of 200 to 215 meters (650 to 700 feet). At that point, a delay element ignites an ejecting charge, which in turn forces the five-star illuminant cluster out of the nose of the signal body. o Firing data. Star clusters burn 6 to 10 seconds. Their rate of descent is 14 meters (45 feet) per second. Star Parachutes. Star parachutes are also used for signaling and illuminating. They are issued in an expendable launcher that consists of a launching tube and a firing cap. These signals produce a single parachutesuspended illuminate star. o Types. The current types of star parachutes include the M126A1, red star parachute; the M127A1, white star parachute; and the M195, green star parachute. o Operation. These signals are fired in the same manner as star clusters. o Function. These signals function in the same manner as star clusters. o Firing data. The M126 and M127 series of star parachutes rise to a height of 200 to 215 meters. The M126 buns for 50 seconds and the M127 burns for 25 seconds. Their average rate of descent is 2.1 one meters per second. The signal can be seen for 50 to 58 kilometers (30 to 35 miles) at night. Smoke parachutes. Smoke parachutes are used for signaling only. They are issued in an expendable launcher that consists of a launching tube and a firing cap. These signals produce a single, perforated colored smoke canister that is parachute-suspended.
28
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
o Types. The current types of smoke parachutes include M128A1, green smoke parachute; the M129A1, red smoke parachute; and M194, yellow smoke parachute. o Operation. These signals are fired in the same manner as star clusters. o Function. These signals function in the same manner as star clusters. o Firing data. Smoke parachutes rise to a height of 200 to 215 meters. The signals emit smoke for 6 to 18 seconds, forming a smoke cloud which persists for 60 seconds. Their rate of descent is 4 meters per second. Surface Trip Flares Surface trip flares outwardly resemble antipersonnel mines or hand grenades. Their primary use is to warn of infiltrating troops by illuminating the field. They may also be used as signals or as booby traps. When activated, the flare produces 50,000 candlepower of illumination.
Summary
Munitions are an important asset at the squad and platoon level. Employed correctly, the AT-4, grenades, and pyrotechnics are all combat multipliers that can increase any units effectiveness on the battlefield.
References
Reference Number or Author FM 23-30 MCWP 3-15.5 TM 9-1315-886-12 Reference Title Grenades and Pyrotechnic Signals Anti-armor Operations Launcher and Cartridge 84MM, M136 (AT-4)
29
Munitions
B2D2517
Munitions
Notes
30
Munitions
M203 GRENADE LAUNCHER B2E2637 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2E2637
M203 Grenade Launcher

Introduction The M203 Grenade Launcher is one of the three weapons systems organic to the Marine Rifle Platoon. The weapon attaches to the underside of the barrel of the M16 A2/A4 / M4 family of weapons and fires a variety of 40mm ammunition. The Marine Corps adopted this weapon system in the 1970s as a replacement to the M79 single shot grenade launcher. This weapon, in conjunction with the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW) and the M16A2/A4 helps build the concept of putting the enemy in a combined arms dilemma. It is important that as officers, the capabilities and limitations of this weapon are clearly understood. In this lesson, we will discuss the history of the M203, describe the characteristics of the weapon, learn the different types of ammunition available and also discuss employment considerations. Also covered will be the proper handling of this weapon, to include proper immediate and remedial actions, proper manipulation and employment of the two different sights found on the M203, and proper firing positions. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic M203 Grenade Launcher History and Description Components Employment Considerations Ammunition Handling and Functional Procedures Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives Given a service rifle with a mounted M203 Grenade Launcher, cleaning gear, and lubricant, maintain an M203 grenade launcher to ensure the weapon is complete, clean, and serviceable. (0300-M203-1001) Page 4 5 9 10 13 255 25 26 26
Importance
In This Lesson
B2E2637
M203 Grenade Launcher (Continued)

Learning Objectives (Continued) Terminal Learning Objectives (Continued) Given a service rifle with a mounted M203 grenade launcher that fails to fire and ammunition, while wearing a fighting load, perform misfire procedures for an M203 grenade launcher to return the weapon to action. (0300M203-1002) Given a service rifle with a mounted M203 grenade launcher and ammunition, while wearing a fighting load, perform weapons handling procedures for the M203 grenade launcher without endangering personnel or equipment. (0300-M203-1003) Given a grenade launcher, ammunition, and a target, while wearing a fighting load, zero a grenade launcher to ensure a round impacts within 5 meters of the target. (0300-M2031004) Given a service rifle with a mounted M203 grenade launcher and ammunition, while wearing a fighting load, engage targets with a grenade launcher. (0300-M203-1005) Enabling Learning Objectives Given an assembled service rifle with mounted M203 grenade launcher, perform disassembly and assembly of the M203 in four minutes. (0300-M203-1001a) Identify weapons safety conditions for the M203 grenade launcher. (0300-M203-1003a) Identify employment considerations for the M203 grenade launcher. (0300-M203-1005a)
B2E2637
M203 Grenade Launcher History and Description

The M203 40mm grenade launcher replaced the M79 Thump Gun carried by Marines throughout the 1960s. The M203 was fielded in conjunction with the implementation of the M16 family of weapons. Both the M203 and the M79 fired the same 40mm ammunition. This advent now gave the grenadier the offensive capability of a rifle in addition to the 40mm grenade launcher. Today, fire-team leaders in the rifle platoon typically carry the M203, though the weapon is found throughout every unit in the Marine Corps. Description The M203 is a single shot, breech loaded, pump action (sliding barrel), shoulder fired weapon attached to the underside of the barrel of the M16A2/A4 and M4 weapons systems. Characteristics Length of Barrel Length of M16 and M203 Weight of M203(Un-Loaded) Weight of Rifle & M203 (Loaded) Trigger Pull Capabilities Maximum Effective Range: Point Target Area Target Muzzle Velocity Effective Casualty Radius Anti-Armor Capability Minimum engagement distance (combat)
30 cm 97.5 cm 1.35 kg 5.35 kg 2.27 kg
12 inches 39 Inches 3lbs 11.12 lbs 5 lbs
150m 350m 76 meters per second 5m kill 15m casualty 2in Homogenous Steel (High explosive dual purpose [HEDP]) 31 meters
B2E2637
Components
The major components of the M203 are:
Hand-guards. The hand guard assembly houses the rifle barrel.
Receiver Assembly. The receiver assembly houses the firing mechanism and the ejection system and supports the barrel assembly.
Barrel Assembly. The barrel holds the cartridges once loaded and directs the projectile toward its target.
Quadrant Sight Assembly. The quadrant sight attaches to the left side of the rifles carrying handle, and enables the grenadier to adjust for elevation and windage. The assembly consists of the following: o o o o o o o Mounting Screw. Sight. Sight Latch. Rear Sight Aperture. Sight Aperture Arm. Front Sight Post. Sight Post Arm.
B2E2637
Components (Continued)
Clamp, Bracket, and Mounting Screw. The clamp and bracket assembly hold the quadrant sight on the rifles carrying handle. A mounting screw inserts through the right side of the clamp and into the bracket assembly.
Sight Arm Range Quadrant. The sight arm mounts both the sight aperture and the sight post arm (which holds the front sight post). This allows the sight to pivot on the range quadrant to the desired sighting. The range quadrant is graduated in 25-meter increments from 50 to 400 meters. Applying rearward pressure on the sight latch releases the quadrant sight arm so it can move along the range quadrant. The desired range number is then centered in the rear sight aperture. Releasing the sight latch locks to sight in position.
Front Sight Post. The front sight post mounts on the sight post arm by means of a pivot bracket. The bracket is opened when the sight is to be used, and closed when not is use in order to prevent damage. Use the front sight post to make minor adjustments when zeroing the launcher: To Decrease Elevation Increase elevation Move impacts 5m at 200m Turn the Elevation Adjustment Screw On the sight post to the right On the sight post to the left One full turn
B2E2637
Leaf Sight. The leaf sight assembly is attached to the top of the hand guard (see diagram below). Leaf sight assembly consists of the following: o o o o Sight. Base and mount. Elevation adjustment screw. A windage adjustment screw.
The sight base is attached to the rifle hand-guard via two mounting screws. The sight base protects the sight when not being used. Sight Mount and Sight. The sight mount is attached to the base and is utilized to raise and lower the sight. The sight is not marked in actual meters; it is graduated in 50 meter increments from 50 to 250 which are marked with a 1 for 100, 2 for 200, etc. The Elevation Adjustment Screw and Elevation Scale. The screw attaches the sight to its mount. The screw can be loosened during the zeroing procedure in order to make adjustments. The rim of the 40mm case is especially useful for this. Raising the sight increases the range and lowering decreases it. The elevation scale consists of five lines spaced equally on the sight. The index line is to the left of the sight. Moving the sight one increment moves the impact of the round 10m in elevation at a range of 200m.
B2E2637
Windage Screw and Windage Scale. To make minor deflection adjustments during the zeroing procedure, a knob on the left of the windage screw is turned. The scale has a zero line in its center and two lines spaced equally on each side of the zero line. Moving the knob one increment of the windage scale moves the impact of the projectile 1.5 meters at a range of 200m.
*The 50 meter mark on the leaf sight is marked in red in order to emphasize the danger in zeroing the weapon in at that range due to fragmentation.
Trigger Guard. The trigger guard is designed to protect the trigger mechanism. Pressing the trigger guard to the rear allows the trigger guard to be rotated away from the rifle and permits the weapon to be fired while wearing gloves or mittens.
Safety. The safety is inside the trigger guard, just in front of the trigger. For the launcher to fire, the safety must be forward (see the left diagram below). When the safety is rearward, the launcher is on safe (see right diagram below). The safety is manually adjusted.
B2E2637
Employment Considerations
The M203 40mm Grenade Launcher is a weapon that helps the unit bridge the gap between direct and indirect fire assets. At the squad level, it provides the fire-team and squad leader the ability to cover the dead space within a sector of fire. Other abilities include the ability to deliver point fire on caves, bunkers, and windows. The M203 is also effective at stopping vehicles. The ability to provide illumination and marking of targets is yet another capability this weapon provides. Limitations of the weapon system include the need for a clear trajectory, the relatively slow rate of fire, vulnerability of the sights to damage, and the minimum engagement distance of 31 meters in combat (165 meters in a training environment). Another much overlooked limitation of this weapon is the restriction on training ammunition that eventually leads to a limitation on a Marines proficiency. Offensive Roles. Engage and destroy groups of enemy personnel, thin-skinned vehicles, bunkered positions, provide suppression on an objective, engage targets in defilade, provide obscuration, and marking of targets to assist in direction of fires.
Defensive Roles. Provide fires to cover the entire teams sector. Be able to engage the dead space that the SAW is unable to cover. Cover obstacles within sector with M203 fire in order to maximize enemy casualties.
B2E2637
Ammunition
All M203 ammunition is of the fixed variety, that is both the projectile and the cartridge case are fixed together in one round. The fuses for the high explosive dual purpose (HEDP, DODIC B546) and the training practice round (M407A1, DODIC B577) are impact detonated. These fuses are armed by rotation and must travel 14-27 meters from the muzzle before being armed. Once the fuse is armed it is a very sensitive projectile, so it is important that the path to the target is clear. Both of these rounds are restricted to being fired on dedicated sensitive fuse impact areas. The 40mm practice (M781, DODIC B519) does not contain a sensitive fuse and can be fired on live fire maneuver ranges.
40 MM High Explosive, Dual Purpose
Identified by olive drab aluminum skirt with a green middle band, and a gold tip with white markings. Three evenly spaced indentations on the type to assist in low light identification of the round. When fired at a flat trajectory at a target, has the ability to penetrate 2 inches of steel plate. Effective casualty radius (ECR) of the round is 5 meters kill and 15 meters casualty radius.
DODIC: B546
40 MM High Explosive
Same color scheme as the HEDP. Tip is more pointed. Designed to produce a casualty inducing ground burst ECR of the round is 5 meters kill and 15 meters casualty radius.
DODIC: B549
10
B2E2637
Ammunition (Continued)
40 MM Star Parachute White impact or bar alloy aluminum with black markings. Used for illumination or marking. Lighter and more accurate than comparable handheld illumination rounds. Parachute deploys from round to lower the candle at a rate of 7 feet per second. Burn time approximately 40 seconds. Round is identified by the writing on the side to indicate the color white (W), red (R) or green (G).
DODIC: B504 (G), B535 (W), B506 (R)
40 MM Tactical CS Grenade
Recognized by blunt, grey nose, red band, and green cartridge. Six evenly spaced indentations are placed on the extraction rim of the cartridge case to identify the round in low visibility situations. Used for riot control and civil disturbances. Effective range of 400 m and will release CS gas for 25 seconds.
DODIC: B537
40 MM Ground Marker (Smoke)
Light green impact aluminum with black markings. Tip is the color of smoke (red, yellow or green). Utilized for signaling and marking.
DODIC: B475 (Y), B476 (G), B477 (W), B479 (R)
11
B2E2637
Ammunition (Continued)
40 MM White Star Cluster White with black markings. Attached Plastic ogive has raised W for night identification. Burns for approximately 7 seconds during freefall.
DODIC: B536
40 MM Practice
Used for training. Identified by blue tip. On impact frangible blue tip ruptures and releases an orange puff of dye.
DODIC: B519
12
B2E2637
Handling and Functional Procedures

Unloading/Clearing. Follow, in sequence, the steps in the table below to ensure that the M203 is clear of ammunition. Step 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Action Point weapon in a safe direction. Attempt to put the weapon on safe. Depress the barrel latch and push the barrel assembly forward, catching the round as it is extracted from the chamber. Secure the round. Physically and visually inspect the chamber to ensure that no ammunition is present. Pull the barrel assembly to the rear until the barrel latch locks into position. Place the weapon on safe.
Cleaning and Inspecting. The table below describes how to clean and inspect the M203. Component Barrel assembly Receiver Metal surfaces Action Clean with a bore brush the same diameter as the barrel (40mm). Use cleaning, lubricating, and preserving compound (CLP) to clean off dirt and carbon. During inspection, look for cracks in the hand guard and be sure all carbon is removed. Use an all-purpose brush to clean all surfaces. During inspection, be sure the receiver is tightly secured to the M16 and no rust or dirt is in the firing pin hole. Clean in the same manner that you clean M16 hand guards. During inspection, look for cracks in the hand guards. Clean with a paintbrush or all-purpose brush to sweep away any dirt. During inspection, be sure the sights are movable and in proper working order. Apply a light coat of CLP on all metal surfaces; do not put any CLP in the firing pin hole of the receiver.
Hand guards Sights
13
B2E2637
Handling and Functional Procedures (Continued)

Disassembly. Before disassembling the M203, you must clear the weapon. The table below lists the steps for disassembling the M203.
1. Loosen the mounting screw and remove the quadrant sight assembly from the sight mount of the M16A2 rifle (see diagram below).
Removing the Quadrant Sight
14
B2E2637

Disassembly (Continued).
2. Remove the barrel assembly and hand guard assembly, in either order (see table below). Step Method 1, Barrel Assembly Method 2, Hand Guard First Assembly First Push the barrel latch and move Pull back on the M16s slip 1 ring and remove the hand the barrel forward until it hits guard by pulling it up and the barrel stop. back.
On the left side of the hand guard, insert a cleaning rod into the fourth hole back from the muzzle.
INSERT CLEANING ROD
Push the barrel latch and move the barrel forward until it hits the barrel stop.
Depress the barrel stop and slide the barrel forward and off (see diagram below).
Use a cleaning rod to depress the barrel stop and slide the barrel forward and off.
15
B2E2637

Reassembly. Assembly of the grenade launcher (described in the table below) is the reverse of disassembly. 1. Install the barrel by pressing the barrel stop and sliding the barrel into the receiver.
2. Lock the barrel by moving it rearward until it closes with a click.
3. Install the hand-guard, and secure it with the slip ring.
4. Install the quadrant sight assembly.
16
B2E2637

Function Check. Perform a function check in the correct order to ensure that the grenade launcher has been assembled correctly. Notify the unit armorer at once if the launcher fails to function. Conduct the function check as described below. o Check the proper operation of the sear. o Cock the launcher and pull the trigger. The firing pin should release with a metallic click. o Hold the trigger to the rear and cock the launcher again. Release the trigger, then pull. The firing pin should again release. o Check the safety in both the SAFE and FIRE positions by pulling the trigger. o The launcher must be cocked before the safety can be placed in the SAFE position. o Move the barrel forward and back. Be sure both the stop and barrel latch function. Functioning. The cycle of operations consists of the eight steps described in the below. As the trigger is pulled rearward, the primary trigger 1. Firing sear is disengaged from the bottom surface of the firing pin, releasing the spring-driven firing pin and causing it to be forced against the primer of the cartridge.
2. Unlocking
Accomplished by depressing the barrel release latch and sliding the barrel assembly forward.
17
B2E2637

Functioning (Continued). Extracting and cocking take place at the same time. As the barrel assembly is opened, a spring-loaded extractor keeps the spent cartridge seated against the receiver until the barrel is clear of the cartridge case.
3. Extracting
4. Ejecting
Accomplished by a spring-loaded ejector pushing the expended cartridge case away from the face of the receiver assembly when the barrel assembly has cleared the cartridge case.
5. Cocking
The barrel latch, when depressed, unlocks the barrel assembly, so it can be moved forward along the receiver assembly. As the barrel assembly extension, which is interlocked with the cocking lever, moves forward, the cocking lever is forced downward, which, in turn, forces the spring-loaded firing pin rearward. The spring-loaded follower moves forward with the barrel extension. As the barrel assembly continues its forward movement, the barrel extension disengages from the cocking lever, and the follower holds the cocking lever in the down position. When the barrel assembly is moved rearward, the follower is also forced to the rear. The cocking lever again engages the barrel extension, and the firing pin moves slightly forward and engages the primary trigger sear. The weapon is then cocked.
18
B2E2637

Functioning (Continued).
6. Loading
When the barrel assembly is in the open position, the cartridge is inserted into the breech end of the barrel.
7. Chambering
Occurs during the closing of the barrel assembly. As the breech end of the barrel assembly closes, the barrel latch becomes engaged to the barrel assembly, and the cocking lever engages the barrel extension so that it cannot be moved forward along the receiver assembly.
8. Locking
Accomplished by sliding the barrel assembly toward the grenadier until the barrel release latch engages in its notch in the barrel assembly thereby locking the barrel assembly to the receiver assembly.
19
B2E2637

Zeroing the Leaf Sight. A correct zero consists of the elevation and windage sight settings that enable the grenadier to hit the point of aim at a given range with either the leaf or the quadrant sight. The table below lists the steps to zero the leaf sight. 1. Select a target at 200 meters. 2. Place the sight in the upright position. 3. Place the center mark of the windage scale on the index line on the rear of the sight base. 4. Loosen the elevation adjustment screw on the leaf sight; place the leaf sights index line on the sight mounts center elevation mark. 5. Tighten the elevation adjustment screw. 6. Assume a prone supported firing position. 7. Load one round of 40mm HEDP or target practice (TP) ammunition. 8. Use correct sighting and aiming procedures to align the target with the front leaf sight. 9. Fire a round, sense the impact, and adjust the sight. o Windage: Turn the sight windage screw clockwise to move the leaf sight to the left; counterclockwise to move it to the right. One increment moves round impact 1 meters at a range of 200 meters. o Range: Use a 40mm cartridge case and turn the elevation adjustment screw to raise the leaf sight and increase the range; lower the leaf sight to decrease the range. Turning the screw one increment moves round impact 10 meters at a range of 200 meters. 10. Fire two more cartridges, readjusting the sight after each. Once a round impacts within 5 meters of the target, the weapon is zeroed. 11. After you have zeroed the weapon, record the zero data on your scorecard. As soon as you can, transfer the information to a separate, small piece of paper and tape it inside the M16 pistol grip.
20
B2E2637

Zeroing the Quadrant Sight. The table below lists the steps to zero the quadrant sight. 1. Select a target at 200 meters. 2. Ensure that the quadrant sight is correctly mounted on the rifles carrying handle. 3. Open the front sight post and rear sight aperture. o Move the front sight post to its highest position, then back 2 turns. o Depress the rear sight retainer. o Slide the rear sight aperture to the left until its white index line aligns with the edge of the sight aperture arm. 4. Move the sight latch rearward, and reposition the quadrant sight arm to zeroing range (200 meters). 5. Assume a prone supported firing position. 6. Use correct sighting and aiming procedures to align the target with the front sight post and rear sight aperture. 7. Load one round of 40mm HEDP or TP ammunition. 8. Fire a round, observe the impact, and adjust the sight. o Elevation: Turn the front sight post right to decrease elevation; left to increase elevation. At a range of 200 meters, one full turn equals 5 meters. o Windage: Press the sight aperture retainer; move the rear sight aperture away from the barrel to move the trajectory to the left; toward the barrel to move it to the right. At a range of 200 meters, one notch on the rear sight aperture equals 1 meters. 9. Fire two more cartridges, readjusting the sights after each. If the round lands within 5 meters of the target, the weapon is zeroed. 10. After you have zeroed the weapon, record the zero data. Keep the data in the butt of the weapon with the M16A2 battle sight zero (BZO) data.
Firing Positions. The four fundamentals of M203 marksmanship are steady position, aiming, breathing and trigger control. When the grenadier changes position, only the first fundamental (steady position) varies; the other three remain the same.
21
B2E2637

Firing Positions (Continued). The basic firing positions are shown in the table below. Position Picture Supported Prone
Standing
Kneeling
Sitting, Cross-legged
Sitting, Open-legged
Sitting, Cross-ankle
22
B2E2637

Immediate Action. Take immediate action in the event of either a: o Hang-fire. A delay in the functioning of the rounds propelling charge explosive train at the time of firing. The length of this delay is unpredictable, but in most cases, it ranges between a split second and 30 seconds. Such a delay in the functioning of the round (hang-fire) could result from the presence of grit, sand, frost, ice, or excess oil or grease. o Misfire. A weapons complete failure to fire. A misfire in itself is not dangerous; however, because it cannot be immediately distinguished from a hang-fire, it must be considered a hang-fire until proven otherwise.
Either can be caused by an ammunition defect or by a faulty firing mechanism. Any failure to fire must be considered a hang-fire, until that possibility is eliminated. o Procedures. Because a stoppage may have been caused by a hang-fire, you must follow the precautions listed below until the round has been removed from the weapon and the cause of the failure determined. 1. Keep the M203 pointed down range at the target; keep everyone clear of its muzzle. If the stoppage occurs during training, shout, Misfire! and clear the area of any nonessential personnel. 2. Wait 30 seconds from the time of failure. Before opening the barrel assembly to perform the unloading procedure, reduce the distance that the round may fall by holding the weapon close to the ground. Cup hand under breach in an attempt to catch round. 3. Depress the barrel latch and push the barrel assembly all the way forward. 4. After removing the round from the receiver, determine whether the round or the firing mechanism is defective. Examine the primer to see if it is dented. If the primer is: Dented, separate the round from other ammunition until it can be disposed of properly. Not dented, reload and attempt to fire again. If the round fails to fire, the firing mechanism is at fault. Weapons Condition Codes. The table below describes the applicable weapons condition codes for the M203 grenade launcher. Weapons Condition Code Description 1 Round in the chamber. Barrel closed. Safety on. 2 Not applicable to the M203. 3 Not applicable to the M203. 4 Chamber empty Barrel closed Safety on
23
B2E2637

Weapons Commands. The steps to execute Make Ready taking the M203 from condition 4 to condition 1 are listed in the table below. 1. Point weapon in a safe direction. 2. Ensure the weapon is in condition 4. 3. Depress the barrel latch and push the barrel assembly all the way forward. 4. Insert a round into the chamber until it is fully seated. 5. Pull the barrel assembly to the rear until the barrel latch locks into position. 6. Place the weapon on safe. o The steps to execute Fire are listed in the table below. 1. Take the weapon off safe. 2. Engage the target.
o The steps to execute Unload taking the M203 from condition 1 to condition 4 are listed in the table below. 1. Point the weapon in a safe direction. 2. Attempt to put the weapon on safe. 3. Depress the barrel latch and push the barrel assembly forward, catching the round as it is extracted from the chamber. 4. Secure the round. 5. Inspect the chamber to ensure that no ammunition is present. 6. Pull the barrel assembly to the rear until the barrel latch locks into position. 7. Put the weapon on safe. Note: The cartridge case or round should automatically eject. If the case is stuck, tap it with a cleaning rod to remove it. o The steps to execute Unload Show Clear taking the M203 from condition 1 to condition 4 are listed in the table below. Action 1. Point the weapon in a safe direction. 2. Attempt to put the weapon on safe. 3. Depress the barrel latch and push the barrel assembly forward, catching the round as it is extracted from the chamber. 4. Secure the round. 5. Inspect the chamber to ensure that no ammunition is present. 6. Have a second individual inspect the chamber to ensure no ammunition is present. 7. Pull the barrel assembly to the rear until the barrel latch locks into position. 8. Put the weapon on safe.
24
B2E2637

Constructing Field-Expedient Firing Aids for the M203 (see diagram below). The fire team leader emplaces both yoke and sector of fire stakes to be used in firing the rifle and emplaces additional stakes when assigned a principal direction of fire (PDF) for the grenade launcher. When assigned a PDF: o Place a recoil stake or sandbag to the rear of the butt plate. o Position a deflection stake adjacent to the recoil stake to ensure proper lateral deflection. o Position an elevation stake adjacent to one of the sector stakes to ensure proper elevation and range and to aid in maintaining proper deflection.
Summary
This lesson covered the history, description and the role of the M203 40 mm grenade launcher within the Marine Corps. Additional topics discussed included both offensive and defensive employment considerations of the M203, the types of ammunition available and their uses, and proper handling procedures to include assembly and disassembly, immediate and remedial actions, and proper firing positions, including the required additions to an M16 firing position needed to accommodate the M203.
References
Reference Number or Author TM 9-1010-221-10 FMFM 6-5 FM 23-31 Reference Title Operators Manual, M203 Grenade Launcher Marine Rifle Squad 40-mm Grenade Launchers, M203 & M79
25
B2E2637

Term or Acronym BZO CLP ECR G HEDP PDF R SAW TP W Definition or Identification Battle sight zero Cleaning, lubricating, and preserving compound Effective casualty radius Green High explosive dual purpose Principal direction of fire Red Squad automatic weapon Target practice White
Notes
26
M249 SQUAD AUTOMATIC WEAPON (SAW) B2E2657
B2E2657
M249 Squad Automatic Weapon

Introduction The M249 SAW is one of the three weapons systems organic to the Marine Rifle Platoon. The Marine Corps adopted this weapon system in the 1980s to provide the rifle squad extended range automatic fire. This weapon, in conjunction with the M203 and the M16A2/A4 helps build the concept of putting the enemy in a combined arms dilemma. It is important that as officers, the capabilities and limitations of this weapon are clearly understood. In this lesson, we will discuss the history of the M249, describe the characteristics of the weapon, ammunition, and discuss employment considerations. We will also cover the proper handling of this weapon, to include proper immediate and remedial actions and care and cleaning.
Importance
In this Lesson
This lesson discusses the follow topics:

Topic History & Description Ammunition Components Clearing the M249 SAW Five Point Safety Check Disassembly / Assembly Cycle of Function Loading/Unloading Field Zeroing Procedures Immediate Action Care and Cleaning Summary References Page 4 5 6 7 9 10 17 18 23 25 29 33 33
B2E2657
Learning Objectives TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Given a squad automatic weapon and ammunition, while wearing a fighting load, perform weapons handling procedures for the squad automatic weapon without endangering personnel or equipment. (0300-M249-1001) Given a loaded squad automatic weapon requiring a barrel change, while wearing a fighting load, change barrels on a squad automatic weapon to return the weapon to service. (0300-M249-1002) Given a squad automatic weapon, ammunition, while wearing a fighting load, perform immediate action on a squad automatic weapon to return the weapon to service. (0300-M249-1003) Given a squad automatic weapon in which immediate action has failed to remedy, while wearing a fighting load, perform remedial action for a squad automatic weapon to return the weapon to service. (0300-M249-1004) Given a squad automatic weapon, cleaning gear, and lubricant, maintain a squad automatic weapon to ensure the weapon is complete, clean, and serviceable. (0300-M249-1005) Given a squad automatic weapon, ammunition, and a target at 300 meters, while wearing a fighting load, field zero a squad automatic weapon to achieve point of aim/point of impact. (0300-M249-1006) Given a squad automatic weapon, ammunition, and a target(s), while wearing a fighting load, engage targets with a squad automatic weapon to achieve effects on target. (0300-M249-1008)
ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Identify weapons safety conditions for the squad automatic weapon. (0300-M249-1001a) Identify criteria requiring a barrel change for the squad automatic weapon. (0300-M249-1002a) Given an assembled M249 squad automatic weapon (SAW), basic issue complete, perform disassembly and assembly of the M249 SAW in seven minutes. (0300M249-1005a) Identify employment considerations for the squad automatic weapon. (0300-M249-1008a)
B2E2657
History & Description

History The squad automatic weapon (SAW), 5.56mm, M249 is a result of a Marine Corps and Army development program to provide combat units with an automatic weapon of extended range and greater accuracy than the Browning automatic rifle. Fabrique Nationale of Herstal, Belgium developed the M249 in 1974 after the Defense Department announced its requirement for a light, automatic weapon to supplement the firepower of the 5.56mm M16A2 rifle. In the Marine Corps, combat, combat service support, and combat support units as well as Marine Corps security forces use the SAW. In Marine infantry battalions, the SAW is found in each fire team, manned by the automatic rifleman (totaling nine per rifle platoon). The M249 SAW has recently been upgraded to modify a few selected parts of the weapon. Where feasible, these modifications have been explained in this handout. Those modifications not explained in this handout will be noted, and the appropriate pages in the new operator's manual (TM 08671A-10/1A with change A) will be referenced. Description The SAW is a gas-operated, belt/magazine-fed, air-cooled, automatic, shoulderfired weapon. The SAW is designed for one Marine to operate it, which increases the agility and mobility of the automatic rifleman in consonance with other members of the fire team. Like the M240G machine gun, the SAW fires from the open-bolt position. It can fire ammunition from an M16 magazine as well as from a linked belt. Utilizing M855/SS109 ammunition, the SAW provides the Marine Corps with a light automatic weapon capable of providing increased firepower and much greater effective ranges over threat weapons of similar caliber. . Characteristics Length of Barrel Weight (Un-Loaded) Weight 200 rd w/drum Weight (Loaded) w/drum Capabilities Maximum Range: Point Target Area Target Grazing Fire Tracer Burnout 3600m 800m 1000m 600m 900m 1.035 m 7.72kg 3.14kg 10.86kg 40.75in 17.00lbs 6.92lbs 23.92lbs
B2E2657
Ammunition
The M249 uses several different types of 5.56-mm standard military ammunition. Only authorized ammunition that is manufactured to US and NATO specifications should be used (see diagram below).
Ball M855
Tracer M856
Dummy M199
Blank M200
Cartridge, 5.56-mm ball M855 (DODIC A059) The M855 cartridge has a gilding, metal-jacketed, lead alloy core bullet with a steel penetrator. The primer and case are waterproof. A disintegrating metallic split-linked belt links the ammunition for firing from the ammunition box. In an emergency, the M855 round can also be loaded and fired from the M16 20- or 30-round magazine. The M855 round
Is identified by a green tip Has a projectile weight of 62 grains Is 2.3 cm long Is the NATO standard round Is effective against personnel and light materials, not vehicles
Cartridge, 5.56-mm tracer, M856 (DODIC A063) The M856 cartridge is used for adjustments after observation, incendiary effects, and signaling. When tracer rounds are fired, they are mixed with ball ammunition in a ratio of four ball rounds to one tracer round. The DODIC for ball and tracer mix is A064.
Has a 63.7-grain bullet without a steel penetrator Is identified by an orange tip
Cartridge, 5.56-mm dummy Ml99 (A060) The M199 cartridge can be identified by the six grooves along the side of the case beginning about one-half inch from its head. It contains no propellant or primer. The primer well is open to prevent damage to the firing pin. The dummy round is used during
Mechanical training Dry-fire exercises Function checks
Cartridge, 5.56-mm blank M200 (M2 link, A075) The blank cartridge has no projectile. The case mouth is closed with a seven-petal rosette crimp and has a violet tip.
B2E2657 The original M200 blank cartridge had a white tip. Field use of this cartridge resulted in residue buildup, which caused malfunctions. Only the violet-tipped M200 cartridge should be used. The blank round is used during training when simulated live fire is desired. An M15A2 blank-firing attachment must be used to fire this ammunition.
Components
FOLDING SHOULDER REST
Location of Major Components. The table below identifies the M249 major components in the diagram on the following page. 1. Barrel 2. Heat shield 3. Receiver assembly 4. Rear sight assembly 5. Cover and feed mechanism assembly 6. Feed pawl assembly 7. Feed tray assembly 8. Cocking Handle 9. Buffer and butt stock assembly 10. Bolt assembly 11. Slide assembly 12. Piston assembly 13. Drive spring 14. Operating rod 15. Trigger mechanism assembly 16. Hand guard 17. Sling and snap hook assembly 18. Bipod assembly 19. Gas cylinder 20. Gas collar 21. Gas regulator
B2E2657
Components (continued)
Clearing the M249

Prior to handling any weapon, ensure that it is not loaded. Follow the steps in the table below to clear the SAW in accordance with TM 08671A-10/1A with change A. STEP 1 Pull the cocking handle to the rear (palm up) and lock the bolt to the rear. Maintain positive control of the cocking handle (see diagram on next page).
B2E2657
Step 2 Push the safety from left (loading side) to right (ejection side). Red should not be visible on the safety (see diagram below).
Step 3 If the weapon has been firing Belted ammunition, raise the cover assembly and remove the belted ammunition (see diagram below)
From a magazine, depress the magazine release tab and remove the magazine (see diagram below) and raise the cover assembly
Step 4 Raise the feed tray; inspect the chamber and receiver to ensure that all ammunition and links have been removed.
B2E2657
Step 5 When the chamber and receiver are clear, close the cover assembly and lock it. Step 6 Push the safety from right to left (red now visible). Step 7 Pull the cocking handle to the rear (palm up) and lock the bolt to the rear. Maintain positive control of the cocking handle (see diagram below).
Five Point Safety Check

An alternative method to clear the M249 SAW is in the table below. NOTE: Before you execute the five-point safety check, Pull the bolt to the rear and place the SAW on SAFE. Open the feed tray cover.
Step 1 Remove the ammunition/links from the feed tray. Step 2 Check the feed pawls to ensure no links remain. Step 3 Lift up the feed tray. Physically and visually inspect the chamber to ensure no rounds remain. Step 4 Check the space between the chamber and the face of the bolt to ensure no brass or links remain.
B2E2657 Step 5 Run your fingers through the magazine well to ensure no brass or links remain there. CAUTION: Brass or links in the magazine well may cause stoppages.
Disassembly
Disassembly for the SAW consists only of field stripping for first echelon (operator) maintenance. Operators are not authorized to use any tools other than authorized cleaning gear to disassemble the weapon. When disassembling the SAW, lay parts out from left to right or right to left in the order disassembled so that the weapon can be easily reassembled in reverse order. The steps to disassemble the SAW are in the listed on the following pages. NOTE: In the procedure below, if you do not have a cleaning rod available, you may use the operating rod instead. Be sure the weapon is in Condition 4 (see page 26 of this student handout) before disassembling it. Step 1 After ensuring that the weapon is clear, pull the upper retaining pin at the rear of the receiver to the left and allow the buffer and butt stock assembly to pivot downward (see diagram below).
Buffer and butt stock assembly rotated downward.
10
B2E2657 Step 2 Remove the operating rod assembly from the receiver by pressing inward and up on the rear of the operating rod with one thumb. Slowly let the drive spring expand and remove it from the receiver. Separate the drive spring and operating rod (see diagram below).
Step 3 Remove the buffer and butt stock assembly from the receiver by pressing the lower retaining pin from the right to the left (see diagram below). NOTE: Notice that the pin can be pressed outward far enough to let the stock fall free but can still hold the trigger mechanism assembly in place; this is important for assembly.
Step 4 Pull the lower retaining pin to the left as far as possible (pin will not completely clear the receiver), and remove the trigger mechanism assembly by pulling downward and to the rear on the handgrip (see diagram below).
11
B2E2657
Step 5 To remove the piston, bolt, and slide assemblies, pull the cocking handle to the rear. Finish pulling the piston, bolt, and slide assemblies to the rear with finger pressure and pull them from the rear of the receiver (see diagram below).
Step 6 Separate the bolt from the slide assembly by rotating it counterclockwise (looking at the face of the bolt) and pulling it forward (see diagram below).
CAUTION: When bolt is removed, the firing pin spring is free; be careful not to lose it.
12
B2E2657 Step 7 To separate the slide assembly from the piston, press the retaining pin from the right to the left. Once the pin is shifted, lift the slide assembly upward from the piston. The operating rod may be used to help press the retaining pin (see diagram below).
Step 8 To remove the barrel from the receiver (see diagram below), Close the cover and feed mechanism assembly Depress the barrel-locking lever with your left hand Lift the carrying handle using your right hand Push the barrel forward
Step 9 To remove the heat shield, hold the weapon firmly, grasp the heat shield just forward of the barrel handle, and lift the heat shield off the barrel (see diagram below).
13
B2E2657
CAUTION: Barrels must not be interchanged with those from other M249s unless direct support personnel have certified the headspace for that weapon. Step 10 Remove the gas regulator from the barrel by positioning the regulator lever between normal and maximum (lever pointing downward away from barrel). With the new barrel, position the gas collar to allow the scraper tool to be installed. Place the tip of the scraper tool in the notch in the front left of the gas block. Holding the tip of the scraper tool in this position, rotate the collar detent up and over the tip and onto the top of the gas block (see diagram below).
Pull forward on the gas collar and separate it from the gas block (see diagram below).
Step 11 Remove the hand guard by pressing the retaining pin from right to left with the operating rod. (The pin will not separate completely from the handguard.) Pull down on the rear of the handguard and separate it from the receiver (see diagram below).
14
B2E2657 Step 12 Remove the bipod and gas cylinder by turning the gas cylinder to the left or right until you hear a click. Pull the gas cylinder forward and separate it from the bipod (see diagram below).
Assembly
Assembly. To reassemble the SAW, reverse the disassembly procedures. The following details are important in reassembling the weapon: Ensure that the bipod yoke is placed on the end of the receiver, big opening first. When re-inserting the gas cylinder into the receiver, some manipulation will be required with the fingers of the free hand to get the base of the cylinder to line up with the receiver. Be sure to turn the gas cylinder until it clicks and is locked in place. When replacing the trigger assembly, push the retaining pin inboard just far enough to catch and hold the trigger assembly in place. If you push it too far, you will block the stock recess, and you cannot put the buffer and butt stock assembly in place until the pin is pulled outward. When reassembling the gas regulator, ensure that the lug on the rear of the regulator lines up with the lug on the rear of the gas block. Place the gas regulator collar over the front of the gas regulator and align the tapered lug of the regulator with the tapered recess of the collar. Hold the rear of the regulator, press down on the regulator collar, rotate the collar clockwise, and lock it in place. The new collar follows the same procedures. Refer to the TM for additional information on the upgraded SAW (new TM page 3-53).
15
B2E2657 When placing the piston, bolt, and slide assemblies in the receiver, be sure that the slide recesses on the sides of the slide assembly are aligned with the slide rails of the receiver. See the TM for the proper procedures to install the drive spring and operating rod for the upgraded SAW (new TM page 3-61). See TM for the proper procedures to install the heat shield for the upgraded SAW (new TM page 3-63).
Function Check. After assembly has been completed, you must perform a function check. Remember that function checks are only to check proper reassembly procedures. Function checks are not meant to take the place of actual live fire operational tests to be done before movement if the tactical situation permits. The table below lists the steps to perform function checks for the SAW. Step 1 Grasp the cocking handle with the right hand, palm up, and pull the bolt to the rear locking it in place. Step 2 While continuing to hold the resistance on the cocking handle, use the left hand to move the safety to the SAFE position. Step 3 Pull the trigger. (The weapon should not fire.) Step 4 Move the safety to the FIRE position. Step 5 While continuing to hold resistance on the cocking handle, use the left hand to pull the trigger and ease the bolt forward to prevent it from slamming into the chamber area and damaging the face of the bolt. Step 6 If the weapon fails the function check, check for missing parts or the reassembly procedures. (Before disassembling the weapon, make sure it is positioned where the guide rod and spring cannot cause bodily harm if the bolt is locked to the rear.)
16
B2E2657 CAUTION: The bolt must be eased forward to prevent damage to the cover and feed mechanism assembly and operating rod group. NOTE: The cover and feed mechanism assembly can be closed with the bolt in either the forward or the rearward position.
Cycle of Function
The table below lists the sequence for the cycle of functioning of the M249 SAW. Cycle of Function Feeding Description Feeding takes place as the operator places a belt of ammunition on the feed tray or inserts a loaded magazine in the magazine well. Whichever method is used, the results are the same. A cartridge is placed in the path of the bolt so that as the bolt is driven forward from the force of the expanding driving spring, the face of the bolt makes contact with the rim of the first cartridge and strips it from the links or magazine. As the bolt continues forward, the cam roller on top of the bolt forces the feed cam, in the cover assembly, to the left positioning the feed pawl over the next cartridge to be chambered. When the burning gases of the fired cartridge cause the bolt to move to the rear, the feed cam lever and feed pawl are forced to the right causing the next round in the feed tray to be pulled to the right and placed in the feed tray groove ready for chambering. Chambering occurs as the bolt continues to move forward and forces the cartridge into the barrel chamber. Locking occurs as chambering takes place. The locking lugs of the bolt pass through the locking recesses cut into the chamber. When the locking lugs and bolt face make contact with the rear of the chamber, the forward movement of the bolt stops. The slide assembly pushes the rotating lug of the bolt to the right. This rotation of the bolt causes the locking lugs to disalign with the locking recesses, and locking takes place. After locking has occurred the piston and slide assemblies continue forward slightly. This forward movement ends when the slide assembly forces the firing pin through the face of the bolt. The firing pin then strikes the primer of the cartridge, and firing takes place.
Chambering Locking
Firing
17
B2E2657 Cycle of Function Unlocking Description Unlocking begins when expanding gases from the ignited propellant are vented off through the gas port in the gas regulator. The pressure of the expanding gases is directed rearward through the gas cylinder and forces the piston assembly, slide assembly, and bolt to the rear. As the slide assembly moves to the rear, the camming recess forces the camming lug of the bolt to the left causing the locking lugs on the bolt to align with the locking recesses in the chamber. The slide assembly continues to move to the rear, and the bolt is withdrawn from the chamber. The extraction claw on the face of the bolt grips the cartridge case tightly by engaging the extraction groove. Thus, as the bolt moves rearward, the cartridge case is pulled from the chamber. The extractor claw grips the lower right portion of the cartridge rim. As the spent casing or cartridge is pulled to the rear, the ejector strikes the upper left of the base of the cartridge, just as the bolt face clears the rear of the ejection port, causing the cartridge case to pivot over the extraction claw and to be thrown clear of the receiver through the ejection port. As the bolt continues its movement to the rear, the piston assembly compresses the drive spring. Cocking is completed when the spring is fully compressed, just before it begins to expand and drive the operating parts forward again.
Extracting
Ejecting
Cocking
Loading/Unloading
Loading. The table below lists the steps to load the SAW with a belt of ammunition or an M16 magazine. Step Belt 1 Attach a 200-round box of ammunition to the underside of the receiver. NOTE: The underside of the receiver has a dovetail locking recess that will accept the dovetail lug on the ammo box. 2 Align the recess and lugs; push them together until they lock. 3 Pull outward on the ammo box to ensure that it is locked in place. Magazine Insert the magazine into the magazine well and push inward until the magazine latch clicks
If the bolt is not already to the rear, pull it rearward and lock it open. Push the cocking handle forward.
18
B2E2657 Step Belt Magazine 4 Locate the green belt tab on the top Put the weapon on SAFE. of the ammo box and pull up on it. NOTE: The belted ammo is affixed to this tab and will be pulled from the ammo box. Open the cover assembly and place the belt of ammunition on top of the feed tray with the open side of the links facing downward. NOTE: Place the first round against the cartridge stop. Place the belt tab to the right of the cartridge stop. Hold the belt in place; shut the cover assembly making sure it locks in place. If the bolt is forward (weapon can be loaded with the bolt closed or open), pull it to the rear and push the cocking handle forward until it clicks. Place the weapon on SAFE.
6 7
To fire the SAW, take it off SAFE and squeeze the trigger.
Unloading
To unload the SAW, follow the same procedures for clearing (see table below). Pull the cocking handle to the rear and lock the bolt open, maintain positive control. Place the weapon on SAFE, lower head, open the cover assembly, and remove ammo.
Perform Five Point Safety Check

Step 1 Remove the links from the feed tray. Step 2 Check the feed pawls to ensure no links remain.
19
B2E2657 Step 3 Physically and visually inspect the chamber to ensure no rounds remain. Step 4 Check the space between the chamber and the face of the bolt to ensure no brass or links remain. Step 5 Run your fingers through the magazine well to ensure no brass or links remain there.
Changing the Barrel

Changing the Barrel. The barrel of the M249 SAW should be changed after firing as shown in the table below At the Sustained rate Rapid rate For SAW with Adjustable Gas For Saw with Fixed Gas Regulator Regulator 85 rds/min for five minutes 50 rds/min for five minutes 200 rds/min for two minutes 100 rds/min for two minutes
The steps to change barrels are listed on the following page.
20
B2E2657 Step 1 Be sure that the bolt is not forward (the locking lugs will be engaged in the locking recesses of the chamber, making removal/installation impossible). Step 2 Clear the weapon, but leave the bolt locked to the rear. Step 3 Put the weapon on SAFE. Step 4 Depress the barrel locking lever, grasp the barrel handle with the other hand, and pull forward and up on the barrel to remove it from the receiver. Step 5 Handle the barrel carefully and avoid touching it. Step 6 Install the cool barrel in the reverse order; be sure it is locked in place before attempting to fire.
Using the Gas Regulator. The SAW is equipped with a gas regulator that can decrease or increase the pressure of the expanding gases that is applied against the face of the piston. The gas regulator has two different settings, made possible by the use of two gas ports of different sizes in the regulator. Attain the normal setting (smaller gas port) (see diagram on following page) by turning the gas regulator so that it is pointing to the left (loading port side).
21
B2E2657
If the functioning of the weapon should become sluggish due to freezing temperatures or dirt and carbon build up, turn the gas regulator to the maximum setting (see diagram below). In the maximum setting, the gas regulator is turned to the right (pointing toward the ejection port side) to allow more gas to escape through the gas port. The result is greater pressure being applied to the face of the piston, which, in turn, drives the operating parts at a much greater operating speed. When using the maximum setting to clear dirt or carbon build-up, only 23 bursts need to be fired before returning the regulator to the normal setting.
NOTE: The new style barrel does not have the capability of changing/switching the gas regulator to deliver more power. Rotating the gas collar will not affect the cyclic rate.
22
B2E2657
Field Zeroing Procedures

Mechanical Zero. Before field zeroing, you must set mechanical zero on the sights of the weapon. The table below lists the steps to set mechanical zero. Step Action 1 Rotate the windage knob (front knob, see diagram below) until the sight aperture is all the way to the left or right.
2 3 4
While counting the number of clicks, rotate the knob all the way back until the sight aperture is on the other side. Divide the number counted in Step 2 by two. Count back the number of clicks calculated in Step 3. NOTE: For example, say you counted 24 clicks from full right windage to full left windage. Then mechanical zero is 12; 24 divided by 2. You would count back 12 clicks from full left windage
23
B2E2657 Step Action 5 Rotate the rear sight aperture (using the elevation knob, see diagram below) clockwise until it will not turn any further.
6 7 8 9
While counting the number of rotations, rotate the aperture counterclockwise until it stops. Divide the number counted in Step 6 by two. Rotate the aperture clockwise the number of clicks calculated in Step 7. Mechanical zero is now set for both windage and elevation
Field Zero. The table below lists the steps to follow to field zero the SAW. Step Action 1 Place a range setting of 300m on the rear sight elevation scale. 2 With mechanical zero set, fire a 3- to 5-round burst at a target 300m away. 3 Adjust the rear sight for windage and elevation until the impact of the burst is centered on the target. NOTE: Do not use the elevation adjustment knob to correct elevation. To correct elevation, rotate the rear sight aperture in the desired direction:
Clockwise to lower the impact of the burst Counterclockwise to raise the impact of the burst
When adjusting both the windage knob and rear sight aperture, one click moves the burst two inches for every 100m of range.
24
B2E2657
NOTE: The weapon can be zeroed at any range as long as the range set on the rear sight elevation scale corresponds with the actual range to the target. The table below shows at various distances what one click moves the strike. Distance from Target (in meters) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 One click moves the strike In Centimeters In Inches 5 2 10 4 15 6 20 8 25 10 30 12 35 14 40 16 45 18
Immediate Action
If a stoppage of the M249 SAW occurs, follow the steps in the table below for immediate action. Step Action 1 Shout, Misfire! Wait five seconds. 2 Pull the bolt to the rear; observe the ejection port when you push the cocking handle forward. If a round is: Fed or Ejected, attempt to fire. No feeding or ejecting and the barrel is Hot (200 rds fired within two minutes), do not open the cover assembly. Push the safety to the right (red not visible), keep the weapon pointed down range, and remain clear from it for 15 minutes. After 15 minutes, clear the weapon. Not hot, clear the weapon Runaway Gun Procedures. A runaway gun is a weapon that continues to fire when the trigger is released. A runaway gun is normally caused by a worn trigger sear but can also be a result of a dirty or worn gas system. To stop a runaway gun, follow the steps listed in the table below. Step Action 1 Keep weapon pointed down range. 2 If you are firing from a Magazine or near the end of a 200-round belt, let the weapon continue to fire until the ammunition is expended
25
B2E2657 200-round belt and you are not near the end of the ammunition belt, Step Doctrinal Method Grab cocking handle (palm up), 1 2 3 Alternative Method
Snap the belt in half. Remove unused portion. Let remaining rounds continue to fire.
pull it all the way back, and hold. Push the safety to the right (red not visible). Clear the weapon (raise cover, remove ammunition, inspect chamber, ride bolt home).
Handling the M249 SAW

Condition Codes. The table below describes the condition codes for the M249 SAW. Condition Description 1 Ammunition in position on feed tray or magazine inserted Bolt locked to the rear Safety on 2 Not applicable to the M249 3 Ammunition in position on feed tray or magazine inserted Chamber empty Bolt forward Safety off 4 Feed tray clear of ammunition (magazine removed) Chamber empty Bolt forward Safety off Commands To execute the command, UNLOAD, taking the weapon from condition 1 to condition 4, follow the steps in the table below. Step 1 2 3 4 5 Action Belt-Fed Technique Magazine-Fed Technique Ensure the bolt is locked to the rear Ensure the bolt is locked to the rear and the weapon is on safe. and the weapon is on safe. Open the feedtray cover. Remove the magazine from the weapon and retain it on your person. Remove all ammunition and belt Open the feedtray cover. links. Lift the feedtray and inspect the Lift the feedtray and inspect the chamber to ensure that no chamber to ensure that no ammunition is present. ammunition is present. Take the weapon off SAFE. Take the weapon off SAFE. 26
B2E2657 Action Belt-Fed Technique Magazine-Fed Technique While holding the cocking handle to While holding the cocking handle to the rear, pull the trigger and ease the rear, pull the trigger and ease the bolt forward to the closed the bolt forward to the closed position. position. Close the feedtray cover. Close the feedtray cover.
Step 6
To execute the command, LOAD, taking the weapon from condition 4 to condition 3, follow the steps in the table below. Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 Action Belt-Fed Technique Magazine-Fed Technique Ensure the weapon is in condition Ensure the weapon is in condition 4. 4. Open the feedtray cover. Withdraw the magazine from the magazine pouch. Place the first round of the belt in Look at the top of the magazine to the feedtray groove with the open ensure that the magazine is side of the link down. loaded. Close the feedtray cover. Fully insert the magazine into the magazine well. Tug downward on the magazine to ensure that it is held in the weapon by the magazine catch. Close the magazine pouch.
To execute the command, MAKE READY, taking the weapon from condition 3 to condition 1, follow the steps in the table below. Step Action 1 Pull the cocking handle fully to the rear. 2 Push the cocking handle fully forward to the locked position. 3 Place the weapon on SAFE. *NOTE: The preferred method of "MAKE READY" is to go from condition 4 directly to condition 1, skipping condition 3 and minimizing damage to the weapon that is caused by placing ammunition on the feedtray with the bolt forward. Condition 3 has tactical viability and should be used only when the situation dictates. To go directly to condition 1 from condition 4, the command, "MAKE READY," is given, skipping the command, "LOAD." To execute the command, MAKE READY, taking the weapon from condition 4 directly to condition 1, follow the steps in the table below. Step 1 2 3 Action Belt-Fed Technique Magazine-Fed Technique Ensure weapon is in condition 4. Ensure weapon is in condition 4. Pull cocking handle fully to the rear. Pull cocking handle fully to the rear. Push cocking handle fully forward Push cocking handle fully forward 27
B2E2657 to the locked position. Place the weapon on SAFE. Open the feedtray cover. Place the first round of the belt in the feedtray groove with the open side of the link down. Close the feedtray cover. to the locked position. Place weapon on SAFE. Withdraw magazine. Ensure magazine is loaded. Fully insert magazine into magazine well. Tug downward on magazine to ensure that it is held in the weapon by the magazine catch.
4 5 6 7 8
To execute the command, FIRE, Step 1 Take the weapon off SAFE. 2 Place finger on trigger. 3 Engage target. Action
To execute the command, UNLOAD, SHOW CLEAR, follow the steps in the table below. Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Action Belt-Fed Technique Magazine-Fed Technique Pull the cocking handle to the rear. Remove the magazine from the weapon and retain it on your person. Put the weapon on SAFE. Pull cocking handle to rear. Open the feedtray cover. Put the weapon on SAFE. Remove all ammunition and belt Open the feedtray cover. links. Lift the feedtray and inspect the Lift the feedtray and inspect the chamber to ensure that no chamber to ensure that no ammunition is present. ammunition is present. Have a second individual inspect Have a second individual inspect the chamber to ensure no the chamber to ensure no ammunition is present. ammunition is present. Take the weapon off SAFE. Take the weapon off SAFE. While holding the cocking handle to While holding the cocking handle to the rear, pull the trigger and ease the rear, pull the trigger and ease the bolt forward to the closed the bolt forward to the closed position position. Close the feedtray cover. Close the feedtray cover.
CAUTION: After a live-fire exercise with the M249 SAW, all SAWs should be broken down so that the Operating rod assembly and piston assembly are removed Receiver is visually and physically inspected for rounds that may have lodged there during firing
28
B2E2657 Magazine well is inspected for live rounds or empty casings.
M249 SAW Aiming Stakes. Guidelines for using aiming stakes (see diagram below) are listed below. When the bipod legs are utilized, do not emplace a yoke stake. Dig a trench 4 to 6 inches deep for the bipod. Emplace right and left sector stakes near the stock of the weapon. Position the sector stake to the right further forward near where the ammunition drum is located to prevent any obstruction to the firing hand. Use a shorter stake as a PDF stake. The pistol grip will rest on the stake to ensure proper direction and elevation.
Care and Cleaning

Care and Cleaning. Like any other weapon, the M249 SAW requires proper maintenance to operate reliably. Only use authorized cleaning agents and equipment (see diagram on following page) to conduct this maintenance.
29
B2E2657
Each M249 is designed to hold cleaning tools in the hand guard (see diagram below).
The sections below cover the use of these tools to conduct first echelon care and cleaning. Before cleaning the SAW, field strip the weapon and lay the parts out in order of disassembly. Cleaning and Maintenance of the Barrels. To clean the barrels of the M249 SAW, follow the same barrel cleaning procedures listed for the M16A2 (see Annex P, B2200 Weapons Handling and Safety student handout, section 3).
30
B2E2657 NOTE: Do not attempt to exercise the front sight. Adjustment of the front sight is not operator-authorized. Each M249 will have one spare barrel. The barrels will not have serial numbers or any identifying marks. Each unit should have both barrels for each M249 marked in such a manner that they can be readily "married" to the M249 with which originally issued. Barrels should not be switched among other M249s. The wear on the barrel extension of each M249 will be slightly different; switching barrels from another weapon will cause the weapon to function with a different headspace. Under these conditions a stoppage or malfunction will be likely. (Headspace is the distance between the face of the bolt, when locked, and the rear of the chamber. Headspace is normally very small and usually measured in thousandths of an inch.) Make every effort to ensure that both barrels receive the same amount of use so that the wear of both barrels will remain uniform and the headspace will not change.
Cleaning the Receiver and Feed Cover Assembly. To clean the receiver and cover assembly use CLP A general purpose brush (tooth brush) An M60E3 machine gun receiver brush (if available)
to complete the steps in the following table. Step Action 1 Wipe the receiver clean; leave a light coat of CLP on the surface. 2 Leave a moderate coat of CLP on the Slide rails Surface of the receiver Moving parts of the cover assembly 3 Place a light coat of CLP on the rear sight and exercise the windage and elevation knobs.
31
B2E2657 Cleaning the Gas System. To clean the gas system (regulator, cylinder, gas block, and piston) use CLP or cleaning solvents such as rifle bore cleaner (RBC). Do not use any type of oil to clean or lubricate the gas system. Wipe the gas system dry. To utilize the scraper tool to clean the gas system follow the steps in the table below. Step Action 1 Clean the gas ports as shown in the diagram below.
Clean the central hole as shown in the diagram below.
3 4
Clean the regulator grooves. Clean the internal diameter of the gas cylinder as shown in the diagram below.
Clean the internal grooves of the gas cylinder as shown in the diagram below.
32
B2E2657 Step Action 6 Clean the piston grooves as shown in the diagram below.
Clean the face of the pistons as shown in the diagram below.
Summary
In this lesson, we covered the history of the M249 and described the characteristics of the weapon, ammunition and employment considerations. We also covered the proper handling of this weapon, to include proper immediate and remedial actions, and care and cleaning.
References
FM 23-14, M249 Light Machine Gun in the Automatic Rifle Role MCWP 3-15.1, Machine Guns and Machine Gun Gunnery TM 08671A-10/1A M249, Technical Manual for the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon
Notes
33
B2E2657
Notes
34
DAY OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY B2E2667 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2E2667
Day Optics and Observation Theory

Introduction The Marine Corps uses day optical enhancing devices on a daily basis. As individual Marines we use them to evaluate the environment that we operate in and see and assess the objects and people in that environment. As a leader on the battlefield we use day optics to build situational awareness and aid us in developing a situation. Our enhanced view and better understanding of the environment or possibly the threat allow us to make better tactical decisions when the time comes. In order for the Marine Corps to effectively fight enemies with ever changing ways to disguise their action, intent and themselves, we need to understand the capabilities, limitations, and proper use of the optics devices in our inventory. If our devices are not employed properly it will lead to ineffective use on the battlefield. As leaders of Marines we will need to ensure our Marines know how to properly and effectively utilize day optic devices on the battlefield. We will discuss the Rifle Combat Optic (RCO) and Binoculars, two systems that you will find in an infantry rifle company. We will also discuss some practical techniques and uses on the battlefield. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic The Rifle Combat Optic Binoculars (Leupold Binoculars) Virtual Aperture/Exit Pupil Observation Techniques and Theory Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes 4 8 10 11 16 16 16 16
Importance
In This Lesson
Learning Objectives
Terminal Learning Objectives Given an area to observe, a mission, and while wearing a fighting load, conduct un-aided observation to identify threats. (0300-CMBH-1001)
B2E2667
Terminal Learning Objectives (Continued) Given an area to observe, a mission, and an observation device(s), while wearing a fighting load, conduct aided observation to identify threats. (0300-CMBH-1002) Enabling Learning Objectives Without the aid of reference, describe the observation process. (MCCS-CMBH-1001a) Given an area to observe, a mission, while wearing a fighting load, employ the nine elements of visual perception in order to detect target indicators. (MCCS-CMBH-1001b) Given magnifying optics, and an area to observe during daylight and limited visibility, employ magnifying optics to identify objects or enemy. (MCCS-CMBH-1002a)
B2E2667
Rifle Combat Optic (RCO)

The RCO (also known as the ACOG) is a day and night dual source illuminated telescopic sight with a tritium illuminated reticle pattern designed for the M-16 family of weapons. The RCO system uses fiber optics to provide a low light and night aiming capability and eliminates the need for batteries. The RCO incorporates Tritium Lamp lights in order to illuminate the reticle pattern present in the optic. It is calibrated to accommodate for bullet drop when a round is fired which eliminates the need for adjustments once the system is zeroed with the weapon. It is a four power optic. The USMC fielded the RCO in order to give its Marines the ability identify and accurately engage targets out to 800 meters.
Rifle mounted aiming system USMC Nomenclature: o AN/PVQ-31A used with the M-16 (20 Barrel) o AN/PVQ-31B used with the M-4 (14 Barrel)
B2E2667
Rifle Combat Optic (continued)
Specifications of the RCO Length o 5.8 inches Weight o 15.3 ounces Magnification o 4 times Objective Aperture o 32mm Eye Relief (Distance from the eye to the eye piece) o 1.5 inches for optimal picture Exit Pupil (Size in diameter of the eyepiece you look through) o 8mm wide Allows for rapid target acquisition Allows for considerable eye latitude Field of View o 7.0 degrees at 100m (12.7m across) Chevron Width o 19 inches at 300m 19 inches is the average width across a persons chest.
B2E2667
Rifle Combat Optic (continued)

Range Estimation RCO provides accurate range estimation out to 800m. o The reticle pattern in the RCO gives us a range estimation capability. o The picture on the right shows a target at 400m and what it would look like in the RCO if aiming center mass on the target. o A target that is as wide as the chevron from left to right would be 300m away. Aim point for a target that is 300m away is the tip of the horizontal line between the left and right side of the chevron. o Targets that show larger than the width of the chevron are closer than 300m.
Bindon Aiming Concept (BAC) The BAC is able to combine the traditional long-standoff marksmanship capability with the ultimate in close combat transitional aiming. BAC utilizes both eyes to acquire, track, identify and aim in on a target. The eye that is not sighted in on the target has a full field of view so that you can acquire, and track moving targets. Once the RCO is positioned on the target the brain automatically starts to use the information from that eye that is getting the magnified image, thus allowing you to identify and aim in on the target.
Benefits of using the RCO Allows individual to quickly estimate range of targets. Acquire partially camouflaged targets at ranges beyond 300 meters. Allows individual to see into and through shadows, windows and foliage. Acquire targets in low light conditions. ID enemy vs. non-combatant vs. friendly. Reduce potential for fratricide. Enhance combat exchange ratio in our favor. Allows for accurate fire support. Reduce ammo expenditure.
B2E2667
Battle Sight Zero (BZO) for the RCO

RCO can be zeroed using two methods. o 100m BZO (preferred method) Uses the top tip of the chevron to aim in on the target. Fire three rounds. Find the center of the grouping. Adjust the center of the grouping both vertically and horizontally. Three clicks will move the impact of the round one inch at 100m. o 33m BZO (36 yard) Use the 300m aim point. Fire three rounds. Find the center of the grouping Adjust the center of the grouping both vertically and horizontally. Nine clicks will move the impact of the round one inch at 33m.
B2E2667
Binoculars (Leupold Binoculars)

Binoculars are a day optic that allows the individual Marine the ability to acquire, identify and track targets and objects on the battle field. Approximately 90% of the information that a normal human being uses comes from their sense of sight. The use of binoculars can enhance the detail and situational awareness of units and unit leaders. Nomenclature of Binoculars Diopter lens (eyepiece lens) o This lens and lens adjustment is used to focus the image from the binoculars on to the retina. Body o Section of the binoculars that houses the internal workings and lenses of the binoculars. Objective lens o This is the light collecting portion of the binoculars and it is the most important part of providing the picture that you are trying to see.
Diopter adjustment
Body Objective lens
B2E2667
Binoculars (Leupold Binoculars) (continued)

Specifications of the RCO Length o 5.5 inches Weight o 22.9 ounces Magnification o 8 times Objective Aperture o 42 mm Angular Field of View o 6.5 degrees Field of View o 11.4 m @ 100m Eye Relief o 18 mm for optimal picture Exit Pupil o 5 mm wide Allows for rapid target acquisition Allows for considerable eye latitude
Techniques for Holding Binoculars to Your Eyes. Using these techniques will aid in the quality of picture that you will get when using your binoculars. Hold binoculars lightly to you eyes in order to not transmit any of your body movement through your binoculars. Rest the binoculars on the heels of your hands. Wrap your thumbs and fingers around the objective lenses in order to block out any unwanted light.
Binocular Holding Positions. There are two basic positions for holding binoculars, the unsupported method and the supported method. Unsupported Method - allow your elbows to rest naturally along your body with just enough tension to keep the binoculars steady and to your eyes as you look through them. Supported Method - resting your elbows or arms on a sturdy tree limb, a vehicle, the prone position, or using a stable sitting position and allowing the binoculars to remain steady as you look through them.
B2E2667
Binoculars (Leupold Binoculars) (continued)

Adjusting and Focusing Binoculars. Using binoculars is very simple, but you need to know how to adjust them to your individual eyes and eyesight. You do this by setting an interpupillary distance, adjusting the diopter adjustment, focusing the binoculars and using the proper eye relief. Once adjusted, binoculars can become an invaluable tool for you in the field.
Setting Interpupillary Distance
Hold the binoculars up to your eyes. Look through the binoculars with both eyes. Move the two lenses (body) closer or farther away from each other until you see one circular image. The two optical tubes will move upon a hinge in the middle of the body of the binoculars. Pull up the lockable diopter adjustment dial on the top of the center focus dial. View an object about 100 yards away. Cover the left objective lens with your hand. Adjust the center focus wheel (located in between the two optical tubes) until the image presented to your right eye is clear and sharp. Cover the right objective lens with your hand. Adjust the diopter adjustment dial until the image presented to your left eye is clear and sharp. Push down the lockable diopter adjustment dial so that it locks in place. Your binoculars are now set for your eyes. Look at object. Rotate center focus wheel until picture is clear and sharp.
Setting the Diopter Adjustment (Center Diopter)
Setting Focus
Virtual Aperture/Exit Pupil

This value relates to the size of the pupil in your eye. Your pupil is usually 3-5 mm during normal day light viewing. It is 6-8 mm wide during periods of low light visibility. The value of the exit pupil or the virtual aperture will determine whether the optic is good during periods of low light visibility or just during the day. In order to figure out what the value of the exit pupil is for an optic you simply divide the diameter of the objective lens by the magnification. The resulting number is the exit pupil for the optic you evaluating. RCO 32mm / 4x Mag = 8mm exit pupil. Thus this optic is as advertised a good optic for periods of low light observation
10
B2E2667
Observation Theory and Techniques

Observation is a three part process. You must see, assess and then communicate. You can not be successful as a unit in the conduct of your mission if you are not using this three step process of observation. According to studies about 90% of the information that your brain uses in order to orient and make decisions comes from your sense of vision. This makes it extremely important to assess what you see and to put it in context and sometimes take it out of context in order to see what is actually there or see what is missing or out of place. Observation is a two way street. If you can see the enemy then the enemy can see you. There are ways to camouflage yourself when attempting to observe others as well as ways to avoid being observed by others. Being familiar with these methods of camouflage is important in order to use them to your advantage and to understand how the enemy will try to hide themselves from you. The communication process depends greatly upon the circumstances of your immediate situation. It may be appropriate to simply report information to higher headquarters via radio and continue your current operation; for less time-critical information, you may be able to delay communication until the debrief of your operation. Other situations may dictate an immediate response. Should you come into contact with an enemy unit and they are unaware of your presence, you most likely will have time to communicate an ADDRAC report to orient the rest of your unit and prepare for an assault. If in that same scenario the enemy appears aware of your units presence, your communication process may consist of firing the first round followed by additional instructions, as able. Context and Scanning. Our eyes give us a majority of the information that our brain processes in order to gain situational awareness and build a picture of your surroundings. Our brain, however is a very powerful tool and has a tendency to fill in the blanks or make some things look like they belong when they actually do not because of the context that the objects are in. For instance for Americans, all the years of reading from left to right allow human brain to fill in things that may not actually be there when scanning a scene in that direction because of the context that they are in. Context is a powerful tool which enables us to make quick decisions. However, observation at times requires you to take a detailed look at areas, objects and/or people in order to assess a possible threat or course of action. It is important to see what is actually there and not what the enemy wants you to see or what your brain is causing you to believe is there. Scanning an area in the opposite direction (right to left) than your brain is used to seeing things is one way to allow you to break out the details necessary to accurately assess the environment. Using Binoculars to Aid in Observation. Binoculars are a great tool to aid in observation. They allow you to get a magnified view of an object or area that is off in the distance. In that magnified view you are able to make out greater detail. Items or details that your unaided eye would not be able to pick up are now presented with enough clarity to actually assess what you are seeing. Communicating the details that you see to others within the unit will complete the three step process of See, Assess
11
B2E2667
and Communicate. It will also increase the situational awareness for unit leaders and members of your unit to accomplish the mission. Binocular Techniques. The following are techniques that can be used in order to aid the individual Marine or unit leaders in recognizing and assessing threats in the environment that they are operating in.
Burning through Vegetation
A bush or piece of vegetation that blocks your vision of things behind it to the un-aided eye can be seen with the help of binoculars. Place the binoculars to your eyes and focus the binoculars past the branches that are in front of you. Objects on the other side of the bush or vegetation can be seen clearly while you remain hidden and camouflaged. Using the just mentioned technique of burning through vegetation can allow you to remain on the military crest of the hill that you are on and observe the other side. Walk up the hill until your head is just above the crest of the hill. You will have enough standoff from the vegetation on the hill top that you will not be noticed. Place your binoculars to your eyes and focus through the vegetation in front of you in order to bring objects on the other side of the hill into view while remaining hidden and camouflaged. When you come up to a wall or surface that has small holes in it you can use your binoculars to see what is on the other side without exposing yourself to danger. Hold one of the oculars up to the hole in the wall or surface. Look into that ocular with one of your eyes. Objects on the other side can be seen and focused on. A shadow can be used to mask figures and objects. Using binoculars can help you see those figures and objects that you would not otherwise see if you looking with the unaided eye. Because of their ability to magnify a picture and collect light, binoculars give the user the ability to see into the shadows. Place the binoculars to your eyes and look at the shadow or into a shaded area. Fill the field of view of the binoculars with the shadowed area. This allows your pupils to adjust to the light level that is in the field of view and allows you to focus on the figures or objects present in that shadow.
Cresting the Top of Hills
Looking through Holes
Looking into Shadows
12
B2E2667
Nine Elements of Visual Perception

Line, Edge and Outline The boundary or border, a spatial location, a separation or distinction. Everything, especially man-made items, have a line or edge to them. These lines and edges often lead to the outline of an object. The human eye picks up lines, edges and outlines very easily. An untrained individual may see a line or edge while a trained individual will see outline. Any object silhouetted against a contrasting background is conspicuous. Any smooth, flat background, such as water, a field, or best of all, the sky, will cause an object to become well delineated. However, special care must be taken when searching areas with an uneven background, as it is more difficult to detect the silhouette of an object Shape A shape is the visual characteristic surface configuration of a thing. It is distinguished from its surroundings by its outline, contour, or figure. Outlines are created when lines and edges come together. When we perceive the outline, it becomes a shape. The human eye readily picks up shapes, especially of other humans or potential threats (e.g. rifle). Some objects can be recognized instantly by their shape, particularly if it contrasts with the background. Experience teaches people to associate an object with its shape or outline. At a distance, the outline of objects can be seen well before the details can be determined. The human body and the equipment that a Marine carries are easily identified unless the outline has been altered. Marines can alter this outline by applying camouflaging techniques. Contrast or Value Contrast is a difference, especially a strong dissimilarity, between entities or objects compared. Value is the relative importance or tone of something, darkness or lightness of color. The aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of the light reflected or emitted by them, definable in terms of the observer or of the light as: The appearance of objects or light sources described in terms of the individuals perception of them, involving hue, lightness, and saturation for light sources.
Color
13
B2E2667
The characteristics of light by which the individual is made aware of objects or light sources through the receptors of the eye, described in terms of dominant wavelength, luminance, and purity. Colors have a value to them as well as a baseline. The greater the contrasting color, the more visible the object becomes. This point is especially true when the color is not natural for that area. The best camouflage colors are those that are most difficult to determine exact color. Color alone will usually not identify the object but is often an aid in locating it. _______________________________________________ The distinctive physical composition or structure of something, especially with respect to the size, shape, and arrangements of its parts, appearance and feel of a surface. Similar to color, texture has a baseline. An object with a smooth surface reflects light and becomes more obvious than an object with a rough surface that casts shadows on itself. An extremely smooth object becomes shiny. If an object has a surface that contrasts with its surroundings, it becomes conspicuous. Rhythm and Flow The patterned, recurring alternations of contrasting elements, movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of different quantities or conditions; a pattern created by lines, forms and colors. Movement is one of the biggest disturbances to a baseline. The human eye is strongly attracted to any movement. The human eye can detect another human or animal within seconds by watching the movement of an appendage. a. Physical movement is from the person actually moving. This is readily detectable. b. Visual movement is from a person disturbing vegetation or an object, thus causing the vegetation or object to move. This could also be a lack of movement which creates an anomaly in the baseline. Light (reflecting, sunlight and shadow) Light impacts colors and the value of colors. Some animals have a dark back and light underbelly. The sun lightens the dark back color and the shadow cast from above darkens the lighter underbelly near the ground making the animal seem less three-dimensional.
Texture
Movement
14
B2E2667
Flat surfaces reflect light while rough surfaces absorb it. The reflections from a belt buckle, watch, or optical device can be seen over a mile away from the source. Any shine will attract the observers attention. In sunlight, an object or a man will cast a shadow that can give away his presence. Shadows may be more revealing than the object itself. Care must be taken to detect alterations of the natural shape of a shadow. Where light is excessively bright, shadows will look especially black. Contrast will be extreme, and in this exaggerated contrast the observers eye cannot adjust to both areas simultaneously. This requires the observer to isolate the shadowed area from the bright sunlight so that his eye can adapt to the shadow. Positive and Negative Space Positive Space. Positive space is a space that takes up mass (solid objects) such as buildings, trees, signs, vehicles, etc. Typically, a Marine cannot see through positive space. The human eye will naturally move from positive space to positive space, as the eye is attracted to this. Example: Tree lines, your eyes are attracted to trunks and prominent branches. Negative Space. Negative space is the space between the positive spaces. This is the area of shadow and background activity that an untrained observer often overlooks. Good camouflage resembles negative space; it doesnt resemble positive space, such as a leaf. When observing, a Combat Hunter must observe the negative space as well. The Marine, like the enemy, wants to operate in the negative spaces when possible.
15
B2E2667
Summary
The enemy that we are fighting will do everything that they can to camouflage their activities and intent. Knowing and understanding how to exploit the weaknesses in the enemys attempt to deceive is the key to early detection. The RCO and binoculars coupled with some basic observation techniques will allow you and your Marines to gain an advantage on the battlefield.
References
Reference Number or Author TM 11064-12&P Leupold Binoculars Reference Title Rifle Combat Optic Reference Manual

Term or Acronym ACOG BZO Diopter Exit Pupil Definition or Identification Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight Battle Sight Zero. Sets a weapon systems aimpoint for a specific distance. M-16s have a BZO of 300m. Is the adjustable eyepiece lens that focuses an image onto the retina for the clearest picture. Also known as Virtual Aperture, it is a measurement of the amount of light that will pass through the optical system. To find the size of the Exit pupil divide the size of the Objective Aperture by the magnification of the optic. Distance between your eye(s) and the eyepiece of the optic. The light collecting lens of an optic. Measured in millimeters across the diameter of the lens. Rifle Combat Optic
Eye Relief Objective Aperture RCO
Notes
16
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS THE BASIC SCHOOL MARINE CORPS TRAINING COMMAND CAMP BARRETT, VIRGINIA 22134-5019
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY B2E2677 STUDENT HANDOUT
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBS THEORY

Introduction The Marine Corps utilizes Night Vision Devices on a daily basis. We conduct many successful operations in the night environment in order to take advantage of our superior night capabilities. We have sights for every Marine that will help them employ their weapons systems more effectively in the night environment. In order for the Marine Corps to effectively fight during the night we need to understand the capabilities, limitations, and proper use of the Night Vision Devices in our inventory. If our devices are not employed properly it will lead to ineffective use on the battlefield. As leaders of Marines we will need to ensure our Marines know how to properly and effective utilize Night Vision Devices on the battlefield. We will cover the history of Night Vision Devices, how they work, and discuss some of the devices you will find in an infantry company. Both during and after the lecture there will be a hands-on application to prepare you for utilizing these devices.
Importance
In this Lesson
This lesson discusses the follow topics:

Topic History of NVDs NVD Overview How NVDs Work Planning Considerations Ambient Light Optic (AN/PVS-14) Thermals AN/PAS-13B AN/PAS-13D AN/PAS-22 3 6 9 15 18 24 25 26 28 31 31
Target Pointer Illuminator (AN/PEQ-15) References Notes Page
Learning Objectives
TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Given an area to observe, a mission, and an observation device(s), while wearing a fighting load, conduct aided observation to identify threats. (MCCSCMBH-1002) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Given night vision devices, and an area to observe during limited visibility and darkness, employ night vision devices to identify objects or enemy. (MCCSCMBH-1002b) Given thermal devices, and an area to observe during limited visibility and darkness, employ thermal devices to identify objects or enemy. (MCCS-CMBH-1002c)
History of Night Vision Devices

History Military tacticians throughout history have seen the advantages of being able to maneuver effectively under cover of darkness. In the Battle of Trenton, in 1776, for example, George Washington led Continental troops across the Delaware River in darkness, though a snowstorm delayed their attack until morning. In the War of 1812 and the Civil War, troops would sometimes surround the enemy at night and then attack the next day. With no means of effectively seeing at night, such strategy often ended in disaster. Knowing this, commanders traditionally elected to take their chances on being annihilated by day rather than risk nocturnal miscalculations. The earliest effort at technology-assisted night fighting was with the Union navy's use of calcium lights to bombard Charleston Harbor in 1864; however, casting a powerful light on a target has the unwanted effect of revealing the attacker's location. The first true night-vision systems would have to wait for the development of devices that could detect invisible wavelengths of light and amplify weak signals. Late in World War II, German, American, and British forces introduced crude infrared riflescopes that allowed snipers to operate at night. These "active" systemsmeaning that they provided light rather than just rely on
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY existing light had a near-infrared (NIR) light source mounted on the scope. (NIR is next up in wavelength from visible light on the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.) The NIR light would shine on the object to be seen and reflect back to the scope, which converted the reflection into a visual image and made it brighter with a device called an image tube.
The infrared sniper scope showed that night vision technology was on the horizon. Military leaders immediately saw many uses for this technology beyond sniping at the enemy under cover of darkness. A unit equipped with night vision goggles, helmets, and weapons sights would be able to operate 24 hours a day. Interest in night-vision equipment declined after its experimental use in World War II, and development proceeded slowly for the remainder of the 1940s. But in 1950, the overwhelming success of the Chinese Communist attack in Korea, much of it effectively pressed after dark, dramatically demonstrated that the ability to fight at night was essential in modern warfare. Our experiences in the Korean War fueled a movement to expand our night fighting capabilities. In 1954, the Army decided to upgrade components of the rudimentary NIR sniper scopes they had developed. In using these scopes, each sniper had to wear a heavy battery-backpack with a wire reaching over the shoulder due to the hefty 16,000 volts needed to power the system. This type of active NIR technology became known as Generation 0. The first enhancement would be to reduce the apparatus's power usage at both ends by developing a more efficient NIR source and a more sensitive image tube. This would make a smaller, more-practical, and lighter battery pack. A program was started to couple two image tubes end to end to create a cascading effect, greatly multiplying the gain. The image tube now took on the name of image intensifier.
The photocathodes and phosphor displays required curved surfaces to get an optically correct image. Because the curvature of the phosphor display of one tube was counter to that of the adjacent photocathode surface, stacking multiple sets of curved surfaces took up a lot of space. In 1958, the use of fiber optics solved the three-stage tube-length problem. By growing the photocathode or applying the phosphor screen directly onto the surface of a fiber bundle, they could invert the image by simply twisting the bundle. By the mid-1960's, scientists and engineers fielded the first generation of passive night vision devices for US troops, including a small starlight scope that served as a rifle-mounted sight or as a handheld viewer. Realizing these systems were far from perfected, night vision research personnel came to refer to the development of this early equipment as the First Generation Image Intensifier Program. Scientists and engineers would go on to improve upon this technology to deliver a second and third generation of night vision equipment. The first generation small starlight scope was soon put to practical use in the field. With the United States' growing involvement in Vietnam, the US Army quickly recognized that they faced an enemy that relied on the cover of darkness to conduct its maneuvers and offensive operations. In 1964, the US Army issued night vision equipment to the troops in Vietnam. The Vietnam War proved to be an important stage in the development of night vision systems. An increase in research and development (R&D) efforts led to a host of new technologies after Vietnam. The major test of these technological efforts came in late 1990/early 1991 when Iraqi armed forces invaded Kuwait. The United States of America and its allies immediately mobilized to force Saddam Hussein's forces out of Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm. Night vision systems would prove vital to operating in the desert environment. Ground troops and major weapon systems such as tanks, helicopters, missile systems and infantry fighting vehicles used night vision systems. Night vision offered the coalition forces a capability Iraq didn't have, as ground troops and helicopter pilots used imageintensification devices, such as binoculars, while fighter jet crews used thermal imaging in aiming their weapons. The combination of the two technologies resulted in an unprecedented offensive capability. The guided munitions we saw on television (footage that was itself taken with night-vision equipment) were actually only a small fraction of the ordnance used, but they had an enormous impact.
NVD Overview
Passive Night Sights Type Thermals Description Thermal Weapon Systems (TWS) Completely passive Primarily designed for target detection and engagement with Marine Corps crew served weapons May also be used for all weather surveillance A family of sights which will include a o Medium weapons sight (MWTS) o Heavy weapons sight (HWTS) Will be mounted to the o M249 squad automatic weapon (SAW) o M240G machine gun o M2 .50 cal machine gun o MK 19 40mm grenade machine gun. Description Have been around for more than 40 years beginning with sniper scopes of World War II, which o Were cumbersome devices o Had short battery lives and indifferent performance o Required the use of infrared lighting o Were not much more sensitive to light than the human eye NVDs are categorized by generation; each substantial change in NVD technology establishes a new generation: o Generation I, developed in 1960s o Generation II, developed in 1970s o Generation III, developed in 1990s o Generation IV developed in 2000 Beginning of passive night vision Included o Vacuum tight fused fiber optics for good center resolution and improved gain o Multi-alkali photo cathodes o Fiber optic input and output windows Lacked the sensitivity and light amplification necessary to see below full moonlight Were o Often staged or cascaded to improve gain o Large and cumbersome
Type Ambient light NVDs
Generation I
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY o Less reliable o Relatively poor low light imagers o Characterized by streaking and distortion Characteristics: o Vacuum tube technology o Full moon operation o Amplification: 1,000 - 2,000 o Operating life: 2,000 hours Born out of the development of the micro channel plate (MCP): o Higher electron gains were now possible through smaller packaging o Performance improvements made observation possible down to 1/4 moonlight First proximity focused MCP image intensifier tube was an 18mm tube used in the original AN/TVS-5 NVG Generation II+ improved performance by providing increased gain at high and low levels Generation II+ equipment o Will provide the best image under full moonlight conditions o Is recommended for urban environments. First MCP application Characteristics o One-quarter moon operation o Amplification: 20,000 - 40,000 o Operating life: 2,500 hours Intensifier o Multiplies the light gathering power of the eye or video receptor up to 30,000 times o Is typically characterized by a gallium arsenide (GaAs) photocathode Photocathode o Is grown using a metal organic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) process o Has photon sensitivity that extends into the near-infrared region, where night sky illuminance and contrast ratios are highest o Sealed to an input window which minimizes veiling glare, generates an electron current which is proximity focused onto a phosphor screen, where the electron energy is converted into green light which can then be relayed to the eye or sensor through an output window Characteristics: o Improved MCP and photocathode o Starlight operation 7
Generation II
Generation III
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY o Amplification: 35,000 - 60,000 o Operating life: 10,000 hours Generation IV Gated filmless technology Represents biggest technological breakthrough in image intensification of past 10 years Removing the ion barrier film and gating the system demonstrates substantial increases in target detection range and resolution, particularly at extremely low light levels NOTE: The term 4th generation is used/accepted among night vision manufacturers to describe gated filmless tubes; however, this designation is widely debated. Currently US military referred to it as filmless and gated image intensifiers. Table below gives a rough guide to what the performance of a given generation of night scope might be and the performance without the use of an infrared (IR) source. NOTE: The sensitivity of a first generation scope is far behind that of the second generation; in the areas of resolution and distortion, the performance of the first generation lags far behind that of the second, third, and forth generation.
Night Aiming Devices Type Advanced Target Pointer Illuminator Aiming Light Description The Advanced Target Pointer Illuminator Aiming Light (ATPIAL), PEQ-15, provides a highly collimated beam of infrared energy for weapon aiming and an adjustable focus infrared beam for target illumination. This Class 3b laser device also provides a highly collimated beam of visible energy for weapon aiming. The ATPIAL has low profile aiming and illumination boresight adjusters. This device is 50% smaller and lighter than the TPIAL. The system comes with a MIL-STD-1913 rail grabber interface using the integral rail grabber bracket. The ATPIAL is the successor to the AN/PEQ-2A. Weapon Platforms: The ATPIAL has an Integral Rail Grabber Bracket that mounts to any weapon using the standard MIL-STD-1913 Rail, which includes the M4/M16-A4 rifles, M249, M240, M2, and Mk 19. The ATPIAL can also be used as a handheld illuminator/pointer. The AN/PEQ-15 has replaced both the AN/PEQ-2 and the AN/PAQ-4C
How Night Vision Devices Work

Spectrum Electromagnetic waves are waves that are capable of traveling through a vacuum. Unlike mechanical waves, which require a medium in order to transport their energy, electromagnetic waves are capable of transporting energy through the vacuum of outer space. Electromagnetic waves are produced by a vibrating electric charge, and as such, they consist of both an electric and a magnetic component. Electromagnetic waves exist with an enormous range of frequencies. This continuous range of frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The entire range of the spectrum is often broken into specific regions. The subdividing of the entire spectrum into smaller spectra is done mostly on the basis of how each region of electromagnetic waves interacts with matter. The diagram below depicts the electromagnetic spectrum and its various regions: The longer wavelength, lower frequency regions are located on the far left of the spectrum The shorter wavelength, higher frequency regions are on the far right Two very narrow regions within the spectrum are the visible light region and the X-ray region
You are undoubtedly familiar with some of the other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
THERMAL
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Though electromagnetic waves exist in a vast range of wavelengths, our eyes are sensitive to only a very narrow band. Since this narrow band of wavelengths is the means by which humans see, we refer to it as the visible light spectrum. Normally when we use the term "light," we are referring to a type of electromagnetic wave, which stimulates the retina of our eyes. In this sense, we are referring to visible light, a small spectrum of the enormous range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. This visible light region consists of a spectrum of wavelengths, which range from approximately 700 nanometers (abbreviated nm) to approximately 400 nm; that would be 7 x 10-7 meters to 4 x 10-7 meters. Each individual wavelength within the spectrum of visible light wavelengths is representative of a particular color. That is, when light of that particular wavelength strikes the retina of our eye, we perceive that specific color sensation. Isaac Newton showed that light shining through a prism will be separated into its different wavelengths and will thus show the various colors of which visible light is comprised. The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion. Each color is characteristic of a distinct wavelength; and different wavelengths of light waves will bend varying amounts upon passage through a prism; for these reasons, visible light is dispersed upon passage through a prism. Dispersion of visible light produces these colors (see electromagnetic spectrum above); thus, visible light is sometimes referred to as ROY G. BIV: Red (R) Orange (O) Yellow (Y) Green (G) Blue (B) Indigo (I) Violet (V) Longer wavelengths Continuous range of spectrum of wavelengths Shorter wavelengths
When all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum strike your eye at the same time, white is perceived. Thus, visible light is sometimes referred to as white light. Technically speaking, white is not a color at all, but rather the combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum. If all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum give the appearance of white, then none of the wavelengths would lead to the appearance of black. Once more, black is not actually a color. Technically speaking,
10
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY black is merely the absence of the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum. So when you are in a room with no lights and everything around you appears black, it means that no wavelengths of visible light are striking your eye as you sight at the surroundings. How Night Vision Technology Works NVGs are electro-optical devices that intensify (or amplify) existing light instead of relying on a light source of their own. Image intensifiers capture ambient light (which comes from the stars, moon, or sky glow from distant manmade sources, such as cities) and amplify it thousands of times by electronic means to display the battlefield to a Marine via a phosphor display such as night vision goggles. The devices are sensitive to a broad spectrum of light, from visible to infrared (invisible). Users do not look through NVGs; they look at the amplified electronic image on a phosphor screen. Light enters the NVG through an objective lens and strikes a photo cathode powered by a high energy charge from the power supply. The energy charge accelerates across a vacuum inside the intensifier and strikes a phosphor screen (like a TV screen) where the image is focused. The eyepiece magnifies the image. An NVG phosphor screen is purposefully colored green because the human eye can differentiate more shades of green than other phosphor colors. Like cameras, NVGs have various image magnifications. The distance at which a human-sized figure can be clearly recognized under normal conditions (moon and star light with no haze or fog) depends on the Magnifying power of the objective lens Strength of the image intensifier
A Marine can conduct his combat missions without any active illumination sources using only image intensifiers. The main advantages of image intensifiers as night vision devices are their Small size Light weight Low power requirements Low cost
These attributes have enabled image intensifier goggles for head-worn, individual Marine applications and resulted in hundreds of thousands of night vision goggles to be procured by the Marine Corps. Research and development continues today on image intensifiers in the areas of longer wavelength spectral response, higher sensitivity, larger fields of view and increased resolution.
11
The view through NVGs can be a lot like looking down a tunnel. Your normal field of view is almost 190 degrees. NVGs cut that down to 40 degrees; side or peripheral vision youre accustomed to and from which you often see dangers is just not there. To adjust for the narrow field of view, you must constantly turn your head to scan for the dangers on either side of you. NVGs cannot provide the same level of clarity you are accustomed to during the day. While normal vision is 20/20, NVGs can, at best, provide only 20/25 to 20/40 and even this is possible only during optimal illumination and when you have a high-contrast target or scene. As either illumination or contrast decreases, the NVGs visual acuity drops, giving you an even more fuzzy image. Normally you use both eyes (binocular vision) to pick up cues to help estimate the distance and depth of an object. However, with NVGs you are essentially using one eye (monocular) vision, which can pose real problems. For example, when you are wearing NVGs and view two objects of different sizes that are side-by-side, the larger object appears to be nearer. When you view overlapping objects through an NVG, the one that is in front appears to be nearer maybe much more so than is true. In addition, some objects viewed through NVGs may appear to be farther away than they actually are. The reason for these optical illusions is that we tend to associate the loss of detail sharpness with distance. On the other hand, a light source that is not part of a terrain featurefor example, a light atop a towermay look closer than it actually is. Be aware of these potential problems and that NVG users tend to overestimate distance and underestimate depth (how tall an object is). Originated in the 1920s to increase the sensitivity of television cameras, image tubes work by converting light into electricity. Certain substances, such as selenium, had been known since the 1870s to be photoemissivethat is, to emit electrons when a light shone on them. With the proper use of lenses, a pattern of lightvisible or invisibleupon a photoemissive surface can be converted into electrical impulses. In an image tube, a voltage is applied across the photoemissive surface, which is called a photocathode. This voltage accelerates the emitted electrons and causes them to multiply. To create a visible image, the emitted electrons are directed against a phosphor surface. This type of surface is the opposite of photoemissive; it emits light when electrons strike it. The phosphor is in the form of a coating on an optic lens, which focuses the resulting visible image. The phosphor screen looks much like a black-and-white television with a greenish tint (green is used because the eye is most sensitive to that
12
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY color). In essence, then, the earliest NVGs converted NIR light to electricity, amplified it, and then converted it to visible light. A microchannel plate (MCP) is a form of glass plate with millions of microscopic holes, or channels, running through it (this replaces the bundle of optical fibers). When a voltage is applied to accelerate electrons through it, the electrons repeatedly bounce off the channel walls, which are coated with the residue from etching the holes. As they do so, they dislodge additional electrons. The gain is proportional to the voltage applied. Each channel in the MCP corresponds to a pixel in the final image. In Generation 2, the photocathode, microchannel plate, and phosphor screendetector, amplifier, and displayare sealed together in a module less than an inch thick (see diagram below): The photocathode converts light to an electric current The microchannel plate amplifies it The phosphor screen converts it back to light
Generation 2 Module Night vision systems are electro-optical devices which allow you to see at night. The objective lens of the night vision device collects small particles of light called photons, such as moonlight and starlight, and focuses them on the image tube. The photocathode converts this light energy into electrons. The electrons pass through a thin wafer disk, the microchannel plate, which contains millions of channels. As the electrons pass through the channels, they are amplified thousands of times. These multiplied
13
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY electrons then strike a phosphor screen which converts them back into photons and provides you with the nighttime image of the scene in which you are viewing.
14
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
Planning Considerations When using NVDs that require ambient light, illumination will be a major factor in planning operations. Some type of illumination must exist in order for the NVDs to be effective; too much illumination can severely degrade them or make them completely ineffective. Lunar and solar cycles (see diagram and table below) play an important part of determining natural illumination at various times:
Solar Illumination
Solar Illumination Moonrise
Moonset
Twilight
Definition The instant when, In the eastern sky Under ideal meteorological conditions With standard refraction of the moon's rays, the upper edge of the moon's disk is coincident with an ideal horizon The instant when, In the western sky Under ideal meteorological conditions With standard refraction of the moon's rays, the upper edge of the moon's disk is coincident with an ideal horizon Before sunrise and again after sunset, intervals of time during which
15
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY o The upper atmosphere receives direct sunlight and reflects part of it toward the Earths surface to provide natural light o Some outdoor activities may be conducted without artificial illumination Major determinants of the amount of natural light during twilight are the o State of the atmosphere generally o Local weather conditions in particular Atmospheric conditions are best determined at the actual time and place of events; however, it is possible to establish useful, though necessarily approximate, limits applicable to large classes of activities by considering only the position of the Sun below the local horizon. Reasonable and convenient definitions have evolved for three kinds of twilight: o Civil twilight o Nautical twilight o Astronomical twilight Begins in the morning and ends in the evening when the center of the Sun is geometrically 6 degrees below the horizon Is the limit at which twilight illumination is sufficient, under good weather conditions, for terrestrial objects to be clearly distinguished At the beginning of morning civil twilight or end of evening civil twilight (ECT), the horizon is clearly defined and the brightest stars are visible under good atmospheric conditions in the absence of moonlight or other illumination In the morning before the beginning of civil twilight and in the evening after the end of civil twilight, artificial illumination is normally required to carry on ordinary outdoor activities Beginning of morning civil twilight (BMCT) is the period of time at which the sun is halfway between beginning morning and nautical twilight and sunrise, when there is enough light to see objects clearly with the unaided eye. At this time, light intensification devices are no longer effective, and the sun is six degrees below the eastern horizon End of evening civil twilight (EECT) is the instant in the evening, when the centre of the sun is at a depression angle of six degrees below an ideal horizon. At this time in the absence of moonlight, artificial lighting or adverse atmospheric conditions, the illumination is such that large objects may be seen, but no detail is discernible. The brightest stars and planets can be seen and for navigation purposes at sea, the sea horizon is clearly defined. Complete darkness, however, ends sometime prior to BMCT and begins sometime after EECT Begins in the morning and ends in the evening, when the center of 16
Civil Twilight
Nautical Twilight
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY the sun is geometrically 12 degrees below the horizon. At the dark limit of nautical twilight, the center of the Sun is geometrically 12 degrees below a horizontal plane. At the beginning or end of nautical twilight, under good atmospheric conditions and in the absence of other illumination, general outlines of ground objects may be distinguishable, but detailed outdoor operations are not possible, and the horizon is indistinct. Beginning of morning nautical twilight (BMNT) is the start of that period where, in good conditions and in the absence of other illumination, enough light is available to identify the general outlines of ground objects and conduct limited military operations. Light intensification devices are still effective and may have enhanced capabilities. At this time, the sun is 12 degrees below the eastern horizon. End of evening nautical twilight (EENT) is the instant in the evening, when the centre of the sun is at a depression angle of 12 degrees below an ideal horizon. At this time in the absence of moonlight, artificial lighting or adverse atmospheric conditions, it is dark for normal practical purposes. For navigation purposes at sea, the sea horizon is not normally visible. Begins in the morning and ends in the evening when the center of the Sun is geometrically 18 degrees below the horizon. At the dark limit of astronomical twilight, the center of the Sun is geometrically 18 degrees below a horizontal plane. Before the beginning of astronomical twilight in the morning and after the end of astronomical twilight in the evening the Sun does not contribute to sky illumination; for a considerable interval after the beginning of morning twilight and before the end of evening twilight, sky illumination is so faint that it is practically imperceptible.
Astronomical Twilight
17
AN/PVS - 14
The PVS-14 (see diagram below) allows the user to see at night using moonlight or starlight. The PVS-14 is a GEN III image intensification device similar in performance to the previously-used PVS-7 NVGs, yet smaller, lighter, and more versatile. PVS-14s can be Hand-held Carried in the utility uniform pocket Head-mounted Helmet-mounted Mounted to a weapon
PVS-14 The table below provides more information on the PVS-14. Nomenclature NSN Manual AN/PVS-14 monocular 5855-01-432TM 10271A-10/1 night vision device 0524 TM 11-5855-306-10 Operators Manual, Monocular NVD, AN/PVS-14, 30 Dec 97 Characteristics Weight: 14 oz Focus range: 25 cm to infinity Range: o 150 m (starlight) o 300 m (moonlight) Battery: 2 AA o Alkaline o Lithium Battery life: 12 hours Magnification: 1X Field of view: 40 degrees 18
Accessories Monocular with lens cap to protect lens Demist shield for high humidity and rain. Degrades visual acuity. Light interference filter (LIF) to protect eyes from lasers Sacrificial window to protect monocular lens from dust and sand scratches Compass to orient at night Tether cord is a dummy cord for o Compass o 3X magnifier Head mount and 3 browpads to mount monocular on head Helmet mount to mount monocular on helmet Head/helmet mount adapter to attach monocular to mounts Small arms mount to mount monocular to weapon 3X magnifier lens is available as an optional accessory Carrying case and strap to carry monocular Storage case to store monocular and all accessories Operators manual
Limitations In complete darkness, such as inside buildings, PVS-14s are ineffective unless additional IR illumination is present. Indicator Lights Switch OFF/RESET turns monocular off. Resets monocular after automatic shutoff. ON turns monocular on. IR turns IR beacon on. Pull and turn. A steady red dot appears. Low battery: Blinking red dot in eyepiece means less than 30 minutes of battery life. IR beacon is on: Steady red dot in eyepiece.
Automatic Shutoff The monocular shuts off automatically
19
In excessive light When monocular is removed from head mount When monocular is flipped up from the helmet mount
To turn monocular back on, turn switch to OFF/RESET, then back to ON. Monocular Adjustment The PVS-14 has four adjustments: Variable gain: Adjusts the brightness of the image to reduce eyestrain, especially in changing light. Objective lens focus: Adjusts for sharpest image of viewed object. Diopter adjustment ring: Focuses eyepiece for sharpest image of intensifier screen. To adjust, o Rotate diopter adjustment ring (see diagram below) for the clearest view of the image. o If done in a lighted condition, line up the image through the goggle and the image in your naked eye. Eye relief: On helmet and head mounts, the distance between the users eye and the monocular needs to be adjusted as close to the eye as is comfortable.
PVS-14 Maintenance To maintain the PVS-14, clean lens with lens paper. Turn in for maintenance if monocular operates intermittently or has
20
Shading Edge flow Flashing Flickering
Some blemishes or spots on screen are not deadline issues. Only higher echelon maintenance can adjust goggle resolution.
Mounts Head mount: o o o o o o o o o o Don head mount. Adjust straps. Attach head/helmet mount adapter to monocular. Attach monocular to mount. Adjust eye relief by sliding mounting bracket toward or away from eyes.
Helmet mount:
Strap helmet mount to helmet. Attach head/helmet mount adapter to monocular. Attach monocular to mount. Slide monocular up and down by loosening bracket knob. Adjust eye relief by sliding mounting bracket toward or away from eyes. o Monocular can be 21
Flipped up when not in use Removed from the helmet by depressing the lever on the right side of the helmet mount and removing the entire bracket Worn on either eye. Loosen the knob on the end of the mount adapter, rotate the monocular to the desired eye, and once the monocular is positioned, tighten the knob Small arms weapons mount: o Attach to weapon. o Mount PVS-14 to mount. o Can be used with 3X magnifier. Pre-Combat Checks Install batteries. Remove lens cap. Install o Sacrificial window o Compass o 3X magnifier IR Beacon IR beacon illuminates near objects in very dark conditions or for signaling. An enemy equipped with NVGs can detect the IR beacon. Turn beacon on by pulling switch out and forward. PVS-14 Training Most of the tactics, techniques, and procedures for the PVS-7 are the same as for PVS-14. The TTPs specific to PVS-14 are as follows: Fire the M-16A2 with PVS-14 mounted: o Mount the PVS-14 to the weapon using the small arms mount. o Adjust PVS-14 far enough away from eye to prevent injury from weapon recoil. Don and adjust head or helmet mount. Make the four monocular adjustments.
22
NIGHT OPTICS AND OBSERVATION THEORY o Op-check PAQ-4C / PEQ-2A beam by observing through PVS-14 monocular. Mounting PVS-14 to the M-16A2 is best done in stationary or defensive operations where the Marine is covering a sector from behind his weapon. Common error: Using a mounted PVS-14 during offensive actions. It is nearly impossible to use a mounted PVS-14 while moving with the weapon.
23
AN / PAS 13B THERMAL SIGHT
24
AN / PAS 13D THERMAL SIGHT
25
AN / PAS 22 THERMAL SIGHT
26
27
AN / PEQ-15 ATPIAL
Weight and Dimensions Weight (with battery) 7.5 ounces Length 4.6 inches 4.6 inches Width 2.8 inches 2.8 inches Height 1.6 inches 1.6 inches Power Performance Batteries (1) 3-Volt DL 123 Battery Life (6) Hours in DH (DUAL HIGH) Waterproof (6) Meters for one hour Laser Visible Aim Laser Output Power 4.0 mW ( 1.0 mW) Beam Divergence 0.5 mrad (+ 0.3 / -0.35 mrad) Wavelength 605 665 nm Range 25m IR Aim Laser Output Power LOW 600 W ( 100 W) Output Power HIGH 25 mW (+ 10%) Beam Divergence 0.5 mrad ( 0.3 mrad)
28

Wavelength Range IR Illuminator Output Power LOW Output Power HIGH Beam Divergence < 3.5 mW 30 mW (+ 50 / -20%) No less than 1 mrad to greater than 105 mrad 820 850 nm >2000m 820 850 nm >600m (LOW), >2000m (HIGH)
Wavelength Range
SAFETY: The ATPIAL is a Class 3b Laser. Ensuring that the safety block and safety filters are in place (see figures below) will keep the Laser in an eye safe (training) mode which prevents possible eye injury. DO NOT remove the safety block. When firing the Laser in conditions where possible specular reflection is present, the use of approved Laser safety goggles will be used. The following general safety precautions apply at all times: DO NOT stare into the Laser beams. DO NOT look into the Laser beams through binoculars or telescopes. DO NOT point the Laser beams at mirror-like surfaces. DO NOT shine the Laser beams into other individuals eyes.
Removable Safety Screw. A removable safety screw installed in the lockout position prevents the mode selector from being turned to the high power laser settings (i.e., AH, IH, DH). This configuration is appropriate for a training environment or when the ATPIAL is being stored. A hex head wrench is used to remove the safety screw when, for tactical reasons, access to the high power laser settings is desired. The safety screw storage location allows for secure storage of the safety screw after it has been removed from the Lockout Position
Visible Laser Blocking Cap (lower laser)
Illuminator Diffuser
29

Table 2-9 Mode Selector Positions Position Mode Remarks
VIS AL
VISIBLE AIM Class 3a
Visible Aim Laser is selected. Visible without the use of night vision devices. The ATPIAL will not operate. Prevents inadvertent emission of laser energy. Programming Mode is selected to set the desired Infrared (IR) Illuminator pulse rate. IR Aim Laser is selected at low power. Visible with the use of night vision devices. IR Aim Laser and IR Illuminator are both selected at low power. Visible with the use of night vision devices. IR Aim Laser is selected at high power. Visible with the use of night vision devices. IR Illuminator is selected at high power. Visible with the use of night vision devices. IR Aim Laser and IR Illuminator are both selected at high power. Visible with the use of night vision devices.
OFF
PROGRAM
AL
AIM LOW Class 1
DL
DUAL LOW Class 1/3a
AH
AIM HIGH Class 3b ILLUMINATOR HIGH Class 3b
IH
Note:
NOHD - Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance NSHD - Nominal Skin Hazard Distance OD - Optical Density (Applies to a safety lenss ability to block light transmissions)
DH
DUAL HIGH Class 3b
Table i-1 Nominal Ocular Hazard Distances for Safe Operation (NOHD)
Visible AL Class NOHD (unaided) NOHD (5-cm aided) NOHD (8-cm aided) NOHD (12cm aided) NSHD OD (unaided) OD (aided) 3R 77 m 518 m 1.03 km 1.52 km 0m 0.7 0.7 AL 1 0m 0m 0m 0m 0m AH 3B 191 m 1.13 km 2.11 km 3.09 km 0m 1.7 1.6 AH w/ Filter 1 0m 0m 0m 0m 0m IH 3B 57 m 338 m 539 m 803 m 0m 1.9 1.9 Infrared DL 3B 32.6 m 161 m 255 m 378 m 0m 0.8 0.8 DH 3B 242 m 1.43 km 2.16 km 3.16 km 0m 2.1 2.1 DL w/ Filters 1 0m 0m 0m 0m 0m DH w/ Filters 1 0m 0m 0m 0m 0m -
30
References
Operators Manual AN/PVS-14 Operators and Unit Maintenance Manual, Sight, Thermal, AN/PAS-13(V)2, AN/PAS-13(V)3 Operators Manual for Monocular Night Vision Device, AN/PVS-14 Operators and Unit Maintenance Manual, Target Pointer Illumination / Aiming Light AN/PEQ-15 MARINE CORPS TM 10470B-OI/1 ATP-TM-MFAL (AN-PEQ-15)
Notes ________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
31
Notes ________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________
32
COMBAT PROFILING B2E2718 STUDENT HANDOUT
COMBAT PROFILING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Given an area to observe, a mission, and while wearing a fighting load, conduct un-aided observation to identify threats. (MCCS-CMBH-1001) Given an area to observe and a mission, while wearing a fighting load, conduct combat profiling to determine if the anomaly is a threat. (MCCS-CMBH1003) ENABLING LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Without the aid of reference, describe the six domains of combat profiling. (MCCS-CMBH-1003a) Given an area to observe with or without observation aiding equipment, establish a baseline to detect anomalies in the area observed. (MCCS-CMBH1003b) Given a baseline of an area observed with or without observation aiding equipment, detect anomalies to determine threats. (MCCS-CMBH-1003c) OUTLINE 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMBAT PROFILING. Combat Profiling is a method of proactively identifying enemy personnel or threats through human behavior pattern analysis and recognition. Combat profiling is a tool that Marines can use to improve their ability to move through the Decision Cycle. Combat Profiling influences actions at all levels of command; not only increasing individual survival on the battlefield, but assisting the commander in his Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. Combat Profiling equips Marines with a more thorough understanding of Human behavior and ability to read the Human Terrain. Whatever the threat; be it an IED, ambush, surveillance, or snipers, there are certain observable and measurable characteristics that the enemy must have to be successful. Combat Profiling works on people, places and events, vehicles, things, and in any culture or location. a. Combat Profiling is a combination of time-tested, current-trend profiling, and behavior-patterning analysis. This analysis can effectively be used to detect
enemies hiding within a civilian population. Combat Profiling relies on identifying typical human behavior patterns, through the six profiling domains, to establish a baseline. Humans, by nature, tend to follow predictable patterns of behavior. b. Combat profiles are indicators based on the enemy's techniques, tactics, and procedures (TTPs); and their observable and measurable behavior patterns. When Marines identify the enemies TTPs and behavior patterns, they can assist you to identify the enemy among the civilians. Profiles are deviations (anomalies) from a normal or typical behavior (the baseline) which would lead you to believe that an observed situation (persons, events, vehicles and objects) may have the potential for harming you or other people. These deviations are anomalies that stand out from the surrounding area's baseline. BASELINE+ANOMALY=DECISION. c. Enemies, including criminals and terrorists, attack targets of opportunity (the soft target). The targets they choose to attack will give them maximum payoff. In order to conduct their attacks, they will have to conduct preparatory operations. They may steal cars or materials that are non-explosive to make IEDs. Individuals engaged in these activities could be doing them in preparation for attacks. It should be noted that enemies will attack hardened targets when the high payoff value is worth the cost. d. Enemies will conduct planning and may even rehearse their activities prior to carrying out an attack. Part of their rehearsal may include committing some of the crimes mentioned above. If Marines know this is part of their enemies TTPs, they will know what to for look for and create additional opportunities to catch the enemy before they attack. It is important to understand that all terrorists are criminals; however, not all criminals are terrorists. Their small crimes seem harmless, but all of those crimes added together lay the foundation for larger threats such as IEDs and ambushes. e. Various aspects of the enemys personality and Tactics Techniques and Procedures (TTPs) are displayed before, during, and after an attack. This information is combined with other relevant details and physical evidence to develop a practical working knowledge of the threat location. Combat Profiling assists in identifying hidden threats from people, objects, vehicles and terrain. By utilizing combat profiling a Marine can detect a threat and make a legal, moral, and ethical decision. f. The process of creating, updating, and maintaining a Combat Profile is timeconsuming, yet a mandatory process. Notes:
2. OVERVIEW OF THE COMBAT PROFILING METHODOLOGY. The basics of Combat Profiling can be easily understood by the most junior of Marines; as they gain experience and maturity, they will be able to refine this skill further. The following flow chart will explain what is happening in a Marine's mind when he is applying the skills of Combat Profiling. Each one of these will be discussed in greater detail throughout this lesson.
Combat Hunter Methodology
Reasoning Tactical Shortcut Decision
Mission
Recognition Observation Capture Analysis Kill
Experience Baseline
Facts
Training Anomaly Mental File Folders
Critical Thinking
Contact
Context and Relevance
Leave it Alone
Heuristic
Individual Body Language
Environmental indicators
Biometric Cues
Kinesics
Proxemics
Atmospherics
Geographics
a. Observation. The Marine is currently involved in any type of missions, while on this mission he is currently making observations, creating his baseline. When the Marine identifies an anomaly, he immediately begins a reasoning process. The observation process that the Marine uses is the exact same as the one which we learned earlier on in the course. b. Reasoning. The Marine immediately tries to recognize the anomaly through his recognition process. These are based off of his experience, then training, and eventually Mental File Folders that he has created. Next, or often at the exact same time, the Marine is conducting an analysis of the anomaly.
These are based off his ability to recognize, but with the addition of the facts that are at hand (current observation, intelligence, etc.) Finally, they must look at event through the context and relevance of the current situation. c. Develop A Tactical Shortcut (Heuristic). Through the reasoning applied to the anomaly, the Marine will develop a Heuristic, which is a tactical-shortcut. A Heuristic is just enough information to draw a reasonable conclusion. It is basically a scene or a situation that he has seen before and can accurately predict the outcome or circumstances. The more Marines train to recognize and profile anomalies, the fast they will develop Heuristics. The development of a heuristics is right between the Orient and Decide phase of the decision cycle. d. Decide. The decision is immediately made by the Marine at the end of the process; either Kill, Capture, Contact, or leave it alone. Notes:
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BASELINE. Everything has a baseline, places, events, cultures; and especially the Human Terrain. A baseline is a basis for 5
comparison and a reference point against which other things can be evaluated. A Marine creates a baseline by looking at the current situation, determining the context and relevance of the observations. The Marine then measures that against the template and prototypical matches (File Folders). Baselines are dynamic and are in a constant state of flux. A baseline must be constantly updated to incorporate changes and to identify anomalies. This constitutes the first two steps of Boyds Decision Cycle; Observe and Orient. a. Anomaly: is a deviation from the baseline, anything that rises above; something that is there that should not be there. Or it could be something that falls below the baseline; it is something that is absent that should be there. Examples of an anomaly could be a vehicle out of place (rises above), the lack of people (falls below), or a sudden change in the mood of an area (both). The presence of such anomalies indicates a potentially important change; every anomaly must be analyzed. This represents the orient phase of Boyds Decision Cycle. (1) The Profiling Domains. An anomaly is profiled under two different subcategories (six total domains): individual and environmental indicators. (a) Individual Indicators. Individual indicators are some ways of communicating without actually speaking.
(b) Environmental Indicators. These domains are based upon the interactions between different people and their surroundings. 6
b. Decision. A Marine must make a decision based upon his analysis of the anomaly. The common language used allows a Marine to report and articulate his decision. This represents the third phase of Boyds Decision Cycle. c. Action. A Marine must act upon this decision. The baseline + anomaly=decision. This is the fourth phase of Boyds Decision Cycle. This will be one of the following; (1) Kill. (2) Capture. (3) Contact. (4) Leave it alone. (Leave it alone may only be chosen after some form of contact). Notes:
4. OBSERVING AND RECOGNIZING THE ANOMALY. Combat Profiling develops appropriate file folders based on the perceptual and cognitive principles of observation taught earlier in the course. These file folders are developed through an individuals life experiences - the onsite, hands-on, real-life learning with a mentor who facilitates absorption of knowledge seen through context and relevance. a. Context and Relevance. Context and relevance defines a baseline, we collectively measure knowns and unknowns against the baseline to determine the anomalies. (1) Context. The background, environment, framework, setting, or situation surrounding an event or occurrence. An example would be the difference between a car parked on the side of a road with the hood up in America versus Afghanistan or Iraq. While they are both the same actions, the American car is probably someone broken down; but due to the fact that Afghanistan and Iraq are currently in a war, the context suggests that they have the potential to be VBIEDs. (2) Relevance. The relation of something to the matter at hand. An example would be if a clown was to appear in a company formation, it would appear out of place because it has nothing to due with the matter at hand. Thus the clown would be an anomaly.
b. Emotion and Memory Link. Emotion and Memory Link: An emotion and memory link refers to associating an emotional response with something that is learned. If individuals make strong enough emotion and memory links during training, they will instinctively refer to that training during periods of high stress (or boredom). Whenever individuals have an emotional tie to an event, object, 8
person, or information, it will be easily remembered because it involves the more instinctive or emotional parts of the brain (Midbrain) as well as the more rational parts of the brain (Forebrain). The emotional responses tied to these memories will be strong, and can be positive or negative. The more realistic the training, the more intuitive the instinct becomes. As training becomes more and more realistic, the brain has difficulty recognizing a simulated event and a real event. Notes:
5. CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS. It is important to understand that all anomalies and profiles must be made through the context and relevance of the local culture. What may appear strange, or conversely insignificant, to our western culture; may have significant or no relevance at all to the local populace. It is therefore critical that we become familiar with the local culture in order to understand the implications and significance of anomalies. A better understanding of the culture will allow us to detect anomalies at a much greater speed.
a. Iconography. Iconography is the images and symbolic representations that are traditionally associated with a person or a subject the images and symbolic representations that are traditionally associated with a person or a subject. These are most commonly seen as depictions of religious figures, national leaders, pop-culture icons, or historical heroes to a group or faction.
b. Significance of Color. Color is often used to signify an individual relation to group. These often have historic, religious, or ideological meanings. Some examples:
10
(1) Gang affiliations: Bloods (red) and Crips (blue) (2) Flags. (a) Western/European countries tend to use Red, White, and Blue. (b) Communist Flags use red. (c) Muslim countries use red, green, black, and white. (3) Family affiliations, coats of arms. (4) Religious. (a) Catholics wear different colors at mass. (b) Muslim colors are white, red, green, and black. (c) Jews use blue and white. c. Socio-Economic Factors. Socio-economic factors are based upon how the overall economic situation of an area affects the social factors of daily life.
11
SocioEconomic Factors
d. Family Interaction. What is the role of the male and female in a family? How important is the immediate and extended family to the individual? What role does the family unit have in economy, religion, and government? e. Authority. How do people in a specific area view authority? Most western democracies respect the legitimate authority of the representative government. Other culture, however, will often view their initial authority is to either religion or family. f. Flag Example. Notes:
6. ORIENTING ON THE ANOMALY. Combat Profiles are a series of File Folders that you compare everything you see, smell, taste, feel, touch. Your 12
Midbrain (Cognitive Brain) will attempt to make order from chaos every time. You must train yourself to look and more importantly, to analyze what you are looking at. a. INTERPRETING BIOMETRIC CUES. The interpretation of physiological reactions which are autonomic, instinctive, unlearned reactions to a stimuli. This something that your body is doing is almost impossible to control (note: the amount of training and practice it would take to control these is beyond the capabilities of the average person, one example would be Aldrich Ames). Some examples are histamines, adrenaline and endorphins which all elicit a human body response such as redness, swelling, sweating and fixed pupils. Understanding these indicators can warn of intent. Note: the term Biometrics are individual, measurable traits that are specific to an individual. Examples of biometrics are an individuals finger prints, retinal scan, or heat signature that identify a specific individual.
(1) Histamines. Histamines cause a reddening of the skin and cause the local area to itch. This physiological response can be caused by anger, nervousness, or embarrassment. The redness is most noticeable on the face, ears and neck. (a) Blushing in the face and ears when embarrassed is a histamine response. (b) Extreme anger will cause reddening of face.
13
(2) Adrenaline. The addition or absence of adrenaline can cause a person to turn pale in preparation for fight, flight or freeze. (a) Pulses can become visible in a persons chest and veins. (b) Hands, legs, and even the entire body may start shaking (c) As the body temperature increases, individuals will start to perspire, often to a point that is visible to others.
(3) Pupil Dilation/Constriction. The amount or lack of dilation in the human eye is a physiological and biological response to an external stimulus. (a) The pupil will dilate for a fraction of a second when an individual sees something it likes in order to take in more of the picture. (b) Both dilation and constriction will occur when under the influence of alcohol and narcotics. Notes:
14
b. INTERPRETING KINESICS. The interpretation of body movements, gestures, facial expressions, etc., as a means of communication; also included are grooming habits and the positioning of the body in space. This is often referred to as body-language. Kinesics can be mimicked, faked; but like biometric cues, it is difficult to control a bodys kinesics. An example would be when actors are trying to portray different emotions when filming movies, often it takes multiple takes because they have difficulty matching body language and spoken words. Good actors are able to match their language with their body language. Additionally, actors are only able to portray their characters for a finite amount of time before they have to revert back to original state as a human. Very experienced actors try to get around this by using method acting. (1) People give and respond to literally thousands of nonverbal messages everyday. People react to wordless messages emotionally, often without understanding why. People notice minute details because the reveal how we relate to one another, who we think we are, and who we want to project we are. Studies suggest that up to 65% of communication between humans is non-verbal, and it is generally agreed that 99% of all emotional communication is non-verbal. This will allow a Marine to understand a person's emotional connection to a person or thing. (2) Learned, Innate, and Mixed Kinesics. Kinesic cues may be learned, innate, or a mix of the two.
15
(a) Learned. Learned Kinesics are ones that we pick up based upon the culture that we grow up in. We see others do this and we accept these kinesics as part of our own way of communicating. The eyewink, thumbs-up, and military salutes/gestures are examples of learned gestures. (b) Innate. These are kinesics that are "hard-wired" into our DNA and are displayed by all humans no matter what culture we were born into; eye-blinking and throat clearing are examples of innate kinesics. (c) Mixed. Mixed cues are ones that being with an innate cue, but are then shaped by the culture that we are raised in. Laughing, crying, shoulder shrugging, and most other signals are "mixed" because they originate in as an innate action, but cultural rules later shape their timing, energy, and use. (d) Facial Expressions. Typically, facial expressions of disgust, surprise, and other primary emotions are universal across cultures. People are raised to lie with facial expressions; a person who may want to kill you might approach you with a smile on their face. (3) Examples. Examples of body language include, but are not limited to: (a) Scratching the head occurs when the person is confused, when the person is attempting to be deceptive. (b) Running fingers through the hair can be a nervous tic, or a sign of subconscious affection. (c) Rubbing the back of the head can signify a headache or that the person is being deceptive. (d) The placement of the hands on the hips is a power signal. On a male, this placement directs the fingers towards the genitals and pushes out the elbows to make the subject look larger. (e) Rubbing the hands together includes wringing of the hands or rubbing the palms together slowly or vigorously. Wringing of the hands signifies nefarious intent or nervous energy. Rubbing the palms together slowly signifies the same thing, while rubbing the palms together vigorously signifies anticipation of a successful outcome. (f) Balling of the fists always signifies anger and aggression. (g) Tapping the feet indicates impatience. When a person taps their foot slowly, they are unconsciously walking away. When they tap their foot quickly, they are running away.
16
(h) A female crossing her ankles indicates she is attempting to appear more approachable. (i) Direction of the toes indicates where an individual is focusing their attention. Toes pointed at you indicate the individual is interested in you, where as their toes pointed at the door indicates they are ready to leave. (4) Kinesis are a very in-depth domain and several important items must be remembered. (a) Always remember to establish a baseline before determining kinesics. (b) Kinesics must be read in cluster, one single Kinesics cannot indicate intent, there must be other Kinesics displayed in order to draw a conclusion. (c) Different people may have different Kinesics, these are not a onesize-fits all. (d) Kinesics cues will tend to differ between gender, even within the same culture. (e) Culture effects kinesics, you must understand the culture before you can properly identify kinesics. Notes:
c. INTERPRETING PROXEMICS. The interpretations of spatial relationship within the context of Cultural Norms, Tactical Considerations, and Psycho-Social Factors in order to determine the dynamics of human interaction and reactions to their surroundings. Proxemics is the act of betraying affiliations through the dynamics of proximity. Literally, this is your proximity (distance) to and from other people based off physiological, sociological, and physical principles. Proxemics are not limited to the relationship between people, it can be applied to a persons relation to things, places, and events. This happens at the unconscious, subconscious and conscious levels. (1) Relative Distances. The relative distance between groups of people is defined in four sub-categories. It must be remembered that different
17
cultures will follow a different set of spatial relationships, for example American, Canadian, British, and Nordic Cultures tend to keep greater distances (Far Phase). Conversely, Latin American and Arab Cultures have much closer distances (Close Phase). A person's pitch and tone of voice will change in each one of these groups, as well as the nonverbal language described earlier, when they are in these different areas.
(a) Intimate Distance. The intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering; generally only the closest of friends and intimates is less than six inches (close phase) or 6-18 (Far Phase). (b) Personal Distance. The personal distance for interaction among good friends is 1.5-2.5 feet (Close Phase) and 2.5-4 feet (Far Phase). (c) Social Distance. The social distances kept by most people when interacting amongst acquaintances is 4-7 feet (Close Phase) and 7-12 (Far Phase). (d) Public Distance. The distance kept for public speaking is 12-25 feet (Close Phase) and 25 feet or more (Far Phase).
18
(2) Proxemic Push/Pull. These distances will determine if someone you know, or an object, is "pulled" into a closer ring, or is "pushed" away because they do not fit in that category. (a) Proxemic Push. Proxemic Push is the natural tendency for a person or group of people to move away from other people/objects which are unfamiliar or are perceived as threat. This can also occur when a situation or area is un-agreeable or they do not want to associate with a specific person, group of people, or object. I) Marines walking through a market place in an area where they are not supported by the indigenous population will see people moving away, children moving inside, shops closing down, etc. II) An average person noticing criminal or enemy activity will turn the corner to avoid being within the same proximity. (b) Proxemic Pull. Proxemic Pull is the natural tendency for a person or a group of people to be attracted to other people, object, or areas which are familiar and perceived as friendly to them. I) Kids running to the ice cream truck. II) People trying to get close to celebrities or important individuals. III) People in a meeting will sit in groups based upon who is familiar with whom.
19
(3) Proximity Negates Skill. The closer your enemy is to you the less skill is needed to harm or kill you. By observing at a greater distance, a Marine increases the time between himself and a potential threat, giving him more time to make decisions. (a) When a threat is perceived a natural instinct is to move away from it. Manipulating the time and distance gap by moving away (Proxemic push) from the perceived threat provides stand-off and creates valuable time for the observer to react to a situation. (b) When a threat is not perceived, or in a comfortable environment, the natural inclination is to approach the situation (Proxemic pull), diminishing standoff and reaction time. (c) Allowing someone to get close to you can tell you a lot about your relationship with that person. People who do not know each other will act differently when they meet compared to two people meeting who have known each other for a long time. (d) Understanding the effective range of your enemys weapons, their fields of observation, and TTPs will assist a Marine in determining how close the enemy must get in order to have effects against friendly forces.
20
(4) Person of Interest Indicators. Person of interest indicators include the following: adoration, mimicry, entourage and direction. When taken collectively, they may identify a Person of Interest (POI) within a group. (a) Adoration. The outward sign of affection towards an individual by another individual or group. Adoration is commonly associated when a person or group holds an individual in a higher status. Adoration can be negative or positive (fear, gratitude, respect, etc). An example of this would a group of Marines coming to attention when a senior officer walks into the room. (b) Mimicry. When one individual takes on the attributes of another individual by mirroring and matching their characteristics. This occurs because the stimulus of the individuals status is noted and others attempt to attain the same status.
` 21
(c) Entourage. When an individual is accompanied by at least one or more people who tend to show subordination or submissive behavior. An example is the Commander and his subordinate staff. (d) Direction. The leader of the group will continually give direction to subordinates. These directions may be subtle or overt, conscious or unconscious. This includes verbal orders, gestures, the pace and direction of movement and the effect on the general atmosphere. An example of a subtle direction would be when the Commander enters the room, and all the individuals in the room begin working on their computers. Notes:
d. INTERPRETING ATMOSPHERICS. The interpretation of environmental mood consciously through the five senses and subconsciously through intuition (the sixth sense). To the Marine, atmosphere is how a place looks, sounds, 22
tastes, feels and smells. Every baseline has an atmosphere, so does every vehicle, crowd or event. Paying attention to changes in the atmosphere of a community or individual and how it affects the baseline, will allow you to capture or kill the enemy before they can stage an attack. (1) If you worked in a prison each day you might come in to a noisy, hostile environment (your baseline). If today, you walked in to dead quiet and calm, something has changed (anomaly). (2) If you manned an OP each day and observed a marketplace, your baseline might be a noisy, busy environment that is full of people of all ages and genders. Today, you observed a calm, barren market with only males present. (3) Atmospherics for a Marine can be glaringly obvious, such as shops closing as the patrol approaches, to very subtle, such as fewer children than normal in a particular area. (4) Atmospherics can include hostile incident indicators that often seem to occur spontaneously. These indicators can alert Marines to imminent danger. The most obvious indicators are the sudden absence of normal routines, patterns and attitudes of the local populace or the presence of abnormal activity. Some examples are: (a) Unusual absence of pedestrian traffic, empty porches, etc. (b) Stores, markets, or street vendors closed suddenly or without explanation. (c) Dramatic change in civilian attitude toward patrol members. (d) Unfamiliar individuals or vehicles within the patrol area. (e) Vehicles riding unusually low due to overloading (ferrying people, weapons, explosives). (f) Anti-American graffiti in the area. (g) Civilian workers failing to appear at firm bases. (h) Sudden change of civilian sentiment in newspaper articles and radio and television broadcasts. (i) Families sending women and children to live elsewhere.
Notes:
23
e. INTERPRETING GEOGRAPHICS. The study of the physical geography/weather of an area and the Human Terrain within this area; the interpretation of the relationship between people and their physical surrounding to determine the significance of social interactions as it relates to their motivations. People who are familiar with the Geographics of an area will act, walk and drive differently than persons who are unfamiliar. Geographics can further be described by anchor points, habitual areas, natural lines of drift (pathways), reference points and landmarks. At the higher-levels, Geographics will assist in the development of the Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB). Geographics are a combination of two specific items, the geographical terrain and the inhabitants (Human Terrain) in this area.
(1) Habitual Areas. An area where most individuals within a given group or sect would frequent without reservation. These are usually public areas or a place where most people in the baseline would feel comfortable and relatively safe.
24
(2) Anchor Points. An area where only certain individuals within a given group or sect would frequent without reservation; individuals outside this group or sect would have reservations, feel uncomfortable, and generally avoid this area. A location at which an individual from a particular group or sect has established as their own and can associate and maintain a level of comfort. Anchor points can be both good and bad. (a) Gang Members in LA may choose the Gazebo in a nearby park to congregate while Gang Members in Detroit will choose the front entrance of a neighborhood liquor store. Both areas will exhibit graffiti and nuances such as icons to identify that specific gang or sect. This is referred to as tagging or marking gang territory. Note: some times graffiti can be positive as well. (b) Biker Bars are public bars, but are typically filled with bikers and avoided by the general public. This would probably have posters for Sturgis and Harley-Davidson on the walls and bikes parked outside the bar. (c) Police stations are anchor points for law enforcement; criminals and terrorists would obviously feel uncomfortable and avoid these locations. These would probably have state and local flags, community relations posters, and other symbols related to law enforcement. (d) The VFW is filled with a specific group of people, veterans. Unless people were familiar with the military, they would feel uncomfortable at the VFW. These would probably have military moto pictures, flags of the Marine Corps, Army, Navy, and Air Force. Additionally, members 25
of the VFW typically wear some type of clothing that associates them with their military service while at the VFW Notes:
f. INTERPRETING HEURISTICS. Heuristics are a rapid method of mentally imprinting and labeling observed behaviors. Heuristics are stereotypes, a "Tactical Shortcut" for the brain, just enough information to draw a reasonable conclusion. The Marine already has file folders for some of these heuristics; others he will have to develop by using the profiling methodology. (1) All of a Marine's impressions will come from Heuristics. These can be both good and bad, because a corrupt file folder can create a Heuristic that will give you an altered sense of reality, leading to negative results. Heuristics are separate from the other domains, because elements of all the other domains make up a Heuristic. A Heuristic is the brain making a prototypical match against your file folders. By having Heuristics, a Marine is able to draw a conclusion and accelerate through the Decision Cycle. (2) Hiding in Plain Site. In order to determine if something is hiding in plain site, a Marine must be able to master Heuristics. By increasing a Marines file folders, or possessing the ability to create new Heuristics through the Combat Profiling Methodology, they will be able to identify the anomalies that betray the enemy attempting to hide in plain site. Example. A Marine on post looks down a street and sees a car parked on the side of the road. The driver exits the vehicle and pulls out a piece of paper. He unfolds the paper across the hood of the car. He then orients his body and orients the piece of paper. He waves down a pedestrian who points to the piece of paper. It is reasonable to assume that the men are looking at a map, this is a heuristic. We do not have to look at the piece of paper and see streets, terrain features, or grid lines to know it is a map; it is through the peoples behavior and how they used the piece of paper that we know it is a map. Notes:
26
7. APPLICATION OF THE "COMBAT RULE OF THREES". In most cases, a single cue is not enough to make a decision, unless that cue is an immediate threat to the Marine (the inherent right to self-defense as per ROEs and Continuum of Force). When three anomalies are detected, however, a decision must be made. It must be remembered that a single anomaly may warrant a decision; however, once three have been identified, a decision must be made. a. Clusters. Read all cues in a cluster, three or more is enough to make a rational decision. Once a cluster has been developed, a course of action should be developed. b. Anytime you get to three, you must make a decision. c. If file folders are corrupted and there is insufficient information you will have a negative output. Notes:
8. PROFILING AND THE DECISION CYCLE. The Marine's five senses, and to some extent intuition (the sixth sense), are used to come to a reasonable conclusion. The five senses, especially sight, are assisted by equipment such as binoculars, RCOs, thermal devices, and night optical devices. This reasonable conclusion will fall under four actions. a. Kill. The Marine has reasoned that the threat is so immediate and deadly that terminating the threat is the only course of action that will prevent themselves, or other Marines in the unit from being killed. b. Capture. The Marine has reasoned that the individual is worth capturing for extrapolation and exploitation, or the Marine identifies the individual as a Person of Interest on the Immediate Detention List. c. Contact. The Marine's suspicions have been aroused, and they have decided that the individual has displayed certain behaviors that require further investigation. Contact takes place in many forms and degrees. Simply maintaining observation for a period of time is a form of contact; another option is physically approaching individuals and conducting tactical questioning or tactical debriefing to gain more information from/about the individuals.
27
d. Leave it Alone. Not all anomalies must be contacted in some form or fashion as described above. A Marine may go through the reasoning process and decide that the anomaly is not worth further observation or contact, in which case the Marine may decide to leave it alone. The choice of this decision will restart the cycle at the observe phase. Notes:
References
Proximity (Argyle and Ingham, 1972) Interpersonal Behavior (Argyle, 1967) Body Language (Birdwhistell, 1970) Proxemics (Cook, 1970) Body Language, Kinesics (Cundiff, 1972) Biometrics (R Dale-Guthrie, 1976) Proximity, Geographics (Charles Darwin, 1872)] Micro Facial (DuChenne DeBoulogne, 1849) Non Verbal Communication (Key, 1975) Aggression in Body Language (Lorenz, 1967) Interpersonal Behavior (McCroskey, Larsen, and Knapp, 1971) How to read a person like a book, (Nierenberg and Calero, 1971) Micro Facial (Russell, 1993) Biometrics (Schultz, 1937) Personal Space, Geographics (Sommer, 1969) Proximity (Wolfe, 1948)
28
TACTICAL FUNDAMENTALS B2F2737 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2F2737
Tactical Fundamentals
Introduction The Marine Corps prides itself in warfighting excellence. Integral to this end is a leaders ability, regardless of rank or billet, to not only make timely decisions, but tactically sound decisions. This student handout pertains equally to all Marine leaders, regardless of rank, MOS, or billet. All Marines face tactical decisions in battle regardless of their roles. The acute tactical leader is one who hones their warfighting skills through the focused study of tactics utilizing the nine Principles of War. The nine Principles of War, when properly applied, provides the transition from the theoretical application of tactics to the practical. This lesson will give you a framework of how to make sound tactical decisions and to begin to understand the tactical decision making process at the tactical level of war. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Tactical Tenets and the Principles of War Understanding Tactics Understanding Tactics & the Principles of War The Tactical Tenets: Achieving a Decision The Tactical Tenets: Gaining an Advantage The Tactical Tenets: Being Faster The Tactical Tenets: Adapting The Tactical Tenets: Cooperating The Tactical Tenets: Exploiting Success and Finishing Summary / References / Glossary Page 4 5 6 10 13 14 17 18 19 20
Importance
In This Lesson
B2F2737
Tactical Fundamentals (Continued)

Learning Objectives Be technically and tactically proficient. (MCCS-Core2102) Make sound and timely decisions. (MCCS-Core-2104) Without the aid of reference describe the principles of war without error. (MCCS-OFF-2102i) Without the aid of reference describe maneuver warfare concepts without error. (MCCS-OFF-2102j) Given a mission and commander's intent in a changing situation, while serving as a leader of Marines, integrate maneuver warfare into decision-making to accomplish the mission. (MCCS-OFF-2102k)
B2F2737
Tactical Tenets and the Principles of War

The discussion of Tactics and the amalgamated Nine Principles of War is one founded in doctrine. As with all our doctrine, its foundation is laid in MCDP 1, Warfighting. MCDP 1 also lays the foundation for the Marine Corps use of doctrine, in which it states on page 56, Our doctrine does not consist of procedures to be applied in specific situations so much as it sets forth general guidance that requires judgment in application. Therefore, while authoritative, doctrine is not prescriptive. In short, to effectively apply our tactical doctrine, one must not look for the formula in which to apply the theory, but rather understand the theory itself and recognize when and where the theory is applicable. Tactics is defined as the art and science of winning engagements and battles in MCDP 1-3, Tactics. Specifically, it refers to the concepts and methods we use to accomplish a particular objective in either combat or military operations other than war. In war, tactics includes the use of firepower and maneuver, the integration of different arms, and the immediate exploitation of successes to defeat the enemy as well as sustainment of forces during combat. The Marine Corps warfighting philosophy of maneuver warfare is rooted in the nine Principles of War, which are described in detail in MCDP 1-0, Marine Corps Operations. Commonly identified by the acronym MOOSEMUSS, they are central to the understanding of tactics, and are at the heart of the practical application of tactical theory. As defined in FM 3-90 Tactics, the Principles of War lend, rigor and focus to the purely creative aspects of tactics and provide a crucial link between pure theory and actual application. Key to the successful execution of the concepts and methods we use to accomplish a particular objective are six tactical tenets:

Achieving a decision. Gaining an advantage. Being faster. Adapting. Cooperating. Exploiting success and finishing.
Before we discuss the details of each, we will first seek to understand Tactics more fully.
B2F2737
Understanding Tactics
There are two commonly delineated aspects of Tactics. One is the Art of Tactics, the other, the Science of Tactics. They are defined below. The Art of Tactics The art of tactics lies in how we creatively form and apply military force in a given situation. It involves the creation, positioning, and maneuver of combat power. For example, understanding tactics allows us to answer questions such as when do we attack the enemy using a frontal, flanking, or enveloping attack. This creativity is a developed capacity acquired through education, practice, and experience. The science of tactics lies in the technical application of combat power. It includes mastering the techniques and procedures that contribute to the warfighting skills such as marksmanship, gunnery, land navigation, and close air support. The execution of these techniques and procedures must become second nature to us; this requires intensive and continuous training. Without mastery of basic warfighting skills, artistry and creativity in their application are impossible. We must always strive for brilliance in the basics at all levels to ensure success.
The Science of Tactics
The common question asked when seeking to gain an understanding is the importance of one over the other. It should be recognized that the true tactician sees this as an inaccurate question, realizing that tactical applications are a composite of the two. We often talk about Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTPs), in which tactics could be considered the art of the application, while the technique and the procedure is the science. Tactics will require ones judgment and adaptation to apply key tenets to the unique circumstances of a specific situation most often presented by a thinking enemy. Techniques and procedures are a toolkit of established patterns that can be applied repeatedly. The Tactician is one who will apply a unique combination of the three to solve a particular problem.
B2F2737
Understanding Tactics and the Principles of War

The nine Principles of War are aids to a leader as they consider how to accomplish a mission. As opposed to being prescriptive steps or actions that must be accomplished, they are guidelines for conducting wars and MOOTW at all levels of war. Sightless adherence to these principles will not guarantee success, but each deviation brings with it a risk. It is the Tactician who will thoughtfully apply these principles, recognizing the risk versus gain of any omission, to focus their tactical thought into execution. The nine Principles of War is easily remembered by the acronym MOOSEMUSS. They are defined below. Mass The concept of concentrating the effects of combat power at the decisive place and time to achieve decisive results. Vital to the concept of mass is having the insight to identify the decisive place and time. Concentrated fire power is irrelevant if applied to an objective of no significance. We seek mass to overwhelm the enemy in an attempt to deliver the decisive blow. It applies not only to fires, but supporting elements as well. It is closely related to Economy of Force, as force available is limited and we must decide when and where it is appropriate to mass or economize our force. The concept of directing every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective. Related to Mass and Economy of Force, we must know where to Mass and where to economize, which is defined by a decisive objective. It is related to Unity of Command, as each subordinate must be lead by the intent of one commander, towards the commonly defined objective. Communication is also critical, ensuring that the elements of the military operation are acting in consonance towards the same end. The concept that we, as a fighting force, are continuously focused on seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative. Maintaining an offensive mindset does not imply that we seek to avoid defense. Rather it implies the use of the defense as a temporary expedient to prepare to resume the offense. Offense being the decisive form of combat, it is the method by which we exploit the enemy weakness, impose our will, and determine the course of war. The concept of never permitting the enemy to acquire an unexpected advantage. We look to, at appropriate times and places, adopt measures to prevent the enemy from imposing their will on us faster than we can react. It allows us to ensure our freedom of action on the battlefield and preserve our combat power for decisive action. It does not imply the over-application of caution to eliminate risk, but rather seeks to enhance our operations through bold maneuver and acceptance of calculated risk.
Objective
Offensive
Security
B2F2737
Understanding Tactics and the Principles of War (Continued)

Economy of Force The concept of allocating minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts. This goes hand-in-hand with the concept of Mass, as in order for us to concentrate decisive combat power at the decisive point, we must know where to economize forces at our secondary efforts. This also implies an acceptance of calculated risk at these secondary efforts. Limited attacks, defense, deceptions, or delaying actions can help us economize forces allowing us the weight the main effort with Mass. The concept that we seek to place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible application of combat power. The disadvantage we seek to place the enemy in is psychological (destroy his will to fight), technological (superior equipment), temporal (operate at a tempo greater that the enemys), or spatial (a positional disadvantage). Maneuver alone will not defeat a force, however maneuver in conjunction with Mass, Surprise, and Economy of Force allows an inferior force to achieve decisive superiority at the necessary time and place. The concept that for every objective, we ensure unity of effort under one responsible commander. Most recognized practical application occurs through use of Commanders Intent. It allows for and leverages Mass, Objective, and Economy of Force at the decisive point. The concept that we seek to strike the enemy at a time or place or in a manner for which he is unprepared. It does not require the enemy to be caught unaware, but rather that he becomes aware too late to react effectively. May include the use of speed (Maneuver in Time), unexpected forces (Mass), operating at night (Psychological and Technological Maneuver), deception (Psychological Maneuver), Security, variation in techniques, and use of unfavorable terrain (Spatial Maneuver). The concept that the preparation of clear uncomplicated plans; and clear concise orders, ensures thorough understanding and therefore ease of execution. Plans and orders should be as simple and direct as the situation and mission dictate. This reduces the chance of misunderstanding, injecting internal friction and therefore ineffective execution. Ceteris paribus, the simplest plan is preferred.
Maneuver
Unity of Command
Surprise
Simplicity
B2F2737
Main Effort: The Main Effort is employed at the decisive point with concentrated Mass and firepower, under supporting fires from Supporting efforts, surprising the enemy from the flank. Supporting Efforts: Force is Economized under the supporting efforts, providing Security to the Main Effort who strikes at decisive point. Under Unity of Command, they understand they are a supporting effort whose purpose is to support the Main Effort by fire.
Main Effort: The Main Effort is employed at the decisive point with concentrated Mass and firepower, under supporting fires from Supporting efforts, exploiting the vulnerability in the enemys defenses.
Supporting Efforts: Force is Economized under the supporting efforts, exposing the enemys vulnerability allowing the Main Effort to strike at decisive point. Under Unity of Command, they understand they are a supporting effort whose purpose is to allow the Main Effort to attack Objective A.
B2F2737

To reiterate, the Tactician will thoughtfully apply these principles, recognizing the risk versus gain of any omission, to focus their tactical thought into execution. The graphic below shows how General Kawaguchi sacrificed mass and simplicity and underestimated his Economy of Force in an effort to surprise US Marines with his threepronged attack on Guadalcanal. Despite having twice the force, General Kawaguchis main effort was effectively defeated by Col Edsons Raiders on Bloody Ridge on September 14, 1942.
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Achieving a Decision

In the past, military forces often won only incremental gains when they sought victory -taking a hill or a town, pushing forward only a few kilometers or adding to the body count. Sometimes these incremental gains were a result of a competent enemy or the chaotic nature of war. However, many times commanders sought incremental gains as a means to achieve victory. Therefore, the Marine Corps has embraced a more flexible, imaginative, and effective way to wage war called maneuver warfare. In contrast to tactics based on incremental attrition, tactics in maneuver warfare applies Mass through a weighted main effort at the decisive point to attain the Objective, or decisive action. Understand the Situation How do we achieve decisions? The first step is for the unit leader to understand the situation. The successful tactician studies the situation to develop in his or her mind a clear picture of what is happening, how it got this way, and how it might further develop. Considering the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and fire support available, and time (METT-TC), the unit leader must think through all actions that determine the desired result and ascertain the means to achieve that result. Next, the unit leader must filter the information and look for patterns to achieve a decision. The unit leader must ask what actions would be decisive throughout the conduct of the entire operation. As the situation changes so will the solutions and the actions that derive from it. For every situation, the unit leader must decide which of the countless and other confusing pieces of information are important and reliable. The unit leader must determine what the enemy is trying to do and counter those efforts. The unit leaders skill is essentially pattern recognition, which is essentially after seeing only a few pieces of the puzzle, being able to fill in the rest of the picture correctly. Pattern recognition is the ability to understand the significance and dynamics of a situation with limited information. Pattern recognition is essential for success on the battlefield. Analytical Decision Making Sometimes there may be time to analyze situations deliberately and to consider multiple options. Comparing several options and selecting the best one is known as analytical decision-making.
Intuitive Decision Making (Pattern Recognition)
10
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Achieving a Decision (Continued)

Analytical Decision Making (Continued) When time allows the unit leader to apply analytical decision making often before an engagement begins the unit leader must maximize the time. However, once engaged, the unit leader finds time is short and the need for speed is paramount. In some cases, speeding up the analytical process may be sufficient. However, in most cases, intuitive decision making is needed to generate and maintain Maneuver in Time. Intuitive decision making relies on the unit leaders ability to recognize the key elements of a problem and arrive at the proper decision without having to compare multiple options. Our ability to understand a decision is useless if we are not prepared to act decisively. When the opportunity arrives, we must exploit it fully and aggressively, committing every ounce of combat power we can muster and pushing ourselves to the limits of exhaustion. The keys to this effort are:

Acting Decisively
Identifying enemy critical vulnerabilities. Shaping the operating area to our advantage. Utilizing strict Economy of Force in secondary efforts. Maintaining an Offensive mindset by weighting and applying our main effort with Mass, Surprise, and Security against the enemys weakness.
Identifying enemy critical vulnerabilities is imperative. By identifying them, we can focus our efforts on the critical vulnerability to bend the enemy to our will most quickly. Shaping the Battlefield Now that the unit leader has an estimate of the situation and has determined which critical vulnerabilities to exploit, the battlefield can begin to be shaped to our advantage. Shaping the battlefield includes both lethal and non-lethal activities such as:

Planning fires to fix the enemy. Using an axis of advance to facilitate movement. Designating Objectives to focus combat power. Using deceptive measures to reinforce enemy expectations.
11
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Achieving a Decision (Continued)

Shaping the Battlefield (Continued) Shaping activities can make the enemy vulnerable to attack through Surprise, impeding his ability to maneuver, facilitating the maneuver of friendly forces, and otherwise dictating the time and place for a decisive battle. Shaping forces the enemy to adopt courses of actions favorable to us. Of all the actions going on within our command, we recognize designating a main effort as one of the most critical elements of our success. The main effort is a unit assigned the responsibility for accomplishing the mission; it is the focal point on which we Mass the combat power of the force. Making effective use of Mass and Security for the main effort, Economy of Force for those supporting efforts that compliment it ensure mission success at the decisive point.
Designating a Main Effort
12
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Gaining an Advantage

After we understand the situation and achieve a decision, we must work to leverage that which we know and that which we have to maximize our environment. Central to gaining an advantage is deciding on what, where, and when our decisive points and actions are. Below are several examples of how we can seek to gain an advantage. Note the application of the Principles of War. Through Mass and Technological Maneuver The most common means of gaining an advantage lies in the use of combined arms. It is based on the idea of presenting the enemy not merely with a problem, but with a dilemma a no win situation. We combine supporting arms, organic fires, and maneuver in such a way that any action the enemy takes to avoid one threat makes them more vulnerable to another part of the dilemma. We may also maneuver in time by increasing relative speed and operating at a faster tempo than the enemy. In effect, we out cycle the enemy, making him aware too late to respond. We may maneuver using space by seizing a position which allows us to bring effective fire to bear against the enemy but which protects us against enemy fires. We can also gain an advantage by exploiting our environment. We can use terrain to our advantage to maneuver and envelop the enemy forces. Another example of exploiting the environment is operating at night. Using our technological advantage of night vision devices and command and control abilities, we can gain not only time but also a psychological and physiological advantage on an enemy that does not operate at night.
Through Time and Spatial Maneuver
Through Psychological and Technological Maneuver
13
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Being Faster

Speed in combat is relative to the enemy. We need not necessarily need to move as fast as we can; we need only to act faster than the enemy. One must keep this in mind to prevent the reckless pursuit of speed at the cost of effectiveness against the enemy. Individual concepts are described below. Speed Speed often determines how fast something is moving. However, when referring to military action, speed is more than just moving quickly. Speed is measured against your successes or failures against your enemy. It may be the physical ground covered by a unit over a given time and distance. It is also an intangible concept. You have all been introduced to Boyds Cycle, or the OODA Loop -observe, orient, decide, and act. Operating against an enemy, speed is ultimately defined by your units actions; how fast leadership can orient on a gap, formulate a plan, and disseminate a plan for action are the intangible elements of speed. Tempo is a large element of being faster as well. Marines are constantly looking to maximize time. Tempo is employing speed in relation to the timing of events. Despite planning for extended operations by exercising Economy of Force, a unit cannot operate at top seed indefinitely. The key is to have a seamless transition between events, such as consolidating after an attack, so the tempo does not appear to slow down. As unit leaders, we must always focus on building tempo. A Marine leader is always cognizant of time. Time is one thing there is never enough of and can no longer be capitalized on again once it has been spent. Once we account for the need to maximize our time in planning and execution, the five things we can do to increase our speed and tempo are:

Tempo
Five Ways to Increase Speed and Tempo
Simplicity Decentralization afforded by Unity of Command Experience and Communication Positioning leaders (yourself) at points of friction Maneuver in Time
14
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Being Faster (Continued)

Simplicity The first way to increase speed is keeping things simple. Clear, uncomplicated plans enhance understanding, and facilitate ease of efficient execution. Ceteris paribus, the simplest plan is preferred. The second way to increase speed is to leverage Unity of Command by decentralizing, using mission tactics and commanders intent. Mission tactics are assigning a subordinate a mission without telling him or her how to do execute the mission. The responsibility to determine the how falls on the subordinate with the commanders intent guiding his or her decision making. The commanders intent is the overall purpose for accomplishing the mission based on mission tactics. Even in a changing environment, a subordinate who understands the why can act without risking diffusion of effort or loss of tempo. The third method to increasing speed and tempo is through experience. At The Basic School, we use garrison and tactical billets, sand table exercises (STEXs), and discussion groups to simulate stresses of combat. Communication plays a tremendous role in experience as well. As you develop your communication skills over time, the two elements that make up experience are:

Decentralize afforded by Unity of Command and Mission Tactics
Experience and Communication
Implicit communication. Lateral communication.
Implicit communications are the mutual understandings that require little or no actual talking or writing. Implicit communications occur when individuals are indoctrinated on organizational thought processes and culture. Working together over time will create a mutual understanding between units, and in time this mutual understanding can translate into standard operating procedures (SOPs). What we ultimately desire on the battlefield are when units are operating to accomplish a mission, one unit can identify a gap created by another unit and exploit it because all units understand the commanders intent.
15
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Being Faster (Continued)

Leading From the Front Another way to increase speed is leading from the front since that is where most friction points occur. This effectively provides Mass to the main effort, as a commander who is forward can more quickly influence the battle as the situation develops. For the same reason, a commander may choose a position at a crucial crossroad during a night movement, or where a unit is pushing supplies forward, or where a counterattack force in the defense may be sited. We must choose our positions accordingly. Finally, it is important to not only be faster but to maintain an efficient tempo superior to that of the enemy. Such endurance is made possible through physical and mental toughness, providing Security for our forces, and Economy of Force. Physical toughness develops not only the speed, energy, and agility to move faster, but it also develops the endurance to maintain that speed for longer durations. With this endurance, we not only outpace the enemy but maintain a higher tempo longer than the enemy can. Mental toughness builds the ability to concentrate for longer periods of time and to penetrate below the surface of the problem. Security and Economy of Force allows us to preserve our combat power until the decisive point it is needed.
Maneuver in Time
16
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Adapting

Adapt to situations presented on the battlefield allows us to exploit fleeting opportunities to build Surprise, Economy of Force, and Mass at the decisive point. There are two types of adaptation; anticipation and improvisation. Anticipation Anticipation is having enough situation awareness (METTTC) to understand a situation in advance and take preparatory action. It is the superior form of adaptation, as anticipation allows for a more thorough analysis of the situation, and a more thorough preparation of contingencies. Adapting to the situation at the spur of the moment, without time for preparation, and often based on intuition with less situational awareness. It is the inferior form of adaptation as an analytical analysis of the situation cannot be performed, and actions / re-actions are made without preparation.
Improvisation
Using either method of adapting means shortening the time it takes to adjust to each new situation. As Marines, we take pride in our ability to accomplish the mission by improvising, adapting, and overcoming any situation. However, we as leaders are responsible for anticipating and taking preparatory action formulating a plan and a commanders intent for our subordinates to execute. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) Another important tool for the tactical adaptation is the use of immediate action drills or SOPs. These are practiced, pre-designated generic actions that cover common situations. Having a collection of these tools at our disposal allows us to react immediately in a coordinated way to a broad variety of tactical situations. Immediate action drills do not replace the need for tactical judgment; they simply provide a way to seize the initiative in the early stages of a developing situation until we can take more considered action.
Adaptation goes hand-in-hand with our ability to maintain flexibility in our plan, and therefore is easier to accomplish in the face of Simplicity, Unity of Command, and a clearly communicated Objective. Our ability to adapt allows us to achieve Maneuver by maintaining a flexible application of combat power.
17
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Cooperating

Cooperation is defined as the union of self discipline and initiative in the pursuit of a common goal, or Objective. It is a component of control. Control can generally be divided into two types: Centralized Control Centralized control tends to be in one direction and works from the top down: someone at a higher level makes us conform to higher dictates because only one person does the thinking for the organization the one in control. Centralized control decreases speed/tempo. In contrast, decentralized control works from the bottom up. Command is the exercise of authority and guidance, and control is felt as feedback about the effects of the action taken because thinking is required at all levels. This feedback allows the unit leader to adapt to changing circumstances and to command the subsequent action. Cooperation is required in decentralized control. Subordinates work together laterally and from the bottom up to accomplish tasks that fulfill the commanders intent, requiring Unity of Command. Cooperation means we take the initiative to help those around us accomplish our shared mission. Decentralized control increases speed/tempo. The common bond that ensures cooperation between Marines is self-discipline. Self-discipline will not allow us to shirk responsibility or blame others. A discipline failure often a failure to act is a personal failure. Our form of discipline is absolute. There is no time off. Someone else may be in charge, but that does not absolve us from the responsibility to do everything we can to achieve the common goal. It does not reduce our responsibility to cooperate with fellow Marines in our unit and beyond. This discipline is a mindset, a way of thinking and behaving.
Decentralized Control
Self-Discipline
Decentralized control can be achieved with Unity of Command and Objective, enhanced by Simplicity. Such cooperation allows us to gain and advantage over the enemy and exercise Maneuver in Time.
18
B2F2737
The Tactical Tenets: Exploiting Success and Finishing

Exploiting success and finishing are hallmarks of our aggressiveness and indomitable fighting spirit as Marines. It is not enough merely to gain advantage. The enemy will not surrender simply because he is placed at a disadvantage. The successful leader exploits any advantage aggressively and ruthlessly not once but repeatedly until the opportunity arises for a finishing stroke. Consolidation The definition of consolidation is the re-organization of our forces after seizing a position we intend to hold against the enemy. Here our aims are limited to protecting what we have already gained. This may seem contradictory to much of what has been taught thus far; however, any number of reasons may direct us to choose this course. Perhaps we lack the strength to continue to advance. Our new gain may be of critical importance, and the risk of losing it outweighs the advantages of any further gains. Perhaps the new gain by itself grants a significant advantage. The second way to pursue an advantage is through exploitation an offensive tactic that is designed to disorganize the enemy in depth. Exploitation usually follows a successful attack that has created or exposed some enemy vulnerability. For example, an attack that has torn a gap in enemy defenses allows us to attack vital enemy rear areas. The object of exploitation is not to destroy the combat forces directly opposing us, even though they may be weakened. Instead, the object is to disrupt the entire enemy system by attacking important activities and functions. The third way to exploit advantage is through pursuit an offensive tactic designed to catch or cut off a hostile force, which has lost cohesion and is attempting to escape, in order to destroy it. If the intent is to bring about the final destruction or capture of the enemys forces, then pursuit should be pushed with the utmost vigor. Pursuit is what turns operations into routs and how overwhelming victories often occur.
Exploitation
Pursuit
19
B2F2737
Summary
This classroom instruction lays the foundation for sound tactical judgment through the understanding of the six tactical tenets and their focused application congruent with the Principles of War. Applying these six tactical tenets will ensure that leaders at all levels have the ability to understand the tactical decision making process at the tactical level of war. Sound and timely tactical judgment will ensure success in planning and execution.
References
Reference Number or Author MCDP 1 MCDP 1-0 MCDP 1-3 FM 3-90 Reference Title Warfighting Marine Corps Operations Tactics Tactics

Term or Acronym MOOSEMUSS Definition or Identification Nine Principles of War: Mass, Objective, Offensive, Security Economy of Force, Maneuver, Unity of Command, Surprise, Simplicity. Mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and fire support available, time and space, civil considerations Observe, orient, decide, act Standard operating procedure Sand table exercise
METT-TC OODA SOP STEX
Notes
20
RIFLE SQUAD TACTICS B2F2837 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Rifle Squad Tactics

Introduction The Marine Corps philosophy of warfighting is based on an approach to war called maneuver warfare. In several previous classes the tactical tenets and the Principles of War and their applicability to war at any level were discussed. This class will focus on ground combat offensive operation fundamentals, specifically at the squad level, (MCWP 3-1, Ch 5), which, when applied in concert with basic maneuver warfare concepts, enable us to fight intelligently in any environment. This student handout pertains equally to all Marine leaders, whether their duties entail combat service support, combat support, or combat arms. It applies tactics at the basic squad level in the offense which is used as a building block for larger units. All Marines face tactical decisions in battle regardless of their roles. Tactical leaders must develop and hone their warfighting skills through study and practice. This lesson will give you a framework of how to make sound tactical decisions and begin to understand the tactical decision making process at the squad level. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Offensive Fundamentals Offensive Fundamentals Attack Offensive Fundamentals Commonly Used Tactical Tasks Squad Tactics Characteristics Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Preparation Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Conduct Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Consolidation/Exploitation Summary / References / Glossary Learning Objectives Apply troop leading steps. (MCCS-LDR-1015) Lead a squad in offensive operations. (T&R 0311-OFF2001) Given a unit, a mission, and a mental estimate of the situation, employ movement formations to ensure command and control. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001a) Page 3 5 6 9 10 17 25 29
Importance
In This Lesson
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Rifle Squad Tactics

Learning Objectives (Continued) Given a unit, a mission, scheme of maneuver and a mental estimate of the situation, employ tactical control measures to support the ground scheme of maneuver. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001c) Given a unit, a mission, scheme of maneuver and a mental estimate of the situation, employ the fighterleader concept to ensure command and control. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001d) Given a unit, a mission, scheme of maneuver and a mental estimate of the situation, employ a base unit to ensure command and control. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001e) Without the aid of reference, define fire and movement without error. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001f) Without the aid of reference, define fire and maneuver without error. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001g) Given a unit, an objective, and a mission, while using the acronym SAFE, conduct consolidation to prepare for an enemy counterattack. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001l) Without the aid of reference, define skirmisher's trench dimensions without error. (T&R 0311-OFF-2001m)
Offensive Fundamentals
Definition of Offensive Operations Operations which aim at destroying or defeating an enemy. Their purpose is to impose US will on the enemy and achieve decisive victory (MCRP 5-12A). Infantry units normally undertake offensive operations to: Destroy enemy forces, equipment, and resources. Deceive and divert the enemy. Deprive the enemy of resources. Gain information on the enemy. Fix the enemy in place. Seize key terrain. Produce a reaction from the enemy. Disrupt enemy actions or preparations.
Purposes of the Offense
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
The Tactical Tenets and related Principles of War should be considered throughout the planning of any military operation. This includes both predictions of enemy actions and the design of a friendly scheme of maneuver. Types of Offensive Operations There are four types of offensive operations, which may occur in sequence, simultaneously, or independently. Fashion of application is driven by the commanders tactical thought process. Movement to Contact Offensive operation that seeks to gain or regain contact and develop the situation in relation to an enemy whose general location is known, but exact location is unknown. Attack Offensive operation characterized by coordinated movement, supported by fire, conducted to defeat, destroy, neutralize, or capture the enemy. (MCDP 1-0) This is the type of offensive operation we are focused on for this class. Exploitation Offensive operation that follows a successful attack and is designed to disorganize the enemy in depth. (MCRP 5-12A) Pursuit Offensive operation designed to catch or cut off a hostile force attempting to escape, with the aim of destroying it. (MCRP 5-12A)
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Offensive Fundamentals - Attack

As stated above, the type of offensive operation we will be focused on in this lesson is the attack. The purpose of which is to defeat or destroy the enemy at a known position. For the purpose of this class there are two types of attacks. Types of Attack Hasty Attack An attack in which preparation time is traded for speed to exploit opportunity. (i.e. chance contact). (MCRP 5-12A, MCDP 1-0) Deliberate Attack Offensive action characterized by pre-planned coordinated employment of firepower and maneuver to close with and destroy the enemy. (MCRP 5-12A, MCDP 1-0) Phases of the Attack Offensive operations are commonly broken down into three phases: Preparation. Conduct. Consolidation / Exploitation
These phases are not to be considered as distinct entities as there is not always a definable separation between them. Though they are inherent in most offensive operations, they are rarely referred to by name in operation orders. Forms of Maneuver The offensive forms of maneuver are the basic techniques a force conducting offensive operations uses to gain an advantage over the enemy. The decision on the form of maneuver to utilize in an operation is accomplished during the Preparation phase of the attack. There are six forms of maneuver: Frontal Attack Flanking Attack Envelopment Turning Movement Infiltration Penetration
At the squad level, we will focus on frontal and flanking attacks.
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Offensive Fundamentals Commonly Used Tactical Tasks

Appropriate use of tactical tasks is critical to the understanding of a task issued to any subordinate. Deviation from the commonly understood definition of a particular task, or use of a non-military tasking is not wrong, but will require the commander to specify the definition and ensure it is understood. Failure to do so will result in undesired results. Keeping in mind that Simplicity is a tactical tenet, a commander should weigh the risk versus gain of utilizing non-standard tasking statements.
Enemy-Oriented Tactical Tasks A surprise attack by fire from concealed positions on a moving or Ambush temporarily halted enemy. Fires (direct or indirect) to destroy the enemy from a distance, Attack by Fire normally used when the mission does not require or support occupation of the objective. To deny the enemy access to a given area or to prevent enemy Block advance in a given direction or an avenue of approach. It may be for a specified time. To break through or secure a passage through a natural or enemy Breach obstacle. To maneuver around an obstacle, position, or enemy force to Bypass maintain the momentum of an advance. The use of existing or reinforcing obstacles or fires to restrict enemy Canalize operations to a narrow zone. To stop, hold, or surround enemy forces or to keep the enemy in a Contain given area and prevent his withdrawing any part of his forces for use elsewhere. To disrupt or nullify the enemy commanders plan and overcome his Defeat will to fight, thus making him unwilling or unable to pursue his adopted course of action. Physically rendering an enemy force combat-ineffective unless it is Destroy reconstituted. To integrate fires and obstacles to break apart an enemys formation Disrupt and tempo, interrupt his time table, or cause premature commitment or piecemealing of his forces. Take full advantage of success in battle and follow up initial gains; Exploit offensive actions that usually follow successful attack and are designed to disorganize the enemy in depth. An offensive action involving contact with the enemy to deceive him Feint about the location or time of the actual main offensive action. An action to divert, disrupt, delay or destroy the enemys surface Fix military potential before it can be used effectively against friendly forces.
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Interdict
Neutralize Penetrate Reconnoiter Rupture Support By Fire
An action to divert, disrupt, delay or destroy the enemys surface military potential before it can be used effectively against friendly forces. To render the enemy or his resources ineffective or unusable. To break through the enemys defense and disrupt his defensive system. To obtainable visual observation or other methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy. To create a gap in enemy defensive positions quickly. Where a force engages the enemy by direct fire to support a maneuvering force using overwatch or by establishing a base of fire. The supporting force does not capture enemy forces or terrain.
Terrain-Oriented Tactical Tasks The removal of enemy forces and elimination of organized Clear resistance in an assigned zone, area or location by destroying, capturing or forcing the withdrawal of enemy forces that could interfere with the units ability to accomplish its mission. To maintain physical influence by occupation or range of weapon Control systems over the activities or access in a defined area. To move onto an objective, key terrain or other man-made or natural Occupy terrain area without opposition, and control the entire area. To secure data about the meteorological, hydrographic or Reconnoiter geographic characteristics of a particular area. To occupy and hold a terrain feature to ensure it is free of enemy Retain occupation or use. To gain possession of a position or terrain feature, with or without Secure force, and to prevent its destruction or loss by enemy action. The attacking force may or may not have to physically occupy the area. Seize To clear a designated area and gain control of it. Friendly-Oriented Tactical Tasks To break through or secure a passage through a natural or friendly Breach obstacle. Cover Offensive or defensive actions to protect the force. To break contact with the enemy and move to a point where the Disengage enemy cannot observe nor engage the unit by direct fire. To leave one position and take another. Forces may be displaced Displace laterally to concentrate combat power in threatened areas Exfiltrate The removal of personnel or units from areas under enemy control. The order of movement of combat, combat support, and combat Follow service support forces in a given combat operation. To protect the main force by fighting to gain time while also Guard observing and reporting information. To prevent observation, engagement or interference with a force or Protect location.
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Screen
To observe, identify and report information and only fight in selfprotection.
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics - Characteristics

In order to apply the offensive concepts we have learned to this point, we first must understand the characteristics of a squad.
Mission:
Locate, close with, and destroy the enemy by fire and maneuver, or repel the enemys assault by fire and close combat.
Squad Task Organization
Squad Leader Responsibilities in Combat
Fire Team Leader Responsibilities in Combat
Organic Weapons Supplementary Weapons
Fire Support Optical Equipment
The squad leader carries out the orders issued to him by the platoon commander. Responsible for the tactical employment, fire discipline, fire control, and maneuver of the squad. Squad leaders position themselves where they can best carry out the orders of the platoon commander and observe and control the squad. Carries out the orders of the squad leader. In combat Fire Team leaders position themselves where they can best observe and control the fire team, particularly the fire teams automatic fire. May or may not serve as grenadiers based on the detriment such duty may have on their ability to lead. M-16; M-203; M-249 Demolitions; Claymores; Hand Grenades; Ground Signals and Flares; Assault Weapons (AT-4; SMAW; LAW) 60mm Mortars ; 81mm Mortars ; Artillery; Close Air Support PVS-14; PAS-13; PAS-22 ; PEQ-15
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Communication Equipment (1) PRC-119 (B/F) ; PRC-148 ; PRC153 ; GPS
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack - Preparation

Preparation Phase: The preparation phase typically begins with the receipt of a warning order or mission and will consist of the six troop leading steps (BAMCIS). While the optimal order of preparation follows this order of steps, it should be noted that the order of BAMCIS may vary in execution depending on the situation. The tactical tenets and related principles of war should be considered throughout the BAMCIS process. They are the foundation for our decision making throughout our decision making. Tactical Planning. Begin the planning.
Reconnaissance. - Arrange for Reconnaissance. - Make Reconnaissance. Write out Operations Order. Complete the plan. Delivery of the Order. Issue of the Order. Supervise.
Tactical Planning - Begin the Planning Analyze the Order from Ensure comprehension of Highers Intent. Higher Identify Squad Tasks/Mission (2 types). Main Effort. The commander provides the bulk of his combat power to the main effort to maintain momentum and ensure accomplishment of the mission. The main effort is provided with the greatest mobility and the preponderance of combat support. The main effort is the commanders bid for success. Supporting Effort. A supporting effort can be both offensive and defensive operations carried out in conjunction with a main effort and is designed to support the main effort.
10
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack - Preparation
Main Effort Tactical Task Destroy
Supporting Efforts Tactical Task Suppress or Fix or Support by Fire
Supporting Effort Tactical Task Destroy enemy on the right 1/3 of the objective. Main Effort Tactical Task Destroy enemy on the center 1/3 of the objective.
Supporting Effort Tactical Task Destroy enemy on the left 1/3 of the objective.
11
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Preparation (Continued)

Conduct METT-TC Analysis: Mission; Enemy; Terrain and Weather; Troops and Fire Support; Time; Civil Considerations Map Reconnaissance. Turn the map around and put yourself in the enemys place. How and where can the enemy affect your mission, the objective, route to the objective, and after the enemy is destroyed on the objective. Combat Operations Center (COC) coordination. Recent enemy activity. Enemy strengths and weaknesses. Enemy tactics, techniques and procedures (TTPs) and patterns. Develop Enemy Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA) In relation to all phases of the attack, movement to the objective, actions on the objective, and in consolidation. Examples of detail which should be included in the EMLCOA are potential: Enemy ambush sites. Enemy patrol routes. Enemy listening posts/observation posts (LP/OPs). Orientation of the enemy position. Location of machine guns. Routes of withdrawal. Possible counter-attacks. EMLCOA is used to develop the tentative scheme of maneuver (SOM) and fire support plan (FSP).
Develop and Issue Warning Order
12
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Reconnaissance: Arrange for Reconnaissance, Make Reconnaissance Arrange for Reconnaissance Arranging for reconnaissance need not necessarily be within the squad, or the platoon. Nor does it necessarily consist of a ground reconnaissance patrol. While that is the most effective it may not be available. The key to arranging for reconnaissance is that in its execution it will validate any assumptions made during the METT-TC process, and most importantly will confirm or deny the EMLCOA.
Make Reconnaissance
13
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Complete the Plan: Write Out Operations Order Transitioning from reconnaissance, the leader should ensure incorporation of the new information gained from the reconnaissance, refining their EMLCOA, CG / CV analysis. The leader should also consider beginning coordination with lateral units, especially when the squad is part of a larger operation. This should continue throughout the remainder of the preparation process. Crucial to the development of the plan is the identification of the Main Effort (Mass) and the Supporting Efforts (Economy of Force). The Commander MUST designate the bid for success. If the tactician has considered the tactical tenets and principles of war throughout the process, this should be readily recognizable. Remember, they provide the basis for our tactical decision making. Form of Maneuver: Develop the Scheme of Maneuver - Frontal Attack: A frontal attack is directed against the front of an enemy force. The attack's goal is to break through the enemy defense and disrupt the defensive system, achieving a penetration. The frontal attack generally is the least preferred form of maneuver because it strikes the enemy where he is strongest. A supporting attack and supporting arms may be used to suppress the enemy. A frontal attack may be appropriate: For overrunning a weak or disorganized enemy. During a pursuit. For fixing an enemy in place. When a commander possesses overwhelming combat power and the enemy is at a clear disadvantage.
- Flanking Attack: A flanking attack is an offensive maneuver directed at the flank of an enemy. A flanking attack seeks to strike the enemy from an unexpected direction achieving a degree of surprise and avoiding the enemy's principal orientation of his main weapons systems. Usually (but not always) involves a supporting attack to suppress/fix the enemy. A reconnaissance of the enemy positions enhances the attacker's ability to identify and avoid automatic weapons, key obstacles, and mines.
14
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Complete the Plan: Write Out Operations Order (Continued) Develop the Fire Support Plan Develop Methods of Control Tactical control measures: o Assembly Area (AA) - Friendly/Permissive Environment. Issue Order. Rehearsals. Ammunition draw. Pre-Combat Checks (PCCs) Pre-Combat Inspections (PCIs) Weapons/Equipment/Communication checks. Extra/Special equipment drawn. o Attack Position (ATK POS) - Last covered and concealed position before crossing the Line of Departure (LD). Make Condition 1 (Closed Bolt) / Condition 3 (Open Bolt) Last minute preparation / Final checks completed Deployment into initial attack formations Coordination with higher o Line of Departure (LD) A line designated to coordinate the departure of attacking elements. o Assault Position (ASLT POS) - Last covered and concealed position before the objective. Easily recognizable on the ground. Call for Supporting Fire Deployment into final assault formation.
15
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Complete the Plan: Write Out Operations Order (Continued)
Develop Formations for Movement
The table below lists only examples of some formations; speed and security will dictate the formation to be used in different environments. Location Formation Assembly area to attack Column position/line of departure Line of departure to Wedge assault position Column Depends on terrain or enemy situation Assault position to limit Wedge of advance Column Squad Line
Delivery
Issue the order in the AA. Complete pre-combat checks. Rehearsals, back briefs, pre-combat inspections.
Movement to Line of Departure
16
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Conduct

The conduct phase of the attack begins when the squad crosses the Line of Departure. Crossing of the Line of Departure is NEVER to occur late, but may occur early upon request. Completion of the Conduct Phase occurs when we have assaulted through the objective and begin the Consolidation/Exploitation Phase. Movement to ASLT POS Specific control measures or formations will be dictated by: Enemy situation. Speed. Visibility. Terrain/Vegetation
Actions at the Assault Position, the last recognizable covered and concealed position before the objective include: Movement to the Objective ASLT POS -> OBJ Deployment into final assault formation.
Movement occurs with a purpose, preferably under the protection of supporting fires. The goal is to assault through the enemy objective is such a fashion that the enemy is unable to react to our assault (Surprise). Wedge Echelon Squad On Line
The squad automatic weapon (SAW) is capable of a high volume of accurate fire out to extended ranges. Therefore, it is the primary weapon with which the fire team leader can gain fire superiority over the enemy and then begin to advance his team against the enemy. The SAW also provides the primary means to maintain fire superiority to ensure the enemy is suppressed and the fire teams movement is continuously covered by fire.
17
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Conduct (Continued)

To control the squad when under enemy fire, the squad leader Movement Under Fire / Actions in the must consider the battlefield noise and confusion. If enemy fire is light, the squad leader may be able to control the fire team leaders Assault by voice, whistle, or arm and hand signals. As the volume of enemy fire increases, this type of control becomes impossible. The squad leader must rely on the skill and initiative of the fire team leaders to carry out the instructions he previously gave them. Below are various methods and concepts that will enhance the leaders ability to communicate and lead their unit through the assault. Fighter/Leader. Fire team and squad leaders must fight and lead their units to the objective. During the Fog of War, it will be more effective for a fire team or squad leader to execute what he / she wants done rather than verbally communicate it. Their violence of action will set the tone of their units attack and will maintain the momentum of their units assault. Unit leaders must maintain situational awareness and be prepared to provide the fire or execute the movement that re-orients their unit on the enemy and accelerates the speed of the units assault. Base Unit Concept. Unit leaders control the speed, direction, and orientation of their entire unit by locating themselves in close proximity with the base unit, a designated sub-unit that serves as a reference point for the other sub-units related movements. Unit leaders control their entire unit by driving the base unit through the objective area. Its foundation is effective lateral and implicit communication. Reasons for Base Unit. The purpose of the base unit is to allow: The squad leader to control his unit when verbal commands cannot be heard. Ease of control when visibility restrictions do not allow team leaders to see the squad leader. Extend the flexibility of small unit direction changes down to the fire team leader, enabling him to maximize the use of micro-terrain allow the: o Fire teams to maximize the use of movement and firepower within the team. o Squad leader to quickly change the direction and speed of the attack using hand and arm signals to direct the base unit fire team and allowing the other two teams to follow the base unit.
18
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Movement Under Fire / Actions in the Assault (Continued) Application of Base Unit Concept. The squad leader positions himself next to the team leader of the team designated as the base unit. The squad leader controls the squad by using the base unit fire team leader. If the base unit becomes pinned down or otherwise unable to continue movement forward as a result of an enemy surface, the squad leader can quickly reposition himself with another fire team and continue with the attack using a new base unit. The squad leader, using the fighter/leader concept, dictates speed and direction. The fighter/leader concept allows squad leaders to establish direction and speed of unit movement by their own individual movements and positioning near the base fire team. The fire team leaders must be: Able to move short distances to the left, right, forward, and back during movement Careful to guide off the general direction and speed of the base unit so as not to fire into other teams
Considerations of the Base Unit Concept. In heavy vegetation and limited visibility, the flanking fire team members nearest the base unit must maintain visual or physical contact (connecting files) with the base unit so the squad leader can direct them.
19
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Buddy Team/Pair. Occur when Marines have broken down to Movement Under Fire / Actions in the their smallest maneuver unit. The Buddy Team/Pair is the smallest Maneuver unit in the Marine Corps. Assault (Continued) Roles/Responsibilities: Within the buddy pair, one Marine is in the fore position while one Marine is in the aft position. Marine in Fore Position Engages enemy Covers Sector (if no enemy) Marine in Aft Position Assesses the effects of his buddys suppression Looks to unit leader then buddy Identifies micro terrain Prepares a rocket/hand grenade Employs M203 Reloads Weapon Initiates the next buddy rush
Suppress, Assess, Move: While firing and moving as part of a buddy pair, each Marine will cycle through the following steps: Step Action Suppress One Marine suppresses enemy from the fore position while his buddy is in the aft position. Assess The Marine in the aft position assesses the effects of his buddys suppression before moving. Once suppression is effective, the Marine in the aft position looks to his unit leader, looks to his buddy, identifies micro terrain, manipulates his weapon (and performs additional actions from above table where appropriate). Move Under effective suppression, the Marine from the aft position quickly moves to the micro terrain he already identified and begins engaging enemy or searching/assessing his sector (when no enemy). Only when the Marine has accurate fire or verbally confirms he is covering his sector (when no enemy) does the Marine in the fore position begin to transition and perform the responsibilities of the aft position. Within a fire team, exists two buddy teams. Fire team leaders buddy team becomes the base unit for the team. Lateral and implicit communication are most likely to occur between: o The Marines of the buddy team. o The buddy teams themselves.
20
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
The 300 Mil Rule: The mil is an angle of measurement that is much smaller than a degree (17.8 Mils are equal to 1 Degree). We can approximate 300 Mils by fully extending both the thumb and pinky and positioning the hand to the right and left of the front sight post of the weapon. When Marines rush next to one another, it is important not to engage downrange when a Marine comes within the 300 mil buffer in order to limit the risk of fratricide. For this reason, Marines must limit the length of their rushes to distances that will enable their buddy to continue engaging enemy.
21
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Individual Actions. Some principles for individual movement Movement Under Fire / Actions in the under fire are: Assault Use high crawl to gain ground and to be able to access (Continued) weapon if needed, especially when under sporadic fire or when negotiating low obstacles Use low craw when under intense fire or for negotiating low obstacles Execute rushes in short intervals to covered and concealed positions Note: The commonly referred to method is to being movement by saying to yourself, Im up they see me Im down. You should get in the prone position when you say, Im down. Before you begin movement, choose a covered position to move to. If none are available, low crawl.
22
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Squad in the Assault Movement Under Fire. To maintain control of the squad under heavy enemy fire, the squad leader positions himself near the fire team leader of the designated base unit fire team. By regulating the actions of the base unit fire team leader, the squad leader retains control of the squad. The base unit fire team leader controls the action of his fire team; the other fire team leaders base their actions on those of the base unit fire team. For the squad to be effective in combat, this type of control must be practiced and perfected in training. The squad leader uses the base unit fire team to control the squads: Direction. Orientation Speed
The intent is not for the other fire teams to maintain rigid positions relative to the base unit fire team; rather, the base unit fire team serves merely as a general guide. If another fire team can move forward more rapidly than the base fire team, it should do so. For instance, if the base fire team is receiving enemy fire but the terrain in front of another fire team provides cover from enemy fire, the latter team should move rapidly forward to a position where they can deliver fire on the enemy. Covering the base fire teams movement by fire takes pressure off them and permits them to move forward. Once the base fire team comes generally abreast, the other fire teams can then resume fire and movement. On contact, the squad/team leader issues a fire command using the ADDRAC (Alert, Direction, Target Description, Range, Target Assignment, and Fire Control) or a portion of this format to the squad/team. It is critical that emphasis is placed on the SAW as suppressive fire. Without suppression and fire superiority, the unit will not gain ground. Suppression is what makes the rushes effective.
23
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

Squad in the Assault Fire and Maneuver and Fire and Movement Fire and Maneuver. Fire and maneuver is a technique of advance in which one element (the maneuver element) moves while being supported by another element (the support by fire element). A separate and distinct mission is assigned to each element. Fire and Movement. Fire and movement is a technique of advance in which elements and individuals provide their own suppression and move by bounds. Elements and individuals alternate the firing and moving so that movement is always covered by fire, and the assault's momentum is retained. A commonly held misconception is that these are separate and distinct concepts. The concepts, much like the Art and Science of Tactics, are most often intertwined. Fire and movement is the technique of advance that allows us to maintain momentum in the assault. In the execution of a fix and flank fire and maneuver scenario, the maneuver element executes fire and movement to maintain their momentum in the assault under supporting fires.
24
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Squad Tactics: Squad in the Attack Consolidation/Exploitation

Consolidation/Exploitation Phase. This phase commences with the capture of the assigned objective and may involve the exploitation of momentum and success achieved during the attack through physical pursuit of the enemy. Consolidation also facilitates the rapid reorganization of a hasty defense to permit the attacking unit to hold the objective just seized in the event of an enemy counter attack. Why consolidate and reorganize? Preparation for the enemys counter attack. Reestablish Command and Control within the unit. Reestablish communications with higher. Address casualties/ammo. Preparation to resume the attack/pursue the enemy.
S.A.F.E. The acronym (Security, Automatic Weapons, Fields of Fire, Entrenchment) that describes the priority of work during the initial phase of establishing a hasty defense, takes place during consolidation. S.A.F.E. is a guideline for the seamless transition from the offense to the occupation of the defense. 1. Security a. All SAWs manned at all times (at a minimum) b. All units are responsible for their own security c. Security is continuous d. Use clock method to establish initial 180 or 360 degree security (i.e. 11-1, 1-3, 9-11) 2. Automatic weapons a. Emplaced first and always manned b. Cover all avenues of approach and key terrain
25
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

3. Fields of Fire a. The area which a weapon or a group of weapons may cover effectively with fire from a given position. i. Established as soon as automatic weapons are emplaced ii. Must be interlocking iii. Entire fire team will cover the same sector of fire iv. Diagram:
20 Deg 340 Deg 335 Deg 345 Deg 25 Deg 23 Deg
26
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics

4. Entrench a. Start to entrench (dig) skirmishers trenches once fields of fire have been verified by the squad leader i. Skirmisher trench is a hasty position that is long and wide enough to lay horizontally and roughly 18 inches deep ii. The dirt from within the hole is used to fill sand bags for to set sectors of fire for the position. iii. Diagram:
Sectors of Fire. A defined area which is required to be covered by the fire of individual or crew-served weapons or the weapons of a unit (i.e., fire team or squad). A wedgeshaped area enclosed by two lateral limits and a forward limit. Leaders use sectors of fire to assign responsibility and to ensure distribution of fires across the squad front. Sectors should overlap with adjacent (fire team) sectors. A fire team is the lowest level that is assigned a sector of fire.
27
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Reporting Procedures. The acronym A.C.E. (Ammo, Casualties, and Equipment) is used to receive the report from your subordinates. Immediately following the attack the squad leader will start setting in security and receiving A.C.E reports from the fire team leaders. Here are some actions to be taken for each: Ammo o Receive ammo percentage from fire teams. o Redistribution among the squad o Assess capabilities/limitations of squad for follow on operations (exploitation). Casualty o Treat (self, buddy, corpsman) o Move to Casualty Collection Point (CCP) o Radio higher for movement to next higher level o Casevac/Medevac to next higher level of care o Assess capabilities/limitations of squad for follow on operations (exploitation). Equipment o Downed Weapons o Communication Gear o Requests for Additional Equipment Needed from Higher o Assess capabilities/limitations of squad for follow on operations (exploitation).

Exploitation usually occurs after a successful assault and seizure of the objective. It begins after or in conjunction with the consolidation and reorganization of the unit. It is a continuation of the attack aimed at destroying the enemys ability to withdraw or to reorganize for a defense or counter-attack. Pursuit by fire and or Continuation of the Attack are methods of exploiting success for a squad or platoon. - Pursuit by Fire When the assault through the objective is completed, the squad fires upon the withdrawing enemy forces until they are no longer visible or are beyond effective range of the squads weapon systems. - Continuation of the Attack The purpose of continuing the attack is to maintain pressure on the enemy and exploit success and destroy his combat power. When ordered, and if capable (after A.C.E reports and current capabilities after consolidation/reorganization have been determined) the squad continues the attack.
28
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Summary
These offensive and consolidation tactics are a building block for the remainder of the instruction here at The Basic School and will be applicable to all types of operations from patrolling to platoon level operations to military operations in urban terrain.
References
Reference Number or Author MCRP 3-11.2A MCWP 3-11.2 MCDP 1-0 MCDP 1-3 FM 3-90 MCRP 5-12A Reference Title Marine Troop Leaders Guide Marine Rifle Squad Marine Corps Operations Tactics Tactics Operational Terms and Graphics

Term or Acronym AA A.C.E. ADDRAC ASLT POS ATK POS CCP COC EMLCOA EPW FPL FSP LD LP/OP METT-TC PDF S.A.F.E. SAW SOM SOP TRP TTPs Definition or Identification Assembly area Ammo, Casualties, and Equipment Alert, Direction, Target Description, Range, Target Assignment, and Fire Control Assault position Attack position Casualty Collection Point Combat Operations Center Enemy most likely course of action Enemy Prisoners of War Final protective line Fire support plan Line of departure Listening post/observation post Mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time & space available, civil considerations Principal Direction of Fire Security, Automatic Weapons, Fields of Fire, Entrenchment Squad automatic weapon Scheme of maneuver Standard operating procedure Target reference point Tactics, techniques and procedures
29
B2F2837
Rifle Squad Tactics
Notes
30
PATROLLING OPERATIONS B2H3317 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2H3317
Patrolling Operations
Introduction Patrolling keeps the enemy off balance, adds an offensive punch to the defense, allows us to retain the initiative, and guards against surprise. It is, therefore, an integral part of our warfighting philosophy. When we are not actively fighting the enemy, we are seeking his location and continuing to impose our will on him. Depending on what we are trying to achieve, our patrolling effort may be directed toward several different objectives. As a result, several types of patrols are tailored to each objective. Patrols may be required to: Locate the enemy and determine his composition, disposition, and strength Reconnoiter the ground upon which we may be fighting Locate friendly troops Achieve limited objective offensive operations in the enemy rear areas Keep the enemy at a distance while we consolidate and reorganize for further operations The success of entire units may depend on the proficiency of those few Marines on patrol. Patrolling is a skill that every unit must master. Regardless of MOS, all units will be faced with the need to execute one of the above missions at some point during combat operations. As a result, every Marine should understand the basics of patrolling. As we have recently seen in Kosovo, East Timor, Afghanistan, the Philippines, and Iraq, CSS units have been repeatedly tasked with conducting patrolling operations. In addition, because even the simplest patrol requires an intensive amount of teamwork, planning, and advanced field skills, it is an excellent vehicle to: Increase small unit proficiency Build leadership Train your subordinates in decision-making and independent operations It is often said, If a unit can patrol well, it can do anything well.
Importance
B2H3317
Patrolling Operations (continued)

In This Lesson Some of the things we are going to be discussing today can give you, as a Lieutenant, an edge in understanding the types and classifications of patrols, typical task organizations of patrols, and how to plan and conduct a patrolling operation. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Patrolling Basic Information Patrol Planning and Preparation Execution of the Patrol Patrol Debrief Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Annex A: Reports Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives 0300-PAT-2004 Given an order, map, overlay material, assorted color map pens, protractor, templates, and references, develop a map overlay that graphically depicts the scheme of maneuver. 0311-PAT-2001 Given a squad with attachments, a mission with commanders intent, paper and pen, write a squad patrol order to support the achievement of highers intent. MCCS-OFF-2101 Given a mission, a unit, a radio, a radio net, and a reportable situation, submit combat reports to accomplish the mission. 0302-FSPT-1300 Given a scheme of maneuver, fire support available, and commanders intent, develop a fire support plan to support the ground scheme of maneuver in accordance with commanders intent. Page 6 12 20 44 45 45 45 46 47
B2H3317

Learning Objectives (continued) 0300-PAT-1008 Given a patrol order, assigned weapon, and an assignment in a patrol, while wearing a fighting load, perform immediate actions in a patrol without compromising the integrity of the patrol. 0300-PAT-1009 Given a patrol order, assigned weapon, and as assignment in a patrol, perform immediate actions upon contact with the enemy to perform duties without compromising the patrol. Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS-OFF-2101m Given a mission with commanders intent and a mental estimate of the situation integrate the principles of war into tactical planning and accomplish the mission. 0311-OFF-2001c Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent and a mental estimate of the situation employ tactical control measures to support the ground scheme of maneuver. 0311-PAT-2002a Without the aid of reference identify patrol types without error. 0311-PAT-2002b Without the aid of reference describe patrol task organization without omission. 0311-PAT-2002c Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent issue a patrol warning order to facilitate concurrent preparation of subordinate units. 0311-PAT-2002d Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent coordinate with COC personnel to complete planning. 0311-PAT-2002f Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent lead exit of friendly lines without compromising forward units position.
B2H3317

Learning Objectives (continued) 0311-PAT-2002e Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent coordinate with a Forward Unit Commander (FUC) to deconflict routes and patrol execution. 0311-PAT-2002g Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent lead a security patrol to accomplish the mission. 0311-PAT-2002n Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent lead re-entry of friendly lines without compromising forward units position. MCCS-PAT-2103a Without the aid of reference identify types of halts without error. MCCS-PAT-2103b Without the aid of reference describe patrol immediate actions without omission. MCCS-PAT-2103c Without the aid of reference describe patrol actions while crossing danger areas without omission. 0311-PAT-2002o Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent debrief patrol execution to report information to higher and capture lessons learned for future operations.
B2H3317
Patrolling Basic Information

Patrolling Defined MCWP 3-11.3 Scouting and Patrolling defines a patrol as a detachment of ground, sea, or air forces sent out for the purpose of gathering information or carrying out a destructive, harassing, mopping-up, or security mission. As indicated by the word detachment, a patrol is by nature a small unit operating outside of friendly lines. This independent nature requires extensive planning. Additionally, the various purposes and missions that patrols may be tasked with, require us to classify patrols in order to aid in our planning. Classifications of Patrols Patrols are classified by: Means of movement - Foot mobile - Motorized - Helicopter-borne - Waterborne Mission - Reconnaissance patrols - Combat patrols Patrols can be a combination of any of these two classifications. For example, a patrol may be a motorized combat patrol or a foot mobile reconnaissance patrol. The means of movement used will be based on METT-TC and the unit commanders requirements. To choose the most effective means of movement for the mission, the commander must understand the capabilities and limitations of each. Reconnaissance Patrols Reconnaissance patrols are among the commander's most reliable means of obtaining timely and accurate information about the enemy and terrain. The patrol must move into potentially hostile areas and remain undetected to gather information on specific targets. There are 3 types of Reconnaissance Patrols: Route Reconnaissance Area Reconnaissance Zone Reconnaissance
B2H3317
Patrolling Basic Information (continued)

Route Reconnaissance: Route reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information of a specified route and all terrain from which the enemy could influence movement along that route. Route reconnaissance is focused along a specific line of communication, such as a road, railway or waterway to provide new or updated information on route conditions and activities. Route reconnaissance normally precedes the movement of friendly forces. It provides detailed information about a specific route and the surrounding terrain that could be used to influence movement along that route. Area Reconnaissance: Area reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information on the terrain or enemy activity within a prescribed area, such as a town, ridge line, woods or other features critical to operations. Area reconnaissance can be made of a single point, such as a bridge or installation, and could include hostile headquarters, key terrain, objective areas or critical installations. Emphasis is placed on reaching the area without being detected. Hostile situations encountered en route are developed only enough to allow the reconnoitering units to report and bypass. Zone Reconnaissance: Zone reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed information on all routes, obstacles (to include chemical or radiological contamination), terrain, and enemy forces within a zone defined by boundaries. A zone reconnaissance normally applies when the enemy situation is vague or when information on cross-country trafficability is desired. Zone reconnaissance supports the total integrated intelligence picture of a space defined by length and breadth. The size of the area depends on the potential for information on hostile forces, terrain, and weather in the zone; the requirements levied by the commander; and the reconnaissance forces available to exploit the intelligence value in the zone.
B2H3317

Combat Patrols Combat patrols are assigned missions that usually require them to actively engage the enemy. As a secondary mission, they collect and report information about the enemy and terrain [MCWP 3-11.2 Marine Rifle Squad (FMFM 6-5)]. The distinct difference between reconnaissance patrols and combat patrols is that combat patrols plan to actively engage the enemy. Because of this, combat patrols will generally be larger than reconnaissance patrols. If a reconnaissance patrol engages the enemy, it has most likely failed in its mission. However, this does not mean that combat patrols do not seek to gain information about the enemy and terrain. Every patrol should seek to fulfill information requirements (IR) as a secondary mission. There are 3 types of Combat Patrols: Security Patrol Contact Patrol Ambush Patrol
A Security patrol is a patrol that is used in proximity to defensive positions, on the flanks of advancing units, or in rear areas. Purposes of security patrols are to: Detect infiltration by the enemy Destroy infiltrators Protect against surprise and ambush A security patrol is sent out from a unit location during a halt, when the unit is stationary, to search the local area, to detect any enemy forces near the main body, and to engage and destroy them within the capability of the patrol. This type of combat patrol is normally sent out by units operating in close terrain with limited fields of observation and fire. Although this type of combat patrol seeks to make direct enemy contact and to destroy enemy forces within its capability, the patrol should try to avoid decisive engagement. A security patrol detects and disrupts enemy forces that are conducting reconnaissance of the main body or that are massing to conduct an attack. Security patrols are normally away from the main body of the unit for limited periods, returning frequently to coordinate and rest. They do not operate beyond the range of communications and supporting fires from the main body, especially mortar fires. A Contact patrol is a special reconnaissance patrol sent from one unit to physically contact and coordinate with another. Modern technology has reduced,
B2H3317

but not eliminated, the need for contact patrols. Now, they are most often used when a US force must contact a non-US coalition partner who lacks compatible communications or position-reporting equipment. Contact patrols may either go to the other unit's position, or the units can meet at a designated contact point. The leader of a contact patrol provides the other unit with information about the location, situation, and intentions of his own unit. He obtains and reports the same information about the contacted unit back to his own unit. The contact patrol also observes and reports pertinent information about the area between the two units. An Ambush is a surprise attack from a concealed position on a moving or temporarily halted target. It can include an assault to close with and destroy the target, or it can include only an attack by fire. An ambush need not seize or hold ground.
Task Organization Patrols will be task organized differently depending on the mission and the size of the patrol. The Patrol Leader determines all the essential tasks that are required to accomplish the mission and then assigns units to carry out each essential task. When assigning functions, missions, and chain of command, the PL should use the units normal organization. When determining size and task organization, the PL must provide for control, security, speed, flexibility, and the ability to assault or maneuver on an enemy unit or objective. At a squad level the fire teams are broken down into security unit, headquarters unit and assault unit each having a different task in order to accomplish the squads overall mission.
B2H3317
A & L TEAM
S/EPW TEAM
10
B2H3317
SQUAD SIZE PATROL FORMATION

PATROL PATROL
SECURITY UNIT ASSAULT
HQ UNIT HQ
ASSAULT UNIT SECURITY
(SUPPORT)
Because the headquarters element of any patrol will include, at a minimum, the PL, assistant patrol leader, and radio operator, one fire team will act as the headquarters element. In this case, the remaining fire teams will act as the security and assault units. Each units composition and duties are described in the table below. Unit Headquarters unit Security unit Composition
Patrol Leader Assistant Patrol Leader Radio Operator Flanks Point Navigator Coverman Security Unit Leader
Duties/Tasks
Controlling the patrol Providing flank security
Assault unit
Assault Unit Leader SAW Gunner (X2) Assistant SAW Gunner
To provide security to the front during movement In the objective area, Isolate the objective Secure the objective rally point (ORP) Cover the patrols withdrawal Provide rear security during movement In the objective area, to Engage the enemy Searches the objective area Set any demolition charges Be the maneuver unit of the patrol Typically further task organize into Aid and litter teams Search teams EPW teams
11
B2H3317

Unit Support unit Composition On a squad size patrol,
Consists of non-organic units provided to execute tasks that the organic units cannot. The APL is directly responsible for the support attachments accountability; support attachments Can include machine guns, rockets, EOD, etc. Will generally travel with the headquarters element in the middle of the patrol Organization will depend on the patrols mission.
Duties/Tasks Execute tasks that the organic units cannot
Because at the platoon level, the headquarters element already exists in the form of the platoon commander (PL), platoon sergeant (APL), and platoon radio operator, the headquarters element of the patrol will not be pulled from an existing squad. This allows the patrol headquarters to travel with the support element during movement. The three remaining squads can then fulfill the roles of assault, support, and security. In this case, the support unit is a full element and does not travel within the headquarters unit in the form of attachments. If the patrol is given machine guns, EOD, rockets, or other external support, these elements will travel with the element that supports its function, and that squad leader will be responsible for their accountability. The duties/ responsibilities of each unit are: Security Unit: - Provides security to the front during movement - Screen in front of the patrol from 10 oclock to 2 oclock - Upon enemy contact : o Isolates the enemy o Secures the objective rally point (ORP) o Covers the withdrawal of the support unit Assault Unit: - Provides rear security during movement - Is the maneuver unit of the patrol - Upon enemy contact: o Engages the enemy o Assaults through and searches the objective area o Sets any demolition charges
12
B2H3317

Headquarters Unit: - Controls speed and direction of movement of patrol - May provide flank security during patrol - Responsible for communications with higher - Ultimately responsible for any and all aspects required to control and support the patrol - Upon enemy contact: o Directs movement to the objective o Establishes the objective rally point (ORP) Support Unit: - Execute tasks that the squad cannot with the equipment that they have organic to them During the execution of a patrol, it is unknown what size enemy the patrol will encounter and where they will encounter the enemy because of this upon enemy contact each unit has to be able to fill any one of the other units roles. The squad has to be flexible in taking on other roles and responsibilities depending on the situation. Other Key Personnel It essential that everyone knows what element they will be traveling with during movement however what other duties they are responsible for in order to accomplish the mission. There are other important roles that are essential to the overall success of the patrol. Since this is the case there are a number of other key billets that are important to be aware of and require the Patrol Leader to specifically provide tasking statements to depending on what type of service they will be providing. Assistant Patrol leader Security unit leader Assault Unit leader Aid / Litter and EPW teams Flanks Navigator Pacer Radio Operator
13
B2H3317

Each Marine that is tasked with each of these responsibilities must be aware of what these roles consist of. To make sure that every Marine understands what their job is the patrol leader specifically provides a tasking statement to each of these billet holders. When tasking individuals on the patrol it is good to follow the saying If they are tasked by me they report to me. This simply means when the patrol leader tasks a certain individual with a duty they now must report to the patrol leader in reference to the tasking statement. Some of these tasking statements will be located in Coordinating Instructions of the order these should include aid/litter teams, EPW teams, flanks, navigators, pacers and RTOs.
Patrol Planning and Preparation

In preparation for leading a patrol, the Patrol Leader will utilize the six troop leading steps BAMCIS and METT-TC analysis in order to aid in the planning process. Begin the Planning: - Study the mission - Plan the use of available time - Study terrain and situation - Equipment Considerations - Issue the warning order Arrange Reconnaissance/Make Coordination: - Combat Operations Center (COC) Coordination - Forward Unit Coordination (FUC) Make Reconnaissance: - Physical, Aerial or map reconnaissance Complete the Plan: - Complete the plan with the information driven by METT-TC analysis and Reconnaissance.
14
B2H3317
Patrol Planning and Preparation (continued)

Issue the Order: - On a patrol, the thorough coordination and detailed planning requires that all patrol members are present at the order and a detailed well built terrain model that reflects the terrain is constructed and present. Supervise: - Rehearsals - Pre-Combat Checks - Pre-Combat Inspections Execute Study the Mission. (METT-TC) Once the Patrol Leader receives the order from higher there are certain things that the patrol leader will use in order to guide his planning process. The Patrol Leader must ensure that he understands the mission statement. He must also ensure that he understands highers tasking statement which will ultimately become his squads mission statement. The PL must understand his higher commanders intent and the implied tasks that may be required in the completion of the mission. Depending on the tactical task that is included in highers tasking statement may translate into different actions during execution. It is essential that the PL understands fully what specifically will accomplish the mission. Plan the Use of Available Time. (METT-TC) Time will always be at a premium in a combat environment. To ensure that subordinates are allotted sufficient time to accomplish assigned tasks, the Patrol Leader should use the one third two thirds rule: The PL uses one third of the available time for his planning and order issue and allows his subordinates two thirds of the available time for their preparation. To determine exactly how much time is available for patrol preparation, the PL uses reverse planning, which involves: Working backward from the time that the patrol must depart friendly lines Prioritizing essential tasks Analyzing required actions prior to departure, actions on the patrol, actions on return Developing a timeline to ensure that all tasks are accomplished
15
B2H3317

For example, if it is 1100 and you have been tasked with exiting friendly lines at 1800, your timeline may look like this: 17301800 Forward Unit Coordination/Passage of Lines 17001730 Pre-Combat Inspections -PL 14001700 Rehearsals 13001400 Order Issue 12301300 Pre-Combat Checks -APL 11151230 Ammunition/Logistics Issue/Gear Prep 11001115 Warning Order Study Terrain and Situation. (METT-TC) Because the enemy composition, disposition, and strength will often be vague on a patrol, the PL studies the terrain, roads, and streams to identify likely, suspected, or possible enemy positions. The terrain and vegetation will also affect speed, means of movement, size, and special equipment that may be required. The gear that would be required on a patrol through a mountainous environment will differ from that required on a patrol in the jungle. Environment and weather will also impact the effects of indirect and direct fire weapons. The PL must be aware of how the environment will adversely affect his Marines and weapons. Organize the Patrol. (METT-TC) To reduce the patrols signature, a patrol should be task organized with only those Marines required to accomplish the mission. Thus each Marine on the patrol will have a specific duty to execute; therefore, the Patrol Leader should carefully select who he takes on the mission. Ideally, the patrol will be task organized around an existing unit that has experience working together. When deciding what equipment the patrol should take, the PL should consider the following planning areas: Routine equipment: Gear that is common to all members of the patrol (e.g., utility uniform, 782 gear, I.D. tags, weapons cleaning gear, etc.). En route equipment: Organic and non-organic equipment that assists the patrol in reaching the objective area (e.g., fording or rappelling gear, map, lensatic compass, GPS, ropes, carabineers, etc.). Objective area equipment: Special equipment that enables the unit to accomplish the mission once they have reached their objective area (e.g., field phones, claymore mines, communications wire, sensors, demo, etc.).
16
B2H3317

Observation equipment: Devices that enable the patrol to observe enemy activity in order to report, locate or destroy an enemy unit. Observation equipment allows the patrol to use combat hunter techniques in order to accomplish the mission. (e.g. M22 binoculars, Leupold Binoculars, Rifle Optics, Night vision devices, PAS 22 or PVS 14s/ 7Bs) Control: Devices that enhance the Patrol Leaders command and control (e.g., radios, luminous tape, NVGs, etc.). Water and Chow: Water and food are usually self-evident but require special consideration for longer patrols or for patrols conducted in a demanding environment (e.g., desert, jungle, arctic). Issue the Warning Order. Once the PL has received the mission, established his timeline, and selected who is going on the patrol and what gear they are taking, the PL is able to publish a warning order. The warning order allows subordinate commanders to begin physically preparing their Marines while the PL completes his planning. The PL issues the warning order far enough in advance for subordinate leaders to ensure that all logistical requirements are met and the gear is given an operational check and to begin some initial rehearsals based on the mission. The timeline is included, so subordinates know how much time they have for preparation and where and when the order is going to be issued. Coordinate. To ensure that the patrol receives all required support and to minimize the risk of friendly fire, the PL coordinates with all units supporting and affected by the patrol. Coordination takes place in the form of: - Combat Operations Center (COC) coordination - Forward Unit Coordination (FUC) with any unit whose lines the patrol may be passing through Battalion Coordination In the COC, the PL will need to coordinate as described in the table below with the section or a designated representative for that Section; The PL should prepare a checklist and consult it during coordination so as to not overlook anything that may be vital to his or her mission. Some items may need to be coordinated with more than one staff section. Refer to MCRP 3-11.1A Commanders Tactical Notebook, Appendix I for an example checklist.
17
B2H3317
COC Coordination With
Description
The adjutant is responsible for personnel accountability within the battalion. The Patrol Leader will provide the S-1 with a roster of Marines he is taking outside friendly lines. The intelligence officer can Update the enemy situation, enemy gear and uniform, and weather Provide sketches, photographs, or imagery The S-2 will generally also have information requirements (IR) for the Patrol Leader to fulfill. The operations officer will generally not be available to coordinate with the Patrol Leader. However, a watch officer in the operations section within the COC will be available to make liaison and can update the PL on the friendly situation. The PL will submit an overlay of the patrol route to the watch officer to help the COC deconflict friendly units and track the progress of the patrol. Coordination with the FSC is essential if the PL is to receive fire support for his patrol. The FSC can update the PL on Locations of all fire support agencies Directions of fire Fire support control measures Types and amounts of munitions available The logistics officer provides all logistical support for the unit. Realistically, the APL or platoon sergeant will coordinate all logistics issues for the patrol. The communications officer can inform the PL of Reporting requirements Frequencies and Call Signs When these items change The PL will be issued communications electronic operating instructions (CEOI) or smart pack that will include all of this information. Generally the PL will not be required to coordinate with the S6.
Battalion Adjutant (S-1)
Intelligence officer (S2)

Operations officer (S-3)

Fire support coordinator (FSC)
Logistics officer (S-4) Communications officer (S-6)
It is important to note that when it is possible COC Coordination should be done prior to the Patrol Leader issuing his order to his squad. From the time that the Patrol Leader has received his order to this point in his planning process a certain amount of tie ha elapsed. The enemy situation or friendly situation may have been altered depending how much time has elapsed. It is not unusual for the S-3 or operations to alter the squads tasking mission (specifically checkpoints) because of the change of either the enemy situation or friendly situation. In order to minimize this potential friction if possible COC Coordination should be done prior to completing the plan and issuing the order.
18
B2H3317

Forward Unit Coordination After the PL coordinates with the COC, which will be well behind friendly lines, coordination is then required with any units affected by the patrol, including adjacent patrols or any forward units (such as a company or platoon in a defensive position) through which the patrol must pass. During this forward unit coordination (FUC), the following must be coordinated: - Movement within friendly areas - Departure/reentry of friendly lines For further details on COC and FUC coordination, refer to MCRP 3-11.1A, Commanders Tactical Notebook, Appendix I. Company Coordination When conducting patrols on the company level as part of the company patrolling effort, the platoon commander or company executive officer will conduct COC coordination. The PL will then be responsible for coordinating with the: Company Executive Officer to: - Update enemy and friendly situation - Coordinate passage of lines - Submit patrol overlay Mortar Section Leader/Weapons Platoon Commander to: - Coordinate fire support for the patrol - Submit fire support overlay Company Gunnery Sergeant: - The APL will coordinate all logistics issues. Patrol Overlay An integral part of coordination with higher headquarters, whether on the company or battalion level, is the patrol overlay. Refer to MCRP 3-11.1A Commanders Tactical Notebook, Appendix J for an example Patrol Overlay.
19
B2H3317

The overlay is constructed on a clear sheet of plastic overlay paper. Crosshairs indicating the appropriate grids should be drawn in the corners, so the overlay can be aligned on the map. If existing pre-planned targets do not adequately cover the patrol route, the PL should plan additional targets. These additional targets must have their target designator left blank until the FSC approves the target and issues a target number. Targets to be requested are submitted as a list of targets. If the FSC approves those targets, they are returned as a target list. Target lists are covered in more detail in B2C2797 Fire Support Planning. The overlay should include the following: - Target list to include pre-planned targets - Patrol information - Marginal information - Checkpoints - Primary and alternate routes Higher headquarters will maintain two copies of the overlay: If coordinating on the battalion level, one for the: o S-3 o FSC If coordinating on the company level, one for the: o Company executive officer o Weapons platoon commander Higher headquarters will use these overlay copies in order to: - Track the patrol's progress - Deconflict friendly movements - Assist in reinforcing or extracting the patrol - Facilitating indirect fire support - Aid in the evident of a CASEVAC Make Reconnaissance. The PL can reconnoiter his route and objective area through physical or aerial reconnaissance and studying aerial photos or imagery. However, a PL will often not have access to photos or have the time or means to execute a physical or aerial reconnaissance. In this case, the PLs most effective means of reconnaissance is to make a detailed map study and debrief other units who have experience operating in the area.
20
B2H3317

Complete the Plan. Before issuing the order, the PL should receive a final update of the enemy situation with the S-2 or company executive officer and ensure that all required coordination has been completed. Issue the Order. Due to the level of detail inherent in a patrol order and because all Marines on the patrol will have a specific task, all members of the patrol must be present to receive the patrol order. The patrol order will be discussed in detail during B2H3397 Patrol Order and Overlay Demonstration. Supervise. The PLs most effective tools of supervision are: - Productive and Realistic Rehearsals. Each action the patrol may have to execute en route and in the objective area will be rehearsed within friendly lines to ensure the operational readiness of the patrol members. Rehearsals are one of the most critical steps in patrol preparation. Rehearsals may include: o ROC walk (walking through immediate action drills using cards). This will be done during the Patrol order and will be discussed in detail during B2H3397 Patrol Order and Overlay Demonstration. o Dry runs (walk through) o Wet runs (at full speed) - Inspections. Inspections are conducted to ensure the physical and mental readiness of the patrol members. The two types of inspections are: o Pre-Combat Checks. The APL conducts initial inspections before the patrol order is issued to ensure that the patrol is in compliance with the warning order and Marines are physically prepared for the mission. o Pre-Combat Inspections. The PL conducts a final inspection just prior to departing friendly lines to ensure the mental readiness of the patrol with regard to the five-paragraph order. Patrol members are questioned about: The mission and the intent Routes Fire support The communications plan Signals Challenge and passwords
21
B2H3317
Execution of the Patrol

Introduction This topic outlines many of the basic techniques and procedures used to conduct a patrol. Though an array of patrolling techniques and procedures exists, those discussed within this handout are the doctrinal baseline for the conduct of a patrol. Command and Control Command and control is essential to the overall success of the patrol. All Marines in the patrol must understand the route and the overall plan however when it comes to command and control the patrol leader and the assistant patrol leader must understand their roles when it comes to execution of a patrol. Patrol Leader: - Ultimately responsible for everything that happens and fails to happen during the execution of the patrol. - Report any change in situation to higher of either enemy or friend forces. Report current positions of patrol using check points or grids - Upon enemy contact decides whether to break contact or assault through the enemy Assistant Patrol Leader - Responsible for accountability of Marines on the patrol - Responsible for dispersion - At times can be in charge of the placement of flank security - Responsible for CASEVACs - Responsible for handing of EPWs Halts During the conduct of patrol, the PL should execute a short security halt on occasion to adjust to the environment and listen for enemy activity (stop, look, listen, smellSLLS). When the PL signals for a short security halt, all patrol members face outboard, take a few steps in the direction of their area of responsibility, and assume a kneeling position. All members must remain still and silent during the halt and focus all attention on their assigned sectors. Long security halts are all halts lasting in excess of three to five minutes. When executing a long security halt, the patrol moves into a 360-degree perimeter and lays in the prone position to provide for a more effective perimeter in the event of contact (see Long Security Halt diagram below).
22
B2H3317
LONG SECURITY HALT
C N
LF
RO
HQ UNIT
RF
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
23
B2H3317
Execution of the Patrol (continued)

Rally Points A rally point (RP) is a point on the ground where a patrol assembles and reorganizes if dispersed or separated, normally used after breaking contact with an enemy force. A rally point should be easily recognizable, have good cover and concealment, and be defendable for a short time. During the planning phase, the PL makes a thorough map study to pick likely rally points; however, these are confirmed during movement with the PL passing the appropriate hand and arm signal to identify the RP to all members of the patrol. Rally points can also be used in conjunction with the lost Marine plan (the lost Marine plan is discussed in detail in B2B2457, Combat Orders Discussion Group). Types of Rally Points: Initial Rally Point En route Rally Points Objective Rally Point
The initial rally point is within friendly lines where the patrol can rally if it becomes separated before departing the friendly area or before reaching the first en route rally point. En route rally points are between the initial rally point and the objective rally point; and from the objective rally point back to the point where the patrol reenters friendly lines. They are determined as the patrol passes through a likely area that is suitable for a rally point. The objective rally point is located nearest the objective where the patrol makes final preparations prior to approaching the objective. It also serves as a location where the patrol reassembles after completing actions on the objective. The objective rally point must be suitable to accommodate those activities accomplished prior to actions on the objective. This position must provide the patrol concealment from enemy observation and, if possible, cover from enemy fires. It may be located short of, to a flank or beyond the objective. It should be out of sight, sound, and small-arms range of the objective area. Rally points are also established when crossing danger areas. The PL designates a near side rally point and a far side rally point. Actions at rally points must be covered in detail in the patrol order. If the patrol is dispersed, Marines will move to the designated rally point. If not all members return to the rally point, those Marines at the rally point must determine whether they can continue the mission or execute the escape and evasion plan. This
24
B2H3317

decision is based on the go/no go criteria (go/no go criteria is discussed in detail B2B2457, Combat Orders Discussion Group). Communication Communication with higher and adjacent units during the conduct of the patrol is critical. This requires that the radio operator and PL are proficient with the basic operations of the radio and how to trouble-shoot any problems. The Patrol Leader is ultimately responsible for reporting to higher and changes in the enemy or friendly situation. Transmissions should be concise and brevity codes should be coordinated and used whenever possible. The Patrol Leader should utilize the correct report formats to facilitate the communication between higher and the patrol. (e.g SPOT Report, SIT Rep, and Contact Report other report formats can be found in FM 101-5-2) Communication within the patrol will primarily be with hand and arm signals. All members of the patrol must be familiar with all hand and arm signals listed in MCWP 3-11.2 Marine Rifle Squad (formerly FMFM 6-5). To be effective all Marines must ensure that they are constantly looking around and repeating any hand and arm signals passed by other members of the patrol, ensuring that all other Marines receive, understand, and continue to repeat the signal. If it becomes necessary to communicate detailed information during the patrol, Marines should speak in a hushed tone. Whispering can cause a loud hissing noise and can often be misunderstood. When in contact with the enemy, voice commands must be load enough to be heard over battlefield noise. Navigation Although the PL is ultimately responsible for navigation, he may assign two pace counters and a navigator to aid him in this task. On the PL's order, the pace count is passed forward. The pace count is always given in meters. Because the two counts will seldom be the same, the average of the two counts can be used as a good approximation of the distance traveled. Checking pace counts at known points allows the PL to gauge the accuracy of his pacers. The patrol is usually assigned checkpoints from higher headquarters to ensure coverage of a specific area. However, the PL will generally have some latitude to decide how exactly to move to each checkpoint and in what order to cover them. It is not necessary for the patrol to physically occupy the checkpoint, as long as it can attain visual contact. Security and Movement
25
B2H3317

Because of the physically demanding nature of patrolling, the PL must maintain an even, deliberate pace during movement. As a general rule, a foot patrol will move at a rate of: - One kilometer per hour during the day - 500 meters per hour at night in a wooded environment To minimize losses if the patrol is caught in an ambush or hit by indirect fire, patrols must maintain the maximum amount of dispersion possible without completely sacrificing control. In a wooded environment, the point man should move as far ahead of the patrol as visibility and control will allow in order to provide security to the front. The automatic rifleman is normally the cover man and follows in trace of the point man. The cover man provides fire to the front in the event of enemy contact. The flanks move as far out as control allows, usually one terrain feature away in woodland terrain in order to prevent the patrol from moving into an enemy ambush and give early warning of units moving toward the patrol. The assault unit provides rear security by: - Moving continuously with the patrol, stopping periodically to observe the area behind the patrol - Halting for several minutes, observing to the rear as the patrol continues to move, and then moving to regain position in the patrol - Moving alternately, having one man halt observing to the rear as the other moves ahead with the patrol. The second man then halts, observing to the rear while the first man moves to regain his position within the formation. Each Marine on the patrol should have a sector of responsibility that they scan continuously while on the patrol. During movement, head counts should be conducted - After crossing danger areas, security halts, enemy contact - Any other time the PL requires Head counts are conducted by team and unit leaders and are then passed to the PL through the APL. Observation Techniques Everyone in a patrol is responsible for employing a variety of observation techniques in order to aid in the overall accomplishment of the mission. Every member of a patrol should be patrolling in a combat hunter mindset. There are variety of considerations that not only the patrol leader needs to consider however every member of the patrol play a part in consistently scanning the
26
B2H3317

immediate area around them or in their sector whether it be for signs of the enemy or evidence that the enemy may be in the area. Whether it be something tasked to the patrol specifically to look out for or something that the patrol determines as out of place, it is up to the patrol to take note of the location and activity and pass the information along to higher during the debrief of the patrol. Commanders Critical Information Requests (CCIRS) In highers order or during COC Coordination the patrol will be tasked with reporting on Commanders Critical Information Requests (CCIRS). These are information requests by the commander that he feels is at the utmost importance that if the patrol comes across any of these requests he wants to know about them immediately. It is very important that every member of the patrol know the CCIRS so that everyone will be on the lookout for evidence that fulfill these information requests. Assets used for Observation During the planning and preparation stage the patrol leader analyzed the mission from higher and determined what the patrol would need in order to accomplish the mission. The patrol leader must determine who and where these assets should be located in the task organization of the patrol. Depending on the billet and responsibilities of Marines on the patrol the patrol leader can determine who should carry and employ this equipment. Mental and Physical Toughness It is essential that every member of the patrol remain mentally and physically tough throughout the duration of the patrol. This maybe difficult depending on the length and current operation tempo. Physical Toughness The patrol leader during his planning phase must take into consideration who he selects to go on the patrol. It will hurt the whole patrol and place them in danger if a Marine is hurt or not physically fit prior to going on the patrol. During execution every Marine must be able to move at the patrol leaders chosen rate of march. As discussed earlier there are different references concerning the average rate of march during the day and night however depending on the situation and mission this may be slower or faster. Not only must the Marines be able to patrol effectively however in some cases depending on the mission, essential equipment must be carried in order to facilitate a specific mission. It is essential that every Marine on the squad be able to display physical toughness throughout the patrol duration.
27
B2H3317

Mental toughness Mental toughness is just as if not as important as physical toughness. If a Marine is able to patrol at the specific rate of march as the rest of the patrol however is not displaying good observation and patrolling techniques (e.g. scanning designated sector, communicating effectively with Marines in his team) he is not doing his part in accomplishing the squads mission. It is not the patrol leaders responsibility for observing any signs of enemy activity however it is every Marines responsibility in the squad. Everyone must consistently employ correct observation techniques throughout the duration of the patrol. Individual Actions Individual actions are the responsibility of every Marine in the patrol. Individual actions (e.g. proper weapons handling, silencing gear, and gear accountability) will only be accomplish by individual Marines if they are consistently mentally and physically tough throughout the execution phase. If individual actions are not successfully accomplished by each Marine it will be more likely that the squad will not be able to successfully accomplish their mission. Departure and Reentering Friendly Lines and Actions on Enemy Contact Departure of Friendly Lines The patrol's preparation phase is normally conducted in an assembly area located in a protected area behind friendly lines. Before passing through friendly lines, the PL must make forward unit coordination with the forward unit commander. The forward unit commander (FUC) is responsible for the defense in the area designated for the departure and reentry of the patrol. Refer to MCRP 3-11.1A Commanders Tactical Notebook for further information on forward unit coordination. When making final coordination, the PL leaves the patrol at the assembly area and takes the point man and navigator to meet with the forward unit commander. After all coordination has been made, the PL, point man, and navigator move to the passage point. The navigator stays with a guide from the forward unit at the passage point, and the point man and PL move back to link up with the patrol. The PL briefs the patrol on any changes to the plan and the location of the initial rally point (IRP, a pre-designated point behind friendly lines at which the patrol can reorganize if enemy contact is made while departing friendly lines) and passage point. The PL moves the patrol in a tactical patrol column from the assembly area to the passage point.
28
B2H3317

Before entering the passage lane, the patrol assumes a dispersed file with the forward unit's guide leading the patrol. The APL is positioned behind the guide(s) and is followed by the rest of the patrol. Once through the barrier plan, the APL conducts a head count on the enemy side of the barrier plan to ensure that all Marines passed through friendly lines. Upon passing through the friendly barrier plan, the patrol immediately transitions into a tactical patrol column and moves out. The patrol should conduct a short security halt one terrain feature away (out of friendly direct fire weapons range) in order to orient to the environment.
29
B2H3317
PASSAGE OF LINES CONTROL MEASURES
RRP
CP
LP
KEY: PASSAGE POINT RALLY POINT CONTACT POINT FRIENDLY LP/OP PASSAGE LANE xx xx PP xx xx xx
IRP
FIGURE 8
30
B2H3317

Danger Areas A danger area is any location where the patrol is exposed to the possibility of enemy observation or fire. Danger areas can include trails, fire breaks, streams, open fields, and even large wooded areas that have sparse ground vegetation. The two general classifications of danger areas are: - Linear danger area: Any location where a patrol is vulnerable to enemy observation or fire predominantly from the flanks, such as a trail, road, or stream - Cross-compartment danger area: Any location where a patrol is vulnerable to enemy observation or fire from the front and flanks, such as a draw or large open area. Patrols should avoid crossing or paralleling danger areas if possible. If a patrol comes across a danger area, such as a large open field or a wooded area with little or no ground vegetation, it should try to execute a ninety degree off-set. When crossing a danger area, the patrol should execute the danger area crossing as quickly as possible. The method a PL chooses for crossing a danger area depends heavily on the: - Patrol's mission - Known and suspected enemy locations - Terrain within and around the danger area - Patrol's size and firepower available to the patrol - Amount of time the patrol has available to conduct the crossing (METT-T) The danger area crossing techniques discussed below are for those circumstances where time is not a significant factor and contact with the enemy is likely. Linear Danger Area Crossing The patrol should cross a linear danger area where observation is restricted, such as at a curve in the road or where vegetation comes right up to both sides of the road.
31
B2H3317
CROSSING A LINEAR DANGER AREA

R
PT
RP 1. Security Unit identifies a possible linear danger area. 2. PL confirms danger area and passes hand and arm signal to the rest of the patrol. 3. Flanks ( R ) move up to the edge of the danger area. 4. PL designates near/far RPs. 5. Security Unit crosses Danger area and reconnoiters the far side.
CVR
A
NV
road/trail
LF
SUL
APL
PL
RP
RO
RF
AUL
FIGURE 4a
32
B2H3317
CROSSING A LINEAR DANGER AREA
PT CVR
NV SUL RO PL
6. Security unit signals the far side is safe. 7. PL gives a GOTWA to APL. 8. PL and RO cross. 9. Assault Unit crosses danger Area. 10. APL and flanks cross danger area. 11. APL gets a moving head count.
road/trail
R
LF DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT APL
R
RF AUL
33
B2H3317

When the point man comes upon what he believes to be a danger area, he halts the patrol and signals for the PL to come forward. The PL puts the patrol in a short security halt and moves forward to join the point man. After confirming it as a danger area, the PL passes the hand and arm signal for linear danger area to the patrol. Flanks move up to the edge of the danger area to provide security. The PL designates near and far side rally points and directs security unit to cross the danger area and reconnoiter the far side, ensuring that they push far enough past the danger area to allow the remainder of the patrol to fall in behind. The point and cover man remain at twelve oclock while the navigator and security unit leader push back toward the edge of the danger area to signal to the PL that the far side is clear. Depending on the situation, the patrol will cross individually, in pairs, or by units. The PL and RO cross first, issuing a GOTWA to the APL and leaving him to direct the remaining units across. As patrol members reach the far side, they move forward toward the point and reorganize into the formation for movement. The last patrol member to cross is normally the APL. The APL crosses along with the flanks and receives moving head count from the unit leaders as the patrol moves away from the danger area. Cross-Compartment Danger Area Crossing When crossing a draw or open area, the patrol is vulnerable to fire from the front and the flanks. To combat this threat, the PL orients the majority of the patrol's firepower across the danger area. When the point man comes upon what he believes to be a danger area, he halts the patrol and signals for the PL to come forward. The PL puts the patrol in a short security halt and moves forward to join the point man. After confirming it as a danger area, the PL passes the hand and arm signal for cross-compartment danger area to the patrol.
34
B2H3317

The PL: - Brings the entire patrol on-line oriented across the danger area (the assault unit leaves at least one member oriented to the rear to provide 360-degree security) - Designates near and far side rally points - Directs security unit to cross the danger area and reconnoiter the far side, ensuring that they push far enough past the danger area to allow the remainder of the patrol to fall in behind. The point and cover man remain at twelve oclock while the navigator and security unit leader push back toward the edge of the danger area to signal to the PL that the far side is clear. The headquarters unit crosses first with the flanks, issuing a GOTWA with the APL and leaving him to direct the remaining units across. The patrol may cross in pairs or in units. Once across, the flanks orient to the sides and rear to cover the remainder of the patrols crossing. When the flanks are set on the far side, the APL moves across with the assault unit. Once on the far side, the APL receives a moving head count from the unit leaders as the patrol assumes patrol formation and moves away from the danger area.
35
B2H3317
CROSSING A CROSS COMPARTMENT DANGER AREA

RP 1. Security Unit identifies a possible crosscompartment danger area. 2. PL confirms danger area and passes hand and arm signal to the rest of the patrol. 3. Patrol moves online on the edge of the danger area. 4. PL designates near/far RPs. 5. Security Unit crosses Danger area and reconnoiters the far side.
R
PT CVR SUL
A
NV
R
LF DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
RO
PL AUL A APL RP
R
RF
FIGURE 1
36
B2H3317
CROSSING A CROSS COMPARTMENT DANGER AREA

R P CV SU A R PL R R A N 6. Security unit signals the far side is safe. 7. PL gives a GOTWA to APL. 8. The HQ unit and flanks cross. 9. Flanks re-establish security on the far side of the danger area. 9. APL and Assault Unit cross danger Area. 10. APL gets a moving head count.
R LF
AP
AU
Figure 2
37
B2H3317

Contact with the Enemy-Forms of Contact Contact with the enemy can be categorized into six forms of contact. Identifying the type of contact will aid the patrol leaders decision making with regards to which action to take and reporting requirements to higher headquarters. The six forms of contact are as follows: Visual. This is when the patrol makes visual contact with the Enemy. This should translate into a SPOTREP to higher headquarters and engaging the enemy with a continued observation, hasty ambush, or indirect fire. Direct fire. This is when the patrol is receiving and returning fire with the Enemy. This translates into a SPOTREP to higher headquarters. The patrol leader can initiate his chance contact or counter-ambush immediate action drill. Indirect Fire. When a patrol receives indirect fire, the follow-on report is a Shelling Report (SHELLREP). The patrol uses its immediate action drill for indirect fire. Obstacle. When the patrol encounters an obstacle, the follow-on report is an Obstacle Report. The patrol then negotiates the obstacle and continues mission or reduces the obstacle within capabilities. CBRN. On contact with Chemical, Biological, Radiological, or Nuclear threats, the patrol submits a CBRN report. The patrol takes appropriate protective measures and continues mission or as directed by higher headquarters. Signal/EW. Upon contact with the Enemy via signals or electronic means, the patrol reports the contact to higher headquarters. The patrol continues mission or as directed by higher headquarters. Actions on Enemy ContactImmediate Action Drills Patrol Leaders must anticipate, plan, and rehearse actions to be taken on enemy contact. These planned and rehearsed actions are called immediate action drills and are designed to provide swift, positive action or reaction to visual or physical contact. All patrol members place emphasis on aggressive, rapid execution and alertness. One important hand and arm signal to understand when discussing immediate action drills is freeze. The signal to freeze is used when the patrol is in imminent danger of being spotted. All patrol members cease all movement completely.
38
B2H3317

Hasty Ambush A hasty ambush is used when the patrol has spotted the enemy, but the enemy has not spotted them. All patrol members quietly move into a position where they can fire upon the enemy when the PL signals to open fire. Unit leaders must ensure front and flank security is maintained during this IA drill. The Marine who sees or hears the enemy signals freeze. Once the enemy is identified, the PL signals "hasty ambush" in the direction the ambush will be oriented. Patrol members quickly and quietly move into a line formation. The PL initiates the ambush with a casualty producing signal. If the enemy prematurely detects any patrol member, the ambush will be initiated immediately, while the remainder of the patrol moves rapidly on line. The PL will then conduct an immediate assault or break contact.
39
B2H3317
HASTY AMBUSH (FRONT)

LF
ENEMY
PT
SUL CVR
NV RO
PL
AUL APL
RF
LF RO
SECURITY UNIT
RF
PL APL
ASSAULT UNIT
Chance ContactImmediate Assault An immediate assault is used when the patrol and the enemy sight spot each other concurrently. The PL must first determine if he can overwhelm the enemy force. If he feels that he can, then the patrol executes an immediate assault. The patrol member in contact returns fire and orients the patrol by shouting the direction and distance to the enemy (ADDRAC: Alert, Direction, Description, Range, Assignment, and Control). The patrol rapidly deploys on line. The PL directs the patrol to assault the enemy unit, utilizing fire and movement.
40
B2H3317
IMMEDIATE ASSAULT(FRONT)
LF
SUL
CVR
PT
NV PL
AUL
RF
E N E M Y
RO
APL
LF
SECURITY UNIT
RF
RO
PL APL
ASSAULT UNIT
Chance ContactBreak Contact Break contact is used when the patrol and the enemy sight spot each other concurrently, but the PL feels that he cannot overwhelm the enemy force. The patrol member in contact returns fire and orients the patrol by shouting the direction and distance to the enemy (ADDRAC: Alert, Direction, Description, Range, Assignment, and Control). The PL uses the clock system (twelve oclock is the direction of movement) to give a direction and follows with a distance (in meters) for the patrol to move in order to break contact. However, contact cannot be broken as a patrol. The units in the patrol will have to break contact successively, while covering each others movement. Smoke and CS can be used to screen the withdrawal.
41
B2H3317

Counter-Ambush When caught in an ambush, the unit leader in the kill zone must determine if the unit is caught in a: - Near ambush: any ambush within 50 meters of enemy direct fire weapons (considered hand grenade range) - Far ambush: anything farther than 50 meters Near Ambush The senior unit leader in the kill zone determines if the unit is caught in a near or far ambush. If the unit is in a near ambush, individuals caught in the kill zone immediately return fire and exit the kill zone as rapidly as possible. Generally, the most expedient exit may be an aggressive assault directly towards the enemy position. Those units not caught in the kill zone attempt to maneuver to relieve pressure off those in the kill zone. The unit continues the attack until the ambush is eliminated or the PL signals to break contact. Far Ambush The senior unit leader in the kill zone determines if the unit is caught in a near or far ambush. If the unit is caught in a far ambush, Marines caught in the kill zone take cover and try to achieve fire superiority. The PL maneuvers units not caught in the kill zone to relieve pressure on the units in the kill zone. As soon as pressure is relieved off units in the kill zone, the patrol breaks contact. Indirect Fire Any patrol member may initiate this drill upon realizing indirect fire is inbound. The patrol assumes the prone position when "Incoming" is sounded. The PL then has the patrol break contact out of the impact area after the initial salvo has impacted. Direction is given via the clock method, with 12 o'clock being the original direction of movement, followed by distance in meters. The PL can also have the patrol break contact to the last rally point.
42
B2H3317

Re-Entry of Friendly Lines Re-entry of friendly lines is a complicated evolution that can present a serious risk of fratricide if not coordinated previously and executed correctly. When reentering friendly lines, the patrol conducts a long security halt at the designated reentry rally point (RRP). The RRP is: - Outside of friendly lines - Beyond the range of friendly direct fire weapons - In a position providing the patrol good cover and concealment
The PL requests permission, via the radio, to reenter friendly lines. The PL must ensure that permission is granted before moving forward to the contact point. Part of the previous coordination required (usually done during forward unit coordination before the patrol exits friendly lines) is to establish a no communications plan in case the patrol is unable to raise the forward unit on the radio. This plan can be to establish designated pre-planned time windows when the guide will move to the contact point. After leaving a 5-point contingency plan with the APL, the PL (moving unit) takes two Marines (point man and navigator) for security and advances to conduct a link-up with a guide (stationary unit) at a pre-designated contact point. The moving unit initiates the far recognition signal (such as flashes from NVGs or removing a cover), and the stationary unit respondse.g. the moving unit initiates with three flashes, the stationary responds with two, and the moving unit acknowledges with one. As the patrol moves closer to the contact point, the stationary unit (guide) initiates the near recognition signal (challenge and password), and the patrol responds.
43
B2H3317

Once the PL has linked-up with the guide, the PL returns to the RRP with the point man to retrieve the remainder of the patrol. The navigator remains with the guide at the contact point. Once the PL links-up with the patrol (using near/far recognition signals), he leads the patrol back to the contact point. As the patrol moves out from the RRP, the formation remains tight to facilitate transition into a dispersed file once reaching the passage point. When the PL returns to the contact point with the remainder of the patrol, he links-up with the guide and the navigator (using near/far recognition signals). The guide then leads the patrol from the contact point to the passage point and through the barrier plan. The patrol transitions into a dispersed file when moving through the passage lane. At the passage point, on the enemy side of the barrier plan, the PL and one Marine for security count all members into the passage lane to ensure that all are accounted for and that no enemy infiltrators attempt to slip in with the patrol. Once inside friendly lines, the PL provides the forward unit commander with a SALUTE/SPOT report regarding the terrain in the immediate vicinity and any enemy encountered during the patrol. The PL takes the patrol to the S-2 for the patrol debrief.
44
B2H3317

Far Side Recon Techniques The table below describes the advantages and disadvantages of different far side recon techniques. Far Side Recon Technique
Zig-Zag
Advantages
Quick and easy to control Security unit moves as one unit Generally effective in thick vegetation Does not require patrol members to link-up at the end of the recon
Disadvantages
Only covers ground that the patrol will be occupying Recon is limited to the route selected Not the preferred technique in areas of sparse vegetation
TRAIL
45
B2H3317

For the box and heart shape reconnaissance techniques, splitting the reconnoitering unit presents a significant risk of fratricide due to the required linkup at the end of the recon and the risk of an enemy unit appearing in between the split elements of the reconnoitering unit. A plan for actions on contact and SOPs for the link-up will limit this risk.
Far Side Recon Technique

Box
Advantages
Covers more terrain than the zig-zag recon More effective in sparsely vegetated areas Reconnoiters the flanks of the area the patrol will be occupying Generally effective for reconnoitering a Landing zone Mortar position Other open areas that a unit must utilize
Disadvantages
Difficult to control Security unit is split during the recon Takes longer than zig-zag Precise navigation is required for linkup at far side of area to be reconnoitered Not an effective technique for heavily vegetated areas
46
B2H3317

Far Side Recon Technique
Heart-Shape
Advantages
Covers more terrain than the zig-zag recon Reconnoiters the flanks of the area the patrol will be occupying
Reconnoiters the flanks of the area the patrol will be occupying
Disadvantages
Difficult to control Security unit is split during the recon Takes longer than the zig-zag More precise navigation is required for linkup at the end of the recon than zig-zag
Link up will occur at a point all members of the security unit have seen Effective in sparse and heavily vegetated areas Generally effective for reconnoitering an ORP or other wooded areas the patrol must occupy for an extended period
47
B2H3317
Patrol Debrief
Introduction This topic outlines the purpose, importance and what consists of a patrol debrief. Though an array of patrolling techniques and procedures exists, those discussed within this handout are the doctrinal baseline for the conduct of a patrol. Debriefing When the patrol returns, the Patrol Leader as well as the entire unit upon the discretion of the commander will conduct a debrief with the commander. Necessary information is recovered with the commanders needs and patrols mission in mind. Information that should be passed includes primary information requirements which depend on the needs and desires of the commander. The debriefing should be conducted as soon as possible following the patrols return, while information is still fresh in the patrol members minds. In addition to debriefing with the commander, the patrol should also conduct a debrief at all battalion or company levels. At a minimum a debrief should be conducted with an Intel representative whether it be at the company or battalion level. This does not preclude the Patrol Leader to pass a relevant information to any of the S shops if need be. All relevant information must be passed on so that information can be analyzed and disseminated to other friendly units in the area. This is the only way to gain a better understanding of not only the enemy but of the area of operation that the friendly unit is operating in. The patrol should pass on a complete account of everything of military importance that the patrol observed or encountered while on the assigned mission. These reports should not be restricted to information about the enemy, but also should include information about the terrain, newly discovered roads, trails, swamps, streams and communication problems. (Reference MCWP 3-11.3, Chapter 14.) To wage combat successfully, a commander must have accurate, detailed, and timely information about the enemy, the terrain, and adjacent friendly units. Welltrained scouts and well-led patrols are among the most effective tools the commander has to acquire the necessary information. Patrol Critique The Patrol Leader should hold a critique for constructive criticism. The critique is an excellent time to prepare for future patrols by reviewing lessons learned as a result of the patrol. The patrol should be able to recognize what they need to ultimately improve on for future operations. If these things are brought out following a patrol the squad should not make the same mistake twice and ultimately become a better trained and cohesive unit.
48
B2H3317
Summary
We have discussed patrolling as a skill that every unit must master. Regardless of Military Occupational Specialty, all units will be faced with the need to execute a patrolling mission at some point during combat operations. As a result, every Marine should understand the basics of patrolling.
References
Reference Number or Author FMFM 6-5 FMFM 6-4 MCWP 3-11.3 (formerly the FMFM 6-7) FM 7-8 SH 21-76B Reference Title Marine Rifle Squad Marine Rifle Company/ Platoon Scouting and Patrolling for Infantry Units Infantry Squad and Platoon US Army Ranger Handbook

Term or Acronym ADDRAC APL BAMCIS Definition or Identification Alert, Direction, Description, Range, Assignment, Control Patrol Sergeant Begin the planning, Arrange reconnaissance/make coordination, Make reconnaissance, Complete the plan, Issue the order, Supervise Communications electronic operating instructions Combat Operations Center Combat Service Support Explosive ordnance disposal Enemy Prisoner of War Fire support coordinator Forward Unit Coordination Five-point contingency plan: G: Where he is going; O: Others he is taking; T: Time he will be gone; W: What to do if he doesnt come back; A: Actions on enemy contact Global positioning system Information requirements
CEOI COC CSS EOD EPW FSC FUC GOTWA
GPS IR
49
B2H3317
Notes
50
B2H3317
Annex A: Reports Enemy Sighting Report (SPOTREP) Begin the report with the subject line of the message, the DTG, and map reference details as required. Size. This line gives the number and type of enemy by using the following letter codes: Activity. This line describes the activity of the enemy by using the following numerical code: Location. The position of the enemy is provided by using the grid reference or another agreed-on system of position reference. Unit. An identification of the enemy unit is provided if it can be determined. If not, a description is given that might be helpful to the tasking agency. If a positive identification is made, indication is required as to how this was achieved. Time. The DTG of the sighting is reported. Equipment. The identity or description of any weapons or equipment observed is provided. Remarks. Any additional details are included that might help to clarify enemy activities, strengths, or intentions for an intelligence assessment.
51
B2H3317
POSREP (Position Report) This report allows higher to track and the current position of the patrol. Should be passed in one transmission utilizing the correct method to pass grid locations. Callsign Utilize the proper callsign during COC coordination. Position (Grid Location or Checkpoint) Grids should be passed by passing first half of grid then breaking transmission and passing the 2nd half of the grid location. SITREP (Situation Report) As changes in the tactical situation develop, the patrol leader makes reports of the existing situation to higher headquarters. Any information affecting the patrols tactical disposition or ability to accomplish its mission is included. Enemy activities affecting the patrols tactical disposition, casualties sustained, and logistical deficiencies, when they endanger accomplishment of the assigned mission, are of tactical concern and may be included in the operational situation report. Situation reports are normally made as changes occur but may be of a periodic nature (i.e. every 24hrs). DTG Utilize the proper Date/Time/Group FRIENDLY POSITION Grids should be passed by passing first half of grid then breaking transmission and passing the 2nd half of the grid location. ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED This should be a summary of all significant tactical actions conducted since departing friendly lines or since the last SITREP submitted. ACTIONS PLANNED This should summarize the actions planned for the next 24hrs or until the next planned SITREP.
52
B2H3317
LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS These should outline only logistical requirements which affect the mission. Routine logistical reports should be submitted using logistics-specific reports. PERSONNEL CASUALTIES Casualty reports should be submitted as soon as tactically feasible after contact, but the SITREP should provide a report of casualties since the last SITREP. REMARKS This part of the report includes any necessary amplifying information or information not included in the other parts of the report.
NOTES
53
B2H3317
NOTES
54
PATROL ORDER AND OVERLAY DEMONSTRATION B2H3397
B2H3397
Patrol Order and Overlay Demonstration

Introduction The process for developing a Patrol Order, while adhering to the same SMEAC model, involves many considerable changes from that required for the development of an operations order. At The Basic School, you will endure an extremely detailed and rigorous package that strives to develop and evaluate your ability to conduct an analysis, develop a scheme of maneuver, and communicate that plan in a time-competitive environment. This class builds upon the basic operations order format presented in Combat Orders Foundations (B2B2377) and the METT-TC analysis presented in Tactical Planning Process (B2B2477). This class will complement the Patrolling Operations Class (B2H3317). Patrolling is a skill that every unit must master. In the tempo of operations today, everyday Marines of every Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) are faced with patrolling missions. For example, in Afghanistan and Iraq, Combat Service Support (CSS) units have been repeatedly tasked with conducting patrolling operations. Thus, every Marine should understand the basics of patrolling. In addition, even the simplest patrol requires an intensive amount of teamwork, planning, and advanced field skills. Patrolling is an excellent vehicle to increase small unit proficiency, to build small-unit leadership, and to train your subordinates in making decisions and operating independently. In this lesson you will be presented a warning order and a patrol order. The class will also demonstrate the creation of a patrol overlay. You will be expected to be proficient in developing each of these items. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Patrol Warning Order Patrol Order Patrol Overlay Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Patrol Order Example Patrol Warning Order Example Patrol Overlay Example Notes Page 4 6 13 16 16 16 178 29 30 31
Importance
In This Lesson
B2H3397
Patrol Order and Overlay Demonstration (Continued)

Learning Objectives Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent issue a patrol warning order to facilitate concurrent preparation of subordinate units. (T&R 0311-PAT2002c) Given a terrain model, map overlay or graphic, use terrain model, graphic, and / or overlay to reinforce understanding of the order. (T&R 0302-OFF-1XXX) Given an order with a mission to conduct combat operations construct a terrain model to represent the area of operations. (T&R 0300-PAT-1001a) Write a squad patrol order. (T&R 0311-PAT-2001) Develop a map overlay (T&R 0300-PAT-2004)
B2H3397
Patrol Warning Order

MCWP 3-11.3, Scouting and Patrolling, outlines the process by which the Patrol Leader organizes and prepares for the patrol. Inherent to the patrol planning process is the application of the six troop-leading steps (BAMCIS). As the Patrol Leader (PL) begins planning the patrol, he must assess the available resources: time, assistance, and information. Reconnaissance, completion of the estimate and the order, troop preparation, inspections, rehearsals all require time. Yet, there is never enough time in a combat environment. One method to conserve time is to issue a warning order. A warning order is defined by Operational Terms and Graphics (MCRP 5-2A) as a preliminary notice of an order or action which is to follow. A PL will issue a warning order as soon as is practical with as much pertinent information as possible that will assist patrol members in the operation. A warning order can be verbally issued to subordinates or it can be written out in a matrix format and posted for all to review. For best results, PLs pursue some combination of these methods. It is critical that PLs designate a subordinate leader to supervise the execution of the warning order. The Assistant Patrol Leader (APL) is usually designated in this role. The warning order is based upon the SMEAC format and will include information from each of the five paragraphs. However, keep in mind that the PL is still working on the remainder of the troop-leading steps (arranging/making reconnaissance and completing the order). Thus, the warning order will not include those parts of the patrol order still being developed by the PL. A warning order will typically include information necessary for troop and mission preparation. The following outline is summarized from Scouting and Patrolling (MCWP 3-11.3).
B2H3397
Patrol Warning Order (Continued)

SMEAC (Continued)
I.
Situation
Include the friendly and enemy situation information necessary for initial preparation. Include the what and why of the patrols mission. Identify the task organization so that patrol members can rehearse and train accordingly. Alert subordinate unit leaders to direct initial preparation (drawing ammunition, rations, special equipment), conducting immediate action drills, conducting link-up with attached personnel, and coordinating with necessary personnel. Alert subordinate leaders to patrol tasks (point man, navigator, Aid and Litter teams, Enemy Prisoner of War (EPW) teams, demolition, etc.) that require preparation prior to departure. Identify the timeline devised for individual preparation, rest, briefs, inspections, rehearsals, order issue, and departure. Identify the uniform, equipment, load of rations, water, and ammunition. Identify any crew served weapons and the subsequent spread-loading of ammunition and equipment. Identify any equipment requirements: wire cutters, demolitions, radios, flashlights, night-vision, binoculars, and mines) and their distribution during movement. Designate the key personnel (APL, Radio/Telephone Operator (RTO), navigators, etc.). Identify the PLs schedule and location during prep time.
II. Mission III. Execution
IV. Administration and Logistics
V. Command and Signal
Once the PL has published the warning order, he is free to continue his METT-TC analysis and application of the BAMCIS troop-leading process. As long as the subordinate unit leaders know what is required of them, the required preparation will be accomplished.
B2H3397
Patrol Order
Once the PL has issued a warning order, he will continue the troop-leading steps, BAMCIS. Begin the Planning In order to execute the initial planning process, the PL must conduct a METT-TC analysis. Just as presented in Tactical Planning Process (B2B2477), the METT-TC analysis is a crucial component of planning any Marine Corps operation. The PL may coordinate with other patrol leaders operating in the same area or with forward unit commanders for information pertinent to the patrol. The PL has now acquired all the required information for a successful order: updates to any EN or FR situations, passage points through the lines, lanes through obstacles, and observation post (OP) locations. The PL must identify all potential courses of action based upon the mission accomplishment, as well as for any enemy contact. These must be included in the final plan. At this point, the PL has completed the thought process required for accomplishing the assigned mission. The PL prepares the patrol order to spell out the details, assign tasks to subordinates, and explain the entire operation. The patrol order will contain far greater detail than a regular 5-paragraph operation order. The patrol order may omit any information already addressed and disseminated within the warning order. A patrol order is more detailed than a 5-paragraph squad order in that a great deal of attention is given to the individual duties. Prior to issuing the patrol order, a PL should conduct coordination with the Command Operations Center (COC) and the Forward Unit Commander (FUC). In Appendix I of the Platoon Commanders Tactical Handbook, there is a checklist of suggested items. An orders preparation guide specifically tailored for a patrol order is listed below.
Arrange Reconnaissance/ Make Reconnaissance
Complete the Planning
B2H3397
Patrol Order (Continued)

Complete the Planning, Order Preparation Guide (Continued) COC Coordination What support/information do you need from higher in order to accomplish the mission? What information do they need from you before the patrol departs? Orientation What information does the patrol need? (1) What is the astrological data for the operation? (2) What is the terrain like? Extensive details? Key terrain? (3) What is the local population situation? (4) What are the Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) considerations? (5) What is the visibility for the operation? Illumination? I Situation (1) Describe the Enemy Forces (SALUTE): What is their Size? What is their Activity? What is their Location? What is their Unit (and what are their TTPs)? What Time were they observed? What Equipment do they have? (2) Describe the Enemy Capabilities/Limitations (DRAW-D): Can the Enemy Defend? How long? Can the Enemy Reinforce? How long? Can the Enemy Attack? Can the Enemy Withdraw? Can the Enemy Delay? (3) Describe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action (EMLCOA), based upon your assumption of enemy contact or observation during the patrol. I believe the Enemys Most Likely Course of Action is to.
A. What is the Enemy Situation for your Enemy?
B2H3397

Complete the Planning, Order Preparation Guide, I Situation (Continued) I Situation, B. What is the Friendly Situation? (1) What was Highers Mission? What was Highers Commanders Intent? (2) What units are Adjacent? Can you use them for support if needed? Do you have communication with them in case you must make coordination? Who is to the Left? What is their Mission? Who is to the Right? What is their Mission? Who is to the Front? What is their Mission? Who is to the Rear? What is their Mission? (3) What units are Supporting? What is their Command Relationship (GS/DS/ATT)? What is their location? What is the Priority of Fires? What is the status of the Attachments? i. What is the date/time effective? ii. Who is attached? Are they added to the roster? iii. Are they familiar with the Immediate Actions? iv. Are they present at the order? v. Are they present at rehearsals? What is the status of the Detachments? i. What units are Detached? ii. What is the date/time effective? iii. What is the link-up plan?
C. What units/ individuals are Attached/Detached?
(1)
(2)
II
Mission
Who is to accomplish the Patrol? What is the type of Patrol assigned? When is the Task to be executed? Is time priority? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed? Is the mission priority?
B2H3397

Complete the Planning, Order Preparation Guide, III Execution (Continued)
III Execution A. Describe your Commanders Intent
(1) What is the Purpose of your mission? (2) State your Method of exploitation? (3) What is your desired Endstate?
B. Describe the Concept of Operations
(1) Explain the Scheme of Maneuver: (Include the movement to the objective area, actions in the objective area, and the return movement from the objective area.) i. What is the Distribution of Forces? What type of patrol is it? Thus, what subunits do you need to identify as a Main Effort? Supporting Efforts? (Keep in mind the task organization of a patrol.) ii. Form of Maneuver is irrelevant for Patrol Ops. iii. Direction of Attack will change. iv. What are the Tactical Control Measures (TCMs) ? What TCMs are specific to Patrol Ops? What formations will be used between TCMs? v. Consolidation is irrelevant for Patrol Ops. (2) Explain the Fire Support Plan relative to Patrol Ops. i. State the purpose of the Fire Support Plan. (The purpose of my Fire Support Plan is to.) ii. What targets have been planned in support of the operation? What are the grid coordinates? iii. What shell/fuse combination is desired? What type of ammunition does the firing agency have? What type of fuse? iv. Who is the Primary Observer? Who is Alternate? v. Are observers proficient with the Call-For-Fire? vi. On what frequency will the fires be requested? vii. What Priority Targets are planned? viii. Is the List of Targets submitted to the COC?
B2H3397

III Execution C. Issue Tasks to the Subordinate Units
Note: Many tasks should have been already assigned in the Warning Order.) Who is to accomplish the Task? - APL - RTO - Aid and Litter Teams - EPW Teams - Navigator - Pace Counter What is the tactical Task assigned? When is the Task to be executed? Where is the Task to be executed? Why is the Task to be executed?
D. Brief the Coordinating Instructions
What is the timeline? - Order issue? - Inspections? - Departure? - Return? - Debrief? Where are the passage points? Who is our link-up? What actions are required upon passage in? Out? What are details on the primary route? What are details on the alternate route? Where are the established rally points? What are actions upon rally points? What is the lost Marine plan by stage? What are all the TCMs? What is the priority of rehearsals? What is the no-communications plan by stage? What is the required MOPP level for the operation? What are the Rules of Engagement for the operation? What is the Go/No-Go criteria? What are the Commanders Critical Information Requirements (CCIRs) from higher? Have you scheduled a weapons test-fire?
10
B2H3397

D. Brief the Coordinating Instructions (Continued)
What are the Immediate Actions? - Linear Danger Area - Cross-Compartmental Danger Area - Chance Contact (Break Contact or Immediate Aslt) - Hasty Ambush - Counter Ambush (Near and Far) - Indirect Fire How many Marines are present? What uniform is to be worn? What equipment is to be brought? Where shall all wounded in action (WIA) be collected? By stage? Where shall all killed in action (KIA) be collected? By stage? Where shall EPWs be collected? By stage? Where is the Corpsmans location? What is the CasEvac Plan? How much ammunition is required? What pyro is allotted to the unit? When shall logistics requirements be requested? How much chow is required? How much water is required? What night vision assets are required? What long-range vision assets are required? What is the resupply plan? Who has priority? What are the transportation capabilities? What are the frequencies for the operation? Where are the Communications Electronics Operating Instructions (CEOI) located? What is the primary Challenge/Password? Alternate? What is the Running Password? What is the Signal Plan? Primary signals? Alternate? What is the Near/Far Recognition plan? What are the Hand/Arm Signals to be used by the patrol?
IV Administration and Logistics A. Brief any administration information
B. Brief any Logistics information that was not outlined earlier in your Warning Order
V Command and Signal A. Brief any Signal Information
11
B2H3397

Complete the Planning, Order Preparation Guide, V Command and Signal (Continued)
V Command and Signal (Continued) B. Brief the required Command Information
1. What is the Location of Key Personnel? Where is the PL located? Where is the APL located? Where is the RTO located? 2. What is the Succession of Command? Who is designated if the PL is gone? Who is designated if the APL is gone?
Use this template to assist in preparation of your patrol order. Once the PL has completed the order, the PL should request a status update for all tasks assigned in the warning order. When initial preparations have progressed to a satisfactory degree (or if time dictates otherwise), the members of the patrol are assembled. Roll call is taken to ensure attendance, and then the patrol order is issued. This will be the only opportunity for the PL to issue detailed instructions; the entire operation must be completely clear to all members prior to the patrols departure.
12
B2H3397
Patrol Overlay
Whether operating at a battalion or a company level the COC must always be aware of the location and activity of the patrolling unit. One successful method of accomplishing this is for the PL to create a patrol overlay. The patrol overlay is a transparent or translucent graphical depiction of special military information that has been plotted at the same scale of a map, photograph, imagery, or graphic. When the overlay is placed over the area of operation on the map, the details on the overlay appear in their true position with respect to that map. Materials needed to make a high quality patrol overlay are: Map, photograph, imagery, or a graphic Overlay paper Straight edge Tape Map pens Protractor MCRP 5-2A Operational Terms and Graphics
Information required on a patrol overlay: Register marks Primary Route (graphic and info box) Alternate route (graphic and info box) Checkpoints (graphic and info box) Location of pre-planned targets All Tactical Control Measures (TCM) Marginal Information Box: - Patrol Identification and name of PL - Date Time Group - Map Reference Data (Sheet Name, Sheet Number, Scale, Series) - Prepared By - Time Of Departure - Time Of Return Legend Box Call Signs and Frequencies Box Brevity Code Box Target List Box Remarks Box Classification
PREPARATION
13
B2H3397
Patrol Overlay
There are three steps in the preparation of a map overlay: orientation of the overlay, plotting and symbolization of the detail, and addition of the required marginal information. Orientation Orient the overlay material over the map area to be annotated and if possible attach it to the map temporarily with tape. Next trace the grid intersections nearest the two opposite corners of the overlay and label each with the proper grid coordinates. These register marks show the receiver of the overlay exactly where it fits on the map. Without the register marks the overlay is difficult to orient. Plotting Detail Colored map pens should be used to plot the patrols intended routes as well as other information such as the locations of pre-planned targets and other TCMs. The author of the overlay should use standard military operational terms and graphics. Non-standard operational terms and graphics invented by the author must be identified in a legend on the overlay. Marginal Information When all required detail has been plotted onto the overlay the following information is printed on the overlay: - Marginal Information Box; Patrol Identification and name of PL, Date Time Group, Map Reference Data (Sheet Name, Sheet Number, Scale, Series), Authored/Prepared By, Time Of Departure, Time Of Return - Legend Box; clarifies both standard and non-standard symbols on the overlay. - Call Signs and Frequencies Box; give both primary and alternate for as many planned days out plus at least on day extra. - Brevity Code Box - Target List Box - Remarks Box; if there are no special remarks to be made this box may remain off. - Classification; stated at the center top and bottom of the overlay. The lowest classification for an actual overlay is confidential except during training which is unclassified. Higher headquarters will retain one copy of the overlay. If higher is a battalion COC, one copy will go to the S-3 for tracking on the overall situation-map. If higher is a company command post (CP), one copy will go to the Executive Officer for tracking on the situation-map. The overlays will be retained to track the patrols movement, deconflict friendly units, and facilitate indirect fire support. The PL will construct two patrol overlays on a clear sheet of plastic overlay paper. Crosshairs should be drawn in the corners that indicate the appropriate grid coordinates
B2H3397
Patrol Overlay
so the overlay can be aligned on the map. If existing pre-planned targets do not adequately cover the patrol route the PL should plan additional targets. These additional targets must have their target designator left blank until the FSCC approves the target and issues a target number. Targets to be requested are submitted as a list of targets. If the FSCC approves those targets they are returned as a target list. Target lists are covered in more detail in Fire Support Planning (B2C2797). Refer to MCRP 3-11.1A Commanders Tactical Notebook, Appendix J for an example of a patrol overlay.
15
B2H3397
Summary
You have been presented a warning order and a patrol order and demonstration of creating a patrol overlay. You will be expected to be proficient in developing each of these items.
References
Reference Number or Author MCWP 3-11.3 MCRP 3-11.1A MCRP 5-2A USMC Reference Title Scouting and Patrolling Commanders Tactical Notebook Operational Terms and Graphics Platoon Commanders Tactical Notebook

Term or Acronym APL BAMCIS Definition or Identification Assistant Patrol Leader Begin the planning, Arrange for reconnaissance, Make reconnaissance, Complete the planning, Issue the order, Supervise Casualty evacuation Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Commanders Critical Information Requirements Communications Electronics Operating Instructions Command Operations Center Command post Combat Service Support Defend, Reinforce, Attack, Withdraw, Delay Date time group Enemys Most Probable Course of Action Enemy Prisoner of War Fire Support Coordination Center Forward Unit Commander Killed in action Mission, Enemy, Terrain, Troops and equipment-Time available, Civil considerations Military Occupational Specialty Observation post Patrol Leader Radio/Telephone Operator Size, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, Equipment Situation, Mission, Execution, Administration and Logistics, Command and Signal
CasEvac CBRN CCIR CEOI COC CP CSS DRAW-D DTG EMPCOA EPW FSCC FUC KIA METT-TC MOS OP PL RTO SALUTE SMEAC
16
B2H3397
TCM TTP WIA
Tactical Control Measure Tactics, techniques, and procedures Wounded in action
17
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER
This patrol order is written by the PL, 1st Sqd Ldr, 2nd Plt, B Co. BN 1/2. Orientation. APL, arrange the squad around the terrain model by Security, HQ, and Assault and have them break out their maps and orient to the terrain model. The terrain model is oriented to the ground and encompasses our present position and the area forward of our company's defensive position. North is indicated by the E-tool in the upper right-hand corner of the terrain model. We are currently located in our AA at 18S TH 870642. The boundaries for our AO are as follows: To the north The North Branch of Chopawamsic Creek and New Breck Road, to the west MCB-1, to the south MCB-1, and to the east TH 92 easting. Terrain and weather: The terrain is typical to the Quantico Highland region, but is steeper and more broken in this area with many fingers and near vertical draws especially near water features. There are two major creek systems; North Branch Chopawamsic Creek and South Branch Chopawamsic Creek; and numerous intermittent streams that run throughout the AO. These water features create numerous linear danger areas (DA). There are numerous trail networks that run throughout the AO which also create linear DA. Key terrain features within our TAOR include LZ Falcon (18S TH 907 676), Breckinridge Reservoir, and the village of AMMO DUMP which is restricted to U.S. Forces. LZ Falcon is the only useable LZ in the AO. The vegetation is thick and visibility is normally restricted to 50-100m, sometimes less than 25m in the low areas. BN has established two BPs. The first is BP 1 located vic of LZ Falcon (18S TH 907 676). The second is BP 2 located at the village of Barrett, (18S TH 873 642). Our company has been tasked with patrolling the areas forward of the BNs BPs. Astro Data: Date
Sunrise
Sunset
Moonrise
Moonset
Percent Illm
Weather data: The weather for the next 48 hours will be ____________________ with highs in the ______ and lows in the ______; Winds from the ________ with approximate speeds of ________. The affects of weather on our patrol will be ___________________________________. Are there any questions on orientation? OKHold all questions till the end. Situation Enemy Forces Composition, Disposition and Strength. Over the last 48 hours a company-sized unit of Montanyan forces have been infiltrating Fire Teams into the BN's AO IOT revitalize the CRF insurgency with ground forces, arms, and equipment. The Montanyans have been wearing woodland camouflage utilities, and have US style small arms. The only CRF elements currently operating in the BN AO are believed to be acting as guides for the Montanyans.
18
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Capabilities and Limitations. CRF/Montanyan units are not likely to defend their positions within our AO. Rapid reinforcement is unlikely due to their poor C2 and I anticipate it taking 30-45 minutes before they can mass a squad (+) or platoon (-). CRF/Montanyan units are not operating with significant combat power therefore reinforcements are required prior to offensive operations. You can expect these small units to withdraw back to the north and to initiate sporadic harassing fires to delay your pursuit. Their indirect fire capabilities are unknown at this time. EMLCOA. I believe the enemy is generally attempting to avoid decisive engagement and on contact will move into the low grounds and withdraw north along the numerous trails and streams. They prefer movement in the morning and early evening hours and will establish LP/OPs and patrol bases during the day and ambush positions during the night. I believe that there is a fire team size patrol base located HERE (18S TH 912 680). They are oriented to the South and likely at 25% security during the day. On contact, they will break contact and withdraw to the North utilizing the numerous trail and stream networks. I also believe the MRA has established an enemy LP/OP located HERE (18S TH 903 682). They are oriented Southeast toward FOB Falcon. If they observe our patrol they will likely relay the information to other MRA units and depending on their IDF capabilities, may CFF on the squad. On contact, they will break contact and withdraw to the Northeast using the numerous trails and streams. Friendly Forces (1)Higher (a) Mission: 2nd Platoon conducts squad-size security patrols within AO IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating into our BN's AO and to provide early warning of a CRF/Montanyan attack on US forces. MISSION HAS PRIORITY. (b) Commander's Intent: ENDSTATE: Interdict and deter the Montanyan forces from refitting and rearming of the CRF. (2) Adjacent B Co. 2nd Plt. 2nd Sqd. Conducts patrols E to I-95. B Co. 2nd Plt. 3rd Sqd. Conducts patrols W of MCB-2. B Co. 1st Plt. Occupies BP 1 around LZ Falcon. I will confirm any friendly unit locations and call signs during Forward Unit Coordination and will inform you prior to our Departure of Friendly Lines (DFL) B Co. 3rd Plt. Occupies BP 2 around Barrett Village. I will confirm any friendly unit locations and call signs during FUC coordination and inform you prior to our Departure Friendly Lines. B Co. Wpns Plt. Established 60mm mortar pos vic LZ Falcon. Bn 1/2. Weapons Co. Conducts vehicular patrols along MCB 1, MCB 2, MCB 3, Hot Patch Rd and I-95. I will confirm any friendly unit locations and their call signs during Forward Unit Coordination and inform you prior to our departure of friendly lines. Bn CP located vic LZ 7.
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e) (f)
(g)
19
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

(3) Supporting. (a) B Co 60s GS of Co vic LZ Falcon. POF 2nd Plt ,3rd Plt,1st Plt. (b) F 2/10 DS of Bn vic LZ 6. POF Alpha, Charlie, Bravo. (c) 81s GS Bn vic LZ 8. POF Alpha, Charlie, Bravo. Attachments/Detachments. None Mission. At 1330, 1st Squad conducts a security patrol to GUARD forward of our BN's BPs IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating the AO. Helo extract NLT 1700 from LZ Falcon. TIME HAS PRIORITY. Execution a. Commander's Intent PURPOSE: To prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating into the AO and refitting and revitalizing CRF. METHOD: The enemys Center of Gravity is their ability to avoid detection and infiltrate into our AO. The enemys Critical Vulnerability is that their infiltration tactics force him to operate in fire team size unsupported units. I plan to exploit this vulnerability by conducting a squad size security patrol supported by company IDF assets. ENDSTATE: Deny any CRF resupply and prevent the enemys ability to conduct attacks within our AO. b. Concept of the Operation Scheme of Maneuver: Our squad will conduct a day time security patrol forward of Alpha Companys friendly lines. We will utilize a patrol formation organized with a Security Unit, Headquarters Unit, and an Assault Unit. Our primary route is depicted on the terrain model in red. The alternate route is in yellow. The conduct of our patrols primary route follows: We will DFL through 3d Plt, Alpha Cos defensive position (PP3). Approximately 200m or one terrain feature away we will conduct a short-security-halt to acclimatize to the environment. During this leg I will establish priority target AB 1001. Utilizing the terrain along this finger to guide our movement, we will move northwest for approximately 700 meters to (CP 3). Our second leg will take us in an easterly direction for approximately 600 meters to (CP 18). We will cross over a finger, a draw, a second finger, and a second draw all of which run south to north into South Branch Chopawamsic Creek. We will utilize this high ground to watch for signs of enemy activity since they likely use this creek to guide their movement. Our third leg will take us southeast for approximately 400m to (CP 7). During the third leg I will establish priority target AB 1002. Our fourth and final leg will take us generally southwest for 500m to our RRP. We will transit the north side of this intermittent stream being especially watchful of enemy patrol bases. From the RRP we will contact 3d Plt, Alpha Co, conduct linkup with the guide and Enter Friendly Lines (EFL) through PP3.
20
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Throughout the patrol, Rally Points (RP) will be identified every 400m to 600m at easily identifiable terrain. If the primary route becomes untenable or if directed by higher, we will patrol along the alternate route. The alternate route will be more expedient and will by-pass check point 7. Fire Support Plan. The purpose of my fire support plan is to suppress enemy IOT close with and destroy the enemy with direct fire weapons. We have priority of fires from the company's 60mm mortars during this patrol. If contact is made with a squad-size or smaller force, I will use mortars to suppress the enemy while our patrol orients and closes with the enemy. If contact is made with greater than a squad-size force, I will use mortars to suppress and slow his advance as we move to gain the tactical advantage. During the conduct of the patrol I will establish priority targets as I briefed in the SOM. I have the following pre-planned targets: TGT # AB 1001 AB 1002 Grid 18S TH 903 682 18S TH 912 680 Description Likely En LP/OP Likely En patrol base Trigger Observe En Observe En/ En Contact Observer Shell/Fuse PL HE/PROX PL HE/PROX
c. Tasks First Fire Team: You are the security unit. At 1330, provide security to the front of the patrol IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating the AO. Provide (1) Navigator, (1) Pace Man and (1) Point Man. Second Fire Team: You are the headquarters unit. At 1330, provide flank security IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating the AO. Provide (1) Radio Operator. Third Fire Team: You are the Assault Unit. At 1330, provide rear security IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating the AO. Provide (1) EPW Teams and (1) Aid and Liter Team. d. Coordinating Instructions Time Line: 0700 0800 0900 0930 1000 1030 1100 1130 COC Coordination Issue Patrol Order Draw Rations/Ammo/Pyro Issue Ammo/Pyro Draw and Test Communication Equipment Forward Unit Coordination Pre Combat Checks Rehearsals
21
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

1230 1300 1330 1700 1730 Pre Combat Inspections Movement to PP3 Depart Friendly Lines Re-Enter Friendly Lines Debrief
Tactical Control Measures: Assembly Area TH 870 642 Passage Point 3 TH 906 676 Initial Rally Point One Terrain Feature away from PP3 (inside FL) Checkpoint 3 TH 902 682 Checkpoint 18 TH 908 683 Checkpoint 7 TH 912 682 RRP TH 909 678 Contact Point Coordinated with FUC prior to departure En route Rally Points will be designated during movement approximately every 400-600 meters. Primary and Alternate Routes. (All azimuths are magnetic) Primary: START PT PP3 / TH 906 676 CP3 / TH 902 682 CP18 / TH 908 683 CP7 / TH 912 682
LEG 1 LEG 2 LEG 3 LEG 4
DISTANCE 700m 625m 410m 500m
MAG AZIMUTH 334 deg 89 deg 114 deg 227 deg
END PT CP3 CP18 CP7 RRP / TH 909 678
LEG 1 LEG 2 LEG 3
Alternate: START PT PP3 / TH 906 676 CP3 / TH 902 682 CP18 / TH 908 683
DISTANCE 700m 625m 550m
MAG AZIMUTH 334 deg 89 deg 154deg
END PT CP3 CP18 RRP/TH 909 678
Assistant Patrol Leader During preparation for the patrol supervise the execution of the Timeline. During the conduct of the patrol Supervise; Flank Security, Casualty Collection Point (CCP), EPW Collection Point. Maintain personnel accountability and collect ACE reports from all elements; report consolidated reports to me. Distribute logistical items as required.
22
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Radio Operator Prior to DFL; preset channels and conduct comm. checks with Bn CP, Co. Mortars, and Air Nets. Execute all required radio checks and reporting requirements per the CEOI. O/O transmit POSREP, SITREP, CASREP, SPOTREP, and HLZ Briefs. O/O report the patrol's actions using the brevity codes contained in the CEOI. Navigator Keep the point man oriented on the patrol route. Maximize terrain to identify enemy activity. Notify me when we arrive at designated checkpoints. Pacers Maintain an accurate pace count throughout the conduct of the patrol. Notify the Navigator every 100 meters. Aid and Litter Team Assist Corpsman as he directs in the treatment, care, and transportation of any friendly or enemy WIA during conduct of the patrol. Report any significant change of WIA condition to the APL immediately. Gear is in accordance with the Warning Order. Search/EPW Team You are responsible for the Searching, Silencing, Segregation, Safeguarding, Speed (escort), and Tagging of all EPWs. Report any significant change of EPW condition to the APL immediately. Gear is in accordance with the Warning Order. Formation During Movement. The patrol will be organized into three elements; a Security Element, Headquarters Element, and Assault Element. The PL will designate patrol formations during movement based on enemy situation and terrain utilization. Departure of Friendly Lines NLT thirty minutes before the time of departure, the PL leaves a 5-point contingency plan with the APL and conducts forward unit coordination. The PL takes two Marines as security, one being the navigator. PL meets with the forward unit's commander (FUC) to coordinate departure and reentry plans. The patrol's navigator links up with the forward unit's guide. When the PL returns to the assembly area, he moves the patrol toward the departure point. En route, he designates the initial rally point (IRP) and links back up with the patrol's navigator and the forward unit's guide. Upon final approval from higher and under the direction of the forward unit's guide, he moves the patrol to the passage lane. The APL, following in trace of the forward unit's guide, leads the patrol through the passage lane. The patrol assumes a dispersed file behind the APL in the order of security, HQ, and assault units. Once the patrol reaches the far side of the passage lane (enemy side), the forward unit's guide stops and as the patrol continues its movement, the APL counts out all patrol members. While continuing its movement,
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

the patrol transitions into the patrol formation. Approximately 200-300 meters forward of friendly lines, the patrol conducts its first listening halt. Re-entry of Friendly Lines When the patrol reaches its reentry rally point (RRP) the PL halts the patrol for a long security halt. The PL then radios higher headquarters and requests to re-enter friendly lines. If communications cannot be established he then executes the alternate plan normally to meet a guide at the contact point within a pre-designated time window. Once permission to re-enter is granted the PL passes a 5-point contingency plan to the APL and departs for the contact point taking two Marines for security. The PL halts at the contact point to meet the forward unit's guide. The PL initiates the far recognition signal. The forward unit's guide responds. Once far recognition is established the PL advances to meet the guide. The PL and the forward unit's guide pass information as necessary and then leaving one man with the guide, the PL moves back to pick up the rest of the patrol. The PL moves the patrol forward to the contact point where the forward unit's guide then leads the patrol back through the defensive lines. As the patrol enters the passage lane it collapses into a dispersed file. On the far side of the passage lane (enemy side) the PL and the cover man count the patrol into friendly lines. Once re-entry is complete the PL passes a SITREP to the FUC. The patrol then conducts debrief. Actions at Rally Points Rally points will be designated every 400-600 meters. I will be designating these using the proper hand and arm signals. Lost Marine Plan If a Marine becomes separated from the patrol during movement from PP3 to CP 3 the Marine will move back to the last designated rally point and wait for 30 mins and wait for the rest of the patrol to link up with him at that rally point. After 30 mins the Marine will then move south in the same direction as the Marine had to move to the last rally point until he hits a unimproved trail. Once at the unimproved trail he will turn right until he hits a hard ball road. Once at the hard ball road he will wait until a Weapons Company vehicular patrol comes by and will link up with weapons plt. During movement from CP 3 to CP18 the Marine will return to the last established rally point and wait 30 mins for link up with the rest of the patrol. After 30 mins the Marine will then move east until he hits a large stream (Chopawamsic Creek) and turn right. He will follow the stream until it intersects with a hardball. At the hardball he will wait and link up with Weapons Companys vehicular patrols. During movement from CP 18 to CP 7 if a Marine gets separated the Marine will return to the last known rally point and wait 30 mins. After 30 mins the Marine will continue to move east until he hits a stream and turn right until it intersects with a hard ball. At the hard ball he will link up with Weapons Companys patrols. During movement from check point 7 to the reentry rally point if a Marine becomes separated the Marine will return to the last designated rally point and wait 30 mins. After 30 mins the Marine will move east until he hits a stream. At the stream he will turn right until it intersects with a hardball road. At the hard ball road the Marine will wait and link up with Weapons Company patrols that are patrolling the hardballs.
24
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Actions on Enemy Contact (Immediate Action Drills) 1. Hasty ambush: When the patrol observes an enemy patrol the PL may choose to conduct a hasty ambush. The individual who first spots the enemy executes the appropriate hand-andarm signal (a rifle brought up at eye level). All patrol members then slowly take cover and observe their assigned sector for security. Once the PL confirms, he gives the appropriate hand-and-arm signal. The patrol then moves abreast in that direction. Those on the flanks continue to provide flank security. The RTO observes and covers the patrol's rear. The PL normally initiates the ambush. 2. Chance Contact a. Immediate Assault: If a patrol member sees the enemy and at the same time is observed by the enemy he immediately engages the enemy. The firing signals to the rest of the patrol the general direction of the contact. The patrol then maneuvers in reaction to the contact as directed by the PL. b. Break contact: When a patrol is in contact with a superior force, the best course of action for a patrol may be to break contact. When a PL directs the patrol to break contact, he initiates the action with two long whistle blasts. He then gives break contact direction and distance. Patrols generally break contact by bounds; one unit moving while the other units cover their withdrawal with suppressive fires. The patrol continues their withdrawal until it is no longer in contact with the enemy and has reached a safe rally point. 3. Counter-Ambush a. Near: When a patrol is caught in a near ambush (within 50m or hand grenade range of the enemy's position), those caught in the kill-zone immediately return fire--if escape from the kill zone or cover within the kill zone is not available, they then immediately assault through the enemy's position to disrupt the ambush. Those not in the kill zone return suppressive fire and if need be, maneuver to support those in the kill zone. b. Far: When a patrol is caught in a far ambush (further than 50m or outside hand grenade range), those caught in the kill zone take cover and return suppressive fire. Should the PL choose to assault, those not in the kill zone will maneuver to a position from which they can assault the enemy. The reaction to a sniper attack is the same. 4. Reaction to Indirect Fire: When attacked by indirect fire it is critical that patrols immediately take cover and when possible, move away from the impacts. If patrol members hear the rounds coming in, they immediately take cover. Once the initial salvo is over, the PL gives a direction and distance for the patrol to move. The patrol then double-times out of the impact area in the direction prescribed by the PL.
25
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Actions at Danger Areas Linear: At the sign of a linear danger area the point man halts the patrol. The PL moves forward and confirms the danger area. He then signals to the patrol and designates near and far side rally points. The flanks position to provide flank security along the linear danger area. When directed by the PL the security unit crosses the danger area and conducts a zigzag recon of the far side. Once the far side of the danger area is secure the SUL signals back to the PL. The PL leaving the APL in charge on the near side crosses the danger area with the RTO. The APL directs the rest of the patrol across in either pairs or units. The APL and Flank Security cross last. Once the entire patrol is across the APL conducts a moving headcount and the patrol departs the area. Cross-compartment: When a patrol encounters a cross-compartment danger area the actions are generally the same as crossing a linear danger area with two exceptions. First, when the PL designates a cross-compartment danger area, the patrol moves abreast, so they observe the cross compartment and provide cover for the patrol as it crosses. Second, when the PL crosses the danger area, he takes the flanks with him. When the flanks reach the far side, they orient outboard covering the far side flanks. Actions at Halts Short: When the patrol column stops, patrol members react as if it is a short security halt. The patrol orients outboard, with each individual moving to the nearest cover and taking a knee. By doing this, the patrol ensures 360-degree security. Long: The PL determines all long security halts and will inform the patrol accordingly. Patrol members position themselves in the prone behind good cover and concealment. Those in the center of the patrol column will then move outboard to form an oval or cigarshaped perimeter. The APL will then disseminate guidance and assign sectors of fire to unit leaders. Listening: When it is apparent that an enemy force is in the area or if something unidentifiable is heard, the PL may stop the patrol and conduct a listening halt. The PL initiates a listening halt by an exaggerated touching of the ear. Patrol members repeat the signal until the entire patrol is advised. The patrol then halts in place. Everyone remains silent and listens until the PL signals to continue movement.
26
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

Rehearsals and Inspections: Priority for rehearsals is as follows: (1) Counter Ambush near and far (2) Chance Contact, immediate assault and break contact (3) Hasty Ambush (4) Actions at danger areas and (5) Departure/reentry of friendly lines. Once these are complete, I will conduct the final inspection. Commander's Critical Information Requirements (CCIRs). 1. Contact with enemy patrols or indirect fire. 2. Sustain priority or urgent casualty. Debrief: Following our reentry into friendly lines, I will first pass pertinent information to the FUC and then we will conduct an entire patrol debrief. Once complete with the patrol debrief, the entire patrol will move to the company CP where we will be debriefed by our Plt Commander, the Company XO, and a Bn S-2 representative.
Administration and Logistics Administration Casevac Plan If we sustain a casualty along our patrol, we will contact higher and request either a Ground CASEVAC or an Air CASEVAC. Ground: If we sustain a casualty that we cannot Air CASEVAC, we will conduct a Ground CASEVAC. Weapons Company is conducting vehicular patrols on the hard balls so we will utilize them to conduct the Ground CASEVAC. When a casualty is sustained, I will coordinate w/ Wpns Co and establish a link-up point on the closest hard ball road. During movement to the hardball, the security unit will be responsible for navigation and security to the front and to the rear, the headquarters will be responsible for security to the flanks and the assault unit will be responsible for carrying the wounded Marine to the hard ball. Once at the link-up point on the hard ball, all units will transition and assume 360 degree security. If time permits we will continue on with the patrol. Air: Along our patrol, I will keep track of possible LZs where we can move to in order to facilitate an Air CASEVAC. If we do sustain a casualty during our movement and are in the vicinity of a LZ we will move to the LZ in the most direct route. During the movement, the security unit will be responsible for navigation and security to the front and to the rear, the headquarters will be responsible for security to the flanks and the assault unit will be responsible for carrying the wounded Marine to the hard ball. Once at the link-up point on the hard ball, all units will transition and assume 360 degree security. If time permits we will continue on with the patrol.
27
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

If we sustain a casualty during enemy contact we will continue and complete the attack. Once the attack is complete and we have consolidated I will decide whether we will conduct a ground CASEVAC or an air CASEVAC depending on our location and the support that higher can provide to us. All established en route rally points will serve as CCPs. In 180 and 360 consolidation, the 3 oclock position will be the CCP. EPWs EPWs will be handled in accordance with the "5 S's and a T." We will keep them with us for intelligence reasons and will escort them back to friendly lines and turn over to Bn CP. However, during our route if we are close to a hard ball we will coordinate with higher and see if we can obtain assets for a ground pick up of EPWs. If it is we will establish a pickup location at the closest hardball and move to that position and wait for the pickup. In 180 and 360 consolidation, the 9 oclock position will be the EPW collection point.
Logistics In accordance with the Warning Order, resupply of ammo and chow will be available upon our return to friendly lines. Every Marine needs to ensure he has two full canteens and camelback before leaving. Each Marine should have at least one insulating layer to put on, kept in his butt pack.
Command and Signal Signal Primary means of communication within the patrol during movement is hand and arm signals. The reports we need are on page 3 of the Communication Electronics Operating Instructions (CEOI). Everyone must be familiar with the SPOTREP, SITREP, and POSREP formats in the event the RTO is injured. Our primary frequency is 37.50; alternate 40.30. Challenge and Password Primary: BLACK/APPLE Alternate: #S ADDING TO 7 Running Password: DRIFTWOOD Challenge and Password remain in effect until tomorrow at 2359.
28
B2H3397
PATROL ORDER (cont)

The near recognition signal is the challenge and password. Far recognition signal (a) Day: The person who initiates will motion their right arm in a circle. The recipient will do the same but not stop motioning their arm in a circle until the initiating person motions them to come forward. (b) Night: The moving unit will initiate by two flashes IR light. The stationary unit will return one flash, to be confirmed by three flashes from the moving unit.
Patrol Signal Plan: Event Primary Commence Fire PL Initiates Shift Base of Fire GSC Cease Fire WSC Break Contact Voice (Dir + Dist) Consolidate Voice Command
Alternate Contact Whistle Blast Voice GSMK YSMK
Tertiary Visual H/A H/A
The platoon commander and platoon sergeant will remain at the Plt CP, located at Th 907 676. During movement, I will travel with the HQ unit. Succession of command: APL, AUL & SUL
Time is now 0900, any questions?
29
B2H3397
WARNING ORDER
SITUATION: ENEMY: Over past 48 hours Montanyan forces have been infiltrating into BNs AO IOT support the CRF insurgency with forces, arms, and equipment. Green utilities, US style small arms. FRIENDLY: 2nd Plt conducts squad-size patrols IOT prevent Montanyan forces from infiltrating. A Co. @ LZ Falcon, C Col @ Barrett Village, Wpn Co vehicle patrols @ MCB 1,2,3 Hot Patch and I-95. B Co. 60mm W LZ Falcon, F 2/10 DS of BN vic LZ 6; POF A, C, B, BN 81mm GS of BN vic LZ 8 POF A, C, B. MISSION: At 1230, 1st Squad conducts a security patrol to GUARD forward of our BN's BPs IOT prevent Montanyan units from infiltrating the AO and to provide early warning of a CRF/Montanyan attack on US forces. Helo extract NLT 1700 from LZ Falcon. TIME HAS PRIORITY. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS: NAME CHAIN OF CMD 1 3 ELEMNT SPECIAL TM IND DUTIES PL NAV, SEC LDR PACE MAN M203, NAV EQP M249, PACE CORD SPEC. EQUIP COMMON TO ALL -Cammies -Helmet -Flak -FLC (cmplt) -ammo pch -butt pack -Fst Aid Kit -Camel Back -Camo Paint -ID Tages -Mil ID Card -Poncho -Note Taking Gear -Map Gear -Compass -Xtra Socks -Rifle Clean Gear -Personal Wpn -NVD TIME SCHEDULE WHEN 0800 0800 WHAT DRAW RATIONS DRAW/TEST COMM EQP WHERE CO GY PLT CP WHO APL RTO
WRIGHT HERNANDEZ
HQ SEC
MCDONOUGH
SEC
0800
DRAW AMMO/PYRO
PLT CP
APL
STEVENS COOPER RODDIE GOMEZ JIMENEZ TKACH GUY ARMSTRONG
11 10 2 13 9 12 4 6
SEC SEC HQ HQ HQ ASSAULT ASSAULT ASSAULT EPW #2, A/L EPW #2, A/L NAV A/L FLANK FLANK
PT MAN
0830 0900 0900 0930 1000 1100 1145 1200
ISSUE AMMO/PYRO INNITIAL INSPECTION FIRE SUPP COORD FWD UNIT COORD PATROL ORDER REHEARSAL FINAL INSPECTION MVMT TO PP3
AA AA CO CP AA AA AA AA AA ALL PL PL ALL ALL ALL ALL
APL,
M203 M249
M249 ASSLT LDR PACE MAN M203, EPW KIT M249, EPW KIT PACE CORD EPW KIT EPW KIT, Pole-less Liter RTO A/L CORPSMAN COMM KIT M9, MED KIT
SANCHEZ SWINK
7 14
ASSAULT ASSAULT
EPW #1, A/L EPW #1, A/L
1215 1230
TEST FIRE DFL
PP3 POD
ALL ALL
GILLESPIE JULIET
5 15
HQ HQ
1700 1730
EFL DEBRIEF
POR AA
ALL ALL
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS: 1. APL you are 2nd in command and therefore in charge at any time during my absence. You will supervise the execution of this TIME SCHEDULE. You will conduct the INITIAL INSPECTION__________________ 2. NAVIGATOR; build and complete a TERRAIN MODEL NLT__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
30
B2H3397
OVERLAY
UNCLASSIFIED
Margin Information 88 Map Reference: Sheet Name: QUANTICO MIM LAND NAV SPECIAL Sheet Number: V734S Scale: 1:50,000 Prepared By: SGT WRIGHT Unit: 1ST SQD, 2ND PLT, B CO, 1st Bn 2nd Marines TOD: DD1230LMONYR TOR: DD1730LMONYR
71
LEGEND
CP18 CP3
AB 1001
PRI ROUTE:
CP7
ALT ROUTE: CALL SIGN/FREQ 2nd PLT B Co Bravo 2 Godfather Godfather Mortars __________ Guardian Steel Rain Whiskey __________ __________ BREVITY CODES XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX
AB 1002
B Co 60mm BN BN 81mm F 2/10
RRP
W Co A Co C Co
PP3 BP 1
START PT PP3 / 906 676 CP3 / 902 682 66
PRI ROUTE DIS / AZ 700m / 325 deg grid 625m / 80 deg grid END PT CP3 CP18 CP7 RRP / 909 678 END PT CP3 CP18 RRP
CP18 / 908 683 410m / 105 deg grid CP7 / 912 682 500m / 218 deg grid ALT ROUTE DIS / AZ 700m / 325 deg grid 625m / 80 deg grid 550m/ 145 deg grid REMARKS
93 TARGET LIST TGT GRID TT 903 682 TT 912 680 DESCRIPTION Likely EN OP/LP TRIGGER Observe EN OBSERVER PL PL SHELL/FUSE HE/VT HE/VT AGENCY B Co. 60mm B Co. 60mm START PT PP3 / 906 676 CP3 / 902 682 CP18/908 683
Likely EN patrol base Observe EN/ EN contact
UNCLASSIFIED
31
B2H3397
Notes
32
AMBUSH PATROL B2H3417 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Ambush Patrol
Introduction Patrolling is used for a myriad of purposes and the nature of patrolling in warfare runs the gamut of military operations. Ambush patrols add an offensive punch by striking the enemy when he feels secure or shows signs of complacency. An aggressive ambush effort can disrupt the enemy's scheme of maneuver. An effective ambush effort can diminish his morale. The ambush mentality is an attitude central to maneuver warfare and relates directly to the fundamentals of warfighting. An appropriately conducted ambush orients on the enemy and creates disorder and uncertainty through planned, violent, aggressive action. Understanding the art and science of the ambush is central to understanding MCDP 1 and the manner in which the Marine Corps operates. This lesson builds off of the patrolling fundamentals discussed in Patrolling Operations. This lesson will give you an introduction into the planning and execution of ambush patrols. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Ambush Basic Information Planning and Preparation of Ambush Execution of the Ambush Debrief Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes
Importance
In This Lesson
Page 4 7 12 21 22 23 23 24
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Ambush Patrol (continued)

Learning Objectives Enabling Learning Objectives 0311-PAT-2002m Given a unit, a mission with commanders intent lead an ambush patrol to accomplish the mission. 0311-PAT-2002h Without the aid of reference describe Objective Rally Point (ORP) characteristics without omission. 0311-PAT-2002i Without the aid of reference describe patrol actions in the Objective Rally Point (ORP) without omission. 0311-PAT-2002j Without the aid of reference describe ambush site characteristics without omission. 0311-PAT-2002k Without the aid of reference describe patrol actions while loading the ambush site without omission. 0311-PAT-2002l Without the aid of reference describe patrol actions on the objective without omission.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Ambush Basic Information

Ambush Patrolling Defined MCWP3-11.3 defines ambush as An ambush is a surprise attack by fire from a concealed position upon a moving or temporarily halted enemy target. Surprise is paramount. When conducting an ambush, we attempt to achieve surprise at a time, a place, and an instant in which the enemy is not prepared. Even an advance warning of a few seconds may be enough to allow the enemy time and space to escape the ambush and begin maneuvering.
Purpose of an Ambush The primary purpose of an ambush is to destroy enemy troops and equipment. The loss of personnel, equipment, and supplies reduces the overall combat effectiveness of the enemy. The secondary purpose of an ambush is to harass enemy units. Frequent successful ambushes will cause the enemy to divert assets from other missions in order to guard convoys, troop movements, and logistics supply routes. Frequent successful ambushes also degrade the enemys morale and make him more susceptible to human factors, creating apprehension to conduct missions and causing him to adopt a defensive mindset. The cumulative affects significantly reduce the enemys combat effectiveness.
Classifications of Ambush Patrols Deliberate Ambush A deliberate ambush is planned in detail, well rehearsed, and established in a specified location to destroy or capture a specific enemy target. The patrol leader needs to have specific intelligence about the target such as the size, composition, organization, rate of movement, route, armament and equipment of the enemy force and the location of the ambush site. This level of detail is necessary so that the Patrol Leader can appropriately task organize and create detailed actions on the objective in order to kill or destroy the specified target. An ambush patrol may be required to assault through the objective in order to confirm the specified target is in fact destroyed and to collect information on the enemy. Tasking a unit to Attack By Fire does not necessarily require an assault. Tasking a unit to Destroy may require an assault.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Ambush Basic Information (continued)

In the case of destroying, it is likely that Mission Has Priority and that the unit conducting a deliberate ambush will be platoon-sized or larger. To understand when the patrol will assault through the objective the Commanders Intent must be clear. Ambush of Opportunity An ambush of opportunity is planned and rehearsed, however, detail of a specific target in not known. An ambush of opportunity is established on or near a specified location to destroy or capture the first suitable target encountered. This is the most common type of ambush and will generally be executed by a reinforced rifle squad. The ambush of opportunity will usually be part of an effort to harass and interdict, or gain intelligence on enemy forces in the Tactical Area Of Responsibility (TAOR). When establishing an ambush of opportunity the commander will likely direct that Time Has Priority and instruct the Patrol Leader to establish the ambush in a specific location and return even if the ambush is not tripped. As a result, an assault of the kill zone may not be required. The patrol will still seek to kill the enemy and destroy their equipment but again the overall effect will be harassment of the enemy and the collection of information. Hasty Ambush A hasty ambush is an Immediate Action where the patrol makes visual contact with an enemy force and has time to establish an ambush without being detected. A hasty ambush is not planned but is well rehearsed and is accomplished through the use of hand and arm signals given from the Patrol Leader. Types of Ambushes Point Ambush A point ambush is an ambush where forces are deployed to attack a single kill zone. Area Ambush An area ambush is an ambush where forces are deployed to attack multiple, mutually supported kill zones.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Ambush Basic Information (continued)

Ambush Tactical Control Measures Ambush Site Terrain on which an ambush is established. It comprises the area that is physically occupied by the members of the ambush patrol and the kill zone.
Kill Zone Portion of the ambush site where fires are concentrated to isolate, trap, and destroy the enemy.
Objective Rally Point (ORP) A covered and concealed position short of the ambush site where the patrol makes its final preparations before occupying the ambush site and where the patrol reorganizes after the accomplishment of the mission.
Release Point The position after the ORP and just before the ambush site where the patrol leader passes control to element and team leaders.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Planning and Preparation of an Ambush

Prior Planning Detailed prior planning is the key to a successful ambush patrol. Keen attention to the following planning considerations will aid the Patrol Leader (PL) in a clear understanding of the patrols mission and his developing an accurate estimate of the situation (METT-TC). Mission (METT-TC) Upon receipt of Highers order, the patrols Task and the Commanders Intent must be analyzed to start the planning process. Only then will the PL be able to determine the classification and type of ambush his unit will be conducting. During this analysis the PL will also identify all specified and implied tasks to his patrol. Enemy (METT-TC) A deliberate ambush is based upon extensive knowledge of the enemy, terrain, and the enemys use of that terrain. In a deliberate ambush the ambush site and the specific target to be destroyed are known. This allows the PL to maximize exploitation during the execution of his mission. An ambush of opportunity is based upon limited information of the enemy, terrain, and the enemys use of that terrain. In an ambush of opportunity the ambush site and target to be destroyed are anticipated and refined from within the ORP. The PL will determine the Enemys Most Likely Course Of Action (EMLCOA), will identify the enemys Center Of Gravity (COG), and will identify the enemys Critical Vulnerability (CV). The PL will use these tools to develop contingencies and rehearse his patrols exploitation of the ambush site and destruction of the enemy and his equipment. Task Organization (METT-TC) Personnel Considerations An ambush patrol is still a patrol and should follow the traditional task organization of a Headquarters Element, an Assault Element, and a Security Element. All additional patrol duties that are unique to an ambush patrol are distributed between these three elements. Some examples of this task break-out follow but should not be considered all inclusive because each individual ambush patrol will require its own special considerations.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Planning and Preparation of an Ambush (continued)

Assault Element - Likely designated the Main Effort (ME). - Responsible for 1/2 of the kill zone. - Responsible for actions on the objective. - Responsible for sweeping the Kill Zone. - Responsible for Sensitive Site Exploitation (SSE). - May fulfill EPW Team duties. - May fulfill Aid & Litter Team duties. Security Element - Likely designated a Supporting Effort (SE). - Responsible for Navigation Team (Navigator, Pace Man, etc.) - Responsible for 12 oclock and 6 oclock security during movement to and from the objective. - Responsible for 1/2 of the Kill Zone. - May fulfill EPW Team duties. - May fulfill Aid & Liter Team duties. Headquarters Element - Likely designated a Supporting Effort (SE). - Likely includes the PL, RTO, and the APL. - Responsible for Flank Security during movement to and from the objective. - Responsible for Flank Security of the Ambush Site.
The PL will need to consider these Element Leaders key billet holders when developing the patrols Task Organization. Additionally the PL will need to develop Tasks for these Element Leaders along with the Assistant Patrol Leader (APL), Flanks, and any inorganic support elements to the patrol.
Supported Task Organization Depending on the type of enemy that the ambush patrol is tasked with destroying higher may provide a supported unit to the squad since the squad may not be able to accomplish the mission with the assets that are organic to them. It is the Patrol Leaders responsibility to utilize the support element properly where they can best carry out the mission in the ambush site.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Equipment Considerations Appropriately equipping the Ambush Patrol can make the difference between mission success and mission failure. The amount of equipment choices are never ending and thus it is curtail for the PL to identify and require only equipment that is necessary for mission accomplishment to be carried on the ambush patrol. It is equally important that productive rehearsals refresh the necessary skills to use the equipment and that appropriate inspections are conducted to ensure that the patrol members are not carrying unnecessary equipment. Below are six categories of gear and equipment to consider when creating the patrols task organization.
Gear and Equipment Common to All This should be straight-forward thinking that includes considerations for weather and human factors. Examples of required items: utility uniform, warming layers, flak jacket, FLC, weapons cleaning gear, red-lens flashlight, food, water, etc.
Gear and Equipment Required for Movement In addition to the obvious (map, protractor, lensatic compass, pace cord) the patrol may require additional inorganic gear and equipment to assist in reaching and returning from the objective area. River fording and rappelling equipment includes numerous small items such as carabineers, Swiss-seats, and safety lines that will weigh down your Marines and slow your movement. Night vision devices (NVD) will enhance the movement of your patrol and the clandestine occupation of the ambush site.
Gear and Equipment Required on the Objective Special equipment may be required to enable the patrol to accomplish its mission once they have reached their objective area. Some items can enhance Command and Control (see below), some items can enhance Observation of the Kill Zone (see below). Other items like man-made obstacles can trap or canalize the enemy in the Kill Zone. Claymore mines can enhance surprise, shock, and lethality of the Kill Zone. SSE kits to efficiently collect items and information from the enemy and his equipment. EPW kits to efficiently maximize a detainees exploitation.
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Gear and Equipment that Enhance Observation The use of optical devices will enable the ambush patrol to better observe an enemys approach to the ambush site, establish positive identification (PID), and appropriately time initiation. Observation equipment such as Leopold Binoculars, thermal imaging devices (PAS 13/22), Night Vision Devices (NVD) (PVS 7b/14), and rifle combat optics (RCO) all allow the patrol to use Combat Hunter techniques to accomplish the mission.
Gear and Equipment that Enhance Command and Control The use of inorganic and non-traditional communication devices will enhance the PLs command and control. Field Phones will allow the PL secure voice communication with the Flank Security. Tug lines are an awesome field expedient way to silently pass messages between element leaders. Luminous and engineer tape can be strategically placed to mark key leaders or routes between the ORP and the ambush site. Whistle blasts can signal friendly forces in/out of the Kill Zone. Pyro can immediately shift and cease fire.
Gear and Equipment that Enhance Weapons Employment The employment of crew served weapons will create the need for special considerations. Medium and Heavy Machine Guns should be emplaced on tripods and sand bagged in. SMAWs will need cleared back blast areas prior to their employment in the ambush. Indirect fire assets can be effective in canalizing the enemy, preventing escape from the Kill Zone, and disallowing reinforcements into the Kill Zone.
Ambush Site Location / Selection (METT-TC) When choosing an ambush site all sources of information (maps, aerial photos, satellite imagery, and personal reconnaissance) must be used to exploit the terrain available to kill the enemy. Generally we want the terrain to work in favor of us and against the enemy. To aid in your planning, below are two categories in which to consider terrain usage.
10
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Patrol Routes Your patrol will need a primary and an alternate route. From your patrols departure of friendly lines and into the ORP the route should maximize concealment so to support a clandestine loading of the ambush site. From the ORP the route should allow the patrol to enter the ambush site from the rear and should support a covered and efficient unloading of the ambush site. From the ORP back to friendly lines the route should again maximize concealment so to support a clandestine link-up with the forward units guide.
Ambush Site An effective ambush site will: - Canalize the enemy into the Kill Zone, trap him there, and impede his ability to maneuver once attacked. - Provide adequate observation of the enemy as he enters the Kill Zone. - Provide favorable fields of fire on the enemy in the Kill Zone - Maximize cover and concealment of the patrol during occupation, while ambushing, and while unloading the ambush site. Time Consideration (METT-TC) Time can affect the ambush patrol in a few fashions. How you plan for and utilize time will either create friction or minimize friction during the execution of your mission. Your tasking statement may indicate that Time Has Priority requiring you to return to friendly lines at a designated time. Or it may be that you know precisely when the enemy target will be in the Kill Zone and so the time in which you occupy the ambush site is critical to destroying the enemy target. Overwhelming the enemy in the Kill Zone is a factor of timing the initiation signal, maximizing surprise, and establishing fire superiority. However, the most difficult of time considerations will be your analysis of time and space. Your ability to appropriately plan for and allow adequate time to patrol from friendly lines to the ORP, reorganize yourself, conduct a leaders recon, load the ambush site, destroy the enemy, and return to friendly lines will be a difficult and daunting feat itself.
11
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Execution of the Ambush

Productive Realistic Rehearsals Successful execution of the ambush patrol begins with the PLs detailed plan with an emphasis of actions on the objective. Every member of the patrol must be thoroughly familiar with the entire occupation plan and must understand who is responsible for what actions beginning in the ORP. The most efficient method to ensure these actions are understood is productive and realistic rehearsals. Ideally rehearsals will start with a talk-through then graduate to a walk-through in an open area (LZ or AA) so that members can observe one another. These rehearsals should culminate with full-dress rehearsals in the tree line and on terrain similar to the actual objective site. Actions to be rehearsed should start with occupation of the ORP, then occupation of the ambush site, initiation of the ambush, unloading the ambush site, and should continue through departure of the OPR when returning to friendly lines. Occupation of the ORP In his order the PL designates the tentative location of the ORP. This easily recognizable and defendable piece of terrain will be near the objective area and will provide the patrol with cover, concealment, and space to reorganize and make final preparations before occupation of the ambush site. The ORP should: Facilitate expedient, covered and concealed movement of elements and teams into the ambush site. Be out of sight, sound, and the effects of small arms fire from the objective Be away from natural lines of drift of enemy units and noncombatants.
The location will remain tentative until the PL confirms it. The two methods of occupation are Deliberate and Hasty. Deliberate Occupation As the patrol approaches its tentative ORP, the PL halts the patrol. Before departing, the PL leaves a five-point contingency plan with the Assistant Patrol Leader (APL), who remains with the main body of the patrol. The PL then moves forward with the security unit to ensure the area is suitable for the ORP and that no enemy forces are nearby. The team and their actions are delineated in the patrol order.
12
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Execution of the Ambush (continued)

The five-man team moves to the tentative ORP in a formation that provides for all-around security. Upon arrival at the tentative ORP the entire team conducts a reconnaissance of the area. The unit moves far enough forward through the tentative site to ensure that the area is clear and that it can accommodate the entire patrol. When the recon is complete the PL confirms it as the ORP. The Point, Cover, and Security Unit Leader (SUL) remain at 6 oclock in the ORP while the PL and Navigator move back to guide the remainder of the patrol into the ORP. Once in the ORP the patrol establishes a hasty perimeter that provides for good all-around security. In the order the PL normally specifies the locations within the clock system for respective units and key individuals. The PL designates 12 o'clock as the main body arrives, ensuring that the occupation of the ORP is completed expeditiously and with a minimum of movement and shifting (see Organization of the ORP diagram below).
Organization of the ORP
A
AUL
AS
S A U LT
PL
6 Oclock
R
RF
A
RO
12 Oclock
APL
HQ
R
LF
Direction of Movement
A
NV
SE
C U R I TY SUL
R
PT CVR
Figure 4
The security unit, positioned at 12 o'clock relative to the ambush site and occupying from 10 to 2 o'clock, is positioned for ease of movement and departure on the ambush site recon.
13
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

The positioning of the support unit is based upon the enemy situation and location relative to the ORP. For example, if the last enemy sighting was in the direction of 3 o'clock, then the additional fires provided by the support unit would be placed at 3 o'clock. This way, the patrol has a weapon system positioned to deliver effective fire in the event an attack occurred on the ORP. When the enemy situation is unknown, the support unit positions to provide coverage of the most likely avenue of approach. Hasty Occupation This technique is used when wither speed is the primary concern or the PL's navigation is off. With this method, the PL decides he has arrived at the location of his tentative ORP and organizes his patrol as detailed in the patrol order. Leader's Reconnaissance Of The Ambush Site Once the ORP is secured and occupied, the PL conducts a leader's reconnaissance of the ambush site. Leaving the APL with a five-point contingency plan, the PL takes the Security Unit and Flanks, the Support and Assault Unit Leaders, and a Radio Operator if the patrol has more than one. The Support Unit Leader (SPL) brings the machine gun tripods and sand bags. The Flank and Security Unit Leaders bring any communication equipment to be used. The APL remains at the ORP during the leader's reconnaissance. The APL ensures the patrol at the ORP maintains security and reestablishes the perimeter. The PL ensures there is adequate all-around security when moving from the ORP to the release point. The release point is a location between the ORP and the objective where the patrol leader passes control to individual unit/team leaders. While conducting the recon of the ambush site, everyone in the objective area must exercise noise discipline. Marines must not move any closer to the kill zone than is absolutely necessary to accomplish the recon. The PL ensures the appropriate security is in place throughout the recon. Marines within the recon party will engage the enemy only if compromised, fired upon, or on the PLs command. The sequence in the table below should be executed during the leader's recon of the ambush site.
14
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Step 1 Action At the tentative release point, place the flanks in temporary positions to provide flank security during the PL's recon of the ambush site. The PL and SUL conduct a recon of the ambush site to confirm its Suitability Fields of fire The PL then positions the flanks in their final ambush positions. The PL and SUL then move to the center of the ambush site. The SUL places his phone (TA312 or TA1), ties off the wire, and trails the wire out to each of the flank's positions. If demolitions such as claymores are used, the PL coordinates their emplacement and runs the firing wires back to the SUL's position. Once the flanks are wired and demolitions placed, the PL moves back to the release point and guides forward the SPL. The SUL remains located at the center of the ambush site and monitors the phones to both flanks. The PL directs the SPL to his tentative position and designates sectors of fire for his crew-served weapons and unit. To maximize their destructive effects, machine guns are normally assigned a principle direction of fire (PDF) along the long axis of the kill zone. Once sectors of fire are confirmed and machine gun tripods placed, the PL and the SPL return to the release point. The PL then directs the Assault Unit Leader (AUL) to his tentative positions within the ambush site. Additionally, the PL designates sectors of fire within the kill zone. The PL and AUL then return to the release point. The recon element then returns to the ORP leaving the flanks and the SUL in place at the ambush site.
2 3
Occupation of the Ambush Site The patrol occupies the ambush site at the latest possible time to reduce the risk of discovery and the amount of time the patrol must remain still and quiet. On the PLs signal, the patrol departs the ORP. As the patrol arrives at the release point, the PL passes control of the patrol to the unit leaders who direct their units into position in the sequence below.
15
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Step 1 Action If the ambush force is large enough, a security team may remain behind at the ORP as the remainder of the patrol occupies the ambush site. The Support Unit leads the remainder of the patrol into ambush site. They then occupy positions as designated by the SPL, if utilized. The Assault Unit is last to occupy the ambush site. Assault team occupies positions as designated by the AUL. The APL positions away from the PL, normally to the rear of the ambush site at the release point.
TRAIL
3 4
OCCUPATION OF THE AMBUSH SITE
PHONE WIRE
L FLANK
MOVEMENT OF ENEMY
RP ORP
KILL
PT APL PL & SUL
ZONE
PHONE WIRE
R FLANK TRAIL
Actions During Occupation Unit leaders will: - Assign sectors of fire to ensure mutual support, overlapping fires, and coverage of the kill zone - Position their men and point out sectors of fire - Camouflage each of their men as necessary by covering them with leaves, brush, etc. Once in position, everyone remains absolutely motionless while maintaining observation within the assigned sectors of fire. They will fire into the kill zone only on the PLs signal or if they are prematurely detected.
16
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Execution of the Ambush In the patrol order, the PL designates the signals for the execution of the ambush. These signals include the signal to: - Alert - Initiate the ambush - Cease fire/search the kill zone - Reinitiate fires - Withdraw from the ambush site Alert Signal The flank security normally is in the best position to alert the PL of the enemy's approach. They do so by using the field telephone and announcing the number and direction of the enemy approaching. Therefore, all phone operators must monitor the phones continuously. Ringing the phone is not an option as it may alert the enemy. The PL may also plan a silent signal, such as tug lines, to other members of the patrol. Tugging on the line signals the alert of the enemy's approach. Signal to Initiate the Ambush The PL controls the signal to initiate the ambush. On signal, the patrol fires into the kill zone with as heavy a volume of accurate fire as possible. Properly delivered fires (including demolition, claymores, mines, etc.) will contribute to the surprise and destruction of the target. The signal to initiate must be: Casualty producing Appropriate to the target ambushed Reliable Known by all members of the patrol
Signals to Cease/Search Kill Zone The PL ceases fire into the kill zone using either an audible or visual signal. If the patrol's mission is to: Capture enemy personnel, equipment, or documents, the PL send an SSE and EPW team to sweep across the Kill Zone. The dispatch of teams into the kill zone is dangerous because it takes place during a very critical moment. When designated, these teams normally enter the Kill Zone from one end and exit the Kill Zone through the opposite end. The PL must carefully plan and supervise rehearsals of searching the kill zone to allow for thorough coverage of the
17
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

team's actions, control of friendly fires, and the speedy execution of the search. Destroy or capture enemy personnel and/or equipment, the PL may have the assault unit clear the ambush site.
Signal to Reinitiate If the enemy is not effectively neutralized, the PL may reinitiate the ambush before the search or withdraw. However, if SSE and EPW teams have already entered the kill zone, reinitiating fires into the kill zone is not an option. Signal for Withdrawal Once all actions in the ambush site have been completed, the PL directs the withdrawal of the patrol from the ambush site using either an audible or visual signal. Withdrawal to the ORP When the PL issues the signal to withdraw, the units and teams move rapidly from the ambush site. The patrol withdraws by unit back to the ORP through the release point, where the APL ensures accountability out of the ambush site: The assault unit withdraws first. The support unit then withdraws followed by the security unit.
Speed and control are paramount during withdrawal. To minimize confusion, especially in the dark, the APL and another Marine (typically the point form a gate at the release point. Each unit passes through the gate during withdrawal. This ensures accountability and allows the APL to direct the patrol members toward the ORP as they pass. The PL uses indirect fires as necessary to cover the patrol's withdrawal. As the patrol returns to the ORP, it conducts a short security halt to: Regain its formation for movement. Redistribute ammunition. Make head counts.
The patrol then departs the ORP rapidly to prevent pursuit by the enemy.
18
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Local Security All patrols must maintain 360 degree security and the ambush patrol is no exception. If anything, local security of an ambush patrol is more challenging. Upon entering the OPR the strain on manpower begins to tighten with a requirement to maintain security on the ORP. The strain continues to increase with maintaining security on the release point. Once in the ambush site flank security is used to provide early warning of the enemy force while a preponderance of the patrol is required to focus on the Kill Zone. The real challenge begins when fires are initiated on the enemy in the Kill Zone. The Marines charged with flank and rear security will want to destroy the enemy. If allowed, a maneuvering enemy element can potentially overcome the patrol from a flank or from the rear with devastating results. Local security must be maintained to the front, flanks, and rear of the ambush site from the time that the patrol occupies the ORP until the patrol departs the ORP for friendly lines.
Observation During our discussion of Task Organization and Equipment we discussed the considerations for optics and their employment. This section develops what specific positions should be watchful of and their appropriate actions. Rear Security position will provide early warning of civilian, non-combatants, and enemy in the area. This position is also responsible for spoiling the counteractions of the ambushed enemy by repelling any maneuvering forces. It would be useful to weight the Rear Security with enhanced optical devices such as thermal imaging devices, binoculars, and personal NVDs. The Flank Security positions will provide early warning of civilians, noncombatants, and enemy in the area. These positions are also responsible for spoiling the counteractions of the ambushed enemy by repelling any maneuvering forces. It would be useful to weight the Flank Security positions with enhanced optical devices such as thermal imaging devices, binoculars, and personal NVDs. A predetermined signal will alert the PL of the targeted enemy in the Kill Zone. The Assault and Security Elements will focus on their respective sectors within the Kill Zone. These elements are responsible for destroying the targeted enemy with their personal and crew-served weapons. It would be useful to weight these elements with weapons, ammunition, demo, personal optics, and personal NVDs.
19
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

Positive Identification of the targeted enemy within the Kill Zone is the responsibility of the PL. Initiation of the ambush rests with the PL.
Patience Patience is a true test of individual and unit discipline. Individual patience is required to endure through the human factors as they play against each member of the patrol. Tactical patience is required to destroy the targeted enemy. It is likely that less lucrative targets will present themselves within your Kill Zone. It is even more likely that civilians and non-combatants will present themselves within your Kill Zone. Patience will test your patrol. If surprise is to be maintained, once the ambush site is occupied, all patrol members must remain motionless and observe strict noise discipline until the initiation signal is given by the PL.
Surprise and Shock Surprise allows the ambush force to seize and retain control of the situation. In an ambush surprise is achieved by: Careful planning and preparation. Patience and discipline. Stealth during movement and occupation. Violence of action. Fire superiority during execution. Shock: o Shock allows the ambush force to overwhelm a surprised enemy and is accomplished by sudden and violent massing of fires. o Ambushes that achieve surprise but fail to achieve shock are less successful than ones that achieve shock and surprise.
Coordination and Fire Support Planning - All weapons must be positioned in the ambush site by the element leader to ensure complete coverage of the Kill Zone. - All fires, including those of available fire support agencies (artillery and mortars) must be coordinated to achieve: o A combined arms effect. o The isolation of the kill zone to prevent escape or reinforcement. - Fire control measures must include:
20
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol

o Withholding the units fire until the enemy has moved into the kill zone. o Opening fire at the proper time. o Lifting or shifting supporting fires when the attack includes assault of the target. Plan initiation of appropriate actions if the ambush is prematurely detected. The use of mines can serve to canalize the enemy and inflict casualties during the enemys attempt to maneuver, advance, or escape.
Dissemination of Information After departing the ORP, the patrol: Moves at least one terrain feature away. Conducts a long security halt to: o Pass any information the search and EPW team gained. o Distribute captured documents, equipment, etc.
Debrief
Purpose As with any mission, following execution the entire unit should conduct a detailed debrief. The purpose of debrief is to provide the unit commander with information about his battlespace, the enemy that is operating within it, and the potential for him to operate within it. Patrol members will be expected to confirm or deny any and all information that was provided to them during the planning and preparation phase of their patrol. Some of this information came from the unit commanders order. Some information will have come from COC coordination. Still other information will have been assumptions and analysis made by the PL. Patrol members will also be expected to elaborate on any radio transmissions that met PIR and CCIR criteria. In addition to the Intelligence aspect, the ambush patrol debrief should speak to an Operational aspect. For example the battlespace owner would likely benefit from information regarding serviceability and traffic ability of roads and trail networks, location of river crossing or fording points, potential LZs, or terrain that provides a commanding view of the valley floor.
21
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Debrief (continued)
The ambush patrol debrief should include every member of the patrol because the smallest detail observed by one Marine can make the difference for a future patrol or operation. That small detail may jog the memory of another Marine or when combined with another detail may reveal critical information about the enemy. Patrol members should provide points relative to their primary duties and any alternate and supplemental duties performed.
Summary
The ambush mentality relates directly to the fundamentals of MCDP 1. The disorder and uncertainty created through an ambush patrol can disrupt the enemy's scheme of maneuver and diminish his morale. Understanding how to conduct a successful the ambush will aid you in the wreaking havoc on the enemy.
22
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
References
Reference Number or Author MCRP 3-33A FMFM 6-4 SH 21-76B Allen, Charles Garland, Albert N. McKay, Gary Norton, Bruce H. FM 7-8 MCWP 3-11.2 MCWP 3-11.3 Reference Title Counter-Guerrilla Operations Marine Rifle Company/Platoon United States Army Ranger Handbook Savage Wars of Peace Infantry in Vietnam In Good Company Force Recon Diary 1969/1970 Infantry Squad and Platoon Marine Rifle Squad (formerly the FMFM 6-5) Scouting and Patrolling for Infantry Units (formerly the FMFM 6-7)

Term or Acronym APL AUL EPW FRAGO ORP METT-TC Definition or Identification Assistant patrol leader Assault unit leader Enemy prisoner of war Fragmentary order Objective rally point Mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and fire support available, time, space and logistics, and civil considerations Patrol leader Principle direction of fire Standard operating procedure Support unit leader Security unit leader Tactical area of responsibility
PL PDF SOP SPL SUL TAOR
23
B2H3417
Ambush Patrol
Notes
24
OCCUPATIONAL FIELD (OCCFLD) AND MILITARY OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALTIES (MOS) B2X2597 STUDENT HANDOUT
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
Occupational Field (OccFld) and Military Occupational Specialties (MOSs)

Introduction The Marine Corps task organization requires Marines to possess a wide variety of skills. Although all Marines and Marine Officers receive the same basic training, they are subsequently assigned a specific job, or Military Occupational Specialty. Each student officer will be assigned an MOS prior to graduation from The Basic School. This lesson includes an overview of the MOS system, including how MOSs are assigned and a description of the MOSs available to student officers. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Overview Assigning MOSs Officer MOSs Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 3 4 5 17 17 17 17
Importance
In This Lesson
Lesson Purpose
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to: Without the aid of reference, describe the occupational field (OccFld) and military occupational specialty (MOS) system without error. Without the aid of reference, describe occupational fields without error Given the requirement, describe the military occupational specialty (MOS) system without error.
Basic Officer course
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
Overview
The Marine Corps Occupational System uses a four-digit number code constructed on the concept that occupations with similar skill and knowledge requirements are grouped into functional areas, known as occupational fields (OccFlds), and jobs, known as Military Occupational Specialties (MOSs). This provides for the most efficient and effective classification, assignment, and utilization of Marine Corps personnel. The Occupational System identifies Marine Corps personnel, duties, skill attributes, and requirements within the specific functional areas. OccFlds are identified by the first two digits of the four-digit code and a descriptive title. The OccFld is a grouping of related MOSs. Criteria to be considered in establishment of an OccFld include the total number of Marines in the OccFld, the number of MOSs (diversity), unity of functional management, and training requirements. The MOS is a four-digit code consisting of the OccFld code completed by two additional digits. It describes a group of related duties and job performance tasks that extend over one or more grades.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
Assigning MOSs
MOSs are awarded when performance-based criteria have been met as set forth in the Individual Training Standards (ITS) and Training and Readiness (T&R) Manuals. The simulated environment of a formal school and the actual work environment on the job are both suitable for entry-level performance evaluation under controlled evaluations by competent authority. Every effort should be made to train at MOS producing schools so that unit commanders can dedicate their resources to mission-oriented objectives. Enlisted MOS Assignment Certification to award an enlisted MOS shall be authorized when: (1) Marines graduate from formal schools using approved POI's or another Service equivalent that designates the MOS to be awarded. The school provides core skill training or training-to-standard. (2) Most MOSs are awarded by attending the appropriate formal school. In those cases where formal school is either not available or the Marine is unable to attend, an Additional MOS (AMOS) can be awarded by the commanding officer when all core skill performance criteria have been met and the Marine holds a billet in the unit for the AMOS. (3) All Marines in recruit training are designated to receive a particular MOS and typically attend the MOS-awarding school before being assigned to a unit. To enhance the time spent for Marines Awaiting Training (MAT), this training requirement can be delayed if a school seat is not available for an unacceptably long period. Officer MOS Assignment Although some MOSs, such as student aviator, may be designated upon acceptance of a commission, most Marine Officers will be selected for an MOS prior to their completion of TBS. The assignment of MOSs is part of the mission of TBS. The number of billets available in each MOS is determined at the Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC) level. The MOS selection process takes into account individual preference. However, an optimization process is in place to ensure that students receive their highest choice possible while accounting for the desires of all students. The chain of command from the Staff Platoon Commander through the Commanding Officer of TBS has influence on the process. Final approval of MOSs is made at the HQMC level. Student Officers will be awarded that MOS upon completion of the appropriate formal school.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
Officer MOSs
The following paragraphs detail only the MOSs available to students while at The Basic School. An even broader spectrum of MOSs is available for enlisted Marines who have more specific job assignments. All MOSs, including additional officer MOSs, can be found in the MOS Manual.
0180 Adjutant
Adjutants serve as staff officers. They coordinate administrative matters of internal staff sections and external agencies at the staff level. Adjutants formulate and supervise the execution of command administrative policies, receiving and routing correspondence, handling and safeguarding classified material, preparing responses to special correspondence and establishing and maintaining the command reports control, and forms management programs. Typical duties and tasks of the adjutant include: casualty reporting, awards and decorations, fitness report, And legal matters. Due to the diversity of commands throughout the Marine Corps, the duties and tasks performed by the adjutant may overlap those of the personnel officer. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Adjutant Course conducted at MCB Camp Lejeune, NC.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
0203 Ground Intelligence
Ground intelligence officers are trained as the primary platoon commanders in division reconnaissance companies, infantry battalion scout/sniper platoons, and other ground intelligence assignments to include: Battalion, Regiment, and Division Staffs; Force Service Support Groups; and Intelligence Battalions. Ground intelligence officers serve as commanders of the reconnaissance companies within the reconnaissance battalions. They plan, direct, and assist in the deployment and tactical employment of ground reconnaissance units. To fulfill these responsibilities they analyze and evaluate intelligence; estimate the operational situation; and formulate, coordinate, and execute appropriate plans for offensive/defensive maneuver, reconnaissance, fire support nuclear biological, and chemical defense, directed energy warfare, communications and operational logistics and maintenance. Requirements/Prerequisites:
(1) Must be eligible for a top-secret clearance based on a Single Scope Background Investigation (SSBI). (2) Must be a male lieutenant to be assigned this MOS as a primary MOS. This MOS may be assigned as an additional MOS to male lieutenants and above. (3) Complete the Infantry Officer Course (IOC), MCCDC, Quantico, VA; the Scout Sniper Platoon Commander's Course (SSPCC), MCCDC, Quantico, VA; and the Ground Intelligence Officer's Course (GIOC), Navy Marine Corps Intelligence Training Center (NMITC), Dam Neck, VA.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
0204 Human Source Intelligence Officer
Human source intelligence (HUMINT) officers serve in both counterintelligence (CI) and HUMINT billets. Duties include serving as CI platoon commander, and company executive officer within the HUMINT company as well as serving as a division or MEF staff officer. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Must be eligible for access to Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI), based on a Single Scope Background Investigation (SSBI). (2) Must be a male lieutenant to be assigned this MOS as a primary MOS. This MOS may be assigned as an additional MOS for male lieutenants and above. (3) Complete the MAGTF Counterintelligence Course at Navy Marine Corps Intelligence Training Center (NMITC), Dam Neck, VA. (4) Must be willing to submit to a test for Espionage and Sabotage (TES) polygraph examination. (5) Must be a U.S. citizen.
0206 Signals Intelligence Officer
Signals intelligence/ground electronic warfare (SIGINT/EW) officers command, or assist in commanding a SIGINT/EW unit and/or perform SIGINT/EW officer duties of a technical nature. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Must be eligible for a top-secret clearance based on a Single Scope Background Investigation (SSBI). (2) Must be a lieutenant to be assigned this MOS as a primary MOS. This MOS may be assigned as an additional MOS to captains and above. (3) Complete the Naval Cryptologic Officers Basic Course, Naval Technical Training Center, Corry Station, Pensacola, FL.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
0207 Air Intelligence Officer
Air intelligence officers function in a variety of intelligence billets located within the air wing. Billets include targeting officer, collections officer, dissemination officer and S-2 officer of a fixed-wing or rotary wing squadron. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Must be eligible for a top-secret security clearance based upon a Single Scope Background Investigation (SSBI). (2) Must be a lieutenant to be assigned this MOS as a primary MOS. This MOS may be assigned as an additional MOS to captains and above. (3) Complete the Naval Intelligence Officer Basic Course (NIOBC), Navy Marine Corps Intelligence Training Center (NMITC), Dam Neck, VA.
0302 Infantry Officer
Infantry officers are the commanders or their assistants in infantry and reconnaissance units in Marine Air-Ground Task Forces (MAGTFs). They plan, direct, and assist in the deployment and tactical employment of MAGTFs and any subordinate infantry and reconnaissance units. Infantry officers are responsible for the discipline, morale, and welfare of their unit's Marines. To fulfill these responsibilities, they evaluate intelligence; estimate the operational situation; and formulate, coordinate, and execute appropriate plans for offensive/defensive maneuver, reconnaissance, fire support, nuclear, biological and chemical defense, communications and operational logistics and maintenance. Requirement/Prerequisites. Complete the Infantry Officer Course at MCCDC, Quantico, VA.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
0402 Logistics Officer
Logistics officers plan, coordinate, execute and/or supervise the execution of all logistics functions and the six functional areas of combat service support (CSS): supply, maintenance, transportation, general engineering, health services, and services. Logistics officers serve as commanders or assistants to the commanders of CSS units/elements and as members of general or executive staffs in the operating forces, supporting establishment, and joint staffs. They perform duties of embarkation officer, maintenance management officer, motor transport officer, landing support officers, and are responsible for administrative and tactical unit movement of personnel, supplies, and equipment by all modes of transportation. Requirements/Prerequisites. Complete the Logistics Officer Course at the Marine Corps Combat Service School, MCB Camp Lejeune, NC.
O602 Command and Control Systems Officer
Command and Control Systems officers command, or assist in commanding, a communication unit or element. They supervise and coordinate all aspects of the planning, installation, operation, displacement and maintenance of data, telecommunication, and computer systems. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Basic Communication Information Systems Officer Course, MCCDC, Quantico, VA. (2) Must be eligible for a top-secret security clearance based on a special background investigation. (3) Must be a U.S. citizen.
0802 Field Artillery Officer
Field artillery officers command, or assist commanders in directing field artillery units. They direct tactical employment of the field artillery unit in combat, and coordinate unit's fire with other artillery units with mortar, air, and naval surface fire support ships. They evaluate intelligence, plan targeting at all echelons, and direct administration, communication, supply, maintenance, and security activities of artillery units. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Field Artillery Officer Basic Course at Ft. Sill, OK.
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
1302 Combat Engineer Officer
Engineer officers command or assist in commanding engineer units consisting of Marines in various MOSs whose duties include repair, maintenance, and operation of engineer heavy equipment; construction, operation, and repair of structures and facilities; clearing and emplacing obstacles such as minefields; construction of bridges; using explosives for construction and demolition projects; using specialized demolitions for urban breaching; storage and distribution of bulk fuel products; installation, operation, and maintenance of utility systems. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Combat Officer Course, Marine Corps Engineer School, MCB Camp Lejeune, NC.
1802 Tank Officer
Tank officers command, or assist in commanding tank units. They provide recommendations to the supported unit commander for the tactical employment of tank units. Tank officers, as maneuver unit leaders, must be able to evaluate intelligence and the operational situation. Additionally, they formulate, coordinate, and execute operation orders. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Armor Officer Basic Course, Ft. Knox, KY.
1803 Assault Amphibious Vehicle Officer
Assault amphibious vehicle officers command, or assist in commanding, assault amphibian (AA) units, provide recommendations to the supported unit commander for the tactical employment of AA units. They also direct AA units on maneuvers, tactical problems, and in combat. In conjunction with the U.S. Navy units, they control the ship to shore movement of AAVs. AAV officers are responsible for the AA unit's personnel and equipment readiness, operational employment, and the identification and coordination of required logistics support. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Assault Amphibious Vehicle Officer Course at Camp Pendleton, CA. (2) Must have CWS-1 swimmer qualification. (3) Must have visual acuity correctable to 20/40 in both eyes. (4) Must have normal color vision.
10
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
3002 Ground Supply Officer
Ground supply officers supervise and coordinate supply operations and related functions of a supply activity, unit, base, or station, including operating forces and shore station organizations. Ground supply officers may direct the activities of a maintenance or industrial type organization, and they command or serve in either an operating forces service unit or a non-operating forces activity. Ground supply officers supervise the execution of policies and procedures pertaining to procurement, receipt, accounting, repair, storage, issue, disposal, computation, and maintenance of stock levels. They supervise transportation of supplies and equipment, and the collection, safeguarding, and transmittal of public funds; participate in the budget process and administration and expenditure of allotted funds; and make necessary recommendations to the commanding officer. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Ground Supply Officer Course, MCB, Camp Lejeune, NC.
3404 Financial Management Officer
Finance officers serve as agents of the U.S. Treasury responsible and pecuniary liable for the disbursement, collection, accounting, and safeguarding of all public funds entrusted to them. They are responsible for the proper execution and adherence to policies and procedures governing the valid and legal disbursement/collection of public funds. They are responsible for the maintenance of the payments generated from the Master Military Pay Account (MMPA), the computation and payment of travel entitlements, as well as other miscellaneous payments paid to or on behalf of military personnel or the Marine Corps. They are, as fiscal agents responsible for the timely and accurate reporting of all expenditures and collections into the accounting system. They are advisors to the local commanders and staffs on all matters concerning the technical aspects of military pay and allowances, the disbursement/collection offends, and the laws, regulations, and directives governing their duties and other activities of the command. They supervise and direct the operation of the finance office and are responsible for its performance. They interpret regulations and directives formulating office policies and procedures relative to military pay, travel, and fiscal matters within the office. Requirements/Prerequisites: Must have a secret security clearance.
11
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
4302 Public Affairs Officer
Public affairs officers manage the activities of a public affairs office and are advisors to the commander and staff on public affairs matters, to include public information, community relations and internal information. Public affairs officers may, on occasion, perform duties in international and/or joint public affairs. Requirements/Prerequisites: Public Affairs Officer Qualification Course (PAOQC) at Defense Information School (DINFOS), Ft Meade, MD.
12
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
4402 Judge Advocate
Judge advocates perform legal service support for Marine, Navy, and Joint commands and organizations. As company grade officers, judge advocates may serve as litigators, investigators, reviewing officers, advisors, and advocates. Litigation opportunities exist as trial and defense counsel in courts-martial, recorders and respondent's counsel in administrative discharge boards and special assistants to the local United States Attorney. Judge advocates may investigate claims for and against the United States, criminal charges, and other matters required by regulations. They may advise a wide range of personnel, from general officer to civilian employees, on matters including military justice, administrative law, standards of conduct, ethics, operational law, and international law. Some company grade judge advocates will deploy as staff judge advocates for Marine Expeditionary Units, Special Purpose Marine Air/Ground Task Forces, and Joint Task Forces. Legal assistance attorneys represent and advise retired service members as well as active duty personnel and their family members on a variety of personal legal matters. These matters typically include wills and estates, commercial contracts, landlord/tenant problems, and family law questions. As majors, judge advocates often supervise company grade judge advocates at law centers and legal service support sections or perform duties as labor, procurement, or environmental law specialists at East and West Coast and Pacific area counsel offices. Other majors, and some lieutenant colonels, serve as military judges and as principal assistants to staff judge advocates assigned to advise officers exercising general court-martial convening authority. Lieutenant colonels may also serve as staff judge advocates or officers-in-charge of law centers or legal service support sections. Professional military education and continuing legal education opportunities exist for all judge advocates. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Assigned as a primary MOS to an officer on active duty who has: (a) Obtained a juris doctor or bachelor of laws degree from an American Bar Association accredited law school; completed the Accession Lawyer Course at the Naval Justice School, Newport, RI; and is a member in good standing of a federal bar, or of the highest court of a state or the District of Columbia. (b) Been certified by the Judge Advocate General of the Navy in accordance with Article 27(b) of the Uniform Code of Military Justice to serve as a trial or defense counsel in courts-martial.
13
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
5803 Military Police Officer
Military police officers function as supervisors, coordinators, and administrators of law enforcement matters. MP lieutenants that serve with MLG or Division companies most frequently serve as platoon commanders, executing a broad spectrum of duties including convoy and MSR security. Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the Military Police Officers Basic (MPOB) Course in Fort Leonard Wood, MO.
6002 Aircraft Maintenance Officer
Aircraft maintenance officers (AMOs) supervise and coordinate aircraft maintenance and repair activities. To be effective, 6002 AMOs must possess a detailed, working knowledge of all Navy-sponsored aviation maintenance programs Requirements/Prerequisites: Complete the AMO course at NAS Pensacola, FL.
6602 Aviation Supply Officer
Aviation supply officers are unrestricted officers who may command, or assist in commanding a Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron. Aviation supply officers are responsible for planning, directing, and controlling the performance and execution of aviation supply functions within Marine Aircraft Wings, Marine Aviation Logistics Squadrons, Marine Corps and Air Stations. This requires in-depth familiarity and working knowledge sufficient to supervise and control Navydeveloped and sponsored aviation logistics information management systems; repairable material management programs; financial management programs; budgeting and accounting functions; aviation inventory management functions; and warehousing operations. Aviation supply officers must ensure that aviation supply operations sustain the unit's combat readiness and enhance its ability to perform its mission. They must be able to establish division and department goals and to develop and execute plans to achieve those goals. They must monitor supply management indicators to assist in tracking performance over time and ensure progress towards accomplishment of established goals. Aviation supply officers must initiate and maintain liaison with external agencies to provide or obtain support and to report supply management indicators. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Aviation Supply Officers Course at Naval Supply Corps School, Athens, GA. (2) Must have a secret security clearance.
14
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
7204 Low Altitude Air Defense (LAAD) Officer
Low altitude air defense officers command or assist in commanding surface-to-air weapons units. They tactically employ a LAAD platoon. They provide for the defense of assigned priorities against aircraft and cruise missile attack. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Low Altitude Air Defense (LAAD) Officer Course at Ft. Bliss, TX. (2) Must have a secret security clearance. (3) Must have normal color perception. (4) Male officers only.
7208 Air Support Control Officer
Air support officers direct and coordinate air support missions and advise commanders on matters pertaining to the employment and control of air support. They establish and maintain the Direct Air Support Center (DASC) during combat operations ashore. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Air Support Control Officers Course at Marine Corps Communications-Electronics School, Twentynine Palms, CA. (2) Must have a secret security clearance. (3) Must have normal color vision.
7210 Air Defense Control Officer
Air defense control officers direct and coordinate fighter aircraft in the interception of hostile aircraft and coordinate employment of surface-to-air missiles. They maintain the operational air picture in the Tactical Air Operations Center (TAOC). Requirements/Prerequisites (1) Complete the Air Defense Control Officer Course at Marine Corps Communications-Electronics School, Twentynine Palms, CA. (2) Must have a secret security clearance. (3) Must have normal color vision.
15
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
7220 Air Traffic Control Officer
Air traffic control officers command an Air Traffic Control (ATC)-Detachment. They act as officers-in-charge of Air Traffic Control Facilities at Marine Corps Air Stations. They perform as Control Tower Operators and Radar Air Traffic Controllers. They coordinate and direct activities related to air traffic control and airspace management as staff officers at squadrons, Marine Air Control Groups (MACG)/Marine Aircraft Wings (MAW), and at other senior level units. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Complete the Air Traffic Controller Course Class at NAS, Pensacola, FL. (2) Must meet the physical requirements per the FAA Aviation Medical Examiner's Guide. (3) Must have a secret security clearance.
7580 Tactical Navigator Flight Student
The responsibilities of the tactical navigator will vary by air platform, but some common duties include: the employment of aircraft offensive and defensive weapons systems, directing supporting arms for ground officers, advising ground commanders on matters pertaining to aerial observation, receiving and evaluating data recorded by airborne electronic equipment, and operating airborne electronic equipment mission specific to the aircraft. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Aviation preflight Indoctrination, NAS FL (2) Naval Flight Officer training, NAS, FL (3) Fleet replacement Squadron (aka the RAG) The responsibilities of the naval aviator will vary by air platform but some common duties include: planning and executing missions using available intelligence and aircraft data, employing aircraft offensive and defensive weapons, and piloting the aircraft. Requirements/Prerequisites: (1) Introductory Flight Screening (2) School locations and durations vary by air platform
7599 Student Naval Aviator
16
B2X2597
OccFld and MOSs
Summary
The assignment of an MOS at TBS is typically a defining moment for the student officer. Learn as much as possible about all MOS choices prior to submitting preferences. The instructor cadre at TBS represents a broad cross section of MOSs and provides a valuable resource to student officers. This lesson is a mere introduction to the MOS system and the MOSs available in the Marine Corps.
References
Reference Number or Author MCO P1200.16 Reference Title Military Occupational Specialties Manual

Term or Acronym Primary MOS (PMOS) Definition or Identification Identifies the primary occupational classification of a Marine. Marines are promoted in their PMOS, and changes to an individual Marine's PMOS without approval from HQMC (MM) are not authorized. Any existing PMOS awarded to a Marine who already holds a PMOS. Marines are not promoted in an AMOS.
Additional MOS (AMOS)
Notes
17
Notes
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense
Introduction In 1936 a German scientist discovered a compound that killed insects but also had a highly undesirable effect on humans. He learned that it was 100-1,000 times more potent than chlorine, which was used in Word War I. A few thousandths of a gram proved fatal. Unfortunately, many types of agents exist in military arsenals around the world today. You will benefit from this instruction by being able to prepare for a CBRN attack, identify CBRN agents, and survive a CBRN attack. This lesson covers the following topics: Topic Individual Protective Clothing Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) Analysis Nerve Agents Blood, Blister, and Choking Agents Biological Agents Detection Kits CBRN Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action MOPP Gear Exchange Unmasking Procedures Chemical and Biological Reports Summary References Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Notes Page 4 4 7 11 22 24 28 37 45 47 49 49 50 50
Importance
In This Lesson
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOLOGICAL, AND NUCLEAR (CBRN) DEFENSE B2I3597 STUDENT HANDOUT
Learning Objectives
Terminal Learning Objectives MCCS-CBRN-1001. Given a CBRN environment and a M40 field protective mask, employ the M40 Field Protective Mask within 9-seconds of the issuance of a CBRN alarm or order to done the mask. MCCS-CBRN-2301. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, employ CBRN Protective Measures to accomplish the mission.
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense (Continued)

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives (Continued) MCCS-CBRN-2302. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, react to a Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, Attack to minimize casualties. Enabling Learning Objectives MCCS-CBRN-1001a. Without the aid reference, describe CBRN alarms without error. MCCS-CBRN-2301a. Without the aid of reference, describe the MOPP levels, without omission. MCCS-CBRN-2301b. Without the aid of reference, identify NATO CBRN markers without omission. MCCS-CBRN-2302a. Without the aid of reference, describe CBRN detection measures without omission. MCCS-CBRN-2302b. Given a casualty, identify the type of CBRN casualty without error. MCCS-CBRN-2302c. Given a CBRN casualty, treat the casualty to prevent further injury or death. MCCS-CBRN-2302d. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, perform a MOPP gear exchange to minimize CBRN casualties. MCCS-CBRN-2302e. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, decontaminate personnel to minimize CBRN casualties. MCCS-CBRN-2302f. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, decontaminate weapons/equipment to minimize CBRN casualties. MCCS-CBRN-2302g. Given a CBRN environment and individual personal protective equipment, control the spread of contamination to minimize CBRN casualties.
Individual Protective Clothing

Protective Clothing Without protective clothing it would be impossible to operate or even survive in a chemically contaminated environment, let alone continue carrying out the mission. With proper protective clothing Marines can survive in a chemically contaminated environment and operate and continue their mission. Various armies around the world use different types of chemical protective clothing for individual protection. Two types are available in the United States Marine Corps. The type depends on the protection required, but all fall within two major divisions: Permeable and Non-Permeable. Permeable protective clothing allows air and moisture to pass through the fabric. Most personnel use permeable protective clothing. Examples of permeable clothing are the: o Suit, Chemical and Biological Protective, Carbon Sphere (Saratoga). o Joint Service Lightweight Integrated Suit Technology (JSLIST) Chemical Protective Ensemble. Chemical protective suit. Field protective mask. One pair of green/black vinyl overshoes (GVO/BVO) or multipurpose over-boots (MULOs). Chemical protective glove set.
Four Components of a Permeable Protective Ensemble
MOPP Analysis
Unit commanders must perform a situation-based MOPP analysis to determine the appropriate MOPP level. This analysis enhances the probability of mission success by balancing the reduced risk of casualties due to chemical/biological agent exposure against the increased risk of performance decrements and heat strain casualties as MOPP levels increase. Because there is no easy formula to use in deciding an appropriate MOPP level, commanders must consider three situation factors (Mission, Environment, Marine) when performing MOPP analysis by asking himself the questions listed in the following table.
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
MOPP Analysis (Continued)

Mission Factors What is the mission? Is it offensive or defensive? What is the likelihood of chemical agent employment? What agents are likely to be employed? What is the expected warning time for agent employment? What additional protection, such as shelter and cover, is available? How physically demanding is the work that must be performed? How mentally demanding is the work that must be performed? How quickly must the mission be accomplished? What is the expected duration of the mission? What is the likely follow-on mission? Are adequate food and water supplies available? How important is the mission? What risks will it require? Environmental Factors What is the ambient air temperature? What is the humidity? What is the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index reading for the units area of operation? Is it cloudy or sunny? Is it windy? Is it day or night? Marine Factors Are the Marines: Well hydrated and nourished? Well rested? Heat acclimatized ? Physically fit and well trained? Healthy?
MOPP Analysis (Continued)

Components of the MOPP Levels. The six standardized MOPP levels and a Mask Only Command are described in the table below. Their characteristics and components are:
MOPP Level MOPP Ready MOPP ZERO MOPP1
Components FPM carried. Permeable protective ensemble available within two hours. Second ensemble will be available in six hours. FPM carried. Permeable protective ensemble within arms reach. FPM carried. Chemical protective trousers and jacket worn. Within arms reach are: o GVOs/BVOs. o Chemical protective gloves. FPM carried. Worn are: o Chemical protective trousers and jacket. o GVOs/BVOs. o Chemical protective gloves within arms reach. Worn are: FPM and hood. Chemical protective trousers and jacket. GVOs/BVOs. Chemical protective gloves within arms reach. Worn are: FPM and hood. Chemical protective trousers and jacket. GVOs/BVOs. Chemical protective gloves. FPM is worn.
MOPP2
MOPP3
MOPP4
The mission will greatly influence the amount of protection personnel need. When the threat of chemical/biological agent employment is high and expected warning time is low, a high level of MOPP is dictated to provide adequate protection. However, increased MOPP levels can lead to performance degradation. Additionally, the incidence of heat casualties among personnel performing physically demanding work becomes greater with increasing MOPP levels, especially in high temperatures. The more critical the mission, the more thorough the MOPP analysis must be. The impact of decreased performance and heat casualties from MOPP must be weighed carefully against the risk of casualties and potential mission failure due to chemical agents. The ambient environmental conditions (outside weather/inside vehicles) must be known before beginning assessment of how these conditions will affect the ability to successfully complete a mission. The maintenance of full hydration is the most important factor influencing the work performance of personnel wearing MOPP in warm environments. Dehydration negates the advantages of heat acclimation and high physical fitness.
Mask Only Command
Persistent and Non-Persistent Agents Definitions. Persistent Agents. Any chemical agent that stays in an effected area for more than 12 hours. Non-Persistent Agents. Any chemical agent that stays in an effected area for less than 12 hours.
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
MOPP Analysis (Continued) Nerve Agents (Continued)

Identifying Persistent and Non-Persistent Attacks. Persistent Attacks: Defined as air bursting, ground contaminating (i.e., aircraft spray or air bursting munitions). Non-Persistent Attacks: Defined as ground bursting, air contaminating (i.e., mortars, rockets, artillery, bombs).
NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL APPEARANCE
ODOR
RATE OF ACTION
PERSISTENCY
USE DESIGNATION
PROTECTION REQUIRED
Nerve Agents
In 1936 a German scientist discovered a compound that killed insects but also had a highly undesirable effect on humans. He learned that it was 100-1,000 times more potent than chlorine, which was used in World War I. A few thousandths of a gram proved fatal. Germany began stockpiling this agent. Estimated stockpiles by the end of World War II varied from 70,000 to 250,000 tons. Unfortunately, many types of nerve agents exist in military arsenals around the world today. You will benefit from this period of instruction by being able to identify nerve agents, as well as survive a nerve agent attack. Two Categories of Nerve Agents. Nerve agents are broken down into two broad categories: nonpersistent and persistent. **PERSISTENCY column represents moderate agent saturation on sandy terrain at 86O Farenheit (F).
CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS APPEARANCE ODOR RATE OF ACTION PERSISTENCY USE DESIGNATION PROTECTION REQUIRED
Tabun GA
Sarin GB
Colorless liquid
None
Very rapid 45 secs -15 minutes after absorption.
Depends on munitions, weather and saturation. 6.1 hours at given conditions**. Evap similar to H2O or kerosene.
NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS
Quick acting casualty agent
FPM and protective clothing for liquids
**PERSISTENCY column represents moderate agent saturation on sandy terrain at 86O Fahrenheit (F).
PERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS
Colorless to brownish liquid
Very rapid 15 Faintly minutes fruity if after any absorption of lethal dose
Depends on munitions, weather and saturation. 1.5 hours at given conditions **.
Quick acting casualty agent
FPM and protective clothing for liquids
Depends on munitions, weather and Fruity, Very saturation. impurapid 10.6 hours for rities 45 sec- given Quick FPM and Soman give it Colorless 15 conditions**. acting protective the liquid minutes Evaporates 4 casualty clothing GD odor after times slower agent for liquids of absorp- than H2O. camtion. Thickeners phor may be added to increase persistency Depends on munitions, GF weather and saturation. Quick FPM and (Poten1.49 hours at acting protective Liquid N/A N/A tial given casualty clothing Nerve conditions**. agent for liquids Agent) Evaporates 20 times slower than H2O. GB2 (Binary Nerve Agent) 2 part weapon, compounds are not chemical agents, components are mixed in flight to form agent, easier and safer storage, transport and disposal Depends on munitions, Very weather and rapid saturation. Amber 45 secQuick FPM and 45 days at colored oily 15 acting protective VX None given liquid minutes casualty clothing conditions. (motor oil) after agent for liquids Evaporates absorp1,500 times tion. slower than H2O.
NONPERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Nerve Agents (Continued) Nerve Agents (Continued)

CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL PERSISTENT NERVE AGENTS APPEARANCE
ODOR
RATE OF ACTION
PERSISTENCY
USE DESIGNATION
PROTECTION REQUIRED
Very 10 times more rapid volatile (vapor Vx Amber 45 secQuick FPM and hazard) than (V sub colored oily 15 acting protective None VX x) liquid minutes casualty clothing Very persistent V-gas (motor oil) after agent for liquids in comparison absorpto G agents tion. VX2 (Binary Agent) 2 part weapon, compounds are not chemical agents, components are mixed in flight to form agent, easier and safer storage, transport and disposal
Physiological Action on the Body. Nerve agents are a group of highly toxic chemicals that interfere with signals transmitted through the central nervous system. The enzyme cholinesterase (muscle relaxant) is blocked out, and the enzyme acetylcholine (muscle contractor) is built up, causing muscles to contract tighter and tighter. Penetration of the Body. The number and severity of the symptoms depend on the quantity of the agent and the route of entry into the body: Eyes: Symptoms appear very rapidly (15 seconds-3 minutes). Liquid exposure of the eyes can kill in 1 to 10 minutes. Respiratory system: Symptoms appear slower (2-5 minutes) with terminal effects within 15 minutes. Lethal respiratory dosages can kill in 1 to 10 minutes. Skin: Symptoms appear much more slowly. Lethal doses may occur in 1 to 2 hours. Very small skin dosages sometimes cause local sweating and tremors with little other effect.
NERVE AGENT EXPOSURE SYMPTOMS MILD SYMPTOMS SEVERE SYMPTOMS Unexplained runny nose Strange or confused behavior Severely pinpointed pupils Increased wheezing, severe difficulty in breathing, and coughing Unexplained, sudden headache Red eyes with tearing Sudden drooling Vomiting Difficulty in seeing (dimness of vision (miosis)) Severe muscular twitching and general weakness Tightness in the chest or difficulty in breathing Involuntary urination and defecation Wheezing and coughing Convulsions Localized sweating and muscular Unconsciousness twitching in the area of the Respiratory failure contaminated skin Bradycardia Stomach cramps Coma / DEATH Nausea with or without vomiting Tachycardia (A rapid heart rate, usually greater than 100 beats per minute) followed by bradycardia (heart rate less than 50)
WARNING: Casualties with severe symptoms will not be able to treat themselves and must receive prompt buddy aid and follow-on medical treatment if they are to survive. Protection Required. Due to the fact that nerve agents may enter the body through various routes of entry, total body protection is necessary. This amounts to the protective mask with the hood and the chemical protective clothing. Liquid agent penetrates ordinary clothing rapidly, however, significant absorption through the skin requires more time. Nerve Agent Medicants. The following table describes the two types of nerve agent medicants. Nerve Agent Antidote Kit Mark I (NAAK Mark I) Three kits are issued to each Marine Stored inside the mask carrier Each kit is a set of 2 automatic injectors one contains o 2 mg of Atropine o 600 mg of 2PAMC1 A plastic clip holds the injectors together Convulsion Antidote for Nerve Agents (CANA) An auto injector containing a 2-milliliter volume of Diazepam, an anti-convulsant Never used for self-aid Used only for buddy aid.
Nerve Agent Exposure Symptoms. The following table lists mild and severe nerve agent exposure symptoms.
10
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Blood, Blister, and Choking Agents Blood, Blister, and Choking Agents (Continued)
The Iranians and Iraqis were both guilty of employing blister agents against each other during their eight-year war (1980-1988). In World War I allied forces faced the threat of choking agents. More than a quarter of all casualties in that war could be contributed to choking agents. The North Koreans and Chinese both have the capability to use blood agents against us. Do you now have a better appreciation of the threat that you face as a Marine on the future battlefield? Standard Blood Agents and Their Characteristics. Most blood agents are cyanidecontaining compounds, absorbed into the body primarily by breathing. All blood agents are classified as nonpersistent. The three that we are concerned with are described in the table below. Standard Blood Agents and Their Characteristics (Continued)
CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL
APPEARANCE
ODOR
RATE OF ACTION
PERSISTENCY
USE DESIGNATION
PROTECTION REQUIRED
NON-PERSISTENT BLOOD AGENTS
CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL
APPEARANCE
ODOR
RATE OF ACTION
PERSISTENCY
USE DESIGNATION
PROTECTION REQUIRED
Cyanogen Chloride CK
Hydrogen Cyanide AC
Colorless liquid that quickly dissipates into gas
Very rapid IncapacitaFaint tion odor, occurs similar within 1to bitter 2 almonds minutes or after peach expokernel sure (occaDeath sionally, occurs no odor within detect15 ed in minutes lethal after doses) exposure to a lethal dose
Colorless, highly volatile liquid (quickly evaporates)
Pungent, biting Probably unnoticed because of its intense, irritating and tearing properties
Short Vapors may persist in Immejungle and diate heavy woods intense for some time irriunder tation favorable weather conditions Effects are delayed from 2 hours to as much as 11 days
Quick acting casualty agent Used for degradation of filter canisters or elements
Protective mask CK can break or penetrate the filters more readily than most other chemical agents
NON-PERSISTENT BLOOD AGENTS
Short, due to its volatility, and once in a gaseous state dissipates quickly in the air
Quick acting casualty agent (suitable for surprise attack)
Arsine SA
Colorless gas
Mild garlic
Short
Mask only AC vaporizes so rapidly
Delayed casualty agent
Protective mask
Physiological Action on the Body. From the name, you know that they affect the blood or circulatory system. They poison the cytochrome oxidase system; this prevents cell respiration and the normal transfer of oxygen from the blood to the body tissue. The pink color of the casualtys lips, fingernails, and skin suggests hydrogen cyanide (AC) poisoning. Blood Agent Penetration of the Body. Eyes. Toxicity through the eyes varies from moderate for AC to none for SA. Respiratory System. Due to the properties of blood agents (highly volatile, low boiling points), most instances of contact in field environments will be with vapors/gas. Therefore, the main entrance to the body is through the respiratory system. Skin. Due to its properties, blood agents are not able to be absorbed through the skin in sufficient dosages to cause casualties.
11
12
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Blood, Blister, and Choking Agents (Continued)

Symptoms of Blood Agent Poisoning. All three of the blood agents we have discussed have definite differences in their symptoms. Therefore, we will discuss each one separately. Blood Poisoning Symptoms Agent AC High concentrations Increased depth of respiration within a few seconds Violent convulsions after 20-30 seconds Stop breathing within 1 minute Heart stops within a few minutes Skin, lips, and fingertips will have a pink color Moderate concentrations Dizziness, nausea, and headache appear very early Convulsions and death Long exposure to low concentration Lack of oxygen to muscles may cause damage to the central nervous system Coma and convulsions may last for several hours or days Irrationality, altered reflexes, and unsteady gait which may last for several weeks or longer Recovery is complete CK A combination of AC and lung irritant; due to the intense irritant effect symptoms may not be noticed Immediate, intense irritation to the nose, throat, and eyes Coughing, tightness in the chest, heavy flow of water from the eyes Dizziness, unconsciousness Breathing stops and death occurs in a few minutes Convulsions, retching and involuntary urination and defecation may occur If the effects are not fatal, persistent cough, bloody sputum, and abnormal (bluish, grayish, dark purple) skin color may appear SA Slight exposure: headache, uneasiness Moderate exposure: chills, nausea, vomiting Severe exposure: anemia Protection Required. Because blood agents evaporate so quickly and blood agents in liquid are not likely to be encountered in the field, there is little chance of them being able to penetrate your skin. Therefore, the protective mask is all that is required.

Aid for Blood Agent Poisoning. Step Self-Aid 1 Stop breathing, don, clear, and check your mask. 2 Pass the alarm. Buddy Aid Ensure everybodys mask is on. If not, provide assistance. Pass the alarm. Notify a corpsman if a fellow Marine shows symptoms.
Standard Blister Agents and Their Characteristics. All blister agents are persistent, and may be employed in the form of colorless gases or liquids. They damage any tissue with which they come in contact. Blister agents are classified into one of three categories: mustards, arsenicals, and urticants. Mustards. Mustards are described in the below table.
CHEMICAL AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL APPEARANCE ODOR RATE OF ACTION PERSISTENCY USE DESIGNATION PROTECTION REQUIRED
Levinstein Mustard H Distilled Mustard HD
Oily, colorless to amber liquid
Garlic, horseradish like
Delayed usually 4 to 6 hours until first symptoms appear. Some symptoms have occurred from 24 hours up to 12 days in rare cases.
Duration depends on quantity of liquid contamination, munitions used, terrain and soil, and weather conditions. In cold weather, can last for a week to months. Has caused blister after leaking into soil 3 years prior. HD evaporates about 5 times more slowly than GB.
PERSISTENT BLISTER AGENTS
Delayed acting casualty agent
Protective mask and permeable protective clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for large droplets.
13
14
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Mustards. Mustards are described in the below table (Continued).

Mustards. Mustards are described in the below table (Continued)
Nitrogen Mustard HN-1
Oily, colorless to pale yellow liquid
Faint, fishy or musty
Delayed 12 hours or longer
Depends on munitions used and the weather. Somewhat shorter than HD
Dark liquid
Fruity in high concentrations. Like soap in low concentrations.
Skin effects delayed 12 hours or longer
Same as HD based on evaporation; however, less than HD because of instability.
Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets Impermeable clothing for large droplets Protective mask and permeable clothing for small liquid droplets. Impermeable clothing for large droplets. Protective mask and permeable protective clothing for small liquid droplets. Impermeable clothing for large liquid droplets.
Mustard -T mixture HT
Clear, yellowish liquid
Like garlic
Similar to HD
Depends on weather and munitions used. Duration is longer than HD
Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for large droplets.
Asernicals. Asernicals are described in the below table.

Oily liquid
None when pure
Most symptoms delayed 46 hours. In some cases eye irritation, tearing, and sensitivity to light develop immediately.
Considerably longer than HD
Lewisite L
Colorless to brownish liquid
Geraniums Very little if pure
Mustard Lewisite Mixture HL
Dark, oily liquid
Garlic like
Rapid Body absorbs L more rapidly through the skin than it absorbs the nitrogen mustards Immediate stinging sensation to the skin Reddens within 30 minutes. Blistering in approxima tely 13 hours
Shorter than HD Very short under humid conditions
Moderately delayed acting casualty agent
Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for larger droplets. Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for larger droplets.
Depends on weather and means of delivery Somewhat shorter than HD
15
16
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Arsenicals (Continued).

Urticants, the last persistent blister agent category, are described in the table below.
Phenyldichloro -arsine PD
Colorless liquid
None
Immediate effects on eyes. Effects on skin delayed from 30 minutes to 1 hour.
Duration is somewhat shorter than HD under dry conditions. Short duration when wet.
Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for larger droplets. Protective mask and permeable clothing for small droplets. Impermeable clothing for larger droplets.
Phosgene Oxime CX
Colorless solid or liquid
Intense, penetrating, and Rapid violently irritating
2 hours in soil Relatively non-persistent on surfaces and in water
Rapid acting casualty agent
Protective mask and protective clothing
Ethyldichloro -arsine ED
Colorless liquid
Fruity, but biting and irritating
Methyldichloro -arsine MD
Colorless liquid
None
Irritating effects on the nose/ throat is intolerable after 1 minute at Short moderate concentrations. Blistering is less delayed than HD. Immediate irritation to eyes/nose. Blistering Relatively effect short delayed several hours.
Physiological Action on the Body. Blister agents damage any tissue with which they come into contact. They irritate and damage the eyes and lungs and blister the skin (although at different times after exposure). When inhaled, they damage the respiratory system; when absorbed, they cause vomiting and diarrhea. They do kill, but the casualty producing effects are mainly due to skin damage. Most blister agents are delayed in acting after exposure, with the exceptions of Lewisite and Phosgene Oxime. Penetration of the Body. Because blister agents cover a broad spectrum of physical properties, they can enter through any of the normal channels (skin, eyes, respiratory tract, and digestive tract). Symptoms of Blister Agent Exposure. All three classes of blister agents have similarities in their symptoms. However, there are differences:
Eyes Delayed acting casualty agent Protective mask and protective clothing
Mustards The most susceptible From 1-12 hours after exposure, depending on exposure, swelling of the soft, thin tissue around the eyes May also be: o Gritty sensation in the eyes o Visible burns o Severe lacerations
Arsenicals Liquids cause severe and immediate damage Immediate pain and eyelid twitching Swollen shut in 1 hour
Urticants Violent irritation from vapors Heavy watering of the eyes
17
18
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Symptoms of Blister Agent Exposure (Continued) Skin Hot, humid weather increases the action Different phases o Latent period, the time directly after exposure: For liquids, from 1-24 hours; for vapors, may be several days. No noticeable damage o Erythema period, the second phase: Skin looks similar to sunburn: affected area turns red and gets brighter and may also swell. In severe burns, may limit the motion of a limb o Vesication period: Blistering begins or increases. Small sores may form first and combine to form the blisters. At first, fluid inside the blister is almost clear and later starts yellowing. Fluid is not mustard o Resorption period: About 1 week after exposure. Blister fluid is resorbed into the body. Liquids produce more severe sores on the skin than does mustard 10-20 seconds after exposure, stinging pain At about 5 minutes, reddening of the skin, more pain, and itching In 12 hours, blisters are well developed and painful In 48-72 hours, the pain lessens Immediate, severe burning with intense pain and numbness White area with a swollen ring around it appears within 30 seconds A wheal forms in 30 minutes The white area turns brown in 24 hours

Aid for Blister Agent Poisoning (Continued). Step Self Aid 1 Stop breathing, don, clear, and check the protective mask. 2 Pass the alarm. 3 Immediately, decontaminate any part of the body that is showing symptoms of blister agent poisoning. Use the M291 Skin Decontamination Kit. 4 For blister agent in eyes, use only water. Buddy Aid Ensure everyones mask is on. If not, assist them. Pass the alarm. Ensure that personnel exposed to contamination, decontaminate all affected parts of their bodies. After decontamination, make certain that all personnel are in MOPP 4.
5 6
Following decontamination, don complete chemical over-garment. Once blisters form, cover them with a sterile bandage. If possible, avoid breaking the blisters; secondary infection may result.
Standard choking agents and their characteristics. Choking agents were one of the first chemicals to be used in warfare (World War I), but they still have military significance due to their effects.
CHOKING AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL APPEARANCE ODOR RATE OF ACTION PERSISTENCY USE DESIGNATION PROTECTION REQUIRED
Phosgene CG
Colorless gas
Protection Required: Because blister agents attack any tissues with which they come into contact, whole body protection is needed. The chemical over-garment and mask with hood is adequate protection. Aid for Blister Agent Poisoning. The following table below lists the steps for self and buddy aid for blister agent poisoning.
Delayed - 3 hours or New more may mown elapse hay, before grass, or exposure to green a low corn. concentraMay not tion causes be any ill detected effects. until Immediate toxic symptoms levels may follow are exposure to reached. a high concentration of CG.
Short. May persist for some time in low places under calm or light winds and stable atmospheric conditions.
Protective mask
19
20
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Standard choking agents and their characteristics (Continued)
CHOKING AGENT / MILITARY SYMBOL APPEARANCE ODOR RATE OF ACTION PERSISTENCY USE DESIGNATION PROTECTION REQUIRED

Protection Required. Because choking agents attack the respiratory tract and irritate the eyes, only the protective mask is needed for protection. Aid for Choking Agents. The table below lists the steps for self and buddy aid for choking agents. Step Self Aid 1 Stop breathing, don, clear, and check your mask. Buddy Aid Ensure everyones mask is on. If not, provide assistance. Pass the alarm. Have the casualty rest and stay warm if possible. Keep casualty sitting up. Be alert for the signs of shock and treat as necessary. If casualty is to be moved by stretcher, do not let him lie down. This will cause the fluid in his lungs to possibly choke him.
Diphosgene DP
Colorless oily liquid
New mown hay, grain, or green corn
Delayed - 3 hours or more may elapse before exposure to a low concentration causes any ill effects. Immediate symptoms may follow exposure to a high concentration of DP
About 30 minutes to 3 hours in the summer 10-12 hours in the winter.
Quick or delayed acting casualty agent depending upon dosage rate
Protective mask
2 3
Pass the alarm. Normal combat duties should continue unless there is respiratory distress. If possible, stay warm and rest. Work will increase the effects due to an increase in your breathing rate. Do not lay down flat. Sit up and rest.
Physiological Action on the Body. Choking agents attack the lung tissue and are classified as lung damaging agents. Inside the body, they cause the cells of the lungs to swell and release fluid (pulmonary edema, also called dry-land drowning), which impairs the ability to breathe. Penetration of the Body. Because it attacks the respiratory system, the point of entry is through inhalation. Symptoms of Choking Agents. The table below lists the symptoms from choking agents relative to exposure. Time Period Symptoms During and Coughing Immediately After Choking Exposure Tightness in the chest Nausea Occasionally headache, watering of the eyes, and vomiting Internal A period after exposure in which the victim may be symptom free Commonly lasts 2-24 hours, but may be shorter After Initial Exposure Difficulty in breathing, rapid shallow breathing, possible skin color change. Discomfort, apprehension and labored breathing followed by frothy sputum. Shock-like symptoms such as pale, clammy skin may also appear
Biological Agents
History teems with examples of biological research and warfare. To eliminate a threat from Native Americans in 1763, the British commander at Fort Pitt distributed blankets and handkerchiefs contaminated with small pox. This example is one of the many ways in which biological agents can be disseminated. Biological agents, which are inexpensive, simple to produce, and easy to conceal, have been widely used throughout history. The benefit of this instruction is that you will be better able to prepare your units biological defense readiness to reduce casualties and maintain combat effectiveness. Classification of Biological Agents. Biological agents are classified according to their: Biological type. Use. Operational effects. Physiological action.
The terms persistent and non-persistent describe the continuing hazard posed by the agent remaining in the environment and should not be used to classify biological agents.
21
22
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Detection Kits Biological Agents (Continued)

Types of Biological Agents. The types of biological agents are: Pathogens. Toxins. Other agents of biological origin, such as bio-regulators/modulators. Once a unit is attacked with chemical weapons or suspects that chemical agents are present, it must have a way of verifying the chemical presence and type. Without this ability Marines would not be able to survive and fight on the battlefield. Imagine a whole battalion of Marines, almost 1,000 strong, walking through an area that is contaminated. The resulting scene would be devastating and chaotic. This class will benefit you by enabling you to use some of the detection kits we have to locate and verify contamination at the conclusion of this class. M256A1 Chemical Agent Detector Kit Purpose Description To detect Consists of: and A carrying case with: classify o An adjustable shoulder toxic strap. chemical o A hook and pile top case agents fastener to prevent present in accidental opening of kits. vapor or in o A waist belt attachment liquid form strap. o Identification and informational data on the top of the case. 12 individually-wrapped, samplerdetectors each consisting of: o Six glass ampoules filled with a chemical reagent. o Three test spots. Channels are formed in the plastic sheet to direct the flow of reagent to the test spots. Printed on the back of each sampler-detector are: SAFE/DANGER warnings to show the approximate color each test spot develops if the agent is or is not present. o A chemical heater with two glass ampoules o A protective strip o A rubbing tab o A lewisite detecting tablet One book (25 sheets) of ABC-M8 VGH chemical agent detector paper (M8 paper). A set of operational instruction cards.
Pathogens. Pathogens are disease-producing microorganisms that are either: o Naturally occurring; (bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, viruses) o Altered by genetic engineering
While the vast majority of microorganisms are harmless or even helpful, about 100 naturally occurring pathogens could be used as biological warfare agents. Pathogens can be further classified as: o Transmissible agents that cause disease that is transmissible from person to person, which can lead to an epidemic. Others occur primarily in animals, but can be transmitted naturally to humans. These are important antipersonnel agents because the average person has very little natural or acquired immunity. o Non-transmissible agents cannot spread from person to person, such as toxins, because they are not living organisms and are therefore nontransmissible. Toxins are poisonous substances, highly toxic to man, produced as by-products of microorganisms, plants, and animals. Toxins can be: o Chemically synthesized. o Artificially produced with genetic engineering techniques Toxins are nonliving materials so they are: o Stable. o Readily available. o Easy to manage. Toxins can be disseminated in the same manner as chemical agents (extremely important because of the threat they can present in biological warfare). Toxins exert their lethal or incapacitating effects by interfering with certain cell and tissue functions. Toxins are classified as: o Neurotoxins, which disrupt nerve impulses. o Cytotoxins, which destroy cells by disrupting cell respiration and metabolism
Capabilities Within 20 minutes, detects: o Nerve agents o Blood agents o Blister agents Specifically, detects in vapor form: o AC o CK o CX o H series (H, HN and HD) o L o V o G Specifically, detects in liquid form: o V o G o H
23
24
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Detection Kits (Continued) Detection Kits (Continued)

M256A1 Operating Procedures. The operating procedures are identified in the table below. Step Action 1 Open the sampler detector After removing the operational instruction cards from the kit and reading the instructions, carefully remove a sampler-detector from the protective bag (retain bag to refer to instructions). Examine the sampler-detector for any broken or missing ampoules, missing spots, or crushed reagent channels. Check blood agent spot for a pinkish color. If any of these conditions exist, do not use. 2 Swing out heater; remove and save two loose pads. Swing heater back in. 3 Remove and discard pull-tab marked #1 to expose lewisite detecting tablet. 4 Rub top half of paper tab #2 on the lewisite detecting tablet. 5 Hold sampler-detector with arrow pointing up (test spots up). 6 Using the heater pads, crush four ampoules in the three center pockets marked #3. 7 Turn sampler-detector with arrow down (test spots down) and insure wetting of test spots by squeezing ampoules with the heater pads to force liquid through formed channels. 8 With arrow still pointing down, place your thumb over the middle spot on the protective strip. 9 Swing heater away from test spot. 10 Being sure to vent the heater vapors away from your body and not using the heater pads, crush one green ampoule marked #4. Immediately swing heater back over the test spot. 11 After 2 minutes, swing heater away from test spot and protective strip away from test spots. 12 Expose test spots for 10 minutes (avoid direct sunlight). 13 After 10 minutes, being sure not to use heater pads, crush the second green ampoule marked #4 on the heater (vent vapors away from body). Swing heater immediately over test spot. 14 After 1 minute over test spot, swing heater away from test spot. 15 Hold sampler-detector with arrow down (test spots down). 16 Using heater pads crush the remaining ampoules marked #5. Be sure to wet test spots by squeezing ampoules with pads to force liquid onto the test spots. 17 Re-rub bottom half of paper tab marked #2 on the lewisite detecting tablet. M256A1 Operating Procedures (Continued). 18 Turn the sampler-detector over to determine safe or dangerous conditions. Check lewisite tab markings for a difference in color between the first and second rub marks. Safe/danger color observations: The blister agent test spot is safe when it is colorless. Purple or blue indicates H series; red or purple indicates presence of CX. The blood agent test spot is safe when it remains colorless or tan. Pink indicates a weak concentration; blue, strong. The nerve agent spot is blue-green or darker when safe. It is colorless or peach colored when a nerve agent is present. Lewisite is present when the second rub mark turns olive green. When both the first and second rub marks are tan, it is safe. On the blister agent test spot, high temperatures may cause the spot to turn blue even in the absence of H series agents. At low concentrations or high humidity a change in the lewisite tablet rub mark may be very slight. Ensure you compare the two marks carefully. The blood agent detector spot may turn dull yellow and orange when no agent is present. A pink or blue color change must be present to be positive. If a test spot is pink before exposure, discard the sampler-detector. If blood agent is indicated, repeat the testing with a fresh sampler-detector. If blood agent is not present on the second test, blood agent is not present. If it is present on the second test, blood agent is present. ABC-M8 Chemical Agent Detector Paper. ABC-M8 detector paper is used to detect the presence of liquid V, G, or H (H, L, and CX). It comes in a booklet with 25 sheets of chemically treated impregnated paper, perforated for easy removal. The 25 sheets may be torn in two to conduct 50 separate tests. A color comparison chart is printed on the inside of the front cover of the book. Function. When M8 paper is brought into contact with liquid nerve or blister agents, it reacts with chemicals in the paper to produce specific color changes: Yellow indicates presence of G-agent. Red indicates presence of blister agents (H, L, and CX). Dark green indicates presence of V-agent.
ABC-M8 Chemical Agent Detector Paper Procedures. Follow the steps in the following table to use ABC-M8 Chemical Agent Detector Paper.
25
26
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Detection Kits (Continued)

ABC-M8 Chemical Agent Detector Paper Procedures (Continued) Step Action 1 Tear out a sheet of M8 paper. If perforated, use half a sheet. 2 Blot, do not rub, the surface where liquid contamination is present. Observe for color change. 3 Compare any color change with the typical colors shown on inside cover of the book of M8 paper. Some: Decontaminants will give false positive tests on M8 paper. In an area where decontaminants have been used, positive results on the M8 paper must be confirmed by tests with a sampler-detector. G-agents will turn a red-brown color, which is between typical H and G color. M9 Chemical Agent Detector Paper Characteristics: o Can detect all liquid chemical agents. o Does not detect vapors. o Is issued in a roll, two inches wide and thirty feet long, contained in a cardboard dispenser with a cutter edge. o Is olive drab. o Has a brown paper strip that protects an adhesive back until dispensed from the roll. o Will stick to vehicles, clothing, and other equipment. When the paper comes in contact with a liquid chemical agent, the dye in the paper reacts with the agent to form pink, red, red-brown, or red-purple spots or streaks.
Decontamination Kits (Continued)

Eye Decontamination. Due to the charcoal-like properties of the M291, your eyes must be decontaminated with water only. Follow the steps below to decontaminate your eyes. Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Action Take out your canteen (not the canteen with the M1 drinking cap). Open your canteen. Lean forward with your head away from your clothing. Stop breathing. Lift your mask so it sets on top of your head. Tilt your head to the right. Place open end of your canteen at the bridge of your nose between both eyes. Pour water into your right eye. NOTES: Do not rub. Keep water from your clothing. Now tilt your head to the left. Pour water into your left eye. NOTES: Do not rub. Keep water from your clothing. Replace mask, clear it, and check it. Resume normal breathing. Replace your canteen cap. Put canteen back into canteen carrier and secure snaps.
9 10
11 12 13
Decontamination Kits
The modern day battlefield is full of potential risks from conventional weapons. Add to that the threat of CBRN weapons (unconventional), and you end up with a lot of CBRN survival skills that must be second nature to ensure your survival. Properly using decontamination kits and apparatuses will enhance the probability that you will survive the initial dangers of a CBRN attack. M291 Skin Decontaminating Kit. The M291 kit allows you to completely decontaminate your skin through physical absorption, neutralization and removal of a toxic agent with no long-term harmful effects. This kit can be used for both combat and training. Each kit consists of a wallet-like carrying pouch containing six individual decontamination packets, enough for three complete skin decontaminations. Each decontamination kit contains an applicator pad filled with decontamination powder. You will practice with this kit during the CBRN Defense Practical Application (B2I3677).
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action

When you begin training your unit to survive on the modern battlefield, rest assured that you will end up with two classes of Marines in the event of an CBRN attack: The quick and the dead. This period of instruction will benefit you by making you able to prepare your units personnel to survive an CBRN attack and carry on the mission. Indicators of CBRN Attacks. Enemy CBRN attacks may come with little or no warning. Your ability to recognize attack indicators will increase the speed at which you react to an CBRN attack, which will increase your chances of survival. Nuclear Attack Indicators. Nuclear attack indicators are unmistakable: o Bright flash. o Enormous explosion. o High winds. o Mushroom-shaped cloud.
27
28
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action (Continued)

Biological Attack Indicators. Biological agents may be disseminated as aerosols, liquid droplets or dry powder. Biological attack indicators fall into two groups: o High probability indicators. Attacks with biological agents will be very subtle if favorable weather conditions prevail. Symptoms can appear from minutes to days after an attack has occurred. High probability indicators may be the: Mysterious illness: many Marines and civilians sick for unknown reasons. Large numbers of or unusual insects. Large number of dead wild or domestic animals. Mass casualties with: Flu-like symptoms. Fever. Sore throats. Skin rash. Mental abnormalities. Pneumonia. Diarrhea. Dysentery. Hemorrhaging. Jaundice.
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action (Continued)

Chemical Attack Indicators, High probability indicators (Continued). o Marines experiencing symptoms of chemical agent poisoning such as: Irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and skin. Headache. Dizziness. Nausea. Difficulty with or an increase in the rate of breathing. Choking. Tightness in the chest. o Mist or fog sprayed by aircraft. o Possibility indicators. Indicators of a possible chemical attack are any: Artillery shells with less powerful explosions than HE rounds. Aerial bombs that pop rather than explode. Unexploded bomblets found in the area.
o Possibility indicators. Indicators of a possible biological attack are any: Artillery shells with less powerful explosions than High Explosive (HE) rounds. Aerial bombs that pop rather than explode. Mist or fog sprayed by aircraft or aerosol generators. Unexploded bomblets found in the area. Chemical Attack Indicators. Explosive shells, rockets, missiles, aircraft bombs, mines, and spray devices can disperse chemical agents. Also, either water-soluble or miscible liquids or solids may potentially contaminate water supplies. The means of delivery does not in itself help identify chemical agent attacks. Chemical attack indicators fall into two groups: o High probability indicators. High probability indicators may be the: Activation of chemical alarms. Positive reading on chemical agent. Detector paper. Monitor.
Automatic Masking. Automatic masking is the act of immediately masking and assuming MOPP4 when encountering chemical or biological attack indicators on the battlefield. When high probability indicators are present, Marines will automatically mask before initial chemical or biological weapons usage is confirmed. Once chemical and biological agents have been employed, commanders at all levels may establish a modified automatic masking policy by designating additional events as automatic masking criteria. Once this policy is disseminated, Marines will mask and assume MOPP4 automatically whenever one of the designated events occurs.
If individuals find themselves alone without adequate guidance, they must mask immediately and assume MOPP4 whenever: Their position is hit by artillery, mortar fire, rocket fire, or by aircraft bombs, and chemical agents have been used or the threat of their use is significant. Their position is under attack by aircraft spray. Smoke or mist of an unknown source is present or approaching. A suspicious odor, liquid, or solid is present. A chemical or biological attack is suspected. Unexplained laughter or unusual behavior is noted in others. Buddies suddenly collapse without evident cause. Animals or birds exhibit unusual behavior and/or sudden unexplained death.
29
30
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action (Continued) CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Action (Continued)
If individuals find themselves alone without adequate guidance, they must mask immediately and assume MOPP4 whenever (Continued): They have one or more of the following signs or symptoms: o An unexplained sudden runny nose. o A feeling of choking or tightness in the chest or throat. o Blurring of vision and difficulty in focusing the eyes on close objects. o Irritation of the eyes, this could be caused by the presence of several chemical agents. o Unexplained difficulty in breathing or increase in breathing. o Sudden feeling of depression. o Anxiety or restlessness. o Dizziness or light-headedness. o Slurred speech. Alarm Methods (Continued) Vocal (Continued) The arrival of radiological contamination in a unit area is the word FALLOUT! o The first person to detect the arrival of fallout will usually be a radiological monitor operating a radiacmeter at the unit command post (CP). When this radiacmeter records an increase in dose rate to 1 centigram per hour or higher, the monitor should immediately alert unit personnel by shouting FALLOUT! o Everyone hearing this alarm takes cover immediately and then repeats the alarm.
Visual
Once Marines are under attack, they must warn others of the hazard. Early warning gives others more time to react; this additional time saves lives and increases mission effectiveness. Apply the following rules when giving the alarm: Give the alarm as soon as an attack or a hazard is detected. Use an alarm method that cannot be confused easily with normal combat signals or sounds. Personnel should warn others using one or a combination of the four types of alarms/signals for warning personnel of an attack: o Vocal, o Visual, o Sound, o Audiovisual. All who hear or see the alarm must repeat it swiftly throughout the unit because of its limited range. Supplement the alarm over radio and telephone nets.
The visual alarm is always used in conjunction with the vocal alarm. It reinforces the vocal alarm to warn of the imminent arrival or the presence of CBRN hazards. The visual alarm is a standard hand-and-arm signal that consists of the following steps: Don, clear, and check the FPM. Extend both arms horizontally sideways with clenched fists facing up. Move the fists rapidly to your head and back to the horizontal position. Repeat as necessary. Sound signals reinforce vocal and visual alarms to warn of the imminent arrival or the presence of CBRN hazards. Sound signals consist of a succession of short signals. Examples of sound signals include: Rapid and continuous beating on any metal object or any other object that produces a loud noise. A succession of short blasts on a vehicle horn or other suitable device, in a ratio of 1:1 (approximately 1 second on and 1 second off). An interrupted 10-second warbling siren sound and vocal alarms in situations in which the sound is lost because of battlefield noises or in which sound signals are not permitted.
Sound
Alarm Methods Vocal
The spoken word (vocal alarm signal) is the first way to inform troops of an CBRN hazard or attack. The vocal alarm for: Any chemical or biological hazard or attack is the word GAS! Use the word SPRAY! for an aircraft spray attack. o The person giving the alarm masks first and then shouts GAS! as loudly as possible. o Everyone hearing this alarm immediately masks and then repeats the alarm.
31
32
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Actions (Continued) CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Actions (Continued)
Audiovisual If the automatic chemical agent alarms are in operation, detected agents will trigger a visual and auditory alarm unit. The person who sees or hears an alarm signal from the alarm unit immediately masks and augments this signal with the vocal signal. Radio/telephone operators who hear the vocal signal immediately mask and relay the signal over the unit radio and telephone nets. Personnel reinforce this signal with other sounds or visual signals. Before Nuclear Attack: o Prepare personnel tactically and psychologically for nuclear defense. o Instruct personnel on the effects of a nuclear detonation. o Indoctrinate personnel in the protective measures for blast, heat, and nuclear radiation. o Be alert for the following indications of nuclear attack: Appearance of enemy personnel wearing special equipment and clothing. Unusual enemy movement or withdrawal from forward areas. Registration of heavy artillery with high air bursts. Harden positions. Before Biological Attack: o Ensure personnel receive all immunizations and medications. o Provide personnel with serviceable protective masks. o Instruct personnel in the proper wearing and maintenance of the FPM. o Maintain physical fitness of the unit through physical conditioning exercises and attention to personal cleanliness and field sanitation. Effective control of rodents and insects is a hygiene priority. o Permit personnel to eat and drink only approved food and water. o Instruct personnel on biological attack indicators. o Alert higher headquarters and subordinates of a possible attack.
Actions Performed Before a CBRN Attack. The actions taken before an attack are most critical because they will increase the units survivability to the greatest possible extent. These actions range from selecting the right shelters, fortifying those shelters, and protecting vital equipment and personnel, to using equipment to increase survivability. o Hardening Positions and Protecting Personnel. Hardening includes anything that makes a unit more resistant to the effects of enemy strikes. This reduced vulnerability makes a unit a less lucrative target. Hardening includes: Readying the positions. Hardening of positions includes all actions to make them more resistant to the blast effects of conventional or nuclear weapons, to the heat and radiation of nuclear weapons, and to the contamination of biological or chemical weapons. Foxholes and bunkers with strong waterproof overhead cover provide excellent shelter. Tanks and other armored vehicles in defilade are good CBRN shelters. Existing natural and man-made features, such as caves, culverts, tunnels, and empty storage bunkers, offer expedient shelter. Shelters do not always adequately protect against vapor hazards. In fluid battlefield situations each unit establishes a command post in a protected or built-up area to provide maximum protective shelter for off-duty personnel and critical equipment. Route reconnaissance locates handy shelters, such as culverts and overpasses. Commanders schedule stops near these shelters. Readying the personnel. Ordinary garments offer significant protection from flash burns of a nuclear explosion. Under battlefield nuclear warfare (BNW) conditions, personnel use gloves, scarves, and headgear to protect normally exposed portions of the body; these items should be made readily available. Under the threat of enemy chemical or biological attacks, leaders ensure protective equipment is prepared and readily available and that the unit maintains good field sanitation and personal hygiene. Positioning alarms and monitors. Units position organic systems to detect chemical contamination or nuclear fallout. They position alarms upwind of friendly positions. Unit personnel place detector paper in positions that give them maximum exposure to chemical agents. Leaders disperse radiological monitoring teams for best coverage of potential radiological contamination.
Before Chemical Attack: o Conduct a thorough training program to indoctrinate personnel on the various characteristics of the agents and the three phases of defensive operations: detection, protection, and decontamination. o Conduct training in the use of special equipment used to identify and detect chemical agents. o Provide personnel with FPMs and other protective and detection equipment. o Ensure personnel are trained in the use of self-protection, first-aid methods, and antidotes. o Conduct training in decontamination procedures. o Instruct personnel on chemical attack indicators. o Ensure personnel are alert to detect and sound the alarm for a chemical attack.
Action Performed During an CBRN Attack. Personnel must immediately act to reduce the impact of an CBRN attack. Specific actions will vary according to the type of attack.
33
34
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Actions (Continued) CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Actions (Continued)
Action performed during a CBRN attached (Continued). During Nuclear Attack. An enemy nuclear attack would normally come without warning. The first indication is a flash of intense light and heat. Induced radiation arrives with the light. Blast and hurricane-like winds follow within seconds. Initial actions must, therefore, be automatic and instinctive drop immediately and cover exposed skin to protect against the blast and thermal effects. o If exposed when a detonation occurs, Marines must: Immediately drop facedown. A log, large rock, or any depression in the earths surface provides some protection. Close eyes. Protect exposed skin from heat by putting hands and arms under or near the body and keeping the helmet on. Remain facedown for 90 seconds or until the blast wave passes and debris stops falling. Stay calm. Cover mouth or mask up and check for injury. Check weapons and equipment damage. Prepare to continue the mission. o Marines in fighting holes can take additional precautions. The fighting hole puts more earth between Marines and the potential source of radiation. They can curl up on one side, but the best position is on the back with knees drawn up to the chest. This belly up position may seem more vulnerable, but arms and legs are more radiation-resistant and will protect the head and trunk. Store bulky equipment, such as packs or radios, in adjacent pits if they prevent Marines getting low in their fighting positions, or place these items over the face and hands for additional radiation and blast protection. During Biological Attack. If enemy forces attack with biological agents, Marines may have little or no warning; Marines must automatically mask when they recognize biological attack indicators. o Putting on the FPM and keeping clothing buttoned up protects adequately against living biological agents, as well as applying insect spray or repellant. But, an agent can gain entry through clothing using two routes: Openings, such as buttonholes, zipped areas, stitching, and poor sealing at ankles, wrist, and neck. Through minute pores in the fabric of clothing. o Putting on the protective ensemble (MOPP gear) greatly increases the protection level of personnel. o Toxins require the same amount of protection as liquid chemical agents. o Since no rapid-warning biological agent detection device is fielded, consider any known agent cloud as a chemical attack. Take the same actions prescribed for a chemical attack. To counter a biological attack; protective measures must be initiated before an attack. During Chemical Attack. Warning of a chemical attack may come from automatic alarm, vocal or visual signal, color change of detector paper, or symptoms observed in oneself or another. o The first reaction to recognizing chemical attack indicators should always be to mask up and then give the alarm. o Personnel take whatever cover is readily available to reduce the contaminants landing on the body. For aerial spray attacks this will involve crouching on the ground and completely covering oneself with the poncho. o Personnel conduct immediate decontamination as necessary to remove all contaminants from the skin. o Liquid chemical agents can penetrate normal clothing, leather boots, and gloves; personnel must don MOPP4 for full protection. o If over-garments are not available at time of attack, personnel must use fieldexpedient protection measures. For example, as a temporary expedient, personnel can use their protective mask with hood, protective gloves, wet weather parka, utility uniform, field boots, load-bearing equipment, etc. However, the poncho provides protection for only 1 to 3 minutes as a cover against a liquid chemical agent. Action Performed After a CBRN Attack. Following a CBRN attack, post-strike actions must be accomplished to restore fighting power and prepare to continue the mission. After Nuclear Attack: Post-strike actions include damage assessment and restoration of combat power. Leaders must maintain control and take contingency actions quickly. Replace cover and ready weapon systems to restore fighting power. Action must also be taken to prepare for fallout. As a minimum, unit: o Personnel cover fighting holes and shelter openings. o Radiac operators begin continuous monitoring. o Personnel cover exposed skin with their poncho or don MOPP gear. o Personnel cover their mouths with handkerchiefs to reduce the probability and amount of contaminants entering the lungs. This method, generally preferable to masking, avoids trapping contaminants in the mask filter. After Biological Attack. Actions after a biological attack include taking samples, identifying a casualty by the symptoms they exhibit, and treating those symptoms. Early recognition of symptoms and their treatment will decrease recovery time and hopefully decrease fatalities. Personnel: o Should strive to keep their bodies, clothing, and living areas clean. o Must observe each other for illness. Sickness may not occur for a few hours to days after a biological attack. o Must start decontamination measures: Boil water for 15 minutes if not sealed. Boil or wash sealed containers of food thoroughly before the seal is broken. Expose contaminated objects to direct sunlight.
35
36
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Defense Alarms, Signals, and Immediate Actions (Continued)

After biological attack, start decontamination measures (Continued). Wash exposed skin/areas with soap and water. Add purification tablets to water. Cook food prior to eating. After Chemical Attack. After a chemical attack, MOPP levels may be adjusted as appropriate for the type of hazard and mission. If necessary, soldiers will continue to fight in MOPP4. When time allows, personnel will conduct decontamination to remove FPMs and reduce MOPP. o Personnel will wear FPMs until receiving the command to unmask. o Personnel must reorganize and continue the mission. o Casualties will be treated and evacuated. o Weapons, equipment, and living areas must be decontaminated as necessary. o MOPP gear exchange is conducted as necessary. o Continued reassessments are needed of available hazard information and mission requirements to ensure that MOPP levels are not set too high.
Site Selection Considerations. The contaminated unit chooses, in coordination with higher headquarters, the site where MOPP gear exchange will be performed. The location should be a site where little preparation is required. Generally, the contaminated unit has the most complete knowledge of local conditions and is best qualified to select the site. When selecting a MOPP gear exchange site, it should Have good: o Overhead concealment. o Drainage. Be off the main route, but within easy access for vehicles. Be large enough area (recommended size is 120 square yards per site) to handle: o Vehicle wash down (if performed). o MOPP gear exchange for a squad-size element. Have a water source. Maximize use of existing facilities, such as car washes, local civilian water sources, etc.
Three Types of MOPP Gear Exchange. The three types of MOPP Gear Exchange procedures that may be performed are: Buddy team method. MOPP gear exchange using the buddy team method is best managed with squad-sized elements, using two Marines paired into buddy teams. Two Marines can do this technique, but squad leader supervision is recommended. Individual (emergency) method. A single Marine may have to exchange MOPP gear when no one can assist. The contaminated Marine may be alone or his buddy wounded or unable to assist. This method is only used in extreme emergencies since there is a high risk of transferring contamination from the over-garment to skin or undergarments. Triple buddy method. Marines equipped with a tanker or aviator mask use this method. A different procedure is required because of the hose attached to the filter canister. A third Marine is needed to hold the filter canister and hose to prevent the transference of contamination to the Marine undergoing the exchange procedure. This method reduces the risk of transferring contamination onto skin or undergarments.
MOPP Gear Exchange

As an officer you will be responsible for ensuring that your unit can survive and accomplish their mission on the modern battlefield. Once the battlefield becomes contaminated, expect to be in MOPP gear for several hours without relief. To maintain your units combat effectiveness, your Marines must be prepared to perform MOPP gear exchange. The benefit of this instruction is that following it you will be able to perform, supervise, and instruct buddy team and individual MOPP gear exchange operations. Purpose of MOPP Gear Exchange. The purpose of MOPP gear exchange is to: Limit the spread of contamination. Allow temporary relief from MOPP4. Facilitate additional decontamination requirements.
Required Equipment. MOPP gear exchange is a unit (battalion, squadron) responsibility that uses personnel and supplies organic to that unit. The following table lists the equipment required for MOPP gear exchange, by step and type of contamination.
MOPP gear exchange is one half of operational decontamination. Operational decontamination is designed to be performed at squad level, but can be performed at platoon levels. MOPP gear exchange should be performed within 6 hours of contamination to be most effective. The contaminated squad conducts MOPP gear exchange supported by the units supply section. The supply section provides decontaminants and new over-garments. After MOPP gear exchange, Marines will be able to move away from their equipment to a contamination free area, and temporarily reduce MOPP levels.
MOPP Gear Exchange (Continued)

37 Basic Officer Course 38 Basic Officer Course
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Required Equipment
Step All Contamination Chemical/Biological Contamination Radiological Contamination

Buddy MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures (Continued) CAUTION: If at any time during the procedure you suspect you have spread contamination onto your skin or undergarments, stop immediately. Decontaminate the suspected area with your skin decontamination kit. After the area is decontaminated, proceed with the MOPP gear exchange. Step Action 1 DECON GEAR: This step removes gross contamination from individual gear (weapon, helmet, load-bearing equipment, and mask carrier). Chemical/Biological Contaminate Procedures: o Remove and discard the chemical protective helmet cover. o Brush or rub STB dry mix (3 parts earth, 2 parts STB) onto individual equipment. o Gently shake off any excess. o Set aside gear on an uncontaminated surface (plastic, poncho, etc.). Radiological Contaminate Procedures: o Shake or brush contamination off. o Wash the gear with hot, soapy water (if available) o Then set aside gear on an uncontaminated surface (plastic, poncho, etc.) to dry. 2 PREPARE FOR DECON: Personnel may perform this step themselves or with the aid of the buddy. This step allows the Marine to remove his over-garment trousers and over-boots later. Remove M9 paper. Unfasten hook and pile fasteners on the trouser legs of the over-garment, and roll a cuff in the trouser legs. Ensure the cuff does not come above the top of the over-boot. Unfasten or cut the fasteners on the GVO/BVO or MULOs. 3 DECON MASK AND HOOD: This step removes the gross contamination from the mask and the hood. Chemical/Biological Contaminate Procedures: o Ensure you do not break the seal on your buddys mask. o Using the M291 Skin Decontamination Kit, decontaminate the exposed parts of your buddys mask. o Start with the eye lens outserts, wiping from the top down. o If you are wearing the Saratoga or JSLIST integrated hood, move on the step four. Radiological Contaminate Procedures: o Wipe your buddys mask with a sponge dipped in hot, soapy water. Cool soapy water is not as effective for removing contamination, but can be used if you scrub longer. If the water supply is limited, use drinking water from your canteen with a wet sponge or cloth.
2 3
Four long-handled brushes Large piece of plastic or poncho Two 30-gallon containers Cutting tool
One 5-gallon container of STB dry mix For individual method, M291 Skin Decontaminating Kit
Hot, soapy water Rinse water
Two M291 Skin Decontaminating Kits per person Two discard containers, preferably plastic bags Two discard containers (from step 4) One set of chemical protective over-garments per Marine (ensure they are the correct size) One set of chemical protective overboots and gloves per Marine (ensure they are the correct size) M9 paper M291 Skin Decontamination Kit
Three containers (about 3-gallon capacity) Two sponges Soapy water Rinse water Paper towels or similar drying material
4 5 6
One container (about 3-gallon capacity) One sponge Hot, soapy water
One chemical protective helmet cover Buddy MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures. MOPP gear exchange using the Buddy Method is best managed with squad-sized elements. The personnel in each buddy team alternate as they go through step one. At step two, one member proceeds through step eight before alternating to ensure contamination does not spread onto skin or undergarments.
39
40
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
MOPP Gear Exchange (Continued) MOPP Gear Exchange (Continued)

Buddy MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures, Nine Steps, Step 3 (Continued) Buddy MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures, Nine Steps, (Continued) Step 3 Action o Rinse with a sponge dipped in clean water. o Dry with paper towels or rags. REMOVE OVER-GARMENT AND OVER-BOOTS: This step limits the spread of agents and helps prevent agents from penetrating through to skin or undergarments. For the Saratoga, untie draw cord: o On the hood. o At the bottom of the jacket. For the JSLIST: o Unhook the barrel lock. o Untie the draw-cord, if tied, o Unfasten the webbing strip snap to release the elastic waistcoat retention cord loop. Unfasten the hook and pile fastener tapes at the wrist and then refasten loosely. Feel through the blouse to the suspender fasteners. Unfasten them through the blouse. Unfasten the hook and pile closure down the front of the jacket and unzip the jacket. Grasp the back of the hood and gently pull down, then grasp the jacket at the shoulders and instruct your buddy to make a fist. Pull the jacket down and away from your buddy, ensuring that the black, underside of the jacket is not touched. Lay the over-garment jacket on the ground, black side up (to be used for the buddy to stand on later). Loosen the hook and pile fasteners on the waist. Instruct your buddy to o Turn around and pull down on the suspenders where a gap is formed at the lower back until the suspenders pull all the way over the shoulders. o Loosen his over-boots by alternately stepping on each heel and pulling up on his foot. o Grasp the trousers and pull them down to the knees. o Walk out of the trousers and GVOs, taking care not to step on the contaminated side of the over-garment o Step onto the black side of the jacket. Marines should step onto the jacket wearing mask, undergarments, and gloves. Step Action 5 REMOVE GLOVES: Instruct your buddy to: Hold fingertips of the gloves and partially slide the hand out When fingers of both hands are free: o Hold arms away from body. o Let gloves drop off. 6 PUT ON OVER-GARMENT: Open package containing new over-garment, but do not touch the garment. Your buddy: Reaches into the package Pulls out the over-garment without touching the outside of the package. Puts on the trousers and jacket. Fastens the over-garment. Leaves trouser legs unsecured. 7 PUT ON OVER-BOOTS AND GLOVES: Pick up a package of over-boots and open it without touching the over-boots inside. Your buddy: Reaches into the package (without touching the outside of the package). Removes the over-boots. Puts them on. Fastens trouser legs. Open a package of clean gloves without touching the gloves. Your buddy: Removes them from the package (without touching the outside of the package). Puts them on. Puts on M9 paper. 8 SECURE HOOD: Decontaminate your gloves with the skin decontamination kit. Pull the hood of the Saratoga/JSLIST over your buddys head and tie the draw-cord or fasten the barrel lock and tighten the draw-cord. 9 SECURE GEAR: Put individual gear back on. Put a new chemical protective helmet cover and move to the assembly area. Use the buddy system to check the fit of all secured gear. Individual (Emergency) MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures: A single Marine may have to exchange MOPP gear when no one can assist; the contaminated Marine may be alone or his buddy wounded or unable to assist. The individual MOPP gear exchange method is used only in extreme emergencies since a risk of transferring contamination from the over-garment to skin or undergarments exists. The nine steps required to perform individual (emergency) MOPP gear exchange follow.
41
42
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense

Step Action 1 DECON GEAR: This step removes gross contamination from individual gear (weapon, helmet, load-bearing equipment, and mask carrier). Chemical/Biological Contamination Procedures o Use M8 detector paper to determine areas of gross contamination o Use field expedient absorbents, such as sand, dirt, or rags to remove the gross liquid contamination. o Take special care to avoid touching these areas during the overgarment removal. o Use your M291 Skin Decontamination Kit to decontaminate your individual gear (helmet, load-bearing equipment, weapon and mask carrier). o Set gear aside on uncontaminated surface (plastic, poncho, etc.). Radiological Contamination Procedures o Brush or wipe radiological contamination from your individual gear. o Wash with hot, soapy water if available. o Set gear aside on uncontaminated surface (plastic, poncho, etc.). 2 PREPARE FOR DECON: This step allows the Marine to remove his overgarment trousers and over-boots later. Remove M9 paper. Unfasten hook and pile fasteners on the trouser legs and roll a cuff in the trouser legs. Ensure the cuff does not come above the top of the over-boot. Unfasten or cut the fasteners on the GVOs/BVOs or MULOs. 3 DECON MASK AND HOOD: This step removes the gross contamination from the mask and hood. Chemical/Biological Contamination Procedures o Using a skin decontamination kit, decontaminate the hood of the integrated Saratoga or JSLIST suit hood and exposed parts of your mask. Start with the mask eye lens outserts, wiping from the top of the hood down. Radiological Contamination Procedures o Wipe your mask and hood with a sponge dipped in hot, soapy water. o Cool soapy water is not as effective for removing contamination, but can be used if you scrub longer. o If water is not available, brush and dust off the radioactive particles. o Rinse with a sponge dipped in clear water. o Dry with paper towels or rags.

Individual (Emergency) MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures (Continued).
Step Action 4 REMOVE OVER-GARMENT AND OVER-BOOTS: This step limits the spread of agents and helps prevent agents from penetrating through to skin or undergarments. For the Saratoga, o Untie draw-cord on the hood o Untie the draw-cord at the bottom of the jacket For the JSLIST, o Unhook the barrel lock o Untie the draw-cord, if tied o Unfasten the webbing strip snap to release the elastic waistcoat retention cord loop. Unfasten the hook and pile fastener tapes at the wrist and then refasten loosely. Feel through the blouse to the suspender fasteners. Unfasten them through the blouse. Unfasten the hook and pile closure down the front of the jacket and unzip the jacket. Grasp the back of the hood and gently pull down, then grasp the front of the jacket and pull it back until it is off your shoulders. Put your arms behind your back and work your arms out of the sleeves. Do not let the outside of the jacket touch your body. When the jacket is off, lay it on the ground with the black side up. Loosen the hook and pile fasteners on the waist. Bend forward at the waist, grasp the suspender fasteners hanging down, and gently toss over your shoulders. Loosen over-boots by alternately stepping on each heel and pulling up on your foot. Grasp the trousers and push them down to the knees. Walk out of the trousers and over-boots simultaneously and step onto the black side of the jacket. You should step onto the jacket wearing his mask, undergarments, combat boots and gloves. 5 REMOVE GLOVES: Before removing your gloves, decontaminate with the skin decontamination kit. Your gloves. Around the edges of the packages containing the replacement overgarments, over-boots, and gloves. Open the new packages. Once you have opened the replacement gear packages, remove your old gloves. Hold the fingertips of the glove and partially slide the hand out. When fingers of both hands are free,
43
44
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
MOPP Gear Exchange (Continued) Unmasking Procedures (Continued)

Individual (Emergency) MOPP Gear Exchange Procedures (Continued). The purpose of unmasking procedures is to alleviate the Marines encapsulation as quickly as possible. These procedures will be conducted after all methods of agent detection have failed to indicate any agent. The following two unmasking procedures will determine if it is safe to unmask. Unmasking procedures will be initiated after notification to do so by higher headquarters or the immediate commander. Unmasking with a Detector Kit: Unmasking with a M256A1 kit takes approximately 15 minutes. Use the M256A1 detector kit at different points in the perimeter to determine the presence of vapor and liquid chemical agents. If no agent is detected, the senior Marine present will: o Designate two-three Marines o Brief them on the procedures to be followed o Have them sit in a shaded area out of direct sunlight o Ensure they are unarmed o Have the Marines unmask for 5 minutes, and then don the FPM. o Observe them for ten minutes.
Action o Hold arms away from body o Let the gloves drop off. 6 PUT ON OVERGARMENT: Carefully reach into the package and remove the over-garment. Then begin redressing procedures: Put on trousers and jacket. Fasten the over-garment, but leave trouser legs open (until you put on new over-boots). 7 PUT ON OVERBOOTS AND GLOVES: Carefully reach into the package. Remove the: Over-boots one at a time, without touching the outside of the package. Put them on. Gloves from their package without touching the outside. Put them on Fasten your trouser legs. 8 SECURE HOOD: Decontaminate your rubber gloves with a skin decontaminating kit. Pull the hood of the Saratoga/JSLIST over your head and tie the draw-cord or fasten the barrel lock and tighten the draw-cord. 9 SECURE GEAR: Put individual gear back on. Put a new chemical protective helmet cover and move to the assembly area. Site Close Out Procedures: Although the MOPP gear exchange is done rapidly with little site preparation, the area will be contaminated when the exchange is completed and could be a hazard to friendly forces reoccupying the area. Therefore, All contaminated waste will be placed into a hole and be covered with earth. Mark the area using the standard CBRN contamination markers. At a minimum, place the waste in double trash bags. Seal the bags with tape or other material and mark the area.
Step 5
CAUTION: Always have first-aid treatment immediately available in case of need. If no symptoms appear, notify higher headquarters of test results. Then request permission to unmask. Once permission is granted, o Give the all clear signal. o Have the remainder of the unit unmask in accordance with unit standard operating procedure (SOP). o Continue to watch for symptoms.
Unmasking Procedures
In a chemical environment, MOPP4 will eventually take its toll on Marines operating in or near the contaminated area. Sooner or later you will have to remove your mask. Although you may suspect the area of being contamination free, unmasking procedures will have to be utilized to ensure the safety of the unit. Who do you think the Commanding Officer will be looking for to do this selective unmasking? It is going to be that hard-charging CBRN specialist. You will benefit from this instruction by being able to conduct that unmasking for your unit when the situation does arise.
Unmasking without a Detector Kit. Unmasking without a detector kit takes approximately thirty minutes. Use M8/M9 paper to check for possible liquid contamination. The senior Marine will: o Designate two - three Marines o Brief them on procedures to be followed o Have them move to a shaded area o Ensure they are unarmed The selected Marines: o Take a deep breath. o Keep their eyes open. o Break the seal of their masks for fifteen seconds. o Then reseal and clear their masks. o Wait for ten minutes. CAUTION: Have first-aid treatment available.
45
46
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
Unmasking Procedures (Continued)

Unmasking without a Detector Kit: (Continued). Observe the selected Marines for symptoms. o If no symptoms appear, The selected Marines break the seal of their mask, and with eyes open, take two or three normal breaths, then reseal and clear their mask. Observe the Marines for symptoms of chemical agent exposure for 10 minutes. If no symptoms appear, have the Marines unmask for 5 minutes and then re-mask. Wait an additional 10 minutes and observe for symptoms. If no symptoms appear after ten minutes, notify higher headquarters of test results, then request permission to unmask. Unmask remainder of unit in accordance with unit SOP. Continue to observe the selected Marines for delayed symptoms. o If either unmasking procedure indicates an agent is present, the senior Marine must decide to do one of the following: Move to a new area and re-test. If movement cannot be accomplished, continue mission and re-test after an hour has passed. Use collective protection if available.
CBRN Reports (Continued)

o o o o Date-time group of the attack. Means of delivery. Type of burst (air or ground). Type of agent, if possible.
May report the data in any format (SPOT, SALUTE, SITREP)
Once the individual report reaches the unit CBRN team, the CBRN defense team translates the data received into the NBC-1 format and consolidates it into an CBRN-1 Report Message Precedence: The initial CBRN-1 Report will be transmitted using a FLASH precedence. All subsequent reports are transmitted with an IMMEDIATE precedence. Originator: Observing units CBRN defense teams must prepare this report quickly and accurately. All CBRN-1 Reports must include the items listed below: Bravo: Position of observer, using grid coordinates or place. Delta: Date-time group for the day and time the attack started. Time zone used must be designated. Hotel: o Type of agent. o Type of burst. o Specifying air or surface. o Stating whether ground, airburst, or spray attack for chemical. o If type of agent is known, then transmit P for persistent. NP for non-persistent. o Either: Charlie: Direction of the attack from the observer. This direction is measured clockwise from grid or magnetic north (state which) and given in degrees or mils (state which). For example, 120 deg (grid) or 124 deg (mag) Foxtrot: Location of area attacked using grid coordinates or the place, stating whether the location is actual or estimated. For example, AY345634 ACT
CBRN Reports
With the ever-increasing threat of attack by chemical and biological agents, CBRN specialists must be prepared to quickly compile and disseminate data concerning such an attack. To aid in this, the CBRN Warning and Reporting System has been developed. Quick action on the battlefield will save lives; therefore you must fully understand the CBRN Warning and Reporting System. CBRN-1 Chemical and Biological Reports. Purpose. The CBRN-1 Report, the most widely used report, is referred to as the Observers Report and provides basic data on CBRN attacks. Responsibilities. All units prepare and forward CBRN-1 reports. Once the CBRN-1 report is prepared, it is transmitted to higher headquarters. Battalion and higher headquarter elements decide which CBRN-1 reports to forward up the chain of command. Individuals identified by unit SOP Submit observations to the unit CBRN defense team at company/battery/squadron etc., level Determine the:
Note: When submitting the CBRN-1 Report, either line item Charlie or Foxtrot is submitted, not both. Use other line items to submit known additional information, such as GOLF (means of delivery). If a unit has the capability, submit local weather information prescribed in lines YANKEE and ZULU ALFA.
47
48
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
B2I3597
CBRN Defense
CBRN Reports (Continued)

Example of CBRN 1 Chem Report: B. C. D. G. H. DF 234564 120 DEG GRID 22 0615Z MAR 00 ARTILLERY VX (P), AIR 10-2

Term or Acronym F FPM GVO/BVO H HD HE HL HN JSLIST L MD MOPP MULO PD SA SOP WBGT Definition or Identification Farenheit Field protective mask Green/black vinyl overshoes Levinstein Mustard Distilled Mustard High Explosive Mustard-Lewisite Mixture Nitrogen Mustard Joint Service Lightweight Integrated Suit Technology Lewisite Methyldichloro-arsine Mission Oriented Protective Posture Multipurpose over-boots Phenyldichloro-arsine Arsine standard operating procedure Wet Bulb Globe Temperature
Summary
With proper protective clothing Marines can survive in a chemically contaminated environment and operate and continue their mission. The benefit of this instruction is that you will be better able to prepare your units CBRN defense readiness to reduce casualties and maintain combat effectiveness.
Notes References
Reference Number or Author MCRP 3-37.2A MCRP 3-37.2B MCWP 3-37.3. Reference Title Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for CBRN Contamination Avoidance Nuclear Contamination Avoidance Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for CBRN Decontamination

Term or Acronym AC BNW CBRN CG CK CP CX DP DU ED Definition or Identification Hydrogen cyanide Battlefield nuclear warfare Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear Phosgene Cyanogen Chloride Command post Phosgene Oxime Diphosgene Depleted uranium Ethyldichloro-arsine
49 Basic Officer Course 50 Basic Officer Course

Phase 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Phase 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMBAT LIFE SAVING

COMBAT LIFE SAVING B151196

____________________________________________________________________________________ BASIC OFFICER COURSE

COMBAT LIFE SAVING

Learning Objectives Terminal Learning Objectives:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 2

Enabling Learning Objectives:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 3

Signs and Symptoms of Shock

Treatment and Prevention of Shock:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 5

Soft Tissue Injuries

Treatment of Open Wounds

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 8

Open Chest Wounds

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 10

Controlling External Bleeding Mild Bleeding

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 11

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 12

Temporal Carotid Carotid Carotid Brachial Carotid

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 13

Tourniquet Application Steps

Tourniquet Application Considerations

Common Tourniquet Mistakes

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 14

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 15

Abdominal Wound Symptoms

Treatment for Abdominal Wounds

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 16

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 17

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 18

Three Types of Burns

For THIRD degree burns or SECOND-degree burns with open blisters:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic Officer Course 20

______________________________________________________________________________________ _______Basic Officer Course 21

Symptoms of Spinal Injuries

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF FIELD RELATED INJURIES B151236 STUDENT HANDOUT

Basic Officer Course

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever

Basic Officer Course

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Human and Animal Bites

Basic Officer Course

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Basic Officer Course

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Basic Officer Course

Basic Officer Course

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

Prevention and Treatment of Field Related Injuries

________________________________________________________________________________ _Basic Officer Course 21